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THE PRINCIPA] 



1. Bushman 

2. Namaqua Woman 

3. Scotchman 

4. Negro of Darfur 


5. New Hebrides Islander 

6. Georgian 

7. Italian 

8. Italian (Sicily) 


9. Southwest Australian 

10. Nubian Woman 

11. Swede 

12. Great Russian 




PES OF MANKIND 



South American Indian 
Squaw 

Koriak Woman 
Eskimo of Greenland 


16. Khalkha Mongol Woman 


Young Woman of the 
Tonga Islands 
Dyak of Borneo 
Tarantchi Mongol 


17. Chinese 

18. Yakut Woman 

10. North American Indian 




. 





























































































































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. 






























































































' 


























■ 


































THE 

STANDARD AMERICAN 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 



"'rrf 



A Dictionary 
oj Universal Knowledge in eight 
volumes—Fully illustrated 


VOLUME I 



EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 

GEORGE L HAGAR 

Editor of Harper's Encyclopedia of United States History ; Member 
of the Editorial Board of The International Cyclopedia; 
Editor of The Columbian Encyclopedia , etc., etc. 

Partial List of Associate Editors and Special Contributors 

SAMUEL WALKER BEYER, Ph.D. 

Professor of Geology, Iowa State Coll. 

AMOS P. BROWN, Ph.D. 

Professor of Geology, University of 
Pennsylvania 

Rev. GEORGE BRYCE, D.D., LL.D. 

Authority on Canadian History 
Rev. FRANCIS E. CLARK, D.D. 

Founder and President of the United 
Society of Christian Endeavor 

CHARLES A. CONANT 
Financial Expert and Author 

JAMES CARDINAL GIBBONS 
Archbishop of Baltimore 

Rev. EDW. E. HALE, S.T.D., LL.D. 

Late Author, Lecturer and Critic 

JOHN H. HAMMOND, A.M. 

Consulting Engineer 


HALSEY C. IVES, LL.D. 
Director of the St. Louis Museum and 
School of Fine Arts 

HOSEA M. KNOWLTON, LL.D. 
Late Attorney-General of Massachusetts 

JAMES L. LAUGHLIN, A.M., Ph.D. 
Professor of Political Economy, 
University of Chicago 
JESSE MACY, LL.D. 
Professor of Constitutional History 
and Political Science, Iowa College 

JOHN TROWBRIDGE, S.D. 
Professor of Applied Science, Harvard 
University 

WILLIAM H. WELCH, M.D , LL.D. 
Professor of Pathology, Johns 
Hopkins University 


AND MANY OTHERS 



THE WHEELER PUBLISHING COMPANY 

(£ 8B NEW YORK — SAN FRANCISCO EB ffl 



































































COPYRIGHT, 1903 
BY 


THE AMERICAN MAGAZINE ASSOCIATION 

COPYRIGHT, 1909 
BY 

THE HAMILTON BOOK COMPANY 

COPYRIGHT, 1912 


BY 


THE UNIVERSITY SOCIETY INC. 


( M. 



% CLA320944 

to/ 





THE STANDARD 

AMERICAN ENCYCLOPEDIA 

IN EIGHT VOLUMES—FULLY ILLUSTRATED 

Volume I 
A—BOOK 


!7 













a, the first letter in the En¬ 
glish and other alphabets ul¬ 
timately derived from the 
Phoenician, is traced by some 
to a character belonging to 
the Egyptian hieratic alpha¬ 
bet. Alpha, the Greek name 
of the letter, corresponds 
closely to aleph (“an ox”), the Phoe¬ 
nician name (see Alphabet). The form 
which it has as a capital is the earliest 
— that as a “ small ” or “ lower-case ” let¬ 
ter being developed from this. The sound 
which originally belonged to it, and which 
is still its characteristic sound except in 
English, is that heard in far, father, palm, 
etc. This may be regarded as the simplest 
and easiest of all sounds to produce, the 
mouth being merely opened, without being 
either contracted or extended, and neither 
the back nor the front of the tongue being 
raised, as in the utterance of any of the 
other vowels. The above sound of a is the 
sound with which children generally begin 
to articulate. Though one of the simplest, 
it is at the same time one of the most per¬ 
fect and melodious of sounds, and its sweet¬ 
ness and capability of expansion make it a 
favorite sound of singers. Various modern 
languages, as French, Italian, Spanish, etc., 
have only one sound for a, namely, the 
ah-sound, pronounced short or long. In the 
Teutonic languages it may be varied in pro¬ 
nunciation by the use of diacritical marks, 
as in the German a, etc. In English, owing 
to the composite nature of the language and 
the numerous striking changes it has under¬ 
gone, this character now represents as many 
as seven or eight sounds, as in the words 
father, ask, mat, mate, mare, many, ball, 
what. It is very common in the digraph 
ea, which is pronounced differently in dif¬ 
ferent words; compare seat with break, tea 
with yea. The last two words are among 
the few in which it appears as a final let¬ 
ter in English, others being sea, pea, flea, 
lea. It also appears in the compound char¬ 
acter as, which was very common in Anglo- 
Saxon, but now occurs only in words that 
still retain more or less of a Latin or Greek 
form. A, in music, is the sixth note in the 
diatonic scale of C, and stands when in per¬ 
fect tune to the latter note in the ratio of 
l 


% to 1 (see Music). The open or un¬ 
stopped second string of the violin gives 
this note. For the use of the letter in 
abbreviations see Abbreviations. 

Ai, the character attached to vessels of the 
highest class in Lloyd’s “ Register of Ship¬ 
ping.” A refers to the hull of the vessel, 
while 1 intimates the sufficiency of the rig¬ 
ging and whole equipment. This rank is 
assigned to new ships for a certain term of 
years, the length of which depends on the 
quality of the materials employed and the 
mode of building; but in order to retain 
their class the vessels must be subjected to 
periodical survey. Iron (or steel) ships 
are classed Al with a numeral (100, 90, 80) 
prefixed. The character A in red denotes 
the second, and JE in black the third class 
of vessels. In all cases the 1 is omitted if 
the rigging and equipments are deficient. 
The colloquial use of Al as denoting excel¬ 
lence is familiar to all. 

Aa, the name of a large number of 
rivers in the N., W., and central countries 
of Europe, among the chief of which is a 
river of France that rises in the department 
of Pas-de-Calais, flows into that of the Nord, 
and reaches the Strait of Dover near Grave¬ 
lines. It is about 50 miles long, and is 
navigable below St. Omer. Canals connect 
it with Calais and Dunkirk. 

Aachen. See Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Aahmes, or Amasis, the name of two 
kings of Egypt. (1) Aahmes I. lived in the 
17th century b. c. He was the conqueror of 
the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings; united the 
country under one head; and established the 
18th dynasty. There have been discovered 
and deciphered two stone tablets at Turah 
and Massaarah, celebrating the 22d year of 
his reign. (2) Aahmes II. lived in 570-52G 
b. c., and was the 5th ruler of the 26th dy¬ 
nasty. He is noted as having forced the depo¬ 
sition of Naliabra and of having cultivated 
friendly relations with the Greek States. 
In 548 b. c. he sent gifts to Greece to aid in 
the reconstruction of the burnt temple at 
Delphi, and also for the founding of a Greek 
commercial settlement at Naucratis. Accord¬ 
ing to excavations by Dr. Flinders-Petrie 
the Greeks had been in possession of Nau- 







Aalborg 


Aargau 


cratis long prior to the time of Aahmes 
II., and it is thought likely that they 
had occupied it before the 2Gtli dynasty. 
The action of Aalimes, therefore, must have 
been a recognition and confirmation of 
the rights of the Greeks to the site of 
Naucratis. It is also evident that he drew 
up a charter giving them absolute and ex¬ 
clusive title to its perpetual occupation. 
There was also an Egyptian naval officer 
of the same name, who fought under 
Aahmes I. against the Hvksos. His tomb, 
with an inscription relating his services, 
is preserved at El-Ivab, near Thebes. 
Aahmes-Nefertari was the queen of the 
first King Aahmes. Her mummy case is 
now in the museum at Gizeh. It is 
one of the most magnificent ever discov¬ 
ered. 

Aalborg, a seaport of Denmark, on the 
8. side of the Liimfiord. It was an impor¬ 
tant commercial town as far back as the 
11th century, is the see of a bishop, and has 
two old churches, an old castle, etc. The 
manufactures include leather, soap, spirits, 
etc., and it has a considerable trade by sea. 
Pop. (1906), 31,509. 

Aali (Alee) Pasha, Mehemed Emin, a 

Turkish statesman; born in Constantinople 
in 1815. He was minister of foreign af¬ 
fairs in the troublous days from 1846 to 
1852. After having for a short time served 
as grand vizier he fell into disgrace in 
1852. Recalled during the war of 1854, he 
became minister of foreign affairs, and in 
March, 1855, took part in the treaty con¬ 
cerning the four guarantees. In July, 1855, 
he again became grand vizier. In the 
peace of Paris he showed great decision and 
cleverness in looking after Turkish inter¬ 
ests, but, nevertheless, did not succeed in 
carrying out all his wishes. On Nov. 1, 
185G, political circumstances caused him to 
retire from the grand viziery. He remained, 
however, a member of the great council 
and a minister without a portfolio. In 
January, 1858, after the death of Reshid 
Pasha, he again became grand vizier, but 
held the post for only a short time, owing 
to his relations to the proposed reforms. In 
November, 1861, he once more became min¬ 
ister of foreign affairs. During the journey 
of the Sultan to the Paris exposition, in 
the summer of 1867, he was regent of the 
kingdom, and, while he was the very soul 
of the reform movement, he, nevertheless, 
opposed the independence of Egypt with as 
much energy as success. In the midst of his 
activities he died suddenly, Sept. 6, 1871. 

Aar, or Aare, a Swiss river, a tributary 
of the Rhine, being, next to it and the 
Rhone, the longest river in Switzerland. It 
is formed by torrents from two vast glaciers 
of the Bernese Alps in the E. part of the 
canton of Bern, flows N. W. through the 
romantic valley of Ilasli, expands into the 


lakes of Brienz and Thun, becomes naviga¬ 
ble, passes Bern, turns first N. ana then N. 
E., passes Solothurn and Aarau, and after 
giving its name to the canton of Aargau 
falls into the Rhine; total course about 170 
miles. The Oberaar and Unteraar glaciers, 
which give rise to the river, are among the 
most celebrated in Switzerland, and are con¬ 
nected with the names of Agassiz and other 
scientists. By its tributary the Lutschine 
it also receives supplies of water from the 
two Grindehvald glaciers, which are among 
the finest in Switzerland. 

Aarau (a'rou), a town in Switzerland, 
capital of the canton of Aargau, on the right 
bank of the Aar. Has manufactures of sci¬ 
entific instruments and bells, a library of 
more than 60,000 volumes, and historic, sci¬ 
entific, and ethnographic museums. Here, in 
December, 1797, the ancient Swiss confeder¬ 
acy held its last session; from April to Sep¬ 
tember, 1798, it was capital of the Helvetic 
republic. Pop. (1900), 7,824. 

Aard=vark (that is, “earth-pig”), a 
burrowing insect-eating animal of the order 
Edentata found in South Africa. It is the 
Orycteropus Capensis of naturalists, and 
has several other popular names, such as 
Cape-pig and ant-bear. The name “ pig ” 
is given to it from the shape of its snout. 

Aard=woIf, the Proteles Lalandii, a sin¬ 
gular carnivorous animal, first brought from 
South Africa by the traveler Delalande. It 
forms the connecting link between three 
genera widely separated from each other, 
having externally the appearance and bone 
structure of the hyena united to the head 
and feet of the fox, with the intestines of 
the civet. Its size is about that of a full 
grown fox, which it resembles in both its 
habits and manners, being nocturnal, and 
constructing a subterraneous abode. 

Aarestrup, Emil (a're-striip), a Danish 
poet (1800-1856). He was not duly ap¬ 
preciated until after his death, but is now 
acknowledged as one of the foremost lyric 
poets of Denmark, being ranked by critics 
next to Christian Winther. “ Collected 
Poems,” with critical sketch by G. Brandes 
(Copenhagen, 1877). 

Aargau, or Argovie, a canton of Switz¬ 
erland, bounded on the N. by the Rhine, 
which separates it from the grand-duchy 
of Baden, elsewhere by the cantons Zurich, 
Zug, Lucerne, Bern, Solothurn, and Basel; 
area, 543 square miles. It is hilly, being 
composed chiefly of spurs of tne Alps and 
Jura, but has no mountains more than 3,000 
feet above sea-level. There are numerous 
fertile valleys, watered by the Aar and its 
many tributaries from the right, the Lim- 
mat and Reuss being the largest. The cli¬ 
mate is moist and variable, and agriculture 
is in an advanced state. Timber is abun¬ 
dant. Fruit and vegetables abound, and 




Aarhuus 


Abacus 


vineyards are numerous, but the wines are 
of inferior quality. Cattle rearing is pur¬ 
sued with success. Cottons, silks, ribbons, 
linens, straw-plait, hosiery, etc., are made, 
and there are important machine works. A 
considerable number of people find employ¬ 
ment in the boat traffic on the Aar and 
Rhine, and in the transit trade, which is 
carried on actively both by land and by 
water. Aargau formed part of the canton 
Bern till the year 1798. Its constitution 
was first fixed by the Congress of Vienna 
in 1815. The present constitution is purely 
democratic. The legislative power is vested 
in the great council, the members of which 
are chosen one for every 1,100 inhabitants. 
It has to submit its laws and decrees to 
the popular vote (referendum). The ex¬ 
ecutive power is vested in the small coun¬ 
cil of seven members elected by and from 
the great council. Bop. (1905), 211,430, of 
whom more than half are Protestants. The 
language almost universally spoken is Ger¬ 
man. The capital is Aarau. 

Aarhuus (-hos), one of the districts into 
which Denmark is divided. It embraces the 
most eastern part of the peninsula of Jut¬ 
land, and is divided into two bailiwicks, 
Aarhuus and Randers. Area, 1,821 square 
miles. Population, about 325,000, chiefly 
occupied in the fisheries. 

Aarhuus, a seaport of Denmark, on the 
E. coast of Jutland, on a bay of the Catte- 
gat. It is well built, the chief edifice being 
a Gothic cathedral (begun in 1201), which 
is one of the largest and finest ecclesiastical 
structures in the kingdom. It has a cathe¬ 
dral school and a museum. It carries on 
shipbuilding, iron-founding, the cotton man¬ 
ufacture, and other industries. There is a 
good harbor, and a considerable trade in 
grain, cattle, foreign goods, etc. Pop. 
(1906), 55,193. 

Aaron, son of Amram (tribe of Levi), 
elder brother of Moses, and divinely ap¬ 
pointed to be his spokesman in the embassy 
to the court of Pharaoh. By the same au¬ 
thority, avouched in the budding of his 
rod, he was chosen the first high-priest. 
He was recreant to his trust in the absence 
of Moses upon the Mount, and made the 
golden calf for the people to worship. He 
died on Mount Hor in the 123d year of his 
age, and the liigh-priesthood descended to 
his third son, Eleazar. 

Aaron’s rod, in architecture, is a rod like 
that of Mercury, but with only one serpent, 
instead of two, twined around it. 

Aaron ben Asher, a Jewish scholar; 
lived in Tiberias early in the 10th century. 
He completed one of the two existing recen¬ 
sions of the vowels and accents of the He¬ 
brew Bible. His rival, Ben Naftali, also 
completed a similar work, but the readings 
of the former are usually preferred. 


Aaron, Hill of, a lofty mountain range 
of Arabia Petrtea, in the district of Sherah 
or Seir, 15 miles S. W. of Shobeck. On its 
highest pinnacle — called by the Arabs Nebi 
Haroun — is a small building supposed 
by the natives to inclose the tomb of Aaron; 
and there seems no reason to doubt that 
this is the Mount Hor mentioned in Num¬ 
bers, xxxiii. 

Aasen, Ivar Andreas (ft'-sen), a Nor¬ 
wegian philologist and poet; born in Orsten, 
Aug. 5, 1813. His great aim was to con¬ 
struct from the older elements of the vari¬ 
ous Norwegian dialects a new national lan¬ 
guage (“ Landsmaal ”), as a substitute for 
Danish, in pursuance of which end he pub¬ 
lished several valuable philological works. 
Other works: “Smyra,” a collection of lyrics, 
and “Ervingen,” a drama. He died in 1896. 

Ab, the eleventh month of the civil year 
of the Hebrews, and the fifth of their eccle¬ 
siastical year, which begins with the month 
Nisan. It answers to the moon of July, 
that is, to part of our month of July and 
to the beginning of August : it consists of 
30 days. 

Aba, or Abou Hanifah or Hanfa, sur- 

named Alnooma, born in the 80th and died in 
the 150th year of the Hegira. He is the 
most celebrated doctor of the orthodox Mus¬ 
sulmans, and his sect is the most esteemed 
of the four which they severally follow. 

Aba, a mountain in Armenia, part of 
Mount Taurus, where the famous rivers 
Araxes and Euphrates have their rise. 

Ababde, a tribe of Bedouins who inhabit 
the country south of Kosseir, nearly as far 
as the latitude of Derr. Many of this 
race have settled in Upper Egypt, but the 
greatest part of them still live like Bed¬ 
ouins. Their savage neighbors, the Bis- 
liarye, inhabit the mountains southward 
from Derr. Their women are said to be as 
handsome as those of Abyssinia, but are re¬ 
ported to be of very depraved habits. 

Ababde, a village of Middle Egypt, on the 
right bank of the Nile, 8 miles S. of Beni 
Ilassan. Near it are the ruins of the an¬ 
cient Antinoe or Antinoopolis, a city built by 
the Emperor Hadrian, and named from his 
favorite Antinous, who was drowned in the 
Nile. These remains, entirely Roman, are 
supposed to occupy the site of a still more 
‘ancient city, named Besa, celebrated for its 
oracles. 

Abaco, Great and Little, two islands of 
the Bahamas, West Indies. Great Abaco, 
the largest of the Bahamas, is about 20 
miles in breadth and 80 miles in length. 
Population of both, 2,400. 

Abacus, in architecture, a constituent 
part of the capital of a column, which sup¬ 
ports the horizontal entablement. In the 



Abad 


Abarim 


Tuscan, Doric, and Ionic orders, it is flat 
and square; but, in the Corinthian and 
Composite orders, its four sides are arched 
inward, with generally a rose in the center. 
In Gothic architecture the abacus was very 
variously employed, according to the fancy 
of the architect. 

In arithmetic, the name of an instru¬ 
ment employed in England to teach the ele¬ 
mentary principles of the science of num¬ 
bers. The ancient mathematicians also em¬ 
ployed the term abacus to designate a table 
covered with sand, upon which they traced 
their diagrams. The Chinese abacus, or 
Shwan-pan, is also an instrument for facili¬ 
tating arithmetical calculations. It con¬ 
sists of several series of beads or counters 
strung upon brass wires stretched from the 
top to the bottom of an instrument, and 
divided in the middle by a cross-piece from 
side to side. In the upper compartment 
every wire has two beads, each of which 
counts five; in the lower space every wire 
has five beads of different values; the first 
being counted as one, the second as 10, the 
third as 100, and so on. In China, where 
the entire system is decimal, that is, when 
every weight and measure is the tenth part 
of the next greater one, the abacus is used 
with wonderful rapidity. This instrument 
is now a part of modern kindergarten equip¬ 
ment in the United States. 

Abacus is also a Roman table, or high 
shelf, placed against the wall, and serving 
as a cupboard or buffet. 

Abacus Pythagoricus was formerly the 
name of the multiplication table. Pytha¬ 
goras is supposed to have introduced it 
from Babylon into Greece. 

Abad, Diego Jos6, a Mexican poet; born 
in Michoacan, Mexico, July 1, 1727. When 
14 years old he united with the Society of 
Jesus, and afterward spent several years 
in teaching. Sometime prior to 1767 he 
was appointed rector of the College of 
Quer§taro, and when, in that year, the 
Jesuits were expelled from Mexico, he went 
in exile to Italy, where he lived for several 
years in Ferrara. Subsequently he removed 
to Barcelona, and there died Sept. 30, 1779. 
Abad is best remembered by his Latin poem, 
“ Heroica de Deo Carmina,” a work begun 
while he was living in Mexico, and of which 
a portion, comprising 29 cantos, was first 
published in Cadiz in 1769. Several edi¬ 
tions followed, and the last and complete 
one was brought out in Cesena in 1780, a 
year after the author’s death. 

Abad y Queypeo, Manuel, a Spanish 
clergyman; born in the Asturias about 
1770; spent the greater part of his life in 
Mexico; was appointed Bishop of Michoacan 
in 1809; was soon afterward driven from 
hi3 see by revolutionists; returned in 1813; 
was deposed in 1820 for opposing the Inqui¬ 
sition and sent to Spain a prisoner; was 


released and made Bishop of Tortosa; and 
in 1823 was imprisoned by order of the 
Inquisition, and died in prison in the fol¬ 
lowing year. 

Abaddon, in the Bible, and in every rab¬ 
binical instance, means the angel of death, 
or the angel of the abyss or “ bottomless 
pit,” or the place of destruction, the sub¬ 
terranean world. 

Abadiotes, the name of a Mohammedan 
settlement of pirates, situated on the island 
of Candia, south of Mount Ida, consisting 
of a population of about 7,000. They are 
a branch of the Saracens whom Nicephorus 
expelled from Candia in the 10th century. 
They are a smaller and weaker race than 
the other inhabitants, and speak the Arabic 
language. 

Abadir, the name of a stone which 
Saturn swallowed by the contrivance of his 
wife Ops, believing it to be his new-born son 
Jupiter; hence it became the object of re¬ 
ligious worship. 

Abakansk, a range of mountains in the 
government of Tomsk, in Siberia, extending 
from the river Tom to the Yenisei, parallel 
to the Altai mountains. Also the name of 
a fortified town of Siberia, in the govern¬ 
ment of Tomsk, on the river Abakan. This 
is considered the mildest and most sa¬ 
lubrious place in Siberia. 

Abancay, a district of Peru, in the de¬ 
partment of Cusco. The plains produce rich 
crops of sugar cane and the principal 
cereals. The mountains afford silver, and 
pasturage for large herds of cattle. The 
chief town is Abancay, 74 miles from Cusco. 

Abandonment, the act of abandoning, 
giving up, or relinquishing. 

In commerce it is the relinquishment of 
an interest or claim. Thus, in certain cir¬ 
cumstances, a person who has insured prop¬ 
erty on board a ship may relinquish to the 
insurers a remnant of it saved from a wreck, 
as a preliminary to calling upon them to 
pay the full amount of the insurance ef¬ 
fected. The term is also used of the sur¬ 
render by a debtor of his property. 

Abano, a town in the province of Lom¬ 
bardy, Italy, at the foot of the Vicentine 
Hills. It is visited by invalids for the 
benefit of its baths, which were well known 
to the ancients, and are noticed by Martial 
and Claudian as Fontes Aponi. 

Abantes, a people of ancient Greece, 
who came originally from Thrace, and set¬ 
tled in Pliocis, where they built a town 
which they called Aba, after the name of 
Abas, their leader. 

Abarim, the range of highlands, or 
mountains, to the E. of the Jordan, in the 
land of Moab. The highest point is Mount 
Nebo, from which Moses had his “ Pisgah 
view ” of Palestine. It is somewhat uncer- 



Abaris 


Abbas Pasha 


tain whether Pisgah was the same as 
Abarim, or merely a part of it. Ancient 
rude altars, probably as old as the time of 
the Amorites, were discovered here by Cap¬ 
tain Conder in 1881. 

Abaris (ab'ar-is), the Hyperborean, a 
celebrated sage of antiquity, whose history 
and travels have been the subject of much 
learned discussion. Everything relating to 
him is apocryphal, and even his era is doubt¬ 
ful. Some refer his appearance in Greece 
to the 3d Olympiad, others to the 21st, 
while some transfer him to the 52d Olym¬ 
piad, or 570 years b. c. 

Abatement, in law: (1) A removal or 
putting down, as of a nuisance. (2) A 
quashing; a judicial defeat; the rendering 
abortive by law, as when a writ is over¬ 
thrown by some fatal exception taken to it 
in court. A plea designed to effect this 
result is called a plea in abatement. All 
dilatory pleas are considered pleas in abate¬ 
ment, in contradistinction to pleas in bar, 
which consider the merits of the claim. 
(3) Forcible entry of a stranger into an 
inheritance when the person seized of it 
dies, and before the heir or devisee can 
take possession. (4) The termination of 
an action in a court of law or the suspen¬ 
sion of proceedings in a suit in equity in 
consequence of the occurrence of some event, 
as, for example, the death of one of the 
litigants. 

In heraldry, an abatement was formerly 
an addition to a coat-of-arms indicative of 
disgrace or inferiority; now it is confined 
to the bend sinister, marking illegitimate 
descent. 

Abatis, or Abattis (ab-a-te'), in military 
affairs, a kind of defense made of felled 
trees. In sudden emergencies, the trees are 
merely laid lengthwise beside each other, 
with the branches pointed outward to pre¬ 
vent the approach of the enemy. When the 
abatis is employed for the defense of a pass 
or entrance, the boughs of the trees are 
stripped of their leaves and pointed, the 
trunks are planted in the ground, and the 
branches interwoven with each other. 

Abatos, an island in the lake of Mceris, 
in Egypt, famous for being the sepulcher 
of Osiris, and for producing the papyrus,, 
of which the ancients made their paper. 

Abattoir (ab-at-war'), a term borrowed 
from the PYench, with whom it signifies a 
slaughter house. The abattoir system was, 
in 1818, adopted in France. There are at 
present near Paris five immense establish¬ 
ments of this kind, where butchers are pro¬ 
vided with a place for slaughtering their 
cattle and keeping their meat in store. 
There are also places for supplying the 
beasts with water, receptacles for the fat, 
hoofs, blood, brains, etc. In the neighbor¬ 
hood of the abattoirs there are manufac¬ 


tories of blood manure, gelatine, glue, and 
the other products of the offal. In several 
of the large cities of the United States, 
slaughter houses are placed under similar 
regulations to those which are in operation 
in Paris. 

Abba, Giuseppe Cesare, an Italian poet; 
born in 1838 at Cairo Montenotte. He took 
part in the expedition of Garibaldi into 
Sicily in 1860, which he celebrated in his 
poem “ Arrigo.” Among his other works 
are a tragedy, “ Spartaco,” a historical novel, 
and lyric poems. 

Abbadie, Antoine Thomson and Ar= 
naud Michel d’, brothers and explorers; 
born in Dublin, Ireland, Jan. 3, 1810, and 
July 24, 1815, respectively. In 1837-1848 
they explored Abyssinia and Upper Egypt, 
traveled up the White Nile, visited Darfur, 
and made a remarkably large collection of 
Ethiopic and Amharic manuscripts. Antoine 
published “ Geodesy of Part of Upper Ethi¬ 
opia ” (1860-1873), and “Dictionary of the 
Amarin Language” (1881), and Arnaud, 
“Twelve Years in Upper Ethiopia” (1868). 
Antoine died in 1897; Arnaud in 1893. 

Abbas, the uncle of Mohammed, at first 
hostile to him, but ultimately the chief pro¬ 
moter of his religion, was born in 566, and 
died 652. He was the founder of the family 
of the Abbassides, who ruled as caliphs of 
Bagdad from 750 till the Mongol conquest 
in 946, but continued to exercise the spirit¬ 
ual functions of the caliphate, first at Bag¬ 
dad, and from 1258 in Egypt, under the pro¬ 
tection of the Mamelukes, till 1517, when 
that dignity passed to the Turkish Sultan. 
The Abbassides in Persia were descended 
from the race of the Sofi, who ascribed their 
origin to the Caliph Ali. This race acquired 
dominion in 1500, and became extinct in 
1736. Among them, Abbas I., surnamed the 
Great, was the most eminent ruler. He 
came to the throne 1586, and died 1628. 
His reign was marked by a series of vic¬ 
tories over the Turks. In alliance with 
England, he destroyed, in 1621, the Portu¬ 
guese colony at Ormuz. 

Abbas=Mirza, a Persian prince and 
warrior, the favorite son of the Shah Feth- 
Ali; born in 1783. He was early convinced 
of the advantages of Western civilization, 
and, with the help of European officers, he 
first of all applied himself to the reform of 
the army. He led the Persian armies with 
great bravery, but with little success, in 
the wars with Russia, 1811—1813, and 1826- 
1828. In 1829 he visited St. Petersburg, 
and was sent back to Persia loaded with 
presents. He died in 1833. 

Abbas Pasha, Viceroy of Egypt, was 
grandson of the famous Mehemet Ali. 
Born in 1813, he was early initiated into 
public life, and in 1841 he took an active 



Abbas Pasha hilmi 


Abbeokutta 


part in his grandfather’s Syrian war. The 
death of his uncle, Ibrahim Pasha, in 1848, 
called him to the viceregal throne at Cairo. 
During his brief reign he did much to undo 
the progress that had been made under 
Mehemet Ali. At the outbreak of the Cri¬ 
mean war he placed a force of 15,000 men 
and his fleet at the disposal of the Sultan. 
He was found dead, not without suspicion 
of foul play, on the morning of July 13, 
1854. 

Abbas Pasha Hilmi, Khedive of Egypt, 
born in 1874, oldest son of the Khedive 
Mehemet-Tewfik. He studied at the Ther- 
esianum at Vienna. On his father’s death 
in 1892 he became Khedive. He won popu¬ 
larity by reducing the taxes, and he tried 
to throw off the English influence. In 1893 
he dismissed four of his ministers, but 
Lord Cromer interfered and he agreed to 
follow England’s recommendations in all 
important matters. In 1895, he married 
a young Circassian slave, Ikbal Hanum, and 
replaced his minister Nubar Pasha by 
Mustapha-Fehmi Pasha, who was wholly de¬ 
voted to English interests. 

Abbas I., surnamed the Great; born in 
1557, was the seventh Shah or King of Per¬ 
sia of the dynasty of the Sufis. In his 
childhood he was sent to Khorasan as nom¬ 
inal governor, and at the age of 25 was 
proclaimed king by the discontented nobles 
of that province. His father, Mohammed 
Khodabendeh, under whose officers the coun¬ 
try had suffered great oppression, was soon 
driven from the throne, and Abbas obtained 
the sovereignty at a time when the Turks 
had invaded the W. provinces of the king¬ 
dom, and hordes of Usbeck Tartars made 
repeated incursions into Khorasan. His 
first act was to transfer his residence from 
Kasbin to Ispahan. He then concluded a 
treaty with the Turks, to whom he ceded 
and confirmed all their conquests, with the 
view of gaining time to chastise the Us- 
becks. In 1597 he surprised and completely 
defeated these Tartar plunderers in a battle 
which was fought in the neighborhood of 
Herat. Then followed the conquest of Ghi- 
lan, Mazanderan, several parts of Tartary, 
and almost the whole of Afghanistan. Ab¬ 
bas then declared war against the Turks, 
and in 1605, with an army of 60,000 men, 
he defeated a Turkish army of nearly twice 
that number in a battle near Bussorah. By 
this victory he recovered all his lost prov¬ 
inces, and secured a complete immunity 
from Turkish aggression during the rest of 
his lifetime. He also subdued a vast extent 
of country to the W. of the Tigris and Eu¬ 
phrates, and in 1611 he dictated to Achmet 
I. the conditions of a treaty of peace which 
secured to Peisia the possession of Shirvan 
and Kurdistan. He died Jan. 27, 1628, 
having reigned over Persia 41 years. 


Abbassa, sister of the Caliph Haroun- 
al-Raschid, who was given in marriage to 
his vizier Giaffar, on the strange condition 
that she should remain a virgin, the viola¬ 
tion of which, and its terrible consequences, 
have been the theme of oriental stories. 

Abbassides, the name of a race who pos¬ 
sessed the caliphate for 524 years. There 
were 37 caliphs of this race who succeeded 
one another without interruption. They 
drew their descent from Abbas-ben-Abd-el- 
Motallib, Mahomet’s uncle. The princes of 
this family made war on the dynasty of 
Ommiades, a. d. 746, and in 750 defeated 
the last caliph of the rival family in the 
bloodv battle of Zab, near Mosul. The 
most celebrated monarchs of this family 
were A1 Mansur and Haroun-al-Raschid. 
Their empire terminated in Mostazem, who 
fell in battle against the Tartar prince 
Hulaku, in 1257. 

Abbe (ab-a'), originally the French name 
for an abbot, but often used in the general 
sense of a priest or clergyman. By a con¬ 
cordat between Pope Leo X. and Francis 
I. (1516), the French king had the right 
to nominate upward of 200 abbes com- 
mendataires, who, without having any duty 
to perform, drew a third of the revenues 
of their monasteries. They were not neces¬ 
sarily clergy, but were expected, unless ex¬ 
empted by a dispensation, to take orders. 
The hope of obtaining one of those sinecures 
led multitudes of young men, many of them 
of noble birth, to enter the clerical career, 
which, however, seldom went further than 
taking the inferior orders; and it became 
customary to call all such aspirant abbes, 
jocularly, Abbes of St. Hope. They formed 
a considerable and influential class in so¬ 
ciety, and an abbe, distinguished by a short, 
violet-colored robe, was often found as chap¬ 
lain or tutor in noble households, or en¬ 
gaged in literary work. This class of nom¬ 
inal clergy disappeared at the Revolution. 

Abbe, Cleveland, an American meteor¬ 
ologist, born in New York city, Dec. 3, 1838. 
lie studied astronomy in Germany, and was 
director of the Cincinnati Observatory from 
1868 to 1870. Since 1871 he has been Pro¬ 
fessor of Meteorology in the National 
Weather Bureau. Among his chief publica¬ 
tions are “ Treatise on Meteorological Ap¬ 
paratus,” “ Preparatory Studies for De¬ 
ductive Methods in Meteorology,” “ Solar 
Spots and Terrestrial Temperature,” and 
“ Atmospheric Radiation.” 

Abbeokutta, or Abbeokoota, a city of 
West Africa, and capital of the Egba na¬ 
tion, is situated on the E. bank of the 
river Ogoon, 60 miles N. E. from Badagry, 
on the Bight of Benin. Pop. about 75,- 
000; greatly civilized by the labors of 
missionaries. 



Abbeville 


Abbot 


Abbeville, town and county seat of Ab¬ 
beville co., S. C., on the Southern and the 
Seaboard Air Line railroads; 106 miles W. 
by 1ST. W. of Columbia, the State capital. 
It is in a rich, cotton-growing region; is 
noted for its fine climate, which makes it 
a popular resort for Northern invalids, and 
has a National bank, excellent public schools, 
several large manufactories connected with 
the cotton industry, a property valuation 
of over $500,000, bonded debt of less than 
$55,000, and several periodicals. Pop. 
(1890) 1,696; (1900) 3,766; (1910) 4,459. 

Abbeville, a city of France, capital of 
the arrondissement of the same name (De¬ 
partment of the Somme), situated in a 
pleasant and fertile valley on both sides of 
the river Somme, 12 miles above its mouth, 
and 25 miles N. W. of Amiens. This town, 
Avliich is strongly fortified on Vauban’s sys¬ 
tem, is neat and well built; it is one of the 
most thriving manufacturing towns in 
France. Besides black cloths of the best 
quality, there are produced velvets, cottons, 
linens, serges, sackings, hosiery, pack¬ 
thread, jewelry, soaps, glasswares, etc. By 
help of the tides, vessels of 150 tons come up 
to the town. Its most interesting building 
is the church of St. Wolfram, begun in 1488, 
one of the richest existing examples of the 
flamboyant style. Pop. (1901), 20,388. 

Abbey, a monastery or religious com¬ 
munity of the highest class, governed by 
an abbot, assisted generally by a prior, 
sub-prior, and other subordinate functiona¬ 
ries ; or, in the case of a female community, 
superintended by an abbess. A priory dif¬ 
fered from an abbey only in being scarcely 
so extensive an establishment, and was gov¬ 
erned by a superior named a prior. Abbeys 
or monasteries first arose in the East. 
Among the most famous abbeys on the Eu¬ 
ropean continent were those of Clugny, 
Clairvaux, and Citeaux in France; the 
abbey of St. Galle in Switzerland, and of 
Fulda in Germany; among the most note¬ 
worthy English abbeys were those of West¬ 
minster, St. Mary’s of York, Fountains, 
Kirkstall, Tintern, Pievaulx, Netley, Pais¬ 
ley, and Arbroath. 

The abbeys in England were wholly abol¬ 
ished by Henry VIII. at the Reformation. 
Abbeys were usually strongly built, with 
walls which served as a defense against 
enemies. Within the walls were large build¬ 
ings in which the occupants carried on the 
work to which they had been assigned. 

Abbey, Edwin Austin, an American ar¬ 
tist, born in Philadelphia, April 1, 1852. 
Besides illustrating many books and paint¬ 
ing a number of notable pictures, he de¬ 
signed a series of paintings for the walls 
of the Boston Public Library, on the sub¬ 


ject of the “ Holy Grail.” He was one of 
the American jurors on paintings in the 
Paris exposition of 1900, and in 1901 was 
commissioned by King Edward VII. to 
paint the coronation scene in Westminster 
Abbey. 

Abbey, Henry Eugene, an American 
operatic manager, born in Akron, O., June 
27, 1846; was engaged for several years in 
theatrical, and, from 1883, in operatic man¬ 
agement, producing Italian and German 
operas with the most distinguished singers 
of the day. He died in 1896. 

Abbitibbi, or Abbitibbe, the name of a 
river, a lake, and a former important trad¬ 
ing post of the Hudson’s' Bay Company in 
N. Ontario, Canada. 

Abbot, the superior of a monastery of 
monks erected into an abbey or priory. The 
principal distinction observed between ab¬ 
bots are those of regular and commendatory. 
The former take the vow and wear the habit 
of their order; whereas the latter are secu¬ 
lars, who have received tonsure, but are 
obliged by their bulls to take orders when 
of proper age. Other distinctions also arose 
among abbots when abbeys were flourishing 
in Europe; as, mitred, those privileged to 
wear the mitre and exercise episcopal au¬ 
thority within their respective precincts; 
crosiered, so named from their carrying 
the crosier, or pastoral staff; ecumenical, 
such as exercised universal dominion; and 
cardinal, from their superiority over all 
others. Abbot is also a title given to others 
besides the superiors of monasteries; thus, 
bishops, whose sees were formerly abbeys, 
are called abbots. Among the Genoese, the 
chief magistrate of the republic formerly 
bore the title of “ Abbot of the People.” 

Abbot, Ezra, an American Greek 
scholar, born at Jackson, Me., April 28, 
1819. Besides his valuable work as one of 
the editors of the American edition of 
Smith’s “ Bible Dictionary,” he wrote “ The 
Authorship of the Fourth Gospel” (1880), 
in which was announced the important dis¬ 
covery of Tatian’s “ Diatessaron,” and 
which took high rank; compiled “Liter¬ 
ature of the Doctrine of a Future Life ” 
(1864), etc. He was one of the American 
committee of New Testament revisers. He 
died at Cambridge, Mass., March 21, 1884. 

Abbot, Francis EHingwood, an Amer- ( 
ican philosophical writer and journalist, 
born at Boston, in 1836. Besides notable 
magazine articles, he wrote “ Scientific 
Theism” (1886), “The Way Out of Agnos¬ 
ticism” (1890), etc. He was for a num¬ 
ber of years editor of the liberal journal, 

“ The Index.” He died Oct. 23, 1903. 

Abbot, Henry Larcom, an American 
military engineer, born in Beverly, Mass., 
Aug. 13, 1831; graduated at the United 



Abbot 


Abbott 


States Military Academy in 1854; became 
brevet Major-General of Volunteers in the 
Civil War, and subsequently Colonel and 
Chief of Engineers of the United States 
army, and was retired in 1895. He is a 
member of many scientific societies and 
received the degree of LL. D. from Harvard 
in 1886. 

Abbot, Willis John, an American jour¬ 
nalist and author, born in Connecticut in 
1863. With the exception of a “ Life of 
Carter Harrison,” his works consist prin¬ 
cipally of popular histories for young peo¬ 
ple, among which are “ Blue-Jackets of 
1776,” “Blue-Jackets of 1812,” “Blue- 
Jackets of ’61,” “ Battle-Fields and Camp- 
Fires.” 

Abbotsford, the home of Sir Walter 
Scott, situated on the S. bank of the Tweed, 
and a- few miles above Melrose. It takes its 
name from a ford formerly used by the 
monks of Melrose. 


ABBOTSFORD. 

Abbott, Alexander Crever, an American 
hygienist, born in Baltimore, Md., Feb. 26, 
1860; was educated at the University of 
Maryland, Johns Hopkins University, and 
the universities of Munich and Berlin. He 
is a fellow of the College of Physicians in 
Philadelphia, and a member of numerous 
scientific societies; and, in 1900, was Pro¬ 
fessor of Hygiene and director of the lab¬ 
oratory of hygiene in the University of 
Pennsylvania. His publications include 
“ The Principles of Bacteriology,” and nu¬ 
merous papers pertaining to bacteriology 
and hygiene. 

Abbott, Austin, an American lawyer and 
writer on legal subjects, born in 1831. He 
published two novels, “ Conecut Corners ” 
and “ Matthew Caraby,” besides several 
legal works. He died in 1896. 

Abbott, Benjamin Vaughan, an Amer¬ 
ican lawyer and legal writer, born in Bos¬ 
ton, Mass., June 4, 1830. He published a 
number of able works on legal subjects, 
among them “ Digest of Decisions on Cor¬ 
porations, from 1860 to 1870 ” (1872); 

“ Dictionary of Terms in American and 
English Jurisprudence” (1879) ; “National 


Digest ” (1884-1885), and a revision of the 
United States Statutes. He died in Brook¬ 
lyn, N. Y., Feb. 17, 1890. 

Abbott, Charles Conrad, an American 

archaeologist, born at Trenton, N. J., 1843. 
He has discovered paleolithic human re¬ 
mains in the Delaware valley, and shown 
the likelihood of the early existence of 
the Eskimo race as far south as New 
Jersey. A large collection of archaeological 
specimens made by him is now in the Pea¬ 
body Museum, Cambridge, Mass., where he 
was stationed in 1876-1889. His principal 
works are “Primitive Industry” (1881) ) ; 
“ A Naturalist’s Rambles about Home ” 
(1884) ; “Cyclopaedia of Natural History” 
(1886); “Upland and Meadow” (1886); 
“Wasteland Wanderings” (1887); a bird 
series, including “ The Birds About Us,” 
and “ Bird Land Echoes; ” and the novels, 
“ A Colonial Wooing,” “ When the Century 
was New,” and “ The Hermit of Notting¬ 
ham.” 

Abbott, Edward, an Am¬ 
erican clergyman, son of 
Jacob Abbott, born in Farm¬ 
ington, Me., July 15, 1841. 
He was the editor of “ The 
Congregationalist ” from 
1869 to 1878, and of “The 
Literary World” from 1878. 
Among his works are “ Dia¬ 
logues of Christ;” “Para¬ 
graph History of the Amer¬ 
ican Revolution” (1875); 
“ Revolutionary Times” 
(1876); “Long Look Series 
of Juvenile Tales” (1876- 
1880); and “Paragraph History of the 
United States.” He was elected Protestant 
Episcopal Missionary Bishop of Japan in 
1889, but declined. He died April 5, 1908. 

Abbott, Edwin Abbott, an English 

theologian and Shakespearean scholar, 
born in London, Dec. 20, 1838. From 
the City of London School he passed, in 
1857, to St. John’s College, Cambridge. 
Senior classic and Chancellor’s medallist 
(1861), he became a fellow, master at King 
Edward’s School, Birmingham, and at Clif¬ 
ton College, and head master (1865-1889) 
of the City of London School. His works 
include the well-known “ Shakespearean 
Grammar” (1870); “Through Nature to 
Christ” ( 1877); “Bacon and Essex” 
(1877); “ Philochristus ” ( 1878), and 

“ Onesimus ” (1882), two anonymous ro¬ 

mances of the first age of the Church; 
“ Francis Bacon ” (1885) ; “ The Kernel and 
the Husk” (1887) ; “Philomythus” (1891) ; 
“ Anglican Career of Cardinal Newman ” 
(1892), and “The Spirit on the Waters” 
(1897). 

Abbott, Emma, American dramatic so¬ 
prano, born in Chicago, Ill., in December, 
1849. After years of hard work, she went 










































Abbott 


Abbreviations 


abroad in 1872 and studied with Sangio- 
vanni at Milan, and Delle Sedie in Paris, 
and afterward sang in opera with great suc¬ 
cess. In 1878 she married E. J. Wetherell, 
of New York. She died in Salt Lake City, 
Utah, Jan. 5, 1891. 

Abbott, Jacob, an American writer, born 
in Hallowell, Me., Nov. 14, 1803. His works, 
comprising over 200 titles, chiefly of stories 
for the young, were widely read in his own 
day. Among the best known are “ The 
Hollo Books” (28 vols.) ; “The Franconia 
Stories” (10 vols.); “The Marco Paul 
Series” (6 vols.). He died in Farmington, 
Me., Oct. 31, 1879. 

Abbott, Sir John Joseph Caldwell, a 

Canadian statesman, born in 1821. He took 
an active part in the Senate, leading the 
Conservative side. On the death of Sir John 
Macdonald, in 1891, he became Premier, re¬ 
signing in the following year on account 
of ill-health. He died in 1893. 

Abbott, John Stevens Cabot, an Amer¬ 
ican author, born at Brunswick, Me.; Sept. 
18, 1805; brother of Jacob Abbott; au¬ 
thor of “The Mother at Home ”•( 1833) ; 
“ History of Napoleon; ” “ History of the 
Civil War” (1863-1860); “History of 
Frederick the Great ” (1871) ; “ The French 
Revolution of 1789;” “Napoleon at St. 
Helena;” “History of Napoleon III.” 
(1868) ; and numerous other works on kin¬ 
dred themes. He died at Fair Haven, Conn., 
June 17, 1877. 

Abbott, Lyman, an American clergyman, 
born at Roxbury, Mass., Dec. 18, 1835. At 
first a lawyer, he was ordained minister of 
the Congregational Church in 1860. After 
a pastorate of five years, in Indiana, he 
went to New York, and rose rapidly to dis¬ 
tinction through his contributions to peri¬ 
odical literature. He was pastor of Plym¬ 
outh Church, Brooklyn, in 1888-1898, being 
the immediate successor of Henry Ward 
Beecher. He was associated with Mr. 
Beecher in the editorship of the “ Christian 
Union,” and is now editor of “The Out¬ 
look,” formerly the “ Christian Union.” 
His writings include “ Jesus of Nazareth ” 
(1869) ; a “Life of Henry Ward Beecher” 
(1883); “In Aid of Faith” (1886); 
“ Christianity and Social Problems ” 
(1896) ; “ The Evolution of Christianity; ” 
“Signs of Promise;” “An Evolutionist’s 
Theology,” and “ New Streams in Old 
Channels.” 

Abbott, Russell Bigelow, an American 
educator; born in Brookville, Ind., Aug. 8, 
1823; was graduated at the University of 
Indiana in 1847; and received the degree of 
D. D. from Galesville University in 1884. 
After serving for several years as principal 
of public schools in Muncie and New Castle, 
Ind., and of Whitewater Presbyterian Acad¬ 
emy, he was ordained in the Presbyterian 


Church in 1857; held pastorates in Brook' 
ville, Ind., seven years, in Knightstown, 
Ind., two years, and in Albert Lea, Minn., 
15 years; and, founding Albert Lea College 
in the latter city, became its president in 
1884. Dr. Abbott served as moderator of 
the Presbyterian Synod of Minnesota and 
several times as a delegate to the General 
Assembly of his church. 

Abbreviations, or “ shortenings,” are 
used in writing to save time and space, or, 
it may be, to ensure secrecy. The ancient 
copiers of MSS. invented many contractions 
to facilitate their labor. Greek MSS. 
abound in such, and hence often cannot be 
read without a previous regular study of 
Greek paleography. From MSS. these con¬ 
tractions were transferred to the printed 
editions of Greek authors, and hence regu¬ 
lar lists of them were given in the earlier 
Greek grammars, because the knowledge of 
them was absolutely essential to the stu¬ 
dent. Among the Romans the marks of 
abbreviation, called notce or compendia 
scribendi, were so numerous that, in a classi¬ 
fication by L. Annaeus Seneca, they amount 
to 5,000. With the Latin language the 
ancient Roman abbreviations passed to the 
Middle Ages, appearing first on inscriptions 
and coins, then in manuscripts, and, more 
especially after the lltli century, in char¬ 
ters and other legal documents. The use 
of them in legal documents was forbidden 
by an act of Parliament passed in the reign 
of George II. In the following list most of 
the abbreviations that are likely to be met 
with by modern readers are alphabetically 
arranged: 

A.— Acre. 

A.— Acting. 

A. or Ans.—-Answer. 

A. A. G.— Assistant Adjutant-General. 

A. A. A. G.— Acting Assistant Adjutant- 
General. 

A. A. P. S.— American Association for the 
Promotion of Science. 

A. A. S.— Academia; Americance Socius, 
Fellow of the American Academy (of Arts 
and Sciences). 

A. A. S. S.— Americana; Antiquariance So- 
citatis Socius, Member of the American 
Antiquarian Society. 

A. B.— Able-bodied seaman. 

A. B.— Artium Baccalaurcus, Bachelor of 
Arts. 

A. B. C. F. M.— American Board of Com¬ 
missioners for Foreign Missions. 

Abl.— • Ablative. 

Abp.— Archbishop. 

Abr.— Abridgment, or Abridged. 

A. B. S.— American Bible Society. 

A. C.— Ante Christum, before the birth of 
Christ. 

A. C.— Archchancellor. 

Acad.— Academy. 

Acad. Nat. Sci.— Academy of Natural Sci¬ 
ences. 



Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


Acc.— Accusative. 

Act.— Active; Acting. 

Acct.— Account. 

A. C. S.— American Colonization Society. 
Advt.— Advertisement. 

A. D.— Anno Domini, in the year of the 
Lord. 

A. D. C.— Aide-de-camp. 

Adj.— Adjective. 

Adj t.— Adj utant. 

Adj t.-Gen.— Adj utant-General. 

Ad lib.— Ad libitum, at pleasure. 

Adm.— Admiral; Admiralty. 

Adin. Co.— Admiralty Court. 

Admr.— Administrator. 

Admx.— Administratrix. 

Ad v.— Ad valorem, at (or on) the value. 

Adv.— Adverb. 

zEt.— JEtatis, of age; aged. 

A. F. B. S.— American and Foreign Bible 
Society. 

Afr.— African. 

A. G.— Adjutant-General. 

Agl. Dept.— Department of Agriculture. 
Agr.— Agriculture. 

A. G. S. S.— American Geographical and 
Statistical Society. 

Agt.— Agent. 

A. H.— Anno Hcgirce, in the year of the 
Hegira. 

A. H. M. S.— American Home Missionary 
Society. 

Al.— Aluminium. 

Ala.— Alabama. 

Alas.— Alaska. 

Alb.— Albany. 

Alban.— Albanian. 

Aid.— Alderman. 

Alex.— Alexander. 

Alf.— Alfred. 

Alg.— Algebra. 

Alt.— Altitude. 

Am.— Amos. 

A. M.— Anno mundi, in the year of the 
world. 

A. M.— Ante meridiem, before noon; morn¬ 
ing. 

A. M.— Artium Magister, Master of Arts. 
Am. Ass. Adv. Sci.— American Association 
for the Advancement of Science. 

Am. Assn. Sci.— American Association for 
the Advancement of Science. 

Amb.— Ambassador. 

Amer.— American. 

Amer. Acad.— American Academy. 

A. M. E. Z.— African Methodist Episcopal 
Zion. 

A. M. M.— Amalgama, amalgamation. 

Amt.— Amount. 

An.— Anno, in the year. 

An. A. C.— Anno ante Christum, in the 
year before Christ. 

Anal.— Analysis. 

Anat.— Anatomy. 

Anc.— Ancient; anciently. 

And.— Andrew. 

Ang.-Sax.— Anglo-Saxon. 


Ann.— Annales; Annals. 

Anon.— Anonymous. 

Ans.— Answer. 

Ant., or Antiq.— Antiquities. 

Anth.— Anthony. 

Aor., or aor.— Aorist. 

A. O. S. S.— Americance Orientalis Societa- 
tis Socius, Member of the American Ori¬ 
ental Society. 

Ap.— Apostle; Appius. 

Ap.— A pud, in writings of; as quoted by. 
Apo.— Apogee. 

Apoc.— Apocalypse. 

Apocr.— Apocrypha. 

App.— Appendix. 

Apr.— April. 

Aq.— Water ( aqua ). 

A. Q. M.— Assistant Quartermaster. 

A. Q. M. G.— Assistant Quartermaster-Gen¬ 
eral. 

A. R.— Anna Regina, Queen Anne. 

A. R.— Anno regni, year of the reign. 

A. R. A.— Associate of the Royal Academy. 
Ara.— Arabic. 

Arch.— Archibald. 

Arch.— Architect; Architecture. 

Archd.— Archdeacon. 

Arg.— Argumento, by an argument drawn 
from such a law. 

Ari.— Arizona. 

Arith.— Arithmetic. 

Ark.— Arkansas. 

Arm.— Armenian. 

Armor.— Armoric. 

A. R. R.— Anno regni regis, in the year of 
the reign of the king. 

Arr.— Arrive; Arrival. 

A. R. S. A.— Associate of the Royal Scot¬ 
tish Academy. 

A. R. S. S.— Antiquariorum Rcgice Rodeta¬ 
ils Socius, Fellow of the Royal Society of 
Antiquaries. 

Art.— Article. 

Artil.— Artillery. 

A.-S.— Anglo-Saxon. 

A. S., or Assist. Sec.— Assistant Secretary. 
As.—- Arsenicum. 

A. S. A.— American Statistical Association. 
Ass., Assn.— Association. 

A. S. S. U.— American Sunday-School 
Union. 

Astrol.— Astrology. 

Astron.— Astronomy. 

A. T. S.— American Tract Society. 

Ats.— At suit of. 

Atty.— Attorney. 

Atty.-Gen.— Attorney-General. 

A. U. A.— American Unitarian Associa¬ 
tion. 

Aub. Theol. Sem.— Auburn Theological 
Seminary. 

A. LT. C.— Anno urbis conditce, or ab urbe 
condita, in the year from the building of 
the city (Rome). 

Aug.— August. 

Aus.— Austria; Austrian. 



Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


Autli. Ver., -or A. V.— Authorized Version 
(of the Bible). 

Av.— Average; Avenue. 

Avdp.— Avoirdupois. 

Avoir.— Avoirdupois. 

A. Y. M.— Ancient York Masons. 

B. — Born. 

B. A.— Bachelor of Arts. 

Bal.— Balance. 

Balt.— Baltimore. 

Bapt.— Baptist. 

Bar.— Barometer. 

Bar.— Baruch. 

Bart, or bt.— Baronet. 

Bbl.— Barrel. 

B. C.— Before Christ. 

B. C. L.— Bachelor of Civil Law. 

B. D.— Baccalaureus Divinitatis, Bachelor 
of Divinity. 

Bdls.— Bundles. 

Bds., or bds.— Boards (bound in). 

Bds.— Bonds. 

Beau. & FL, or B. & F.— Beaumont and 
Fletcher. 

Beds.— Bedfordshire. 

Belg.— Belgic; Belgian; Belgium. 

Benj.— Benjamin. 

Berks.— Berkshire. 

Bi.— Bismuth. 

B. I.— British India. 

Bib.— Bible; Biblical. 

Biog.— Biography; Biographical. 

Disc.— Biscayan. 

B. Jon.— Ben Jonson. 

Bk.— Bark. 

Bk.— Book. 

B. LL.— Baccalaureus Lcgum, Bachelor of 
Laws. 

B. LL.— Same as LL. B. 

Bis.— Bales. 

B. M.— Baccalaureus Mcdicince, Bachelor of 
Medicine. 

B. M.— Same as M. B. 

Bohem.— Bohemian. 

Bost.— Boston. 

Lot.— Botany. 

Bp.— Bishop. 

B. R.— Banco Regis, or Regince, the King’s 
or Queen’s Bench. 

Br.— Brig. 

Br.— Brother. 

Br. Univ.— Brown University. 

Braz.— Brazil; Brazilian. 

Brig.— Brigade; Brigadier. 

Brig.-Gen.— Brigadier-General. 

Brit. Mus.— British Museum. 

Bro.— Brother. 

B. S.— Bachelor in the Sciences. 

Burl.— Burlesque. 

Bush.— Bushel; Bushels. 

B. V.— Bene vale, farewell. 

B. V.— Beata Virgo, Blessed Virgin. 

Bx., Bxs.— Box; Boxes. 

C. — Cent. 

C.— Consul. 


C., or Cels.— Celsius’s Scale for the ther¬ 
mometer. 

C., or Cent.— Centum, a hundred; Century. 
C., Ch., or Chap.— Chapter. 

Ca. sa.— Capias ad satisfaciendum, a legal 
writ. 

Ca.— Year ( circa ). 

C. A.— Chief Accountant; Commissioner 
of Accounts. 

Ca. resp.— Capias ad respondendum, a legal 
writ. 

Caet. par.— Ccctcris paribus, other things 
being equal. 

Cal.— California; Calends. 

Cam., Camb.— Cambridge. 

Can.— Canon. 

Cant.— Canticles. 

Cantab.— Of Cambridge (Cantabrigiensis ). 
Cantuar.— Of Canterbury. 

Cap. or C.— Caput, capitulum, chapter. 
Caps.— Capitals. 

Capt.— Captain. 

Capt.-Gen.— Captain-General. 

Car.— Carat. 

Card.— Cardinal. 

Cash.— Cashier. 

Cat.— Catalogue. 

Cata.— Catalogue. 

Cath.— Catherine, Catholic, Cathedral. 

C. B.— Cape Breton. 

C. B.— Companion of th« Bath. 

C. B.— Communis Bancus, Common Bench. 
C. C.— Cains College; Account Current. 

C. C.— County Commissioner; County 
Court. 

C. C.— Cubic centimeter. 

C. C. C.— Corpus Christi College. 

C. C. P.— Court of Common Pleas. 

Cd.— Cadmium. 

C. D. V.— Carte-de-Visitc. 

C. E.— Civil Engineer. 

C. E.— Christian Endeavor (Young People’s 
Society of). 

Ce.— Cerium. 

Cel., or Celt.— Celtic. 

Cent.— Centigrade, a scale of 100° from 
freezing to boiling. 

Cert.— Certify. 

Certif.— Certificate. 

Cf., or cf.— Confer, compare. 

C. G.— Commissary-General; Consul-Gen¬ 
eral. 

C. G. JI.— Cape of Good Hope. 

C. H.— Court house. 

Ch.— Church; Chapter; Charles. 

Chal.— Chaldron. 

Chahl.— Chaldea; Chaldean; Chaldaic. 
Chanc.— Chancellor. 

Chap.— Chapter. 

Chas.— Charles. 

Chem.— Chemistry. 

Ches.— Chesapeake. 

Chi.— China; Chinese. 

Chic.— Chicago. 

Chr.— Christ; Christian. 

Chr.— Christopher. 

Chron.— Chronicles. 




Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


Cic.— Cicero. 

Cin.— Cincinnati. 

Circ.— Circuit. 

Cit.— Citation; Citizen. 

C. J.— Chief-Justice. 

Ci.— Chlorine. 

Cld.— Cleared. 

Clk.— Clerk. 

C. M.— Common Meter. 

C. M. G.— Companion of the Order of St. 

Michael and St. George. 

Co.— Company; county. 

Coch., or Cochl.— A spoonful ( cochleare ). 
C. 0. D.— Cash (or collect) on delivery. 
Col.— Colorado; Colonel; Colossians. 

Coll.— Collector; Colloquial; College; Col¬ 
lection. 

Com. Arr.— Committee of Arrangements. 
Com.— Commerce; Committee; Commission¬ 
er; Commodore. 

Com. & Nav.— Commerce and Navigation. 
Comdg.— Commanding. 

Comm.— Commentary. 

Comp.— Compare; Comparative; Com¬ 
pound ; Compounded. 

Com. Ver.— Common Version (of the Bible). 
Con.— Contra, against; in opposition. 

Con. Cr.— Contra, credit. 

Conch.— Conchology. 

Con. Sec.— Conic Sections. 

Confed.—- Confederate. 

Cong.— Congress. 

Conj., or conj.— Conjunction. 

Congl.— Congregational; Conglomerate. 
Conn., or Ct.— Connecticut. 

Const.— Constable; Constitution. 

Cont.— Contra. 

Cop., or Copt.— Coptic. 

Corn.— Cornwall; Cornish. 

Cor.— Corinthians. 

Cor. Mem.— Corresponding Member. 

Cor. Sec.— Corresponding Secretary. 

Corol.— Corollary. 

Cos.— Cosine. 

Coss.— Consuls ( consules). 

C. P.— Common Pleas. 

C. P.— Court of Probate. 

C. P. S.— Custos Privati Sigilli, Keeper of 
the Privy Seal. 

Cr.— Chromium. 

Cr.— Creditor; credit. 

C. R.— Custos Rotulorum, Keeper of the 
Rolls. 

C. R.— King Charles ( Carolus Rex). 

Crim. Con.— Criminal conversation; adul¬ 
tery. 

Cs.— Cases. 

C. S.— Court of Sessions. 

C. S.— Custos Sigilli, Keeper of the Seal. 

C. S. A.— Confederate States of America; 

Confederate States Army. 

Csk.— Cask. 

C. S. N.— Confederate States Navy. 

C. Theod.— Codice Theodosiano, in the Theo- 
dosian Code. 

Ct.— Court. 


Ctl.— Central. 

Cts.— Cents. 

Cub.— Cubic. 

Cub. Ft.— Cubic Foot. 

Cur.— Currency. 

C. W.— Canada West. 

Cwt.— Hundredweight. 

Cyc.— Cyclopedia. 

D. — Died. 

D.— Five hundred. 

D.— Penny; pence {denarius). 

D. A. G.— Deputy Adjutant-General. 

Dak.— Dakota. 

Dan.— Daniel; Danish. 

Dat.— Dative. 

D. B. or Domesd. B.— Domesday-Book. 

D. C.— Da Capo, again. 

D. C.— District of Columbia. 

D. C. L.— Doctor of Civil Law. 

D. C. S.— Deputy Clerk of Sessions. 

D. D.— Divinitatis Doctor, Doctor of Divin¬ 
ity. 

D. D. S.— Doctor of Dental Surgery. 

Dea.— Deacon. 

Dec.— December; Declination. 

Dec. of Ind.— Declaration of Independence. 
Def.— Definition. 

Def., Deft.— Defendant. 

Deg.— Degree; degrees. 

Del.— Delaware; Delegate. 

Del., or del.— Delineavit, he (or she) drew 
it. 

Dem.— Democrat; Democratic. 

Dep.— Deputy. 

Dept.— Department. 

Dcut.— Deuteronomy. 

D. F.— Defender of the Faith. 

D. G.— Dei gratia, by the grace of God. 

D. G.— Deo gratias, thanks to God. 

D. H.— Dead-head. 

Diam.— Diameter. 

Diet.— Dictionary; Dictator. 

Dim.— Diminutive. 

Diosc.— Dioscarides. 

Disc.— Discount. 

Diss.— Dissertation. 

Dist.— District. 

Dist.-Atty.— District-Attorney. 

Div.— Division. 

D. L. 0.— Dead-Letter Office. 

D. M.— Doctor of Music. 

Do.— Ditto, the same. 

Doc.— Document. 

Dols.— Dollars. 

D. 0. M.— Deo optimo maximo, to God, the 
best, the greatest. 

Doz.— Dozen. 

D. P.— Doctor of Philosophy. 

Dpt.— Department. 

Dr.— Debtor; Doctor. 

Dr.— Drams; Drachms. 

D. S.— Dal segno, from the sign. 

D. S. B.— Debit sans breve. 

D. Sc.— Doctor of Science. 

D. T.— Doctor of Theology ( doctor theolo • 
giw). 




Abbreviations 

Dub.— Dublin. 

Duo.— Duodecimo, twelve folds. 

D. V.— Deo volente , God willing. 

Dvvt.— Pennyweight. 

Dyn.—Dynamics. 

E. — East. 

E. by S.— East by South. 

E. & 0. E.— Errors and omissions excepted. 
Ea.— Each. 

E. B.— English Bible. 

Eben.— Ebenezer. 

Ebor.— York ( Eboracum ). 

Eccl.— Ecclesiastes. 

Ecclus.— Ecclesiasticus. 

E. D.— Eastern District. 

Ed.— Editor; Edition. 

Edin.— Edinburgh. 

Edm.— Edmund. 

Edw.— Edward. 

E. E.— Errors excepted. 

E. E. T. S.— Early English Text Society. 

E. G.— Exempli gratia, for example. 

E. G.— Ex grege, among the rest. 

E. FI.—Ells Flemish. 

E. Fr.— Ells French. 

E. I.— East Indies or East India. 

E. I. C., or E. I. Co.— East India Company. 
E. I. C. S.— East India Company’s Service. 
Eliz.— Elizabeth. 

E. Lon.— East longitude. 

E. M,— Mining Engineer. 

Emp.— Emperor; Empress. 

Encyc.— Encyclopedia. 

Encyc. Brit.— Encyclopedia Britannica. 
Encyc. Amer.— Encyclopedia Americana. 
Eng. Dept.— Department of Engineers. 
Eng.— England; English. 

E.-N.-E.— Bast-North-East. 

Ent., Entom.— Entomology. 

Env. Ext.— Envoy Extraordinary. 

E. o. w.— Every other week. 

Ep.— Epistle. 

Eph.— Ephesians; Ephraim. 

Epis.— Episcopal. 

E. S.— Ells Scotch. 

Esd.— Esdras. 

E.-S.-E.— East-South-East. 

Esq.— Esquire. 

Esth.— Esther. 

E. T.— English Translation. 

Et. al.— Et alii, and others. 

Etc., or &c.— Et cceteri, et cwterce, et ccetera, 
and others; and so forth. 

Eth.— Ethiopic; Ethiopian. 

Et seq.— Et sequentia, and what follows. 
Etym.— Etymology. 

E. U.— Evangelical Union. 

Ex.— Example. 

Ex.— Exodus. 

Exc.— Excellency; exception. 

Exch.— Exchequer; Exchange. 

Ex. Doc.— Executive Document. 

Exec. Com.— Executive Committee. 

Execx.— Executrix. 

Ex. gr.— For example {exempli gratia). 
Exon.— Exeter ( Exonia ). 


Abbreviations 

Exr. or Exec.— Executor. 

Ez.— Ezra. 

Ezek.— Ezekiel. 

F. and A. M.— Free and Accepted Masons. 
F., or Fahr.— Fahrenheit (thermometer). 
Far.— Farthing. 

F. A. S.— Fellow of the Antiquarian Soci¬ 
ety. 

F. B. S.— Fellow of the Botanical Society. 
F. C.— Free Church of Scotland. 

Fcap. or fcp.— Foolscap. 

F. C. P. S.— Fellow of the Cambridge Philo¬ 
logical Society. 

F. C. S.— Fellow of the Chemical Society. 
F. D.— Defender of the Faith. 

F. E.— Flemish ells. 

Feb.— February. 

Fee.— Fecit, he did it. 

Fern.— Feminine. 

F. E. S.— Fellow of the Entomological So¬ 
ciety; Fellow of the Ethnographical So¬ 
ciety. 

Ff.—- Following. 

Ff.— The Pandects. 

F. F. V.— First Families of Virginia. 

F. G. S.— Fellow of the Geological Society. 
F. H. S.— Fellow of the Horticultural So¬ 
ciety. 

Fi. Fa.— Fieri facias, cause it to be done. 
Fid. Def.— Defender of the Faith. 

Fig.— Figure. 

Fin.— Finland. 

Finn.— Finnish. 

Fir.— Firkin. 

F. K. Q. C. P. I.— Fellow of King’s and 
Queen’s College of Physicians, Ireland. 
FI. E.— Flemish ells. 

Fla.— Florida. 

F. L. S.— Fellow of the Linnsean Socitey. 
F.-M.— Field-Marshal. 

F.-O.— Field-Officer. 

F. o. b.— Free on board. 

Fol.— Folio. 

For.— Foreign. 

F. P. S.— Fellow of the Philological Society. 
Fr.— France; French. 

Fr.— Fragmentum, fragment. 

Fr.— Francis. 

Fr.— From. 

F. R. A. S.— Fellow of the Royal Astronom¬ 
ical Society. 

F. R. C. P.— Fellow of the Royal College of 
Physicians. 

F. R. C. S. L.— Fellow of the Royal College 
of Surgeons, London. 

Fred.— Frederick. 

Fr. E.— French ells. 

Fr., Frs.— Franc; Francs. 

F. R. G. S.— Fellow of the Royal Geograph¬ 
ical Society. 

F. R. Hist. Soc.— Fellow of the Royal His¬ 
torical Society. 

Fri.— Friday. 

F. R. S.— Fellow of the Royal Society. 

Frs.— Frisian. 

F. R. S. S. A.— Fellow of the Royal Scot- 



Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


tisli Society of Arts. 

F. R. S. E.— Fellow of the Royal Society, 
Edinburgh. 

F. R. S. L.— Fellow of the Royal Society, 
London. 

F. S. A.— Fellow of the Society of Arts, or 
of Antiquaries. 

F. S. A. E.— Fellow of the Society of An¬ 
tiquaries, Edinburgh. 

F. S. A. Scot.— Fellow of the Society of An¬ 
tiquaries of Scotland. 

F. S. S.— Fellow of the Statistical Society. 
Ft.— Foot; feet; Fort. 

Fth.— Fathom. 

Fur.— Furlong. 

F. Z. S.— Fellow of the Zoological Society. 

G. , or g.— Guineas. 

Ga.— Georgia. 

G. A.— General Assembly. 

Gal.— Galatians; Gallon. 

Galv.— Galvanism. 

. Galv.— Galveston. 

G. B.— Great Britain. 

G. B. & I.— Great Britain and Ireland. 

G. C.— Grand Chapter; Grand Conductor. 

G. C. B.— Grand Cross of the Bath. 

G. C. H.— Grand Cross of Hanover. 

G. C. K. P.— Grand Commander of the 
Knights of St. Patrick. 

G. C. L. H.— Grand Cross of the Legion of 
Honor. 

G. C. M. G.— Grand Cross of St. Michael 
and St. George. 

G. C. S. I.— Grand Commander of the Star 
of India. 

G. D.— Grand Duke; Grand Duchess. 

G. E.— Grand Encampment. 

Gen.— Genesis; General. 

Gen.— Genus; Genera; Genealogy. 

Gent.— Gentleman. 

Geo.— George. 

Geog.— Geography. 

Geol.— Geology. 

Geom.— Geometry. 

Ger.— German; Germany. 

Gl.— Glossa, a gloss. 

G. L.— Grand Lodge. 

G. M.— Grand Master. 

G. M. K. P.— Grand Master of the Knights 
of St. Patrick. 

G. M. S. I.— Grand Master of the Star of 
India. 

G. 0.— General Order. 

Goth.— Gothic. 

Gov.— Governor. 

Gov.-Gen.— Governor-General. 

Govt.— Government. 

G. P.— Gloria Patri (“Glory be to the 
Father ”). 

G. P. 0.— General Post-Office. 

G. R.— Georgius Rex, King George. 

Gr.— Greek; Gross. 

Gr., Grs.— Grain; Grains. 

Grad.— Graduated. 

Gram.— Grammar. 

Grot.— Grotius. 


G. S.— Grand Secretary; Grand Sentinel; 
Grand Scribe. 

G. T.— Good Templars; Grand Tyler. 

Gtt.— Drop; drops ( gutta or guttce). 

H. A.— Hoc anno, this year. 

Hab.— Habakkuk. 

Hab. corp.— Habeas corpus, you may have 
the body. 

Hab. fa. poss.— Habere facias possessionem. 
Hab. fa. seis.— Habere facias seisinan. 

Hag.— Haggai. 

Hants.— Hampshire. 

H. B. C.— Hudson Bay Company. 

H. B. M.— His or Her Britannic Majesty. 

H. C.— House of Commons; Herald’s Col¬ 
lege. 

II. C. M.— His or Her Catholic Majesty. 
Hdkf.— Handkerchief. 

II. E.— Hoc est, that is, or this is. 

Heb.— Hebrews. 

Heb.— Hebrew. 

H. E. I. C.— Honorable East India Com¬ 
pany. 

H. E. I. C. S.— Honorable East India Com¬ 
pany’s Service. 

Her.— Heraldry. 

Herp.— Herpetology. 

Hf.-bd.— Half-bound. 

Hg.— Hydrargyrum, mercury. 

H.-G.— Horse-guards. 

H. H.— His or Her Highness; His Holiness 
(the Pope). 

Ilhd.— Hogshead. 

Hier.— Jerusalem ( Hicrosolyma ). 

H. I. H.— His or Her Imperial Highness 
Hil.— Hilary. 

Hind.— Hindu; Hindustan; Hindustanee. 
Hipp.— Hippocrates. 

Hist.— History. 

H. J. S.— Hie facet sepultus, Here lies 
buried. 

H. M.—His Majesty. 

H. L.— House of Lords. 

II. M. P.— Hoc monumentum posuit ? erected 
this monument. 

H. M. S.— His or Her Majesty’s Ship. 

Holl.— Holland. 

Hon.— Honorable. 

Hort.— Horticulture. 

IIos.— Hosea. 

H.-P.— High-priest; Horse-power; Half-pay. 
H. R.— House of Representatives. 

H. R. E.—Holy Roman Empire. 

H. R. H.— His Royal Highness. 

H. R. I. P.— Hie requiescit in pace, Here 
rests in peace. 

H. S.— Hie situs. Here lies. 

H. S. II.— His Serene Highness. 

II. T.— Hoc titulum, this title; hoc tituli, 
in or under this title. 

Hund.— Hundred. 

Hung.— Hungarian. 

H. V.— Hoc verbum, this word; his verbis , 
in these words. 

Hyd.— Hydrostatics. 

Hypoth.— Hypothesis; Hypothetical. 




Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


la. — Iowa. 

l b. , or ibid.— Ibidem, in the same place. 
Icel.— Iceland; Icelandic. 

Ich.— Ichthyology. 

Icon. Encyc.— Iconographic Encyclopedia. 

I. Ch. Th. U. S.— (Iy0es) Jesus Christ the 
Son of God, the Saviour ( Icsous Chris¬ 
tos Theon Huios Sotor). 

Ictus.— Jurisconsultus. 

Id.— Idaho. 

Id.— Idem, the same. 

Id.— The Ides ( Idus ). 

,1. E.— Id est, that is. 

I. G.— Inside Guardian. 

I. H. S.— Jesus the Saviour of Men ( Jesus 
Uominum Salvator ). 

I., II., III.— One, two, three, or first, sec¬ 
ond, third. 

I j.— Two ( med .). 
i'll.— Illinois. 

Imp.— Imperative; imperfect. 

Imp.— Imperial; Emperor ( Impcrator ). 
In.— Inch; inches. 

In.— Indium. 

Incog.— Incognito, unknown. 

Incor.— Incorporated. 

Ind. Ter.— Indian Territory. 

I. H. P.— Indicated horse power. 

I. N. D.— In nomine Dei, in the name of 
God. 

Ind.— Indiana; Index. 

Indef.— Indefinite. 

Inf.— Infra, beneath, or below. 

In f.— In fine, at the end of the title, law, 
or paragraph cpioted. 

Inhab.— Inhabitant. 

In lim.— In limine, at the outset. 

In loc.— In loco, in the place; on the pas¬ 
sage. 

In pr.— In principio, in the beginning and 
before the first paragraph of a law. 

I. N. R. I.— Jesus Nazarenus, Rex Judceo- 
rum, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews. 
Inst.— Instant, of this month; Institutes. 
Inst.— Institute; Institution. 

In sum.— In summa, in the summary. 

Int.— Interest. 

Inter j.— Interjection. 

In trans.— In transitu, on the passage. 

Int. Dept.— Department of the Interior. 

Int. Rev.— Internal Revenue. 

Introd.— Introduction. 

I. O. O. F.— Independent Order of Odd Fel¬ 
lows. 

Ion.— Ionic. 

I. O. S. M.— Independent Order of the Sons 
of Malta. 

I. O. U.— I owe you. 

Ipecac.— Ipecacuanha. 

I. Q.— Idem quod, the same as. 

Ire.— Ireland. 

I. R. O.— Internal Revenue Office. 

Isa.— Isaiah. 

Ts., Isl.— Island. 

I. T.— Inner Temple. 

It.— Italy. 

Ital.— Italic; Italian,, 


IV.— Four or fourth. 

I. W.— Isle of Wight. 

IX.— Nine or ninth. 

J. — Justice, or Judge. 

J.— One (med .). 

J. A.— Judge-Advocate. 

Jac.— Jacob. 

J. A. G.— Judge Advocate-General. 

Jam.— Jamaica. 

Jan.:— January. 

Jas.— James. 

J. C. D.— Juris Civilis Doctor, Doctor of 
Civil Law. 

J. D.— J ar um Doctor, Doctor of Laws. 

J. C.— Jurisconsult ( Juris Consultus ). 

J. D.— Junior Deacon. 

Jer.— Jeremiah. 

T. G. W.— Junior Grand Warden. 

JJ.— Justices. 

Jno.— John. 

Jona.— Jonathan. 

Jos.— Joseph. 

Josh.— Joshua. 

J. P.— Justice of the Peace. 

J. Prob.— Judge of Probate. 

J. R.— Jacobus Rex, King James. 

Jr., or Jun.— Junior. 

J. U. D., or J. V. D.— Juris utriusque Doc¬ 
tor, Doctor of both laws (of the Canon 
and the Civil Law). 

Jud.— Judicial. 

Jud.— Judith. 

Judg.— Judges. 

Judge- Adv.— Judge-Advocate. 

Jul. Per.— Julian Period. 

Jus. P.— Justice of the Peace. 

Just.— Justinian. 

J. W.— Junior Warden. 

K. — King. 

K. A.— Kn ight of St. Andrew, in Russia. 
Kal.— The Kalends ( Kalendce ). 

K. A. N.— Knight of Alexander Nevskoi, 
in Russia. 

Kan.— Kansas. 

K. B.— King’s Bench. 

K. B.— Knight of the Bath. 

K. B. A.— Knight of St. Bento d’Avis, in 
Portugal. 

K. B. E.— Knight of the Black Eagle, in 
Russia. 

K. C.— King’s Counsel. 

K. C.— Knight of the Crescent, in Turkey. 

K. C. B.— Knight Commander of the Bath. 

K. C. H.— Knight Commander of Hanover. 

K. C. S.— Knight of Charles III. of Spain. 

K. E.— Knight of the Elephant, in Den¬ 
mark. 

K. F.— Knight of Ferdinand of Spain. 

K. F. M.— Knight of St. Ferdinand and 
Merit, in Sicily. 

K. G.— Knight of the Garter. 

Kg., Kgs.— Reg; Kegs. 

K. G. C.— Knight of the Grand Cross. 

K. G. C. B.— Knight of the Grand Cross of 
the Bath. 



Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


K. G F.— Knight of the Golden Fleece, in 
Spain 

K. G. H.— Knight of the Guelphs of Han¬ 
over. 

K G. V.— Knight of Gustavus Vasa of 
Sweden. 

K. H.— Knight of Hanover. 

Ki.— Kings. 

Ivil.— Kilometer. 

Kilo.— Kilogram. 

Kingd.— Kingdom. 

K. J.— Knight of St. Joachim. 

K. L.— Knight of Labor. 

K. L., or K. L. A.— Knight of Leopold of 
Austria. 

Iv. L. Id.— Knight of the Legion of Honor. 

K. M.— Knight of Malta. 

K Mess.— King’s Messenger. 

K. M. H.— Knight of Merit, in Holstein. 

K. M. J.— Knight of Maximilian Joseph of 
Bavaria. 

K. M. T.— Knight of Maria Theresa of 
Austria. 

Knick.— Knickerbocker. 

K. N. S.— Knight of the Royal North Star, 
in Sweden. 

Knt. or Kt.— Knight. 

K. P.— Knight of St. Patrick; Knight of 
Pythias. 

K. R. C.— Knight of the Red Cross. 

K. R. E.— Knight of the Red Eagle, in 
Prussia. 

K. S.— Knight of the Sword, in Sweden. 

K. S. A.— Knight of St. Anne of Russia. 

Iv. S. E.— Knight of St. Esprit, in France. 

K. S. F.—• Knight of St. Fernando of Spain. 

K. S. F. M.— Knight of St. Ferdinand and 
Merit, in Naples. 

K. S. G.— Knight of St. George of Russia. 

K. S. H.— Knight of St. Hubert of Bavaria. 

Iv. S. J.— Knight of St. Januarius of Na¬ 
ples. 

K. S. L.— Knight of the Sun and Lion, in 

p erS i a 

K. S. M. & S. G.— Knight of St. Michael 
and St. George of the Ionian Islands. 

Iv. S. P.— Knight of St. Stanislaus of Po¬ 
land. 

Iv. S. S.— Knight of the Southern Star of 
the Brazils. 

Iv. S. S.—Knight of the Sword, in Sweden. 

K. S. W.— Knight of St. Wladimir of 
Russia. 

Iv. T.— Knight of the Thistle; Knight Tem¬ 
plar. 

Kt.— Knight. 

K. r. X.— The same as “ etc.” 

Iv. T. S.— Knight of the Tower and Sword, 
in Portugal. 

K. W.— Knight of William of the Nether¬ 
lands. 

K. W. E.— Knight of the White Eagle, in 
Poland. 

Ky.— Kentucky. 

L. — Fifty, or fiftieth. 

L.— Liber , book. 


L., or £. s. d.— Pounds, shillings, pence. 

£, or 1.— Pounds, English currency {libra). 
£ T.— Pounds, Turkish currency. 

La.— Louisiana. 

L. A. C.— Licentiate of the Apothecaries’ 
Company. 

L. A. W.— League of American Wheelmen. 
Lam.— Lamentations. 

Lang.— Language. 

Lat.— Latitude; Latin. 

Lapp.— Lappish. 

Lb., or lb.— Libra, or librce, pound or pounds 
in weight. 

L. C.— Lower Canada; Lord Chamberlain; 

Lord Chancellor. 

L. C. B.— Lord Chief Baron. 

L. C. J.— Lord Chief-Justice. 

Ld.— Lord; Limited. 

Ldp.— Lordship. 

Leg.— Legate. 

Legis.— Legislature. 

Leip.— Leipsic. 

Lett.— Lettish. 

Lev.— Leviticus. 

Lex.— Lexicon. 

L. G.—Life Guards. 

L. IJ. A.— Lord High Admiral. 

L. II. C.— Lord High Chancellor. 

L. H. D.— Doctor of Literature. 

L. II. T.— Lord High Treasurer. 

L. I.— Long Island. 

Lib.— Liber, book. 

Lieut.-Col.— Lieutenant-Colonel. 

Lieut.-Gen.— Lieutenant-General. 

Lieut.-Go v.— Lieutena nt-Go vernor. 

Lieut.— Lieutenant. 

Lin.— Lineal. 

Linn.— Linnaeus; Linnaean. 

Liq.— Liquor; Liquid. 

Lit.— Literally; Literature. 

Lith.— Lithuanian. 

L., £, or 1.— Libra or librce, pound or pounds 
sterling. 

L. 1.— Loco laudato, in the place quoted. 

L. L. A.— Lady Literate of Arts, a Scottish 
academic degree conferred on women. 

L. Lat.— Low Latin; Law Latin. 

LL. B.— Legum Baccalaureus, Bachelor of 
Laws. 

LL. D.— Legum Doctor, Doctor of Laws. 

LL. M.— Master of Laws. 

L. M. S.— London Missionary Society. 

Loc. cit.— Loco citato, in the place cited. 
Lon.— Longitude. 

Lond.— London. 

L. P.— Lord Provost. 

L. P.— Long Provost; Large Paper. 

L. P. S.— Lord Privy Seal. 

L. R. C. P.— Licentiate of the Royal Col¬ 
lege of Physicians. 

L. R. C. S.— Licentiate of the Royal Col¬ 
lege of Surgeons. 

L. S. D.— Pounds, shillings, and pence. 

L. S.— Locus sigilli, place of the seal. 

Lt.— Lieutenant. 

LX.— Sixty, or sixtieth. 



Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


LXX.— Seventy, or seventieth. 

LXX.— The Septuagint (Version of the 
Old Testament). 

LXXX.— Eighty, or eightieth. 

M.— Married. 

M.— Mile. 

M.— Meridies, noon. 

M.— Mille , a thousand. 

M., or Mons.— Monsieur. 

M. A.— Master of Arts. 

M. A.— Military Academy. 

Mace.— Maccabees. 

Maced.— Macedonian. 

Mad.— Madam. 

Mag.— Magazine. 

Maj.— Major. 

Maj.-Gen.— Major-General. 

Mai.— Malachi. 

Man.— Manassas. 

Mar.— March. 

March.— Marchioness. 

Marg.— Margin. 

Marg. Tran.— Marginal Translation. 

Marq.— Marquis. 

Masc.— Masculine. 

Mass.— Massachusetts. 

Math.— Mathematics; Mathematician. 
Matt.— Matthew. 

Max.— Maxim. 

M. B.— Medicince Baccalaureus, Bachelor of 
Medicine. 

M. B.— Musicce Baccalaureus, Bachelor of 
Music. 

M. B. F. et H.— Great Britain, France, and 
Ireland. 

M. C.— Member of Congress; Master of 
Ceremonies; Master Commandant. 

Meh.— March. 

M. C. S.'— Madras Civil Service. 

M. D.— Medicince Doctor, Doctor of Medi¬ 
cine. 

Md.— Maryland. 

Mdlle.— Mademoiselle. 

Mdpn.— Midshipman. 

M. E.—Methodist Episcopal; Military or 
Mechanical Engineer. 

M. E., S.— Methodist Episcopal, South. 

Me.— Maine. 

Mecli.— Mechanic; Mechanical. 

Med.— Medicine. 

M. E. G. H. P.— Most Excellent Grand High 
Priest. 

Mem.— Memorandum. 

Mem.— Memento, remember. 

Merc.— Mercury. 

Mess. & Docs.— Messages and Documents. 
Messrs., or MM.— Messieurs, Gentlemen. 
Met.— Metaphysics. 

Metal.— Metallurgy. 

Meteor.— Meteorology. 

Metli.— Methodist. 

Mex.— Mexico, or Mexican. 

Mfd.— Manufactured. 

Mfs.— Manufactures. 

M. Goth.— Mceso-Gothic. 

Mic.— Micali. 

2 


M. I. C. E.— Member of the Institution of 
Civil Engineers. 

Mich.— Michaelmas. 

Mich.— Michigan. 

Mil.— Military. 

Min.— Mineralogy. 

Min.— Minute. 

Min. E.— Mining Engineer. 

Minn.— Minnesota. 

Min. Plen.— Minister Plenipotentiary. 

Mir. for Mag.— Mirror for Magistrates. 

Miss.— Mississippi. 

M. L. A.— Mercantile Library Association. 

MM.— Their Majesties. 

MM.— Messieurs; Gentlemen. 

Mine.— Madame. 

M. M. S.— Moravian Missionary Society. 

M. M. S. S.— Massachusettensis Medicince 
Societatis Socius, Fellow of the Massa¬ 
chusetts Medical Society. 

Mn.— Manganese. 

M. N. A. S.— Member of the National Acad¬ 
emy of Sciences. 

Mo.— Missouri; Month. 

Mod.— Modern. 

Mon.— Montana; Monday. 

Mons.— Monsieur; Sir. 

Mont.— Montana. 

Morn.— Morning. 

Mos., or mth.— Months. 

Mos.— Months. 

M. P.— Member of Parliament; Member of 
Police; Methodist Protestant. 

M. P. S.— Member of the Philological So¬ 
ciety; Member of the Pharmaceutical So¬ 
ciety. 

M. B.— Master of the Rolls. 

Mr.— Mister. 

M. R. A. S.— Member of the Royal Asiatic 
Society; Member of the Royal Academy of 
Science. 

M. R. C. C.— Member of the Royal College 
of Chemistry. 

M. R. C. P.— Member of the Royal College 
of Preceptors. 

M. R. C. S.— Member of the Royal College 
of Surgeons. 

M. R. C. V. S.— Member of the Royal Col¬ 
lege of Veterinary Surgeons. 

M. R. G. S.— Member of the Royal Geo¬ 
graphical Society. 

M. R. I.— Member of the Royal Institution. 

M. R. I. A.— Member of the Royal Irish 
Academy. 

Mrs.— Mistress. 

M. R. S. L.— Member of the Royal Society 
of Literature. 

M. S.— Memorice sacrum, Sacred to the 
memory. 

VI. S.— Master of the Sciences. 

MS.— Manuscriptum, manuscript. 

MSS.— Manuscripts. 

Mt.— Mount, or mountain. 

M. T. C.— Marcus Tullius Cicero. 

Mus. B.— Bachelor of Music. 

Mus. D.— Doctor of Music. 

VI. YV.— VIost Worthy; Vlost Worshipful. 



Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


M. W, G. C. r.— Most Worthy Grand Chief 
Patriarch. 

M. W. G. M.— Most Worthy Grand Master; 
Most Worshipful Grand Master. 

M. W. P.— Most Worthy Patriarch, 

Myth.— Mythology. 

N. — North; Number; Noun; Neuter. 

N.— Note. 

N. A.— North America. 

Nah.— Nahum. 

Nap.— Napoleon; Napoleonic. 

N. A. S.— National Academy of Sciences. 
Nat. Old.— Natural Order. 

Nat.— Natural. 

Nat. Hist.— Natural History. 

Nath.— Nathanael, or Nathaniel. 

Naut.— Nautical. 

Naut. Aim.— Nautical Almanac. 

N. B.— North Britain. 

N. B.— New Brunswick; North British. 

N. B.— A ota bene, mark well; tako notice. 

N. C.— North Carolina. 

N. D.— North Dakota. 

N. E.— New England; North-east. 

Neb.— Nebraska. 

Noli.— Nehemiah. 

N. e. i.— Aon est inventus, he is not found. 
Nem. con., or nem. diss.— A emine contradi- 
cente, or nemine dissentiente, no one op¬ 
posing ; unanimously. 

Noth.— Netherlands. 

Neut.— Neuter (gender). 

Nev.— Nevada. 

New Test., or N. T.— New Testament. 

N. F.— Newfoundland. 

N. G.— New Granada; Noble Grand. 

N. H.— New Hampshire; New Haven. 

N. H. H. S.— New Hampshire Historical So¬ 
ciety. 

Ni. pri.— Nisi prius. 

N. J.— New Jersey. 

N. 1.— Aon lique.t, it does not appear. 

N. lat.— North latitude. 

N. M.— New Measurement. 

N. M.— New Mexico. 

N.-N.-E.— North-north-east. 

N.-N.-W.— North-north-west. 

N. 0.— New Orleans. 

No.— A umero, number. 

Nol. Pros.— Nolle prosequi, unwilling to 
proceed. 

Nom., or nom.— Nominative. 

Non con.— Not content; dissenting (House 
of Lords). 

Kon cul.— Aon culpabilis, Not guilty. 

Non obst.— Aon obstante, notwithstanding, 
N. o. p.— Not otherwise provided for. 

Non pros.— Aon prosequitur, he does not 
prosecute. 

Non seq.— Non sequitur, it does not follow. 
No., or Nos.— Numbers. 

Nov.— November. 

N. P.— Notary Public. 

N. P. D.— North Polar Distance. 

N. s.— Not specified. 


N. S.— New Style (after 1752); Nova Sco¬ 
tia. 

N. S. J. C.— Our Saviour Jesus Christ {Nos- 
ter Salvator Jesus Ghristus ). 

N. T.— New Testament. 

N. u.— Name or names unknown. 

Num.— Numbers; Numeral. 

N. V.—-New Version. 

N. V. M.— Nativity of the Virgin Mary. 
N.-W.— North-West. 

N.-W. T.— North-West Territory. 

N. Y.— New York. 

N. Z.— New Zealand. 

O. —- Ohio. 

Ob.—■ Obiit, he or she died. 

Obad.— Obadiah. 

Obs.— Obsolete; Observatory; Observation. 
Obt., or Obdt.— Obedient. 

Oct., or 8vo.— Octavo, eight pages. 

Oct.— October. 

O.-F.— Odd-Fellow, or Odd-Fellows. 

Okl.— Oklahoma. 

O. G.— Outside guardian. 

0. II. M. S.— On his or her Majesty’s Ser¬ 
vice. 

Old Test., or 0. T.— Old Testament. 

Olym.— Olympiad. 

0. M.— Old Measurement. 

Out.— Ontario. 

Opt.— Optics. 

Or.— Oregon. 

Orig.— Originally. 

Ornith.— Ornithology. 

Os.— Osmium. 

0. S.— Old Style; Outside Sentinel. 

0. T.— Old Testament. 

O. U. A.— Order of United Americans. 

Oxf. Gloss.— Oxford Glossary. 

Oxf.— Oxford. 

Oxon.— Oxonia , Oxonii, Oxford. 

Oz.— Ounce. 

P. — Pondere, by weight. 

P., or p.— Page; Part; Participle. 

Pa., or Penn.— Pennsylvania. 

Pal.— Palaeontology. 

Par.— Paragraph. 

Par. Pas.— Parallel passage. 

Pari.— Parliament. 

Pat. Of.— Patent Office. 

Pathol.— Pathology. 

Payt.— Payment. 

P. B.— Primitive Baptist. 

P. B.— Philosophice Baccalaureus, Bachelor 
of Philosophy. 

P. C.— Patres Conscripti, Conscript Fath¬ 
ers; Senators. 

P. C.— Privy Council; Privy Councilor. 

P. C. P.— Past Chief Patriarch. 

P. C. S.— Principal Clerk of Sessions. 

P. O.— Philosophice Doctor, Doctor of Phil¬ 
osophy. 

Pd.— Paid. 

P. E.— Protestant Episcopal. 

P. E. I.— Prince Edward Island. 

Penn.— Pennsylvania. 



Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


Pent.— Pentecost. 

Per.— Persia; Persian. 

Per, or pr.— By the, or per lb. 

Per an.— Per annum, by the year. 

Per cent.— Per centum , by the hundred. 
Peri.— Perigee. 

Peruv.— Peruvian. 

Pet.— Peter; Petrine. 

P. G.— Past Grand. 

Phar.— Pharmacy. 

Ph. B.— Philosophice Baccalaureus, Bach¬ 
elor of Philosophy. 

Ph. D.— Philosophies Doctor, Doctor of phil¬ 
osophy. 

Phil.— Philip; Philippians; Philosophy; 
Philemon. 

Phila., or Phil.— Philadelphia. 

Philem.— Philemon. 

Philom.— Philomathes, a lover of learning. 
Philomath.— Philomathematicus, a lover of 
the mathematics. 

Phil. Trans.— Philosophical Transactions. 
Phren.— Phrenology. 

Pinx., or pxt.— Pinxit, he (she) painted it. 

P.-L.— Poet-Laureate. 

PL, or Plur.— Plural. 

Plff.—Plaintiff. 

Plupf.— Pluperfect. 

P. M.— Post meridiem, afternoon, evening. 

P. M.— Postmaster; Passed Midshipman. 

P. M. G.— Postmaster-General. 

P. O.— Post-Office. 

P. of H.— Patrons of Husbandry. 

Pop.— Population. 

Port.— Portugal, or Portuguese. 

P. P.— Parish priest. 

P. P. C.— Pour prendre conge, to take leave. 
Pp., or pp.— Pages. 

PP.— Pat res, Fathers. 

Pph.—Pamphlet. 

P. Q.— Previous Question. 

P. R.— Populus Romanus, the Roman peo¬ 
ple. 

P. R.— Prize Ring; Porto Rico; the Roman 
People ( Populus Romanus ). 

P. R. A.— President of the Royal Academy. 
P. R. C.— Post Romanum condition, from 
the building of Rome. 

Preb.— Prebend. 

Pref.— Preface. 

Pref.— Preferred. 

Prep.— Preposition. 

Pres.— President. 

Presb.— Presbyterian. 

Prin.— Principally. 

Priv.— Privatine. 

Prob.— Problem. 

Proc.— Proceedings. 

Prof.— Professor. 

Pron.— Pronoun ; Pronunciation. 

Prop.— Proposition. 

Prot.— Protestant. 

Prot. Epis.— Protestant Episcopal. 

Pro tern.— Pro tempore, for the time being. 
Prov.— Proverbs; Provost. 

Prov.— Province. 

Prox.— Proximo, next (month). 


P. R. S.— President of the Royal Society, 
Prs.— Pairs. 

Prus.— Prussia; Prussian. 

P. S.— Post scriptum, Postscript. 

P. S.— Privy Seal. 

Ps.— Psalm, or Psalms. 

Pt.— Part; Pint; Payment; Point; Port. 
Pt.— Platinum. 

P. T. O.— Please turn over. 

P.-twp.— Post-township. 

Pub.— Publisher; Publication; Published; 
Public. 

Pub. Doc.— Public Documents. 

P. v.— Post-village. 

P. W. P.— Past Worthy Patriarch. 

Pwt.— Pennyweight; pennyweights. 

Pxt.— Pinxit, lie (or she) painted it. 

Q. — Quasi, as it were; almost. 

Q.— Queen. 

Q.— Question. 

Q. B.— Queen’s Bench. 

Q. C.— Queen’s College. 

Q. C.— Queen’s Counsel. 

Q. d.— Quasi dicat, as if he should say; 
quasi dictum, as if said; quasi dixisset, as 
if he had said. 

Q. e.— Quod cst, which is. 

Q. e. d.— Quod erat demonstrandum, which 
was to be proved. 

Q. e. f.— Quod erat faciendum, which was to 
be done. 

Q. e. i.— Quod erat inveniendum, which was 
to be found out. 

Q. 1.— Quantum libet, as much as you 
please. 

Q. M.— Quartermaster. 

Qm.— Quomodo, how; by what means. 
QAM. G.— Quartermaster-General. 

Q. p., or q. pi.— Quantum placet, as much as 
you please. 

Qr.— Quarter. 

Q. S.— Quarter Sessions. 

Q. s.— Quantum sufficit, sufficient quantity. 
Qt.— Quart. 

Qu., or qy.— Quaere, inquire; query. 

Quar.— Quarterly. 

Ques.— Question. 

Q. Mess.— Queen’s Messenger. 

Que.—■ Quebec. 

Q. v.— Quod vide, which see; quantum vis, 
as much as you will. 

R. — Recipe, take. 

R.— Regina, Queen. 

R.— River; Rood; Rod. 

R. A.— Royal Academy; Royal Academi¬ 
cian. 

R. A.— Royal Arch. 

R. A.— Royal Artillery. 

R. C.— Roman Catholic. 

RC.— Rescriptum, a counterparts 

R. D.— Rural Dean. 

R. E.— Reformed Episcopal. 

R. E.— Royal Engineers. 

Rec.— Recipe, or Recorder. 



Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


Reed.— Received. 

Rec. Sec.— Recording Secretary. 

Rect.— Rector; Receipt, 
lief.— Reference. 

Ref.— Reformed; Reformation; Reference. 
Ref. Ch.— Reformed Church. 

Reg.— Register; Regular. 

Reg. Prof.— Regius Professor. 

Regr.— Registrar. 

Regt.— Regiment. 

Rel.— Religion. 

Rep.— Representative; Reporter. 

Repts.— Reports. 

Retd.— Returned. 

Rev.— Reverend; Revelation (Book of); 

Review; Revenue; Revise. 

Rhet.— Rhetoric. 

R. H. S.— Royal Humane Society; Royal 
Historical Society. 

R. I.— Rhode Island. 

R. I. H. S.— Rhode Island Historical So¬ 
ciety. 

R. M.— Royal Marines; Royal Mail. 

R. M. S.— Royal Mail Steamer. 

R. N.— Royal Navy. 

R. N. O.— Riddare af Nordstjerne, Knight 
of the Order of the Polar Star. 

R. N. R.— Royal Navy Reserve. 

Ro.— Recto, right-hand page. 

Robt.— Robert. 

Rom.— Romans (Book of). 

Rom. Cath.— Roman Catholic. 

R. P.— Reformed Presbyterian. 

R. P.— Regius Professor, the King’s Profes¬ 
sor. 

R. R.— Railroad. 

R. R. June.— Railroad Junction. 

R. R. Sta.— Railroad Station. 

R. S.— Recording Secretary. 

Rs.— Responsus, to answer; Rupees. 

R. S. A.— Royal Society of Antiquaries; 

Royal Scottish Academy. 

R. S. V. P.— Repondez, s’il vous plait, an¬ 
swer, if you please. 

R. T. S.— Religious Tract Society, 
lit. Hon.— Right Honorable. 

Rt. Rev.— Right Reverend. 

Rt. Wpful.— Right Worshipful. 

Russ.— Russia; Russian. 

R. V.— Revised Version. 

R. W.— Right Worthy. 

R. W. D. G. M.— Right Worshipful Deputy 
Grand Master. 

R. W. G. R.— Right Worthy Grand Rep- 

ypcpii f o 11 VP 

R. W. G. S.— Right Worthy Grand Secre¬ 
tary. 

R. W. G. T.— Right Worthy Grand Treasur¬ 
er; Right Worshipful Grand Templar. 

R. W. G. W.— Right Worthy Grand War¬ 
den. 

R. W. J. G. W.— Right Worshipful Junior 
Grand Warden. 

R. W. O.— Knight of the Order of Wasa 
(Riddare af Wasare Ordare ). 

R. W. S. G. W.— Right Worshipful Senior 
Grand Warden. 


Ry.— Railway. 

S.— Solidus, a shilling. 

S.— South; Saint; Scribe; Sulphur; Sun¬ 
day ; Sun; Series. 

S. Afr.— South Africa. 

S. A.—- South America; South Australia. 

S. a.— Secundum artem, according to art. 
Sam.— Samuel. 

Sansc., or Sansk.— Sanscrit, or Sanskrit. 
Sard.— Sardinia. 

S. A. S.— Societatis Antiquariorum Socius, 
Fellow of the Soc. of Antiquaries. 

Sat.— Saturday. 

Sax.— Saxon; Saxony. 

Sax. Chron.— Saxon Chronicle. 

S. C.— Senatus Consultum, a decree of the 
Senate; South Carolina. 

Sc.— Sculpsit, he (or she) engraved it. 

Sc. B.— Bachelor of Science. 

Sc., or scil.— Scilicet, namely. 

Scan. Mag.— Scandalum magnatum , scan¬ 
dal of the great. 

Schol.— Scholium, a note. 

Schr.— Schooner. 

Sclav.— Sclavonic. 

Scot.— Scottish; Scotland. 

Scr.— Scruple. 

Scrip.— Scripture. 

Sculp.— Sculpsit, he (or she) engraved it. 
S. D.— Salutem dicit, sends health; South 
Dakota. 

S.-E.— South-East. 

See.— Secretary; Second. 

Sec. Leg.— Secretary of Legation. 

Sec. leg.— Secundum legem, according to 
law. 

Sec. reg.— Secundum regulam, according to 
rule. 

Sect.— Section. 

Sem.— Semble, it seems. 

Sem.— Seminary. 

Sen.— Senate; Senator; Senior. 

Sept.— September; Septuagint. 

Seq.— Scquentia, following; sequitur, it fol¬ 
lows. 

Ser.— Series. 

Serg.— Sergeant. 

Serg.-Maj.— Sergeant-Major. 

Servt.— Servant. 

Sess.— Session. 

S. G.— Solicitor-General. 

Sliak.— Shakespeare. 

S. H. S.— Societatis Historice Socius, Fel¬ 
low of the Historical Society. 

Sic.— Doubtful. 

S. I. M.— Soc. for Increase of the Ministry. 
Sing.— Singular. 

S. Isl.— Sandwich Islands. 

S. J.—-Society of Jesus. 

S. J. C.— Supreme Judicial Court. 

S. L.— Solicitor at Law (Scot). 

S. lat.— South latitude. 

S. M.— State Militia; Short Meter; Ser¬ 
geant-Major; Sons of Malta. 



Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


S. M. Loud. Soc. Cor.— Bocictatis Mcdicw 
Londonensis Socius Cor., Corresponding 
Member of the London Medical Soc. 

Soc. Isl.— Society Islands. 

Sol.— Solomon; Solution. 

Sol.-Gen.— Solicitor-General. 

S. of Sol.— Song of Solomon. 

S. P.— Bine prole , without issue. 

Sp.— Spain; Spanish. 

S. P. A. S.— Bocictatis Philosophical Amcr- 
icanw Bocius, Member of the American 
Philosophical Society. 

S. P. G.— Society for the Propagation of 
the Gospel. 

Sp. gr.— Specific gravity. 

S. P. C. A.— Society for the Prevention of 
Cruelty to Animals. 

S. P. C. C.— Society for the Prevention of 
Cruelty to Children. 

S. P. Q. It.— Benatus Populusque Romani, 
the Senate and people of Rome. 

S. P. R. L.— Society for the Promotion of 
Religion and Learning. 

Sq. ft.— Square foot, or square feet. 

Sq. in.— Square inch, or inches. 

Sq. m.— Square mile, or miles. 

Sq. yd.— Square yard. 

Sr.— Senior. 

S. R. I.— Bacrum Romanum Impcrium, 
Holy Roman Empire. 

S. R. S.— Bocietatis Regiw Bocius, Fellow 
of the Royal Society. 

S. S.— Sunday-school. 

SS.— Saints. 

SS., or ss.— Scilicet, to wit. 

Ss.— Semis, half; Sessions. 

S.-S.-E.— South-south-east. 

S.-S.-W.— South-south-west. 

St.— Saint; Street; Strait. 

Stat.— Statute. 

S. T. B.— Bachelor of Sacred Theology. 

S. T. D.— Bacrw Thcologiw Doctor, Doctor 
of Divinity. 

Ster., or Stg.— Sterling. 

S. T. P.— Bacrce Thcologiw Professor, Pro¬ 
fessor of Divinity. 

Str.— Steamer. 

Subj.— Subjunctive. 

Subst.— Substantive. 

Su.-Goth.— Suio-Gothic. 

Sun., or Sund.— Sunday. 

Sup.— Supreme. 

Sup.— Supplement; Superfine. 

Supt.— Superintendent. 

Surg.— Surgeon; Surgery. 

Surg.-Gen.— Surgeon-General. 

Surv.— Surveyor. 

Surv.-Gen.— Surveyor-General. 

S. v.— Bub verbo, under the word or title. 
S.-W.— South-west. 

Sw.— Swiss. 

Swe.— Sweden; Swedish; Swedenborg; Swe- 
denborgian. 

Switz.— Switzerland. 

Syn.— Synonym; Synonymous. 

Syr.— Syriac. 


T., or tom.— Tome, volume. 

Tab.— Table; Tabular. 

Tan.— Tangent. 

T. E.— Topographical Engineers. 

Tenn.— Tennessee. 

Ter.— Territory. 

Tex.— Texas. 

Text. Rec.— Tcxtus Receptus, Received Text. 
Tf.— Till forbid. 

Th., or Thurs.— Thursday. 

Theo.— Theodore. 

Theol.— Theology; Theological. 

Theopli.— Theophilus. 

Thess.— Thessalonians. 

Tho’.— Though. 

Tlios.— Thomas. 

Thro’.— Through. 

Tim.— Timothy. 

Tit.— Titus. 

T. 0.— Turn over. 

Tob.— Tobit. 

Topog.— Topography; Topographical. 

Tp.— Township. 

Tr.— Transpose; Translator; Translation; 
Trustee. 

Trans.— Translator; Translation; Transac¬ 
tions; Transpose. 

Treas.— Treasurer. 

Trin.— Trinity. 

Tues., or Tu.— Tuesday. 

T. S.— Twin screw. 

Tr. S.— Triple screw. 

Tur.— Turkey. 

Typ.— Typographer. 

U. — Union. 

U. B.— United Brethren. 

U. C.— Upper Canada. 

U. C.— Urbe condita, year of Rome. 

U. J. triusque Juris Doctor, Doctor 

of both Laws. 

U. K.— United Kingdom. 

U. K. A.— Ulster King-at-Arms. 

Ult.— Ultimo , last; of the last month. 

Unit.— Unitarian. 

Univ.— University. 

Univt.— Universalist. 

U. P.— United Presbyterian. 

U. S.— United States. 

U. s.— Ut supra, or uti supra, as above. 

U. S. A.— United States Army. 

U. S. A.— United States of America. 

U. S. M.— United States Mail. 

U. S. M.— United States Marines. 

U. S. M. A.— United States Military Acad. 
U. S. M. C.— LTnited States Marine Corps. 

U. S. M. H. S.— United States Marine Hos¬ 
pital Service. 

U. S. N.— United States Navy. 

U. S. N. A.— United States Naval Acad. 

U. S. S.— United States Senate. 

Ut.— Utah. 

V. — Village. 

V.— Violin. VV.— Violins. 

V., or vid.— Vide, see. 

Vt.— Vermont. 



Abbreviations 


Abdallah Ben=Yassim 


V., or vs.— Versus, against; Versiculo, in 
such a verse. 

Va.— Virginia. 

Val.— Value. 

Vat.— Vatican. 

V. C.— Victoria Cross; Vice-Chairman; 
Vice-Chancellor. 

V. D. L.—V an Diemen’s Land. 

V. D. M.— Verbi Dei Minister, Minister of 
God’s word. 

Ven.— Venerable. 

Ver.— Verse. 

V. G.— Vicar General. 

V. g.— Verbi gratia, as for example. 
Vice-Pres., or V. P.— Vice-President. 

Vise.— Viscount. 

Viz., or vl.— Videlicet, to wit; namely; 

that is to say. 

Vo.— Verso, left-hand page. 

Vol.— Volume. 

V. R.— Victoria Regina, Queen Victoria. 

V. S.— Veterinary Surgeon. 

Vul.— Vulgate (Version). 

W. — West. 

Wash.— Washington. 

W. B. M.— Woman’s Board of Missions. 
W. C. A.— Woman’s Christian Association. 
W. C. T. U.— Women’s Christian Temper¬ 
ance Union. 

Wed.— Wednesday. 

Wf.— Wrong font. 

W. F. M. S.— Woman’s Foreign Missionary 
Society. 

W. H. M. A.— Woman’s Home Missionary 
Association. 

W. I.— West Indies. 

Wis.— Wisconsin. 

Wisd.— Wisdom (Book of). 

Wk.— Week. 

W. M.— Worshipful Master. 

Wm.— William. 

W. M. S.— Wesleyan Missionary Society. 

W. N. C. T. U.— Woman’s National Chris¬ 
tian Temperance Union. 

W.-N.-W.— West-north-west. 

W. S.— Writer to the Signet. 

W.-S.-W.— West-soutli-west. 

Wt.— Weight. 

W y o.—Wyom i ng. 

W. Va.— West Virginia. 

X. , or Xt.— Christ. 

Xmas., or Xm.— Christmas. 

Xn., or Xtian.— Christian. 

Xnty., or Xty.— Christianity. 

Xper., or Xr.— Christopher. 

Yd.— Yard. 

Ye.—The; Thee. 

Ym.— Them. 

Y. M. C. A.— Young Men’s Christian Asso¬ 
ciation. 

Y. M. C. U.— Young Men’s Christian Union, 
Yn.— Then. 

Yr.— Their; Your. 

Yr.— Year. 

Yrs.— Years; Yours. 

Ys.— This. 


Yt.— That. 

Y. W. C. A.— Young Women’s Christian As¬ 
sociation. 

Zach.— Zachary. 

Zecli.— Zechariali. 

Zeph.— Zephaniah. 

Zool.— Zoology. 

&.— And. 

Note. — In the list of Atomic Weights 
several additional abbreviations will be 
found. 

Abbt, Thomas (apt), a German essay¬ 
ist, born at Ulm, in 1738. Fired with ad¬ 
miration for Frederick the Great and his 
generals, he wrote his best known work, 
“On Death for One’s Fatherland” (1761). 
In 1762 he became associated in Berlin with 
Nicolai and Moses Mendelssohn in the pub¬ 
lication of the “ Literary Letters,” from 
which Lessing had just retired. After a 
tour through Southern Germany, Switzer¬ 
land, and France, he wrote the work which 
securely established his fame, “ Of Merit ” 
(1765). He died in 1766. 

Abchasia (ab-Gas'ya), Abasia, Ab- 
khasia, a province of Asiatic Russia. The 
high mountains of the Caucasus divide it 
from Circassia on the N.; on the S. E. it is 
bounded by Mingrelia; and on the S. and 
W. by the Black Sea. The country is gen¬ 
erally mountainous, the climate mild, and 
the land fertile. In later times this coun¬ 
try was subject to Colchis, until subdued 
by the Emperor Justinian, who introduced 
civilization and Christianity. Afterward 
the Persians, Georgians, Mongolians, and 
more recently the Turks, in turn ruled over 
the country. By the treaties of Akerman 
in 1826, and of Adrianople in 1829, it was 
ceded to Russia, but, except the possession of 
a few commanding fortresses on the coast, 
Russia has very little authority over the 
people, and the chiefs have almost unlimited 
power. Mohammedanism is the religion of 
the higher classes, but the people generally 
are buried in idolatry. 

Abdal, one of a class of religious devotees 
in Persia, corresponding to a dervish in 
Turkey. 

Abdallah, son of Abd-el-Malek-ben-Omar, 
a. d. 785, a successful leader of the Spanish 
Moors in their irruption into Southern 
France. He laid siege to and captured the 
towns of Gironne and Narbonne. 

Abdallah, Ben-Abd-eNMottalib, father 

of Mohammed, born at Mecca, a. d. 545 ; 
died 570. The paternity of the Prophet is 
Abdallah’s sole claim to distinction. 

Abdallah Ben=Yassim, founder of the 
warlike tribe of Almoravides in Barbary, 
a. d. 1050, which were afterward conspic¬ 
uous for the subjugation of part of Spain, 
and the founding of a dynasty in the Moor¬ 
ish kingdom. 




Abdallah Ben Zobair 


Abdication 


Abdallah Ben Zobair, Sultan of Mecca, 
born about 622. He was the son of Zobair, 
a companion of Mohammed, and of Asma, 
the sister of Ayesha, the Prophet’s favorite 
wife. On the death of the Prophet, the as¬ 
sassination of Ali, Mohammed’s successor, 
and the defeat of Yezid, successor of Ali, 
Abdallah was acknowledged Sultan and 
Caliph of Mecca, a. d. 685. Vanquished in 
his turn by Abd-el-Malek, Caliph of Damas¬ 
cus, he retired to the Kaaba, where he was 
killed by a blow on the head from a tile, 
a. i). 092. 

Abdallatif, or Abdollatiph, a celebrated 
physician and traveler, and one of the most 
voluminous writers of the East, was born 
at Bagdad in 1179. Of his numerous works, 
one only has found its way into Europe; 
nor do any of the others appear to be known 
at this day in the East. The work here al¬ 
luded to is an “Account of Egypt;” it 
presents us with a detailed and authentic 
view of the state of Egypt during the Mid¬ 
dle Ages. He died in 1231. 

Abdal=Ma!ek. See Abd-el-Malek. 

AbdaUMalek. See Avenzoar. 

Abdal=Malek, a theologian and historian 
of the Mohammedan faith; born in Cordova, 
Spain, in 801; died therein 853. 

AbdaNMalek, an Asiatic Turkish phy¬ 
sician; born in Basra about 740; was noted 
for his extraordinary memory, as the in¬ 
structor of Harun-al-Rashid, and as the re¬ 
puted author of the romance “ Antar,” 
named from Antar, the Arab warrior. 

Abd=el=Kader (-Ka'der), very renowned 
by the persevering courage with which he 
opposed the aggressions of the French 
against his country, was the third son of 
a marabout of the Arab tribe of Hashem, 
who had risen to influence through his rank, 
coupled with a great sanctity of demeanor. 
Born in Oran in 1807, the early days of 
Abd-el-Kader are lost in obscurity, but by 
1828 he had not only acquired the reputa¬ 
tion of a scholar, but that of a saint, from 
his having twice made a pilgrimage to 
Mecca, the birthplace of the Prophet. Ac¬ 
companied by his father, he preached a holy 
war against the French occupation of Al¬ 
giers, and called upon the faithful to rise 
and expel the infidels. In 1832, he found 
himself at the head of 10,000 warriors, with 
whom he attacked Oran, but was several 
times repulsed with great slaughter. In 
1834, he entered into a treaty with the 
French, in which he was recognized as Emir 
of Mascara, with the sovereignty of Oran. 
His success, however, excited the jealousy 
of some of his brothers in arms, who rose 
against his authority, but whom he was 
soon enabled to subdue. For a period of 
15 years he contrived to defend his country, 
and fight against the encroachments of 


France; but in 1847 he was compelled to sur* 
render himself a prisoner to General La- 
morici£re, on condition of being sent to 
Alexandria or St. Jean d’Acre. The French 
Government, however, refused to ratify the 
terms of the treaty, and it was not till af¬ 
ter four years passed in France, that, in 
1852, Louis Napoleon restored him to free¬ 
dom on condition that he would not return 
to Algiers, or conspire against the French. 
The brave but fallen Arab consented, and 
Brussa, in Asia Minor, was assigned him 
for his future residence; but he was after¬ 
ward permitted to remove to Constantinople. 
He died in Damascus, May 26, 1883. 

Abd-el-Malek Ben Merwan, fifth Caliph 
of Damascus, of the family of the Ommiades, 
surnamed the Flint-skinner on account of 
his avarice; known by his successful wars 
against the Greek Emperor Justinian II. 

Abd-el-Malek Ben Omar, one of the 

viziers of Caliph Abderrahman, in the 8th 
century. He is the King Marsilius of Ari¬ 
osto, and of the ancient romances of chiv¬ 
alry. He was Governor of Saragossa at the 
time of Charlemagne’s invasion of Spain. 

Abd=er=Rahman I., a Caliph of Cordova, 
born in Damascus in 731. He founded a 
Moorish dynasty in Spain, made Cordova 
his capital and became an independent 
sovereign. Notwithstanding many rebellions 
and an expedition sent against him by 
Charlemagne he maintained his power. 
The mosque at Cordova (now used as a 
cathedral), ornamented with rows of cupo¬ 
las, supported by 850 pillars of jasper, was 
built by him. He died in 787. 

Abd=er=Rahman III., a Caliph of Cor¬ 
dova, born in 891. From his earliest youth 
his ambition was to aggrandize the Saracen 
power in Spain, a purpose he carried out 
with a success so brilliant as to win for 
him the title of “ the Great.” He ascended 
the throne in 912 and set himself the task 
of reviving learning, fo-stering trade and 
beautifying his capital. His long reign of 
42 years is pronounced the glorious epoch 
of Moorish sway in Spain. He died in 961. 

Abdication, the resignation of an office 
or dignity, especially that of sovereign power. 
The most famous of voluntary royal abdica¬ 
tions were those of the Emperors Diocletian 
and Maximian in 305; Emperor Charles V. 
in 1556; Christina, Queen of Sweden, in 
1654; Louis Bonaparte of Holland in 1810; 
Louis of Bavaria in 1848; Ferdinand of Aus¬ 
tria in 1848; Isabella of Spain in 1870; 
and Amadeus of Spain in 1873. Among in¬ 
voluntary abdications were those of Napc- 
leon in 1814 and 1815; Charles X. of France 
in 1830; and Louis Philippe in 1848. More 
recently have occurred the abdications of 
Prince Alexander of Battenberg, Prince of 
Bulgaria, in 1886, and King Milan of Serna 
in 1889. 




Abdomen 


Abd-ul-Aziz 


Abdomen, a Latin term of doubtful ety¬ 
mology, by some derived from abdo, I hide. 
It means (1), in human anatomy, the belly 
or lower cavity of the trunk, separated from 
the upper cavity or thorax, by the dia¬ 
phragm or midriff, and bounded below by 
the bones of the pelvis. The whole cavity, 
though alternately enlarged and contracted 
by the action of the diaphragm, is occupied 
by the viscera belonging to the digestive 
and urinary systems; the pelvic cavity, con¬ 
taining the urinary bladder and reproduc¬ 
tive organs, being regarded usually as dis¬ 
tinct from the abdominal cavity proper. 
Anatomists have divided the abdomen into 
various regions by imaginary lines. Two of 
these lines drawn transversely, the one be¬ 
tween the seventh ribs, and the other be¬ 
tween the projecting bones of the pelvis, 
form three regions — an upper or epigastric, 
a central or umbilical, and a lower or hypo¬ 
gastric. In like manner, two longitudinal 
lines are drawn, the one on the right and 
the other on the left side, between and 
nearly at right angles to the former. The 
central parts of the divisions thus formed, 
retain as before the names of epigastric, 
umbilical, and hypogastric, but the external 
parts form six new regions, two above, 
called right and left hypochondriac, two 
central, called right and left lumbar, and 
two below, called right and left iliac. (2) 
In entomology, the whole body of an insect 
behind the thorax. It usually consists of 
rings or short hollow cylinders, which are 
united by a joint or membrane, and in some 
cases, as in the grub of the chameleon fly, 
slide upon one another like the tubes of a 
telescope. Sometimes it bears a sting or 
an ovipositor, though in the perfect insect 
no appendages are found. 

An abdominal ring is one of two oblong 
tendinous openings or “ rings ” existing 
in either groin. Through these rings 
pass the spermatic cord in the one sex, 
and the circular ligament of the uterus 
in the other. 

Abdominals, an order of malacopteryg- 
ious fishes, having the ventral fins under 
the abdomen behind the pectorals, as the 
trout. They comprehend the greater part 
of fresh water fishes, and constitute the 
fourth order of the fourth class of animals 
in the Linnsean system. 

Abduction, the act of abducing or ab¬ 
ducting; a taking or drawing away, and 
specifically an unlawful taking. 

In law, the forcible and fraudulent tak¬ 
ing away of women or girls. This criminal 
offense is of three kinds: (1) If any per¬ 
son shall maliciously, either by force or 
fraud, lead, or take away, or detain, any 
child under the age of 10 years, with intent 
to deprive the parents, or other persons hav¬ 
ing the lawful charge of such child, or with 


intent to steal any article on its person; or 
shall receive or harbor such child, knowing 
the same to have been so stolen or enticed 
— every such offender shall be guilty of 
felony, and shall be liable to penal servitude 
for not more than seven, or less than three 
years, or imprisoned, with or without hard 
labor, for any term not more than two years. 
(2) If the girl is under the age of 16 years, 
the offender shall be guilty of misdemeanor, 
and, being convicted thereof, shall be liable 
to suffer such punishment, by fine or im¬ 
prisonment, or both, as the court shall 
award. (3) If any person shall, from mo¬ 
tives of lucre, take away or detain against 
her will, any woman having any interest, 
present or future, in any real or personal 
estate, with intent to marry or defile her, 
or to cause her to be married or defiled by 
any other person, every such offender, and 
every person counseling, aiding, or abetting 
such offender, shall be guilty of felony, and 
liable to penal servitude for life, or for any 
time not less than three years, or to be im¬ 
prisoned, with or without hard labor, for 
any term not exceeding five years. If the 
woman first consent to be taken away, and 
afterward refuse to continue with the of¬ 
fender, and he forcibly detain her; or if she 
be forcibly taken away, and she afterward 
consent to her marriage or defilement; or 
if she be taken away with her own consent, 
obtained by fraud or imposition, the of¬ 
fense is the same. But if a man, without 
fraud, deceit, or violence, marries a woman 
under age, without the consent of her father 
or guardian, that act is not indictable at 
common law. 

In logic, is a form of reasoning in which 
the greater extreme is contained in the 
medium; but the medium is not so evidently 
in the lesser extreme. Example: “What¬ 
ever God has revealed is certainly true; now 
God has revealed a future retribution; 
therefore, a future retribution is certainly 
true.” In the use of this kind of reasoning, 
the minor proposition must be proved to be 
contained in the major. 

Abductor, a muscle, the office of which 
is to pull back or draw the member to which 
it is affixed from some other. The antagon¬ 
ist is called adductor. 

In law, a person guilty of abduction. 

Abd=ul«Akhad=Khan, Ameer of Bokhara, 
born in 1852. He succeeded his father 
MozafTar, Nov. 12, 1885, and, without try¬ 
ing to escape from the suzerainty of Rus¬ 
sia, he abolished slavery, did away with 
subterranean prisons, reduced the army, 
regulated taxes, and proved himself an able 
and progressive ruler. 

Abd=uI=Aziz, the 32d Sultan of the Ot¬ 
toman Turks, was born Feb. 9, 1830, and 
succeeded his brother, Abd-ul-Medjid, in 
1861. At first he show r ed himself liberal- 
minded and open to western ideas. But 



Abdul-Hamid 


Abdurrahman Khan 


the promise of economy and reform was 
illusory, and ere long the Sultan began to 
spend vast sums on his army, the embellish¬ 
ment of his capital, on hunting, and on 
costly journeys. Spite of this, reforms were 
long hoped for, especially after his visit to 
Western Europe in 18(17. His government 
had great difficulties to contend with in the 
Cretan insurrection, the struggle of Ru¬ 
mania and Servia for full autonomy, and 

finallv the outbreak of Mohammedan fanat- 

•> 

icism. In 1871, the Sultan strove to get 
the succession settled upon his son, instead 
of his nephew Murad, in accordance with 
Turkish custom. He next entered into in¬ 
trigues with Russia, and plunged ever into 
deeper financial difficulties, while his stupid 
misgovernment alienated the provinces, and 
led, in 1875, to risings in Bosnia, Herzego¬ 
vina, and Bulgaria. At last a conspiracy 
forced him to dismiss his minister, and next 
to abdicate the throne. May 30, 1876. Four 
days later, the unhappy Sultan was found 
dead, it is almost certain by foul play. 

Abdul-Hamid, a Sultan of Turkey, was 
born in 1730, succeeding his brother in 1774. 
He was unsuccessful in two campaigns 
against Russia, dying in 1789. His nephew, 
Selim III., succeeded him. 

Abdul-Hamid II., 34th Sultan of Tur¬ 
key, born Sept. 22, 1842, the second son 
of Sultan Abdul-ul-Medjid; succeeded to the 
throne in 1876, on the deposition of his 
brother, Murad V. Defeated in the war of 
1877-1878 with Russia, he was compelled 
by the Treaty of Berlin to surrender a small 
portion of territory in Europe and Asia, to 
recognize the independence of the suzerain 
States in Europe, and to acknowledge Bul¬ 
garia as a tributary principality. In 1895- 
1896, during the massacres of the Ar¬ 
menians, he took an active part in the ne¬ 
gotiations with the European powers, and 
communicated personally with Lord Salis¬ 
bury, protesting his intention to grant an 
investigation and the reforms urged by the 
powers. In 1897 Greece forced war on 
Turkey in behalf of the Cretans, and in 
1898, after another uprising in Crete, Great 
Britain and Russia forced Turkey to evacu¬ 
ate the island. In 1908 Abdul-Hamid, un¬ 
der pressure of the Young Turk party, re¬ 
stored the constitution of 1876, and in 1909 
was deposed. 

Abd-uI=Latif,a celebrated Arabian writer, 
was born at Bagdad in 1162. By way of 
education, he committed to memory the 
Koran, the chief poets, and not a few gram¬ 
matical treatises. To complete his culture 
he betook himself to Damascus, where the 
famous Saladin had gathered round him 
the most learned men of the time. He 
then settled in Egypt for some years, and 
taught medicine and philosophy at Cairo; 


he afterward lectured at Damascus. His 
numerous works were mainly on medicine, 
but his best-known book is a valuable de* 
scriptive work on “ Egypt,” translated into 
Latin by White (Oxford, 1800), and into 
French by De Sacy (1810). He died at 
Bagdad in 1231, on hio way to Mecca. 

Abdul Medjid, a Sultan of Turkey, born 
April 23, 1822; succeeded to the throne 
July 1, 1839, at the early age of 17, eight 
days after the battle of Nezib, in which 
the troops of the Sultan Mahmoud II. were 
defeated by Ibrahim-Pasha, son of Mehemet 
Ali, Pasha of Egypt, the most powerful vas¬ 
sal of the Turkish empire. The interfer¬ 
ence of the allied powers alone prevented 
the empire from dismemberment at this 
juncture. The Servian question; the in¬ 
surrection in Albania; the war in Kur¬ 
distan; the Turco-Greek and Wallachian 
revolution of 1848-1849; his noble refusal 
to surrender the Hungarian and Polish 
refugees to Austria and Russia in 1850; 
the question of the holy places, which led 
to the Crimean War; the attempt to as¬ 
sassinate him in 1859, and the Syrian mas¬ 
sacres of 1860, were all so many obstacles 
to his progress. The great event of his reign 
was the Crimean War, in which France and 
England allied themselves with Turkey 
against the encroachments of Russia, and 
which was terminated by the fall of Sebas¬ 
topol after a long siege, in 1856. He was 
succeeded by his brother, Abdul Aziz Khan. 
He died June 25, 1861. 

Abd-ur-Rahman, Sultan of Fez and Mo¬ 
rocco, born 1778; succeeded his uncle in 
1823. His first four years’ of rule were oc¬ 
cupied in quelling insurrections. Next, 
some danger to the State of Morocco was 
threatened by the refusal of Austria to pay 
the tribute for safety against pirates, but 
the Sultan wisely adjusted the dispute by 
relinquishing this sort of blackmail, for¬ 
merly levied by Morocco on European ships 
in the Mediterranean. The religious war, 
under Abd-el-Kader against the French in 
Algeria, involved the Sultan in its move¬ 
ments. The piratical habits of his subjects 
brought him to the brink of war with more 
than one European State. He died in 1859. 
The same name, also spelled Abd-al-Rahman 
and Abderrahman, is the name of the leader 
of the Saracens defeated at Tours in 732 
by Charles Martel, and of the first Ommiad 
caliph of Cordova (755-788). 

Abdurrahman Khan, Ameer of Af¬ 
ghanistan; born in Kabul in 1844; was the 
eldest son of Ufzul Khan, and nephew of 
the Ameer Shere Ali. During the civil 
war, in 1864, in Afghanistan, he played a 
leading part on the side of his father 
against his uncle, and gained several battles. 
The great victories of Shaikhabad and 




Abecedarians 


Abelard 


Khelat-i-Ghilzai were mainly due to his 
ability. He was intrusted with the gov¬ 
ernorship of Balkh, where he made him¬ 
self popular by his moderation and by mar¬ 
rying the daughter of the chief of Badak- 
shan. In 1868, however, he was unable to 
offer a successful resistance to his cousin, 
Yakoub Khan, son of Sliere Ali, who de¬ 
feated him at Bajgah, near Bamain, and 
also finally at Tinah Khan. Abdurrahman 
then fled from the country, ultimately reach¬ 
ing Russian territory. The Russian Gen¬ 
eral Kaufmann permitted him to reside at 
Samarcand and allowed him a pension of 
25,000 rubles a year. Here he remained 
until 1879, when he slowly made his way 
through Balkh to the Kabul frontier, and 
in July of 1880 he was formally chosen by 
the leading men of Kabul and acknowledged 
by the British Indian Government as Ameer 
of Afghanistan. From the British Indian 
government he received a subsidy of $800,- 
000 a year, with large gifts of artillery, 
rifles, and ammunition to improve his mil¬ 
itary force. In March, 1900, he declared 
his sympathy with England. He died in 
Kabul, Oct. 3, 1901. 

Abecedarians, a small sect among the 
Anabaptists in Germany in the 16th cen¬ 
tury, noted for their dislike to learning. 
They thought it best not even to learn to 
read, as a knowledge of the Scriptures was 
all that was necessary, and this was com¬ 
municated by the Holy Spirit direct to the 
believer without the medium of the written 
word. 

A Becket, Thomas. See Becket. 

A’Beckett, Arthur William, an Eng¬ 
lish dramatist, born at Hammersmith, Oct. 
25, 1844. Son of Gilbert Abbott A’ Beckett, 
and, since 1891, editor of the London “ Sun¬ 
day Times;” he has written several com¬ 
edies, including “ About Town ” and “ Long 
Ago.” His “ Papers from Pump-handle 
Court ” were a feature in “ Punch,” whose 
staff he joined. He died Jan. 14, 1909. 

A’Beckett, Gilbert Abbott, an English 
humorist (1811—1856). An original foun¬ 
der of “Punch” (1841), and author of the 
“ Comic Blackstone,” one of the cleverest 
burlesques in the language (London, 1845) ; 
he also published a “ Comic History of 
England” (1848); “ Quizziology of the 

British Drama” (1846), and more than 
50 plays, some of which still keep the stage. 

Abel, the second son of Adam and brother 
of Cain. The latter was a tiller of the 
ground; Abel, a shepherd. Both brought 
their offerings before the Lord; Cain, the 
first-fruits of the ground; Abel, the first¬ 
lings of the flock. God accepted the offer¬ 
ing of Abel; the offering of Cain he rejected. 
The latter, instigated by envy, murdered 
his brother in the field. 


Abel, King of Denmark, the son of Vlad¬ 
imir II. He assassinated his brother Eric 
in 1250, and took possession of his throne. 
He was put to death by the Frisons, who 
revolted against him on account of the heavy 
taxes imposed upon them. 

Abel, Sir Frederick Augustus, an Eng¬ 
lish chemist, born in London in 1827; au¬ 
thor of “Gun-Cotton” (1866), “Electricity 
Applied to Explosive Purposes” (1884), 
and other works of a similar nature. He 
was a member of the Royal Commission on 
Accidents and Mines; chemist to the War 
Department and Ordnance Committees, and 
was made C. B. (1877), K. C. B. and D. C. 
L. (1883), and a baronet (1893). He be¬ 
came secretary to the Imperial Institute in 
1887, and was president of the British As- 
sociatipn in 1890. He died Sept. 8, 1902. 

Abel, Niels Henrik; a Norwegian mathe¬ 
matician, born at Findo, Aug. 5, 1802. He 
became a lecturer at the University of Chris¬ 
tiania, and the school of engineering there. 
His works deal mainly with the theory of 
elliptical functions, which his discoveries 
greatly enriched. He died young, April 6, 
1829. 

Abelard (or Abailard), Pierre, a monk 

of the order of St. Benedict, equally famous 
for his learning and his passion for Heloise; 
born in 1079, near Nantes, in the little vil¬ 
lage of Pallet, which was the property of his 
father Berenger. His inclination led him 
to prefer a literary life; and in order to 
devote himself fully to philosophy he ceded 
his patrimony to his brothers. He studied 
poetry, rhetoric, philosophy, jurisprudence, 
and theology, the Greek, Hebrew, and Latin 
languages; but scholastic philosophy chiefly 
engaged his attention. Having learned all 
that Brittanv could teach him, he went to 
Paris, the university of which attracted 
students from all parts of Europe. Guil¬ 
laume de Champeaux, a follower of Anselm 
and an extreme Realist, was the most skill¬ 
ful disputant of his time, and Abelard, 
profiting by his instructions, was often vic¬ 
torious over his master in contests of wit 
and logical acumen. The friendship of 
Champeaux was soon succeeded by enmity; 
and Abelard, who had not yet completed 
his 22d year, removed to Melun, whither 
he was soon followed by a multitude of 
young men, attracted from Paris by his 
great reputation. Hostility still pursued 
him, but he left Melun for Corbeil, nearer 
the capital, where he was still more ad¬ 
mired and persecuted. Soon after he ceased 
teaching to recruit his strength; and after 
two years returned to Paris, and found that 
his former teacher had removed to a monas¬ 
tery outside the city. 

He again joined issue with him and 
gained so complete a triumph that he opened 
in Paris a school of rhetoric, the fame of 
which soon deprived all the others of their 




Abelard 


Abelites 


pupils. Shortly afterward lie was appoint¬ 
ed to his rival’s chair in the cathedral 
school of Notre Dame, where he educated 
many distinguished scholars, among whom 
were the future Pope Celestin II., Peter of 
Lombardy, Bishop of Paris, Berenger, 
Bishop of Poictiers, and St. Bernard. 

At this time there resided close to Notre 
Dame a young lady, by name Heloise, niece 
to the canon Fulbert, then of the age of 17, 
and remarkable for her beauty, genius, and 
varied accomplishments. Abelard became 
inspired with such violent love for Heloise 
as to forget his duty, his lectures, and his 
fame. Heloise was no less susceptible. Un¬ 
der the pretext of finishing her education, 
he obtained Fulbert’s permission to visit 
her, and finally became a resident in his 
house. His conduct in abusing the confi¬ 
dence which had been placed in him opened 
the eyes of Fulbert. He separated the lov¬ 
ers, but too late. Abelard fled with her to 
Brittany, where she was delivered of a son, 
who died early. Abelard now resolved to 
marry her secretly. Fulbert gave his con¬ 
sent, the marriage was performed, and in 
order to keep it secret Heloise remained 
with her uncle, while Abelard retained his 
former lodgings, and continued his lectures. 
Abelard, however, carried her off a second 
time, and placed her in the convent of Ar- 
genteuil. 

Fulbert erroneously believed it was in¬ 
tended to force her to take the veil, and 
under the influence of rage subjected Abe¬ 
lard to mutilation. He became, in conse¬ 
quence, a monk in the abbey of St. Denis, 
and Heloise took the veil at Argenteuil. 
After time had somewhat moderated his 
grief he resumed teaching. At the Council 
of Soissons (1121), no defense being per¬ 
mitted him, his “ Essay on the Trinity ” 
was declared heretical, and he was con¬ 
demned to burn it with his own hands. 
Continued persecutions obliged him at last 
to leave the abbey of St. Denis and to retire 
to a place near Nogent-sur-Seine, where he 
built a rude hut in which he determined to 
live a hermit’s life. Even here, however, 
students flocked to him, and they built him 
an oratory, which he dedicated to the Holy 
Ghost and hence called Paraclete. Being 
subsequently appointed abbot of St. Gildas 
de Buys, in Brittany, he invited Heloise 
and her religious sisterhood, on the dissolu¬ 
tion of their monastery at Argenteuil, to 
reside at the above oratory, and received 
them there. He lived for some 10 years at 
St. Gildas. Ultimately, however, he fled 
from it and lived for a time in other parts 
of Brittany. 

St. Bernard of Clairvaux, the leading op¬ 
ponent of the rationalistic school of Abe¬ 
lard, laid his doctrines before the Council 
of Sens, in 1140, had them condemned by 
the Pope, and obtained an order for his im¬ 
prisonment. Abelard appealed to the Pope, 


published his defense, and went to Rome, 
Passing through Cluny, he visited Peter the 
Venerable, who was abbot there. This hu¬ 
mane and enlightened divine effected a rec¬ 
onciliation between him and his enemies, 
but Abelard resolved to end his days in re¬ 
tirement. The severe penances which he 
imposed upon himself, together with the 
grief which never left his heart, gradually 
consumed his strength, and he died, a pat¬ 
tern of monastic discipline, in 1142, at the 
abbey of St. Marcel, near Chalon-sur-Saone. 
Heloise begged his body, and had him buried 
in the Paraclete, of which she was at that 
time the abbess, with the view of reposing 
in death by his side. In 1800 the ashes of 
both were carried to the Museum of French 
Monuments at Paris, and in November, 
1817, were deposited under a chapel within 
the precincts of the church of Monamy. The 
small chapel, in the form of a beautiful 
marble monument, in which the figures of 
the ill-fated pair are seen reposing side by 
side, is now one of the most interesting ob¬ 
jects in the Parisian cemetery of Pere la 
Chaise. 

Abelard was distinguished as a gram¬ 
marian, orator, logician, poet, musician, 
philosopher, theologian, and mathematician. 
As a philosopher he founded an eclectic 
system commonly, but erroneously, termed 
Conceptualism, which lay midway between 
the prevalent Realism, represented in its 
most advanced form by William of Cham- 
peaux, and extreme Nominalism, represent¬ 
ed in the teaching of his other master 
Roscellin, and largely approached the Aris¬ 
totelian philosophy. In ethics Abelard 
placed much eiqphasis on the subjective in¬ 
tention, which he held to determine the 
moral value as well as the moral character 
of man’s action. Along this line his work is 
notable, owing to the fact that his suc¬ 
cessors did little in connection with morals, 
for they did not regard the rules of human 
conduct as within the field of philosophic 
discussion. His love and his misfor¬ 
tunes have secured his name from ob¬ 
livion; and the man whom his own century 
admired as a profound dialectician is now 
celebrated as the martyr of love. The let¬ 
ters of Abelard and Heloise have been often 
published in the original and in transla¬ 
tions. Pope’s poetical epistle “ Eloisa to 
Abelard” is founded on them. Abelard’s 
autobiography, entitled “ Historia Calamita- 
tum,” is still extant. The chief work on 
the life of Abelard is Remusat’s “ Abelard ” 
(two vols. Paris, 1845). See also Com- 
payre’s (l Abelard and the Origin and Early 
History of Universities” (1893; series of 
“ Great Educators”). A complete edition 
of his work was published by Cousin (two 
vols. Paris, 1849-1859). 

Abelites, Abelians, Abelonians, or Abe- 
Ionites, a sect of Christians who ap- 



Abencerages 


Aberdeen 


peared in the 4th century and denounced 
matrimony as a service of Satan, maintain¬ 
ing that thereby criminal sin was perpet¬ 
uated. As Abel had not been married, they 
took their name from him. The name of 
Abelites was also taken in the 10th century 
by the members of a secret society, whose 
professed object was to cultivate the hon¬ 
esty and candor of Abel. 

Abencerages (Sib-an-sa-razh'), the name 
given by Spanish chroniclers to a noble fam- 



COURT OF ABENCERAGES IN THE ALHAMBRA. 

ily in the Moorish kingdom of Granada, sev¬ 
eral of whom distinguished themselves im¬ 
mediately before the fall of the Mahommedan 
empire in Spain. Their struggles with the 
family of the Zegris, and tragical destruc¬ 
tion in the royal palace of the Alhambra, in 
Granada (1406-1484), seem to be destitute 
of historical foundation. On these events, 
Chateaubriand has written a charming work 
of fiction, “ Les Aventures du dernier Aben- 
cerage.” 

Abenezra, Abraham, a celebrated rabbi, 
born about 1093, at Toledo, in Spain, called 
by the Jews “ The wise, great, and admirable 
Doctor,” was a very able interpreter of the 
Holy Scriptures, and was well skilled in 
grammar, poetry, philosophy, astronomy 
and medicine. His principal work, “ Com¬ 
mentaries on the Old Testament,” is printed 
in Bomberg and Buxtorf’s Hebrew Bible, 
and is much esteemed. He died in 1168. 

Abensberg, a small city in the circle of 
Regen, in Bavaria. Population, 1,200. It 
was formerly the seat of the Counts Abens¬ 
berg. Here Napoleon defeated the Aus¬ 
trians in a great battle on the 20tli of 
April. 1809. 


Abercrombie, John, in his day the 

most eminent of Scottish physicians, was 
born in 1780, at Aberdeen, where his father 
was a parish minister. He studied medi¬ 
cine in Edinburgh, taking his degree in 
1803, and thenceforth devoted himself to 
the practice of his profession in the Scot¬ 
tish capital. At a comparatively early age, 
he attained a high reputation. His prin¬ 
cipal professional writings were treatises 
on the pathology of the brain and on dis¬ 
eases of the stomach. But he is best known 
by his works on “ The Intellectual Powers ” 
(1830), and “ The Moral Feelings ” (1833). 
These works have no pretensions to origi¬ 
nality or depth of thought, but immediately 
acquired a remarkable popularity, and at¬ 
tained respectively an 18th and 14th edition. 
Dr. Abercrombie died suddenly, Nov. 14, 
1844. 

Abercrombie, Sir Ralph, a British gen¬ 
eral, born in 1738. He was commander-in¬ 
chief in the West Indies, in 1795; in the 
attempt against Holland, in 1799, and in 
the expedition to Egypt. Mortally wounded 
in the beginning of the battle of Alexandria 



GENERAL ABERCROMBIE. 


(March 21, 1801), the general kept the 
field during the day, and died some days 
after his victory. 

Aberdeen, the chief city and seaport in 
the North of Scotland, lies in the S. E. angle 
of the county, at the mouth and on the 
N. side of the river Dee, 111 miles N. of 
Edinburgh. William the Lion confirmed its 
privileges in 1179; the English burned it in 
1336, but it was soon rebuilt, and called 
New Aberdeen. Old Aberdeen, within the 
same parliamentary boundary, is a small 
town a mile to the N., near the mouth of 
the Don, and is the seat of St. Machar’s 
Cathedral (1357-1527), now represented by 
the granite nave, which, as restored since 
1869, is used as a parish church. King’s 
College and University, founded by Bishop 
Elpliinstone in Old Aberdeen in 1494, and 


























Aberdeen 


Abernethy 


Marisclial College and University, founded 
by the Earl Marisclial in New Aberdeen in 
1593, were in I860 united into one institu¬ 
tion, the University of Aberdeen. It has 23 
professors, and from 800 to 900 students in 
its four faculties of arts, divinity, law, and 
medicine; with Glasgow University, it sends 
one member to Parliament. Marisclial Col¬ 
lege was rebuilt in 1841, while King’s Col¬ 
lege is a stately fabric, dating from 1500, 
its chapel adorned with exquisite wood-carv¬ 
ings. In the 17th century, Aberdeen had 
become an important place, but it suffered 
much from both parties in the civil wars. 
It has a flourishing trade and thriving 
manufactures, and, having been largely re¬ 
built and extended since the formation of 
Union street in 1800, the “ Granite City ” 
now offers a handsome and regular aspect. 
Among the chief public edifices are the 
county buildings, the post-office, the Market 
Hall, the Trades Hall, the Royal Infirmary, 
the lunatic asylum, the grammar school, 
the art gallery and art school, and Gor¬ 
don’s College. The last has been much ex¬ 
tended as a technical school, the founda¬ 
tioners being no longer resident; while the 
infirmarv was reconstructed and modern- 
ized to celebrate the Queen’s Jubilee (1887). 
Of more than 60 places of worship, the only 
one of much interest is the ancient church 
of St. Nicholas, now divided into the East 
and West churches, and having an impos¬ 
ing spire 190 feet high. A fine carillon of 
37 bells was placed here in 1887. One may 
also notice the market-cross (1686), the 
Wallace, Gordon Pasha, and three other 
statues, and the Duthie public park of 47 
acres. The trade of the port has largely 
increased since 1850, and the aggregate ton¬ 
nage of vessels entering in good years ex¬ 
ceeds 600,000 tons. Railway communication 
has also been fully established. The chief 
exports are woolens, linens, cotton-yarns, 
paper, combs, granite (hewn and polished), 
cattle, grain, preserved provisions, and fish. 
Aberdeen has the largest comb and granite¬ 
polishing works in the kingdom. There are 
also several large paper works within a 
short distance of the town. Wooden ship¬ 
building was formerly a prosperous indus¬ 
try, the Aberdeen clipper-bow ships being 
celebrated as fast sailers; but since 1860 
they have been gradually superseded by iron 
or steel steamships; and, owing to Aber¬ 
deen’s remoteness from coal and iron, its 
shipbuilding now is greatly contracted. 
Population of the parliamentary burgh 
(1S91) 121,623; (1901) 153,108. 

Aberdeen, city and county-seat of Brown 
Co., S. D.; on the Chicago and Northwest¬ 
ern, the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul, 
and the Great Northern railroads; 125 miles 
N. E. of Pierre. It is the farming and 
lumber trade center of the country; manu¬ 


factures boots and shoes, flour and feed, 
soap, plows, machinery, etc. Its factories 
are supplied with abundant water power 
furnished by artesian wells. It has a 
National bank, several daily, weekly, and 
monthly periodicals, a system of graded 
public schools, free library, and an assessed 
property valuation of about $1,500,000. Pop. 
(1900), 4,087; (1910), 10,753. 

Aberdeen, George Hamilton Gordon, 
Earl of, born in 1784. He took office as 
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in 
1828, in the ministry formed under the Duke 
of Wellington, and in 1843 in the Peel min¬ 
istry. Entering public life as a Tory, his 
policy was that of non-interference in the 
affairs of foreign states. In 1853, Earl Ab¬ 
erdeen was selected to head a new ministry, 
which for some time was extremely popular. 
He endeavored to 
prevent the coun¬ 
try from entering 
upon the conflict 
with Russia, but 
all his efforts 
were unavailing. 

Failing to receive 
sufficient support 
to carry out his 
measures, he re¬ 
signed in 1855. 

Died Dec. 14,1860. 

As an author, the 
Earl is known by 
a work entitled 
“ An Inquiry into 
the Principles of 
Beauty in Grecian earl of Aberdeen. 
Architecture.” 

Aberdeen, Sir John Campbell Hamil= 
ton Gordon, seventh Earl of, born in 1847. 
He served as Governor-General of Canada 
(1893-1898), and as Lord Lieutenant of 

Ireland in 1886 and after 1905. His 
wife, born in 1857, is a daughter of Lord 
Tweedmouth and a direct descendant of 

Robert Bruce. She is an accomplished 
orator, and organized the Irish Village at 
the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 
1893. For many years she has been con¬ 
spicuous in plans for promoting the welfare 
of women. 

Aberdevine, a singing bird, sometimes 
called siskin. It is the carcluelis spinus of 
Cuvier, and resembles the green variety of 
the canary bird, with which it is often 
paired, to produce what are called mule 
birds. In its habits it is migratory, breed¬ 
ing in the North of Europe, and visiting 
Germany, France and Great Britain only 
in the autumn and winter. 

Abernethy, a town in Perthshire, Scot¬ 
land, near the junction of the Earn and 
the Tay. Here the first Culdee monastery 







Abernethy 


Abgar 


was built, and here, it is said, the Pictish 
kings had their capital. A curious round 
tower, 73 feet high, still exists, resembling 
the famous round towers of Ireland. 

Abernethy, James, a Scotch civil en¬ 
gineer, born in Aberdeen in 1815. As a 
boy he assisted his father on the extension 
of the London docks, and afterward de¬ 
signed and built the lock and dock at Aber¬ 
deen, the docks at Swansea,Newport, Cardiff 
and Hull, and the Cavour canal in Italy; 
designed the accepted plan for the improve¬ 
ment of the Danube at Vienna; reclaimed 
Lake Aboukir, in Egpyt, and proposed the 
Manchester ship-canal. He was the first to 
apply hydraulic power for working lock- 
gates. He died March 8, 1896. 

Abernethy, John, an eminent English 
surgeon, founder of the School of St. Bar¬ 
tholomew’s; born in London, April 3, 1764, 
the grandson of the Bev. John Abernethy 
(1680-1740), an Irish Presbyterian clergy¬ 
man and controversialist. He was educated 
at Wolverhampton grammar school, and in 
1779 was apprenticed to the assistant sur¬ 
geon at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. In 
1787 he was himself elected assistant sur¬ 
geon to St. Bartholomew’s, and soon after 
began to lecture. At first, he manifested 
extraordinary diffidence, but his power soon 
developed itself, and his lectures at last at¬ 
tracted crowds. In 1813 he was appointed 
surgeon to Christ’s Hospital, in 1814 Pro¬ 
fessor of Anatomy and Surgery to the Col¬ 
lege of Surgeons, and in 1815 full surgeon 
to St. Bartholomew’s, a post which he re¬ 
signed in 1829. His practice increased with 
his celebrity, which the eccentricity and 
rudeness of his manners contributed to 
heighten. Of his numerous medical works, 
the most important is “ Surgical Observa¬ 
tions on the Constitutional Origin and 
Treatment of Local Diseases,” which, from 
his frequent references to it, became known 
as “ Mv Book.” He died at Enfield, April 
28, 1831. 

Aberration, a wandering from. 

In optics, a spherical aberration is that 
wandering of the rays of light from the nor¬ 
mal path which takes place when they are 
made to pass through curved lenses, or are 
reflected from curved mirrors, constituting 
portions of a sphere, instead of parts of a 
parabola. It arises from the unequal re¬ 
fraction by the lenses of the several rays 
of light, and its effect is to render the 
images formed in some degree undefined 
about the edges. Chromatic aberration is 
the fringing of images with the prismatic 
colors which takes place when light passes 
through curved lenses. It arises from the 
unequal refraction by the lenses of the sev¬ 
eral elementary colors. Both spherical and 
chromatic aberration mav be corrected bv 
the employment of a proper combination of 
lenses instead of one. 


In astronomy, the aberration of light is 
that alteration in the apparent position of 
a star which is produced by the motion of 
the earth in its orbit during the time that 
the light is coming from the star to the eye. 
The effect of this aberration is to make each 
star appear annually to describe a minute 
circle of about 40 " diameter parallel to 
the earth’s diameter. The aberration of 
light may be seen on the earth as well as in 
the heavens. If one walk rapidly forward 
in a shower, the raindrops seem as if they 
come at an angle to meet him; if he walk 
swiftly backward, they appear as if they 
come at an inclination from behind; if, 
finally, he stand still, their real motion be¬ 
comes discernible; in other words, they ap¬ 
pear to fall nearly or quite vertically. 

In medicine, the passage of blood, or any 
other fluid of the body, from morbid causes, 
into vessels not designed to receive it. Men¬ 
tal aberration is that wandering from 
soundness of judgment which is so con¬ 
spicuous in the insane. 

Abert, John James, an American mil¬ 
itary engineer, born in Virginia in 1788; 
graduated at West Point (1811); served 
in the War of 1812; was made chief of 
T T nited States topographical engineers in 
1838; assisted in developing important ca¬ 
nals and other works; member of the Geo¬ 
graphical Society of France. He died in 
1863. 

Abesta, or Avesta, the name of one of 
the sacred books of the Persian magi, which 
they ascribe to their great founder Zoroas¬ 
ter. The “ Abesta ” is a commentary on 
two others of their religious books, called 
“ Zend ” and “ Pazend; ” the three together 
including the whole system of the Ignicolae, 
or worshippers of fire. 

Abeyance, in law, the expectancy of an 
estate. “ In abeyance ” is the term applied 
to a freehold or inheritance which is not 
for the time being vested in anyone, but 
which awaits the appointment or the com¬ 
petence of the person who is entitled to the 
possession. Thus, when a living is vacant, 
as it is between the death of one incum¬ 
bent and the appointment of his successor, 
it is held as being in abeyance. 

Abgar, or Abgarus, is the name or title 
of 28 princes of Edessa, in Mesopotamia. 
The most notable of these princes is the 
14th of the name, a contemporary of Jesus, 
and was said to have written a letter to 
Jesus and to have received an answer from 
Him. These letters, translated into Greek 
from the Syriac by Eusebius of Caesarea, 
were denounced as spurious by Pope Gelasius 
in 494, and soon lost all credit. The letter 
from Abgar contains a request that Jesus 
should visit him, and heal him of a certain 
disease. In the reply, Jesus is represented 
as promising to send a disciple to heal him 



Abgillus 


Abisbal 


after His ascension. What purported to be 
copies of this correspondence came to light 
in 1900. For other fables in this connee- 
tion, see Lipsius’ “ Die Edessanische Abgar- 
sage ” (1880). 

Abgillus, surnamed Prester John, a 
king of the Frisons. He attended Charle¬ 
magne to the Holy Land, and did not re¬ 
turn with him, but made great conquests in 
Abyssinia, which was called, from hkn, the 
empire of Prester John. He lived in the 
8th century. 

Abiad, Bahr=el, a great river in the in¬ 
terior of Africa, which at Haltaia, below 
Sennaar, joins the Bahr-el-Azrek, or river 
of Abyssinia; and these unite at Khartum 
and form the true Nile. 

Abiathar (the father of abundance), a 
high-priest of the Jews, son of Ahimelech, 
who had borne the same office, and received 
David in his house. This so enraged Saul 
that he put Ahimelech and 81 priests to 
death; Abiathar alone escaped the massa¬ 
cre. He afterward was high-priest, and of¬ 
ten gave King David testimonies of his 
fidelity. But after this he conspired with 
Adonijah, in order to raise him to the 
throne of King David, his father, which so 
exasperated Solomon against him that he 
divested him of the priesthood, and ban¬ 
ished him a. m. 3021 (b. c. 1014). 

Abib, a name given by the Jews to the 
first month of their ecclesiastical year, af¬ 
terward called Nisan. It answered to the 
latter part of March and beginning of April. 

Abies, a genus of the tribe abietineoc, 
order pinaceae, composed of evergreen 
trees of various sizes, important for the 
valuable timber and the resinous substance 
that are produced by many of the species. 
This genus, in the classification of Bindley, 
includes all the species known under the 
name fir. 

Abietic Acid, a crystalline aromatic acid 
contained in colophony. It crystallizes in 
small, colorless, rhombic prisms, insoluble 
in water; soluble in hot alcohol and ether. 

Abietinae, the first subdivision of the 
coniferous order of gymnosperms. It is 
characterized by inverted ovules and oval- 
curved pollen. The most noteworthy genera 
are pinus, abies, and araucaria. 

Abigail, the beautiful wife of Nabal, a 
wealthy owner of goats and sheep in Car¬ 
mel. When David’s messengers were 
slighted by Nabal, Abigail took the blame 
upon herself, and succeeded in appeasing 
the anger of David. Ten days after, Nabal 
died, and David sent for Abigail and made 
her his wife. (I Sam. xxv: 14, etc.) 

Abihu, the second of Aaron’s sons by 
Elisheba. He was consecrated to the priest¬ 
hood. When the ceremonial worship of Is¬ 
rael was established, fire from heaven con¬ 


sumed the altar offerings, and this flte, 
according to divine command, was to be 
kept ever burning. Abihu and Nadab, his 
brother, being set to serve at the altar, suf¬ 
fered it to go out, and made in its place 
“ strange ” or common fire. For this sin 
they were struck dead by lightning and 
buried without the camp. 

Abijah, the second King of Judah, son of 
Rehoboam, and Solomon’s grandson; also 
sometimes called Abijam in Scripture; 
reigned three years, beginning 956 b. c. 
He attempted to reunite the divided king¬ 
doms of Israel and Judah. The attempt 
failed, though he defeated Jeroboam and a 
superior force, and wrested from the King 
of Israel several cities. His speech to the 
opposing army before the battle is notable 
(II Chron. xiii: 4, ff.). He had 14 wives 
and 22 sons. 

Abila, or Abyla, a mountain of Africa, 
opposite that which is called Calpe, on the 
coast of Spain, only 18 miles distant. These 
two mountains are named the Pillars of 
Hercules, and were supposed formerly to 
have been united, till the hero separated 
them, and thereby effected a communication 
between the Mediterranean and Atlantic 
seas. 

Abila, a city of ancient Syria, the cap 
ital of the tetrarchy of Abilene. Its site 
is indicated by some ruins and inscriptions, 
near the village of Souk. From the tradi¬ 
tion of this being the scene of Abel’s mur¬ 
der, it is now called Nebi-Abel. It lies be¬ 
tween Baalbec and Damascus. 

Abingdon, town and county seat of 
Washington co/, Va.; on the Norfolk and 
Western railroad; 315 miles S. W. of Rich¬ 
mond. It is the seat of Abingdon Acad¬ 
emy, the Academy of the Visitation, Martha 
Washington College, and Stonewall Jack- 
son Female Institute; has large tobacco 
and live-stock interests, and contains valu¬ 
able deposits of iron, gypsum, and salt. 
Much of the salt used in the Southern States 
and the Confederate army during the Civil 
War was obtained here. Population (1890) 
1,674; (1900) 1,306. 

Abiogenesis, a scientific word invented 
by Professor Huxley to indicate the view 
that living matter can be produced from 
that which is not in itself living matter. 
It is opposed to biogenesis. 

Abisbal, Henry O’Donnell, Count of, 

a celebrated Spanish general, born in An¬ 
dalusia in 1770. On Napoleon’s invasion of 
Spain, the part he took in the relief of 
Gerona (1807) led to his promotion to the 
command of Catalonia. Though defeated 
in the plains of Vich by General Sonham, he 
a month afterward forced Augereau to aban- 
don Lower Catalonia; and, at the village ol 
Abisbal, he compelled the surrender of a 



Abishai 


Abo 


whole French column under General 
Schwartz. He died in France in 1834. 

Abishai, son of David’s sister Zeruiah, 
and brother to Joab, was one of the cele¬ 
brated warriors who flourished in the reign 
of David. He killed with his own hand 300 
men, with no other weapon but his lance; 
and slew a Philistine giant, the iron of 
whose spear weighed 300 shekels. (I Sam. 
xxvi; II Sam. xxiii.) 

Abkhasia, a region between the south 
slope of Caucasus and the Black Sea, hav¬ 
ing an area of about 3,000 square miles. 
The country is mountainous ’and like a wil¬ 
derness; it has dense forests of oaks and 
walnuts. Maize, figs, wines and wheat are 
produced. Its chief town is Sukhum Kal6. 
Under the Byzantine emperors, it was an 
independent State, called Abassia. In 1154, 
the Russian Grand Prince Islayif Mstis- 
lavitcli married an Abkhasian princess. In 
the 15th century it became subject to Tur¬ 
key. After the peace of Adrianople in 1829, 
the region was annexed to Russia, but was 
not fully pacified until 18G4. The inhabit¬ 
ants differ from the Cherkess in character 
and appearance. The complexion is dark, 
the features irregular; they are of medium 
height, lean, but muscular. Their principal 
occupations are agriculture, grazing, wine 
raising and bee-keeping. In ancient times 
they were known as Avagos, or Abasgi. In 
the time of Justinian, they were Christian; 
in the 11th century they were subject to 
Georgia (Gruzia). In the middle of the 
15tli century, they became Mohammedans. 
After the Turko-Russian War, manv of them 
emigrated to Turkey. They number about 
21 , 000 . 

Abjuration, the act of forswearing, ab¬ 
juring, or renouncing upon oath; a denial 
upon oath; a renunciation upon oath. 
Chiefly a law term, and used in the follow¬ 
ing senses: 

1. An abjuration of the realm: During 
the Middle Ages, the right of sanctuary was 
conceded to criminals. A person fleeing to 
a church or churchyard might permanently 
escape trial, if after confessing himself 
guilty before the coroner, he took an oath 
abjuring the kingdom, i. e., promising forth¬ 
with to embark, at an assigned port, for a 
foreign land, and never to return unless by 
the king’s permission. By this abjuration 
the blood of the criminal was attainted, 
and he forfeited all his goods and chattels. 

2. Special: An abjuration or renun¬ 
ciation of all imagined allegiance to the 
Jacobite line of rulers, after the English 
nation had given its verdict in favor of 
William and Mary. 

The oath of abjuration was fixed by 13 
Wm. III., c. 16. By the 21 and 22 Viet., 
c, 48, one form of oath was substituted for 
the oaths of allegiance, supremacy, and ab¬ 


juration. For this form another was sub¬ 
stituted by the Act 30 and 31 Viet., c. 75, 
s. 5. This has in turn been superseded by 
the Promissorv Oaths Act, 31 and 32 Viet., 
c. 72, by which a new form of the oath of 
allegiance is provided. 

3. An abjuration, renunciation, or retrac¬ 
tation of real or imagined heresy or false 
doctrine. Thus the now abolished 25 Chas. 
II., c. 2, enacted that certain tenets of the 
Church of Rome were to be solemnly re¬ 
nounced. This is sometimes called an ab¬ 
juration act, but the term is more appro¬ 
priately confined to that mentioned under 
No. 2. 

4. In a popular sense: A more or less 
formal giving up. 

Ablution, literally, a washing away. A 
ceremony consisting in bathing the body, 
or a part of it, in water, which has been 
practiced more or less extensively by the 
disciples of almost every form of faith. Ab¬ 
lutions, or lustrations, as they are more 
commonly called, even constituted a part of 
the Mosiac ceremonial, and were practiced 
among the Jews on various occasions, both 
by the priests and by the people. They oc¬ 
cupy an important place in the Brahminical 
and other religions of India, where the 
waters of the Ganges are considered as hav¬ 
ing so purifying a power that even if a 
votary, who cannot go to that river, shall 
call upon it to cleanse him, in prayer, while 
bathing in another stream, he will be freed 
from any sin or pollution he may have con¬ 
tracted. But the religion by which ablu¬ 
tions have been enjoined most punctiliously, 
and in the greatest number, is the Moham¬ 
medan. According to the precepts of the 
most rigid doctors of that faith, it may al¬ 
most be said that scarcely the most ordinary 
or trifling action can be rightly performed 
without being either preceded or followed 
by an entire or partial lustration. The 
early Christians also appear to have been 
in the habit of undergoing ablution with 
water before partaking of the communion. 

Abner, uncle of King Saul, upon whose 
death Abner maintained the cause of Ish- 
bosheth, Saul’s successor, against David. 
Being accused by Ishboshetli of royal aspira¬ 
tions, he deserted to David. He was slain 
by Joab, who feared Abner might supplant 
him. His tomb is still shown at Hebron. 

Abnoba, now Abenau, a long range of 
mountains in Germany, extending from the 
Rhine to the Neckar, having different names 
in the different countries through which 
they stretch: the Oden, or Odenwald, about 
the river Main; the Spessart, between 
Hesse and Franconia; Baar, in Wurtem- 
berg. 

Abo, a city in the Russian Province of 
Finland, and chief town of the government 
of the same name. It is situated near the 




Abo 


Abortion 


extremity of the promontory formed by the 
Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, and is di¬ 
vided into two parts by the river Aurajoki. 
Previous to 1817, Abo was the capital of 
Finland. Vessels drawing 9 or 10 feet of 
water go up to the town, but those draw¬ 
ing more, anchor 3 miles S. W. of the 
river, where there is a good harbor, and 
thence the goods are sent by small craft to 
Abo. Pop. (1904), 42,639. * 

Abo, Archipelago of, an extensive group 
of low, rocky islands in the Baltic Sea, 
spreading along the S. and W. coasts of 
Finland, opposite the city of Abo, render¬ 
ing the navigation difficult and dangerous. 

Abo, Peace of, a treaty concluded Aug. 
17, 1743, between Russia and Sweden, by 
which Russia retained a part of Finland 
and restored to Sweden the remainder on 
condition that the latter power should elect 
the Prince of IIolstein-Gottorp successor to 
the throne. On Aug. 30, 1812, the Emperor 
Alexander T., of Russia, and the Crown 
Prince Karl Johann, of Sweden, confirmed 
the second treaty between the two countries, 
already signed March 24th, containing a 
secret article of mutual protection. It 
treated of Napoleon and the subjugation of 
Norway. 

Abolitionists, in United States history, 
those who advocated the abolition of Af¬ 
rican slavery in the Southern States. The 
anti-slavery agitation dates back even to 
colonial days, some of the wisest and ablest 
men of early American history having ad¬ 
vocated abolition. Agitation became acute 
after the settlement of the war troubles of 
1812-1815. In 1833, the formation of a Na¬ 
tional Anti-Slavery Society took place in 
Philadelphia, and in 1848 of the Free Soil 
Party. The abolition movement was power¬ 
fully promoted by William Lloyd Garrison, 
who issued a newspaper, “ The Liberator,” 
for the better dissemination of his views; 
and also by Wendell Phillips, Charles Sum¬ 
ner and others. The more extreme agitators 
among them denied the duty of obedience 
to the Constitution, since it contained the 
clause warranting the Fugitive Slave Law, 
and they denounced it as “ a covenant with 
death and an agreement with hell.” In 
practice they violated it by systematically 
assisting in the escape of runaway slaves. 
A line of stations known as the “ Under¬ 
ground Railroad ” was secretly arranged, 
along which the fugitives were passed from 
point to point, concealed from pursuers, and 
cared for until they reached safety in Can¬ 
ada. In Boston, Garrison was mobbed, and 
the abolition cause in the United States 
counted among its martyrs Elijah Lovejoy, 
shot in Alton, Ill., in 1837, and John Brown, 
hanged in Virginia in 1859. In 1840, the 
abolitionists divided on the question of the 
formation of a political anti-slavery party, 

3 


and the two wings remained active on sepa¬ 
rate lines to the end. It was largely due to 
the abolitionists that the Civil War, when it 
came, was regarded by the North chiefly as 
an anti-slavery conflict, and they looked 
upon the Emancipation Proclamation as a 
vindication of this view. 

Abolla, among the ancient Greeks and 
Romans, a thick woolen mantle or cloak, 
worn principally by military men, and thus 
was opposed to the toga, which was es¬ 
pecially the habiliment of peace. It was 
used by the Stoic philosophers, also, at 
Rome as a distinctive dress. 

Aboma, a large and formidable American 
snake, called also the ringed boa. It is the 
epicratis cenchrea. Anciently it was wor¬ 
shipped by the Mexicans. 

Abomey, the capital of Dahomey, Africa; 
a walled town, and the port of the kingdom, 
containing several royal palaces. It is 
mostly clay-built, and the walls are of mud; 
is of large area, much of which is under 
cultivation; carries on important trade with 
the interior in palm oil, ivory, and gold. It 
has often been the scene of human sacrifices, 
especially at the great festivals. The town 
was taken by the French, under General 
Dodds, Nov. 21, 1892. Pop., 50,000 or 
60,000. See Dahomey. 

Aboo, Abu, Abuje,or Abughad. See Abu. 

Aborigines. (1) An old tribe inhabiting 
Latium. (2) The earliest known inhabit¬ 
ants of any other land. The aborigines of a 
country, as a subject of scientific investiga¬ 
tion, have received great attention since the 
publication of Herbert Spencer’s “ Synthetic 
Philosophy.” The greatest discussion has 
been occasioned by the theories of Morgan 
with reference to the aborigines of the 
United States. This branch of ethnological 
science, although yet in its infancy, prom¬ 
ises to profoundly influence the thought of 
the 20th century. 

Abortion, the immature product of an 
organ; any fruit or product that does not 
come to maturity, or anything which fails 
in its progress, before it is matured or per¬ 
fect ; as, “ His attempt proved an abortion.” 

In midwifery, miscarriage, or the expul¬ 
sion of the foetus from the uterus, before 
the seventh month, after which it is called 
premature labor. It most commonly occurs 
between the eighth and eleventh weeks of 
pregnancy, but may happen at a later pe¬ 
riod. The principal causes of miscarriage 
are blows or falls; great exertion or fa¬ 
tigue; sudden frights and other violent emo¬ 
tions of the mind; the abuse of spirituous 
liquors; excessive bleeding, profuse diar¬ 
rhoea or colic, etc. Abortion often happens 
without any obvious cause, from some defect 
in the uterus, or in the foetus itself, which 
cannot be satisfactorily explained. The no- 





Aboukir 


Abrabanel 


torioua frequency of artificial abortion forms 
an odious feature in the manners of ancient 
times. Seneca makes it a ground of distinc¬ 
tion for He]via that she had never, like oth¬ 
ers of her country-women, destroyed the child 
in her womb in order to preserve her shape. 

In law, when abortion is produced with a 
malicious design, it becomes a misdemeanor, 
and the party causing it may be indicted 
and punished. When, in consequence of 
the means used to produce abortion, the 
death of the woman ensues, the crime is 
murder. 

Aboukir, a small village on the Egyp¬ 
tian coast, 10 miles E. of Alexandria. Abou¬ 
kir bay is celebrated for the naval battle 
in which Nelson annihilated the French 
fleet on Aug. 1-2, 1798. The latter sailed 
on May 19, 1798, from the harbor of Toulon, 
to convey an army to Egypt under the com¬ 
mand of Bonaparte. As soon as the En¬ 
glish admiral, St. Vincent, who was cruis¬ 
ing before Cadiz, received information of 
this, he dispatched Rear-Admiral Nelson, 
with 14 ships of the line, to the Mediter¬ 
ranean with orders to seek and attack the 
French fleet. On Aug. 1, Nelson caught a 
glimpse of the French ships in the road of 
Aboukir, and gave the signal of battle. Al¬ 
though the French fleet was anchored in a 
curved line, close inshore, Nelson ordered 
half of his force to sail in between the 
enemy’s ships and the land so as to take 
them in the rear, while the other half ap¬ 
proached their front and anchored within 
pistol shot; thus the French ships were at¬ 
tacked from all sides. At about 6:30 o’clock 
in the evening the battle began. At the 
end of an hour five French ships were dis¬ 
masted and taken. The French admiral, 
Brueys, was killed by a cannon ball; his 
ship, “l’Orient,” however, continued the 
battle with great spirit until she took fire. 
About 10 o’clock this splendid vessel of 120 
guns—supposed to be equal to any two of 
the British ships—blew up. Of 1,000 men, 
but 70 or 80 were saved. Captain Casa- 
bianca was mortally wounded, and his son, 
a boy 12 years old, voluntarily remained in 
the burning ship and shared his fate. The 
other ships continued the cannonade till 
the morning, which witnessed the entire 
defeat of the French fleet. But two ships 
of the line and two frigates escaped to 
Malta and Corfu; nine ships of the line 
were taken, one blown up, and another, to¬ 
gether with a frigate, burned by the French 
themselves; one frigate, however, was sunk. 
This decisive victory gained Nelson the title 
of Baron Nelson of the Nile; and the battle 
is often spoken of as the battle of the Nile. 
In 1801 an English expedition to Egypt, 
under command of Sir Ralph Abercromby, 
landed near here, in spite of the presence of 
and active opposition of a considerable force 
of French troops. 


Aboulfeda, or Abulfeda, the hereditary 

prince of Hamah; the most celebrated of 
the Arabian writers on history and geog¬ 
raphy. Among his contemporaries he was 
also distinguished both as a ruler and a 
warrior. His descent was in a direct line 
from Ayoub, father to Saladin, and from 
whom the house of that conqueror received 
the appellation of Ayoubites. Born at Da¬ 
mascus in 1273, his valor and other emi¬ 
nent qualities soon recommended him to the 
favor of the Sultan Melik-el-Nassir. He 
took an active part in the victory of Damas¬ 
cus (1303), by which Syria was for the 
time delivered from the incursions of the 
Tartars. The rest of Aboulfeda’s life was 
spent in splendor and tranquillity, devoted 
to the government of his territory, and to 
the pursuit of science. The two works by 
which Aboulfeda is known are his “ Geog¬ 
raphy ” and his “ History.” 

About, Edmond (a-bo'), a French novel¬ 
ist, born in Dieuze, Lorraine, Feb. 14, 1828. 
One of the few younger authors of note who 
adhered to the second empire, he enjoyed 
the special favor of Napoleon III., and in 
1870 accompanied the army of Marshal Mac- 
Mahon as reporter for “ Le Soil*.” In that 
paper, after the war, and from 1875 as 
editor-in-chief of the “ XIX. Si&cle,” he was 
the champion of the Moderate Republicans. 
He was elected a member of the Academy 
in 1884. Among his best works are: “Con¬ 
temporaneous Greece” (1854); “ Tolla 

Feraldi ” (1855) ; “The King of the Moun¬ 
tains” (1856) ; “The Marriages of Paris” 
(6 tales, 1856) ; “ The Man with the Broken 
Ear ” (1861); “ A Notary’s Nose ” (1862); 
“ Madelon ” (1863); “The Infamous One” 
(1866-1869); “Romance of a Good Man” 
(1880), directed against Zola and his 
school; “The Roman Question” (1859), a 
political treatise. He died in Paris, Jan. 17, 
1885. 

Abra, the name of a province and a river 
in the N. of the island of Luzon, Philip¬ 
pine Islands. The province contains nu¬ 
merous deposits of placer gold, and the 
gravel of the river is auriferous. Other 
minerals, such as coal, copper, lead, iron 
and sulphur, are believed to exist in paying 
quantities in the province, as Luzon Island 
is known to be rich in these, as well as 
other economic minerals. Pop. (1903) ,51,860 

Abrabanel, Abarbanel, or Avravanel, 
Isaac, a celebrated rabbi, claiming descent 
from King David, was born at Lisbon, in 
1437. He became counselor to Alphonso V., 
King of Portugal, and afterward to Ferdi¬ 
nand the Catholic, but in 1492 was obliged 
to leave Spain with the other Jews. He 
died at Venice, aged 71. He has left some 
works on interpretations and explanations 
of the Bible. Abrabanel passed for one of 
the most learned of the rabbis; and the 




Aboville 


Abraham 


Jews gave him the names of “The Sage,” 
“The Prince” and “The Great Politician.” 

Aboville, Francois Maria (a-bo-vel'), a 
French general, born in 1730; was director 
of artillery at Yorktown, Va., during the 
American Revolution (1781), and later 
served under Napoleon. He died in 1819. 

Abracadabra, a magical word among the 
ancients, recommended as an antidote 
against several diseases. It was to be writ¬ 
ten upon a piece of paper as many times 
as the word contains letters, omitting the 
last letter of the former every time, and 
suspended from the neck by a linen thread. 
It was the name of a god worshipped by the 
Syrians, the wearing of whose name was a 
sort of invocation of his aid. 

ABRACADABRA 
ABRACADABR 
ABRACADAB 
A B R A C A 1) A 
A B R A C A D 
A B R A C A 
A B R A C 
A B R A 
A B R 
A B 
A 

At present, the word is used chiefly in jest, 
to denote something without meaning. 

Abraham, son of Terah, and brother of 
Nahor and Haran, the progenitor of the 
Hebrew nation and of several cognate tribes. 
In obedience to a call of God, Abraham, with 
his father Terah, his wife Sarah, and his 
nephew Lot, left his native Ur of the Chal¬ 
dees, and dwelt for a time in Haran, where 
Terah died. After his father’s death, Abra¬ 
ham, now 75 years old, pursued his course, 
with Sarah and Lot, to the land of Canaan, 
whither he was directed by the divine com¬ 
mand (Genesis, xii: 5), when he received 
the general promise that he should become 
the founder of a great nation, and that all 
the families of the earth should be blessed 
in him. As the country was suffering with 
famine, Abraham journeyed southward to 
the rich cornlands of Egypt. Fearing that 
the great beauty of Sarah might tempt the 
powerful monarch of Egypt, and expose his 
own life to peril, he represented her as his 
sister, but the deception was discovered, and 
Pharaoh, dismissed him from the country. 
Abraham left Egypt with great possessions, 
and, accompanied by Lot, returned to one 
of his former encampments between Bethel 
and Ai. As the soil was not fertile enough 
to support the two kinsmen, Abraham pro¬ 
posed that each should follow his own for¬ 
tune. Lot, eager to quit the nomadic life, 
chose the fertile plain of the Jordan, and 
Abraham pitched his tent among the oak- 
groves of Mamre, close to Hebron, where 
the promise that his descendants should be¬ 


come a mighty nation, and possess the land 
in which he was a stranger, was confirmed 
with all the solemnity of a religious cere¬ 
mony. At the suggestion of Sarah, who 
despaired of having children of her own, 
he took as his concubine Hagar, her Egyp¬ 
tian maid, who bare him Islunael, in the 
86th year of his age. Thirteen years 
elapsed, during which revelation was made 
that a son of Sarah, and not Islunael, should 
inherit both the temporal and spiritual 
blessings. The covenant was renewed, and 
the rite of circumcision established as its 
sign. At length, Isaac, the long-looked-for 
child, was born, and Ishmael was driven out, 
with his mother Hagar, as a satisfaction 
to Sarah’s jealousy. Some 25 years after 
this event, Abraham received the strange 
command to take Isaac and offer him for 
a burnt-offering at an appointed place. He 
hesitated not to obey, but the sacrifice was 
staved by the angel of Jehovah. Sarah died 
at Hebron, and was buried in the cave of 
Machpelah, which Abraham purchased of 
Ephron — the first instance on record of a 
legal conveyance of property. Abraham 
lived to see the gradual accomplishment of 
the promise in the birth of his grandchil¬ 
dren, Jacob and Esau, and, at the goodly age 
of 175, he was “ gathered to his people,” and 
laid beside Sarah, in the tomb of Machpelah, 
by his sons Isaac and Ishmael. 

Abraham a Sancta=CIara (a'bra-ham & 
sank'ta-kla'ra), a German pulpit orator and 
satirist, born at Kriihenheinstetten, Baden, 
July 4, 1G44. His family name was Meg- 
erle. He was appointed preacher to the im¬ 
perial court in 1GG9, and thereafter was one 
of the celebrities of Vienna. His sermons 
were characterized by force, broad humor, 
and impartial denunciation of the follies of 
all classes, but especially of the courtiers. 
A good specimen of his manner, both in 
its elevation of thought and in its grotesque¬ 
ness, is seen in his “ Judas, the Arch-Knave ” 
(1G8G-1G95). He died in Vienna, Dec. 1, 
1709. 

Abraham ben Meir ibn Ezra (a'bra-ham 
ben ma-er' ’b’n ez'ra), a Jewish-Arabic poet 
and scholar, born at Toledo, Spain, 1092; 
wrote 150 liturgical poems, which are still 
used in the Jewish worship, besides works 
on Hebrew grammar and philosophy, a treat¬ 
ise on chess, “ Sefer Moznaim,” a “ Book 
of Weights,” etc. He was one of the ear¬ 
liest Biblical critics. He died in 1167. 

Abraham=man, in English history, Tom 
of Bedlam, or Bedlam Beggar, is equivalent 
to a sturdy beggar. The Abraham-men for¬ 
merly roamed through England, oegging 
and pilfering; they were well known in 
Shakespeare’s time and on to the period of 
the civil wars. 

Abraham, Plains of and Heights of, 

a table-land near Quebec, rising above the 
St. Lawrence, where the battle of Quebec 



Abrantes 


Abscissa 


was fought between the British and French 

(1759). 

Abrantes, Marshal, Duke of (a-brilnt'- 
ilz or iib-rant'). See Junot. 

Abrantes, Duchesse d’, a French wo¬ 
man of considerable literary acquirements; 
born at Montpelier in 1784. By her mother, 
Paunonia Comnena, she was a descendant 
from the imperial Byzantine family of the 
Comneni; she married Marshal Junot after 
his return from Egypt. Her principal 
work, “ Memoires de la Duchesse d’Abran- 
tes,” is an authority on the court of Na- 
poleon. She died in 1838. 

Abranyi, Kornel (o'bran-ye), a Hunga¬ 
rian poet, novelist, and publicist; born in 
Budapest, Dec. 31, 1849. As a member 
of the Hungarian diet and as editor of the 
“ Pesti Naplo,” he is an important political 
figure in Hungary. His poems are mainly 
of a political tendency, and his novels deal 
with the problem of matrimony. “ The In¬ 
fallible,” a comedy, and the fictions, “ The 
Husband’s Philosophy,” “ Who Is the 
Stronger ?,” “ The Only Remedy against De¬ 
ceit,” are best known. 

Abraxas, a genus of nocturnal lepidop- 
tera, in which is included the common mag¬ 
pie moth. Its color is a yellowish white, 
clotted with black, and a band of pale 
orange marks the wings. It deposits its 
eggs on the leaves of the current and goose¬ 
berry in July or August, and the caterpil¬ 
lars are hatched in September. Its chrys¬ 
alis is black. 

Abraxas, or Abrasas, the supreme god 
of the Basilidian heretics. It is a mystic 
or cabalistic word, said to be composed of 
Greek letters, a , /?, />, 9 , which to¬ 

gether, according to the Grecian mode of 
numeration, make up the number 3G5. For 
Basilides taught that there were 365 heav¬ 
ens between the earth and the empyrean; 
each of which heavens had its angel or in¬ 
telligence, which created it; each of which 
angels, likewise, was created by the Su¬ 
preme Being, or first Creator. The Basilid- 
ians used the word abraxas by way of charm 
or amulet. 

Abrogation, is a term of canon law, 
which means the entire, as distinguished 
from the partial, change of an existing law; 
e. g., the papal decretals as to clandestine 
marriage were abrogated by the Council of 
Trent. The term is used popularly as the 
equivalent of repeal, whether by statute or 
contrary usage; and in England technically 
for the annulling of an order issued by a 
subordinate legislative authority. 

Abruzzi (ab-rots'e), Prince Luigi 
Amadeo, Duke of, Italian explorer; born 
in Rome, Jan. 30, 1873; a nephew of King 
Humbert; in May, 1899, he started on an 
expedition, in the specially prepared steamer 
“ Star of Italy,” for Franz Josef Land, in¬ 


tending, when frozen in, to use sledges in a 
search for the North Pole and the balloon 
explorer, Dr. Andree. He returned to Nor¬ 
way in September, 1900, after having 
reached a point in latitude 86 ° 33' N., sur¬ 
passing Nansen's furthest N. record. 

Abruzzi and Molise, a political division 
of Italy, including the provinces of Aquila, 
Teramo, Cliieti and Campobasso. The Ab¬ 
ruzzi is wild and mountainous, the Apen¬ 
nines here reaching their loftiest heights, in 
Gran Sasso d’ltalia nearly 10,000 feet, in the 
N., and Majella over 9,000, .in the S. Cattle¬ 
raising is its chief industry. The Molise, 
comprising the province of Campobasso, 
yields considerable grain and fruit. As¬ 
phalt deposits occur there. The inhabitants 
are characterized by patriarchal simplicity 
and hospitality. Formerly many of them 
were bandits, but brigandage has been thor¬ 
oughly eradicated by the government. The 
area is 6,380 square miles. Pop. (1901) 
1,442,365. 

Absalom, the third son of David, king 
of Israel, remarkable for his beauty and 
for his unnatural rebellion against his 
father. By his popular manners, he con¬ 
trived to win the affections of the people, 
and then stirred up a formidable rebellion. 
A battle was fought in the forest of Eph¬ 
raim, in which the rebels were defeated. In 
the flight, as Absalom was riding under a 
tree, he was caught (by his long hair, as 
is generally supposed, though not expressly 
stated in Scripture) in the branches, and 
was left suspended; in which position Joab, 
the commander of David’s army, thrust him 
through, contrary to the king’s express or¬ 
ders that he should be spared. The grief 
of David for his loss was excessive. See II 
Sam. xviii. 

Abscess, a gathering of pus in any tissue 
or organ of the bodv. It is so called be- 
cause there is an abscessus (= a going away 
or departure) of portions of the animal 
tissue from each other to make room for 
the suppurated matter lodged between them. 
It results from the softening of the natural 
tissues, and the exudations thus produced. 
Abscesses may occur in almost any portion 
of the body. They are of three types: the 
acute abscess, or phlegmon, arising from an 
inflammatory tendency in the part; the 
chronic abscess, connected with scrofulous 
or other weakness in the constitution; and 
the diffused abscess, due to contamination 
in the blood. 

Abscissa, or Absciss, in conic sections, 
the abscissa of a parabola is the part of a 
diameter intercepted between its vertex and 
the point in which it is intersected by one 
of its own ordinates. The abscissa of the 
axis is the part of the axis intercepted be¬ 
tween its vertex and the point in which it is 
intersected by one of its own ordinates. 



Absenteeism 


Absolute 


In an ellipse, the absciss® of any diameter 
are the segments into which that diameter 
is divided by one of its own ordinates. 

The absciss® of the axis are the segments 
into which the major axis is divided by one 
of its own ordinates. 

In a hyperbola, the absciss® of any di¬ 
ameter are the segments into which, when 
produced, it is divided by one of its own 
ordinates and its vertices. 

Absenteeism, a term applied to the own¬ 
ers of estates in a country who habitually 
: absent themselves from that country, and 
j spend the income of their estates in it in 
another country; specifically applied to the 
Irish nobility whose fixed residence is out¬ 
side of Ireland. Much of the poverty and 
many of the disturbances in Ireland have 
been charged directly to absenteeism, and 
the Trish people have protested against it 
since 1380. 

Absimarus, a soldier of fortune who 
raised, against the Byzantine Emperor Le¬ 
ontius, an army which proclaimed him em¬ 
peror, A. d. G98. He slit the ears and nose 
of Leontius, and threw him into a convent. 
He was taken in 705 by Justinian II., who, 
after having used him as a footstool at the 
hippodrome, ordered him to be beheaded. 

Absinthe, a liqueur made principally in 
Switzerland, and much used by the French; 
composed of volatile oil of wormwood, oil 
of anise and other ingredients mixed in al¬ 
cohol. It is an intoxicant, more agreeable 
to the taste than usual alcoholic beverages, 
but its persistent use leads to extreme phys¬ 
ical and mental disorders. See Artemisia. 

Absolute, opposed to relative; means 
that the thing is considered in itself and 
without reference to other things. 

1. Absolute or non-connotative, according 
to Whately, is opposed to attributive or 
connotative. The former does not take note 
of an attribute connected with the object, 
which the latter does. Thus Rome and sky 
are absolute terms; but Rome, the capital 
of Italy, and our sky are attributive or con¬ 
notative. (See Whately’s “Logic,” bk. ii, 
eh. v, §§ 1, 2-5.) 

2. According to J. S. Mill, it is incorrect 
to regard non-connotative and absolute as 
synonymous terms. He considers absolute 
to mean non-relative, and to be opposed to 
relative. It implies that the object is to be 
considered as a whole, without reference to 
anything of which it is a part, or to any 
other object distinguished from it. Thus 
man is an absolute term, but father is not, 
for father implies the existence of sons, and 
is, therefore, relative. (J. S. Mill’s “ Logic,” 
bk. i, ch. ii.) 

In metaphysics, absolute means existing 
independently of any other cause. 

A case absolute, in grammar, is one con¬ 
sisting essentially of a substantive and a 
participle, which form a clause not agreeing 


with or governed by any word in the re¬ 
mainder of the sentence. In Greek, the ab¬ 
solute case is the genitive; in Latin, the 
ablative; in English, it is considered to be 
the nominative. 

In Latin, the words sole stante in the ex¬ 
pression, “ sole stante terra vertitur ” (the 
earth turns round, the sun standing still) — 
that is, while the sun is standing still — 
are in the ablative absolute. 

In English, thou leading, in the following 
familiar quotation — 

“ I shall not lag behind, nor err 
The way, thou leading.” 

Milton. 

is in the nominative absolute. So also is 
I rapt in the line — 

“ And, I all rapt in this, 1 Come out,’ he 
said.” 

Tennyson’s “Princess,” Prol. 50. 

In law, personal rights are divided into ab¬ 
solute and relative — absolute, which per¬ 
tain to man as individuals;, and relative, 
which are incident to them as members of 
society, standing in various relations to 
each other. The three chief rights of an 
absolute kind are the right of personal se¬ 
curity, the right of personal liberty, and 
the right of private property. (Blackstone’s 
“ Commentaries,” bk. i, ch. i.) Similarly there 
are absolute and relative duties. Public so¬ 
briety is a relative duty, while sobriety, 
even when no human eye is looking on, 
is an absolute duty. (Ibid.) Property in 
a man’s possession is described under two 
categories, absolute and qualified property. 
His chairs, tables, spoons, horses, cows, etc., 
are his absolute property; while the term 
“ qualified property ” is applied to the wild 
animals on his estate. 

An absolute decision is one which can at 
once be enforced. It is opposed to a rule 
nisi, which cannot be acted on until cause 
be shown, unless, indeed, the opposite party 
fail to appear. 

Absolute law: The true and proper law of 
nature. 

Absolute warrandice (Scotch conveyanc¬ 
ing) : A warranting or assuring against all 
mankind. 

Absolute, in natural philosophy, is gener- 
ally opposed to relative. As this relativity 
may be of many kinds, various shades of 
meaning thus arise: thus: 

1. Absolute or real expansion of a liquid, 
as opposed to its apparent expansion, the 
expansion which would arise vLen the 
liquid is heated, if the vessel containing it 
did not itself expand. (See Atkinson’s 
“ Ganot’s Physics,” bk. vi, ch. iii.) 

2. Absolute gravity is the gravity of a 
body viewed apart from all modifying in¬ 
fluences, as, for instance, of the atmosphere. 
To ascertain its amount, therefore, the body 
must be weighed in vacuo , 




Absolution 


Abstinence 


3. Absolute motion is the change of place 
on a body produced by the motion so desig¬ 
nated, viewed apart from the modifying in¬ 
fluence arising from disturbing elements of 
another kind. 

4. Absolute space is space considered apart 
from the material bodies in it. 

5. Absolute time is time viewed apart 
from events or any other subjects of mental 
conception with which it may be associated. 

6. Absolute force of a center: Strength 
of a center. 

In astronomy the absolute equation is the 
aggregate of the optic and eccentric equa¬ 
tions. 

In algebra, absolute numbers are those 
which stand in an equation without having 
anv letters combined with them. Thus, in 
the following equation — 

2.x + 9 = 17, 

9 and 17 are absolute numbers, but 2 is 
not so. 

In chemistry, absolute alcohol is alcohol 
free from water. 

Absolute zero, an imaginary temperature 
so low that there would be no heat left. It 
is determined by calculation as follows: 
When a perfect gas is cooled from the boil¬ 
ing point down to the freezing point, it 
contracts .268 of the bulk, while the tem¬ 
perature is lowered 212—32 = 180°; there¬ 
fore, for a fall of 1° it would be .268 divided 
by 180 —.00149 of its bulk. To ascertain 
the number that it must fall to reduce its 
bulk to zero, we have 1 divided by .00149 = 
671.2° below the boiling point, or 671.2—212 
= 459.2° below zero. It is usually taken 
at —460° Fahr., or —273° C. The nearest 
approach to this temperature has been made 
by Prof. Dewar of London, who, by the 
evaporation of liquid hydrogen, has pro¬ 
duced a cold within about 15 or 20° of the 
absolute zero. At the present time we can¬ 
not even conceive of any possible means of 
going lower than this, since hydrogen has 
the lowest boiling point of any element. The 
notions held by some, that at the absolute 
zero matter would cease to exist in the form 
in which we know it, are probably fanciful. 

Absolution, in ecclesiastical usage, the 
freeing from sin or its penalties. In the 
early systems of the Christian Church, ab¬ 
solution was of five kinds, viz.: (1) Baptism, 
which was regarded as purging away sin, 
but with no specific relation to penitential 
discipline. (2) The eucharist, a general act 
of absolution to all who fitly partook of 
it. (3) The Word and doctrine, generally 
declarative, through the priest, of the terms 
of salvation. (4) Intercession and prayer, 
especially for penitents received into the 
church. (5) Restoration to the church for 
those who had fallen under excommunica¬ 
tion or had lapsed into great sins. The 
Roman Catholic Church, since the fourth 
Lateran council in 1215 a. d., invests the 


priest with power in his priestly office to 
pronounce absolution, using the formula 
Ego absolvo te (I absolve thee), in place of 
the older form, Deus or Christus absolvit te 
(God, or Christ, absolves thee), basing this 
practice upon John xx: 23, and similar pas¬ 
sages. In this Church, absolution is a sacra¬ 
ment, having its conditions of penitence and 
confession. In the case of persons supposed 
to be about to die, it is called extreme 
unction. There is also a form of absolution 
for the dead, including prayers and offerings 
accounted influential in shortening the 
period of, or delivering from, purgatory. In 
the Church of England, absolution is the 
declaring of God’s remission of sins. There 
are three forms, one in the morning service; 
one for communion, in which absolution is 
prayed for; and one for the sick, which is 
nearer to the Roman Catholic form. In 
most other Churches, absolution is no more 
than a general or formal declaration that 
God will forgive the sins of penitents, with 
exhortation to seek such forgiveness. 

Absorption, the act, operation, or process 
of absorbing, sucking in, or swallowing any¬ 
thing, or otherwise causing it to disappear 
in another body. Absorption by organized 
bodies is the taking up or imbibing, by 
means of their tissues, of material suitable 
for their nourishment, that it may ulti¬ 
mately be transmitted by the vascular 
channels to more distant parts. 

In chemistry, absorption is the taking up 
of a gas by a liquid, or by a porous solid; 
and in natural philosophy it is the taking 
up rays of light and heat by certain bodies 
through which they are passing. Absorp¬ 
tion of light is the retention of some rays 
and the reflection of others when they pass 
into an imperfectly transparent body. If 
all were absorbed, the body would be black; 
if none, it would be white; but when some 
rays are absorbed, and others reflected, the 
body is then of one of the bright and lively 
colors. 

Absorption of heat is the retention and 
consequent disappearance of rays of heat 
in passing into or through a body colder 
than themselves. 

Absorption of the earth is a term used by 
Kircher and others for the subsidence of 
tracts of land produced by earthquakes or 
other natural agencies. 

In chemistry the co-efficient of absorption 
of a gas is the volume of the gas reduced 
to 0° Cent, and 760 m. m. pressure, which is 
absorbed by the unit of volume of any 
liquid. 

Absorption, Electrical. See Electrical 
Absorption. 

Abstinence, the act or habit of refrain¬ 
ing from something to which we have a pro¬ 
pensity, or in which we find pleasure; but 
it is more particularly applied to the priva- 



Abstraction 


AbuNAbbas 


tion or sparing use of food. Abstinence 
has been enjoined and practiced for various 
ends, as sanitary, moral, or religious. 
Physicians relate wonderful cures effected 
by abstinence; moralists, as the Pythago¬ 
reans, Stoics, and others, recommend it as 
a means of bringing the animal part of our 
nature into greater subservience to the spir¬ 
itual; and it is likewise enjoined by various 
religious sects. Abstinence of flesh on cer¬ 
tain days is obligatory in the Roman 
Catholic Church. 

Total abstinence .— The time during which 
life can be supported under total abstinence 
from food or drink, is usually stated to 
vary from eight to ten days; the period 
may, however, be greatly prolonged. Total 
abstinence, as a term, has also special refer¬ 
ence to alcoholic drinks. 

Abstraction, the act of dragging or draw- 
• ing away or separating. In distillation, it 
is the operation of separating the volatile 
parts in distillation from those which do 
not pass into vapor at the temperature to 
which the vessel has been raised. 

In mental philosophy, it is the act or proc¬ 
ess of separating from the numerous quali¬ 
ties inherent in any object the particular 
one which we wish to make the subject of 
observation and reflection. Or the act of 
withdrawing the consciousness from a num¬ 
ber of objects with a view to concentrate 
it on some particular one. The negative act 
of which attention is the positive. 

Absyrtus (ab-s6r'tus), in G.reek mythol¬ 
ogy son of Aietes (Aretes), King of Colchis 
and brother of Medea; slain by Medea or 
by Jason. According to the common myth, 
Medea killed and dismembered her brother, 
and scattered his limbs along the road to 
delay Aietes in his pursuit of the lovers. 
The scene of the murder was called Tomi. 
By another account Absyrtus, deceived by 

a strategem, was 
slain by the Ar¬ 
gonauts, and his 
body, having been 
cast into the sea, 
was thrown up 
on one of the isl- 
a n d s, thence 

named Absvrtides. 
«/ 

Abt, Franz, 

(iipt), a German 
song writer; born 
in Eilenburg, Dec. 
22,1819. He stud¬ 
ied theology at 
Leipsic, but aban- 
doned it for 
FRANZ abt. music. In 1841 

he became kapell¬ 
meister at the court theater at Bernburg; 
shortly afterward relinquishing the post for 
a similar one in Zurich, where he remained 


till 1852. He was then sailed to Brunswick 
as chief conductor of the orchestra in the 
royal theater. In 1882 he retired to Wies¬ 
baden. Many of his songs (for example, 
“When the Swallows Homeward Fly,” 
“Good Night, Thou Child of My Heart,” 
“0 \e Tears,” etc.), have endeared them¬ 
selves to the heart of the people all over the 
world. His part-songs are also popular 
favorites. Simplicity of melody, rather than 
great depth, characterizes his work. He vis¬ 
ited the United States in 1872. He died 
in Wiesbaden, March 31, 1885. 

Abu, a mountain, 5,650 feet, in the terri¬ 
tory of Serohee, Rajputana, India, a de¬ 
tached granite mass rising like an island 
from the plain of Marwar, near the Aravalli 
ridge. It is a celebrated place of pilgrimage, 
especially for the Jains, who have five tem¬ 
ples at Delwara, about the middle of the 
mountain, two of which are the most su¬ 
perb of all Jain temples. Both are built of 
white marble, finely carved, and date from 
1031 and 1197 a. d. The mountain contains 
a beautiful lake 4,000 feet above the sea; 
and the region is a summer resort for 
Europeans. 

Abu=Bekr, the father of Ayesha, wife of 
Mohammed, was a man of great influence 
in the Koreish tribe; and in 632, when Mo¬ 
hammed died, was made the first caliph or 
successor of the Prophet. After defeating 
his enemies in Arabia, and warring success¬ 
fully against Babylonia, Syria, and the By¬ 
zantine emperor Heraclius, Abu-Bekr died 
634 a. d., aged 63. He was surnamed “ The 
Just.” His charity was unbounded, while 
his manner of living was so strict that he 
possessed at his death only the one robe ho 
wore, a camel, and an Ethiopian slave. His 
tomb is shown by the side of that of the 
Prophet at Mecca. 

Abu=Habba, an Arabian village, 16 miles 
S. E. of Bagdad, the site of an ancient 
Babylonian city, probably Sippar (the 
Sepharvaim of the Scriptures), which was 
discovered during a series of excavations in 
1881. 

Abu=Klea, a place in Egypt, on the route 
across the country between Korti and Me- 
tammeli, both on the great bend of the Nile 
below Khartum; was the scene of a battle 
on Jan. 17, 1885, in which Sir Herbert 
Stewart defeated the Malidi’s forces. 

Abu=Nuvas (abo-nb'vas), an Arabic 
poet; died in 815. He flourished at the 
court of the caliphs of Bagdad, writing, in 
the style of Anacreon, some of the most 
notable songs of love and wine in all Arabic 
literature. 

Abul=Abbas, Abd=AlIah, the first of the 
Arabian dynasty of Abbassides; a caliph of 
incredible cruelty, on account of which he 







Abulfaraj 


Abydos 


was called “ al Suffah ” (“ The Sanguin¬ 
ary ”). On assurances of amnesty, he be¬ 
guiled 90 members of the Ommiad family 
(the preceding dynasty) into a hall, where 
they were slain with whips and rods. He 

subdued various bloodv revolts and divided 

«/ 

the provinces among his favorites. He died 

in 754. 

Abulfaraj (H-bol-fa-raj') or Abulfaragius 

(ab'ul-fa-ra'ji-us), a Syriac and Arabic 
writer; born at Malatia, Armenia, in 1226. 
His full name was Gregory Abulfaraj ibn al 
Harun; his father was a Jew. Of numerous 
writings, the best now known are a univer¬ 
sal history in Syriac from the time of Adam 
down to his own date, and an autobiog¬ 
raphy. He died at Maragha, Persia, in 
1286. 

Abulfazl, a vizier and historiographer 
of the Mogul Emperor Akbar. Under the 


BAS-RELIEF. 

From the rock graves at Abu-Simbel. 

title of “Akbar Nameh,” or “ Book of 
Akbar,” he wrote a history of that Em¬ 
peror’s reign, which included an account 
of the religious and political constitution 
of the Empire. He was assassinated in 
1602. 

Abuna (iib-o'na), the title given by the 
Ethiopian Christians to their metropolitan. 
He is the chief of the secular clergy. In the 
Abyssinian empire he is the 
virtual chief of orthodoxy, 
commissioned by the Patri¬ 
arch of Alexandria. When, 
in the 4th century, Athana¬ 
sius conferred orders on 
the Apostle Frumentius, 
who had just evangelized 
Abyssinia, he recommended 
that Alexandria be made 
the fountain of faith and 
the source of the Abyssin¬ 
ian bishopric. This tradi¬ 
tion has been observed, and 
the abuna is always a 
Coptic monk taken from a 
monastery in Cairo. The 
national bishop is called 
Etcheguieh. 

Abundantia, the god¬ 
dess of superfluity among 
the ancient Romans, with¬ 


out temple or altars, but often pictured on 
the Roman coins after the style of Demeter, 
usually scattering her gifts from the horn 
of plenty. She is allied to the Domina 
Abundia who is often mentioned in the 
poems of the Middle Ages as the benefi¬ 
cent being who brings plenty to human 
beings. 

Abu=Simbel, the ancient Aboccis or 
Abuncis, a place of ruins in Upper Egypt, 
between the first and second cataract, hav¬ 
ing two temples built by Ramses the Great 
in 1388 and 1392, one for himself and one 
for the god Hathor. They lie a short dis¬ 
tance apart, at the foot of a precipitous cliff 
close to the west bank of the Nile. No tem¬ 
ple in Egypt produces so grand an effect as 
the rock temple of Ramses II., and by moon¬ 
light its effect is even finer. Its dignified 
sculptures and the gorgeous colored repre¬ 
sentations in its interior repay the 
trouble of the ascent from Phil®. Ad¬ 
mission tickets are necessary in or¬ 
der to enter the great temple of Abu- 
Simbel (“Father of the Ear of 
Corn”). This most stupendous 
work of ancient Egyptian architec¬ 
ture was the creation of Ramses II. 
It was excavated out of the solid 
rock and dedicated at first to the 
leading deities of Egypt proper, 
Ammon of Thebes and Re-Harmak- 
his, but other deities were wor¬ 
shipped there as well. In 1892 
the facade, 119 feet broad and over 100 
feet wide, was restored and two walls 
had to be built to protect it from the sand 
which blew into it from the west desert. 
The temple is approached through a fore¬ 
court, hewn out of the rock. Acting as 
guardians to the entrance of the temple 
are the four colossi of Ramses II, each 
about 66 feet high, and all in perfect con¬ 
dition excepting one. On a leg of the frac¬ 
tured colossus is an inscription, one of the 
most ancient specimens of Greek writing, 
recording that when Psammetichus came to 
Elephantine, the writers came to the spot 
by way of Kerkis. This inscription dates 
from b. c. 592. 

Abutilon, a genus of plants belonging to 
the order malvacew, or mallow worts. The 
species are annual or shrubby plants, gen¬ 
erally with handsome flowers, yellow or 
white, often veined with red. They have a 
five-carpelled fruit. A. esculentum is used 
in Brazil as a vegetable. Several species are 
wild in India. Two of them, A. Indicum 
and A. polyandrum, have fibres which may 
be twisted into ropes. Other varieties, 
A. striatum, A. venosum, A. insigne, etc., 
ard ornamental garden or greenhouse 
plants. 

Abydos, a town and castle of Natolia, on 
the Straits of Gallipoli. In its neighborhood 




ABUNDANTIA. 





























Abydos, Tablet of 


Abyssinia 


Xerxes, when lie invaded Greece, crossed 
with his immense army the Hellespont, on 
a bridge of boats. Memorable also from be¬ 
ing the scene of the loves of Hero and 
Leander, and from Byron having adopted 
its name in his “ Bride of Abydos.” Also 
an ancient city of Upper Egypt, supposed 
to have been the ancient This, and to have 
been second only to Thebes. 

Abydos, Tablet of, an inscription found 
in the temple of Ramses II. by Mr. Bankes 
in 1818, containing a double series of 26 
shields (vertical bands) of the predecessors 
of Ramses the Great. This tablet is now in 
the British Museum. It gave Champollion 
the first clue to establish his list of the The¬ 
ban dynasties of the new empire. The de¬ 
fects in this tablet were largely supplied by 
the discovery in 1865, by Mariette, of a 
second tablet in the temple of Seti I., bear¬ 
ing 76 shields, the genealogy beginning with 
the names that are missing in the Bankes 
tablet. 

Abyssinia, or Habesh, an ancient king¬ 
dom of Eastern Africa, now under a mon¬ 
arch who claims the title of emperor. 
Abyssinia may be said to extend between 
lat. 8° and 16° N., and Ion. 35° and 41° E., 
having Nubia N. and W., the Sudan W., the 
Red Sea littoral (Erythrcea, Danakil coun¬ 
try, etc.), E., and to the S. the Galla coun¬ 
try. The area within these limits is about 
160,000 square miles, but the present ruler 
claims a much more extensive territory; 
and latterly Abyssinia has come to be sur¬ 
rounded by regions belonging to or influ¬ 
enced more or less by Italy, France, and 
Great Britain. The principal divisions of 
Abyssinia are the provinces or kingdoms of 
Shoa in the S., Amhara in the center, and 
Tigre in the N., to which may be added 
Lasta, Gojam, and other territories. Addis 
Abeba in Shoa is the present residence of 
the ruler, but the Abyssinian royal resi¬ 
dences largely consist of houses very slightly 
built, and thus resemble more or less per¬ 
manent camps rather than towns. Other 
towns are Gondar, Adua, Aksum, Antalo, 
and Ankober, none with a population exceed¬ 
ing 7,000. 

Topography .— The more marked physical 
features of the country may be described 
generally as consisting of a vast series of 
table-lands of various and often of great 
elevations, and of numerous ranges of high 
and rugged mountains, some of them of very 
singular forms, dispersed over the surface 
in apparently the wildest confusion. From 
these mountains flow inexhaustible supplies 
of water, which, pouring down by the deep 
and tremendous ravines that everywhere 
intersect them, impart an extraordinary 
fertility to the plains and valleys below. 
The chasms or rents that occur in the pla¬ 
teaux are often of appalling depth, forming 
gloomy abysses or canons whose edges are 


frequently not more than 200 or 300 yardg 
asunder. Notwithstanding, however, the 
wild and rugged appearance of the country 
generally, it contains numerous valleys and 
tracts of unequalled beauty and fertility, 
rich in all the most valued productions of 
the earth. The most extensive is the plain 
of Dembea, lying round the lake of that 
name, emphatically called the granary of 
the country, where there reigns a perpetual 
spring. 

The most remarkable and loftiest moun¬ 
tain summits occur in the center of the 
N. part of the kingdom, immediately to the 
W. of the Tacazze river. Among the high¬ 
est of these (so far as known) is Ra3 
Dashan, which has an elevation calculated 
at 15,167 feet, and is capped with perpetual 
snow. Abba Yared and Buahit are esti¬ 
mated to be even higher. Along the whole 
of the E. side of the country extends a 
mountain range or escarpment forming a nat¬ 
ural rampart with a mean elevation of 7,000 
or 8,000 feet for a distance of some 600 
miles. No volcanoes are known to exist at 
present, but almost everywhere are numer¬ 
ous evidences of past volcanic action. Per¬ 
haps the principal river of Abyssinia is the 
Tacazz#, which has its rise in the mountains 
of Lasta, about lat. 12° N.; Ion. 39° 20' E. 
It pursues a N. then a W. course, and after 
leaving the bounds of Abyssinia takes the 
name of Atbara, and finally joins the Nile. 
The chief of the other rivers — if not indeed 
the chief river of the country — is the Abay 
or Abai in the S. W., which, after entering 
and leaving Lake Dembea, flows S. and then 
N. W., and latterly takes the name of the 
Bahr-el-Azrek or Blue Nile, of which it 
really forms the upper portion. In the ear¬ 
lier part of their courses, while flowing over 
the level surface of the table-lands, the riv¬ 
ers of Abyssinia are little better than muddy 
brooks, which in the dry season nearly dis¬ 
appear, but during the rains overflow their 
banks and inundate the plains for miles. The 
principal lake is Lake Tana or Dembea, in 
the territory of Amhara, a large and beauti¬ 
ful sheet of water at a height of upward of 
6,000 feet above the sea. It is about 46 
miles in length, and about 33 in breadth at 
the widest part. Lake Haik, in the prov¬ 
ince of Amhara, on the N. confines of Shoa, 
is about 45 miles in circumference. Lake 
Ashangi, in Tigre, 8,200 feet above the level 
of the sea, is 4 miles long and 3 miles 
broad, bordered by a richly cultivated plain 
surrounded by mountains, and is a rare in¬ 
stance of a fresh-water lake without any 
apparent outlet. 

Productions .— The chief mineral products 
of Abyssinia are iron, sulphur, coal, and 
salt. Coal beds appear to extend along the 
whole of the E. frontier of Shoa, but as a 
combustible coal is scarcely known in the 
country. Salt is obtained in various places, 
especially from a plain on the S. E. border 




Abyssinia 


Abyssinia 


of Tigre. Gold is obtained from alluvial 
deposits, but not in great quantity. In 
some parts of the country iron is abundant, 
and it is manufactured into implements 
for various purposes. A few hot min¬ 
eral springs are known and made use 
of. The climate of Abyssinia is as va¬ 
rious as its surface. In the valleys it is 
delightful, but on the mountains often cold. 
The rains begin in June and continue till 
September (over a considerable portion of 
the country at least), during which period 
they are often so violent as to put a stop 
to agricultural labor and all other outdoor 
operations. The finest months of the year 
are those of December and January. 

From the sea-level to a height of 3,000 
feet the vegetation is of a tropical charac¬ 
ter; from 3,000 up to 6,000 feet a sub¬ 
tropical zone extends, in which grow lobe¬ 
lias, acacias, etc.; and from that to 9,000 
feet the flora is of a temperate or even En¬ 
glish character, the dog-rose, cowslips, vio¬ 
lets, lavender, and wild thyme being quite 
common. The principal grains are millet, 
barley, wheat, maize, and teff. Teff, a very 
small seed, is a favorite with all Abys- 
sinians. The bread made from it is soft 
and spongy, with a sourish taste, and is 
said to be unwholesome, though not un¬ 
pleasant to the taste. Two crops are ob¬ 
tained yearly, the seed being sown in one 
field while the crop is being gathered in 
the next. In some places there are three 
harvests within the year. Large quantities 
of a kind of banana called enscte are raised, 
and produce an agreeable sort of bread. 
Among the other vegetable products of the 
land may be mentioned ebony, coffee, gum, 
balsam, incense, and various medicinal 
plants. 

Fauna .— The domestic animals consist 
of horses, cattle, sheep, goats, camels, mules, 
and asses. Mules, camels, and asses are 
the usual beasts of burden, the horses being 
generally reserved for war and the chase. 
Vast herds of oxen are met with throughout 
the country. The wild animals are the lion 
(rare), elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, 
crocodile, buffalo, hyena, leopard, boar, ante¬ 
lope, zebra, quagga, giraffe, gazelle, and 
civet. The hippopotamus abounds in Lake 
Tsana, and great numbers are killed annual¬ 
ly for their flesh and hides. The rhinoceros, 
like the elephant, inhabits the low, moist 
grounds, and is numerous in certain dis¬ 
tricts. Crocodiles are found in various 
Tivers, but the largest and most dreaded 
are those that inhabit the Tacazze. The 
buffalo, a comparatively harmless animal in 
other countries, is here extremely ferocious. 
Serpents are numerous, among them being 
the boa, which often attains a length of 20 
feet. Bees are numerous, honey being a 
general article of food; locusts often lay the 
land waste, and the saltsalya fly is destruc¬ 
tive to cattle during the rainy season. 


Commerce. — The foreign trade is chiefly 
carried on through Massowa, Berbera, Zeila, 
Jibuti, Obok and other (non-Abyssinian) 
ports on the Red Sea; but the external traf¬ 
fic has never been of great importance. The 
nature of the country is adverse to an ex¬ 
tensive trade, and there are comparatively 
few commodities suited for export. The 
exports are chiefly coffee, civet, honey, wax, 
gum, hides, ostrich feathers, ivory, and 
rhinoceros horns; the imports, pepper, anti¬ 
mony, bottles, needles, silks, turkey-red 
cloths, tobacco, cotton, firearms, etc. Manu¬ 
factures are unimportant. The Abyssinians 
are said to excel in tanning, and they make 
parchment from sheep and goat skins. They 
also make coarse woolen stuffs, arms and 
small iron implements, horn drinking ves¬ 
sels, coarse black pottery, and some other 
articles. Transportation is by means of 
mules and pack-horses. A railroad nearly 
200 miles long is being constructed from 
Jibuti to Harrar. 

Peoples .— Ethnographically Abyssinia is 
a land of confusion. The aboriginal ele¬ 
ments of the population are best represent¬ 
ed by the Agao, who inhabit Agaomedir, 
to the S. and W. of Lake Dembea, and also 
Lasta, around the Tacazze river. They be¬ 
long to the Ethiopian section of the 
Hamitic branch of the Caucasian stock, 
and some Egyptologists are of opinion that 
they are descended from a Nubian tribe 
which was driven S. in early times. Closely 
related to tbc Agao are certain other tribes 
still represented in various parts of the 
country. Among these are the Falashas, 
who profess a somewhat ancient form of 
Judaism, and occur in many parts of the 
plateau, and even farther S. They hold 
themselves apart, as a rule, from the rest 
of the population. Unlike most Jews they 
have an aversion to commerce, and are main¬ 
ly occupied in agriculture and some of the 
industrial arts. The Kamants of Gondar 
and other parts resemble the Falashas in 
many ways, speaking the same language 
and having similar religious observances; 
the Bogos or Bilen of the N. are a small 
allied group of some interest; and among 
other more or less primitive Hamitic tribes 
are the Lakue, Dambelas, Habab, and the 
Vaitos. For long, however, these Hamite 
peoples have been under the domination of 
Himyaritic Semites from Yemen in Arabia. 
These Semitic peoples have mingled with 
the Hamites whom they subdued, and also 
Avith various Arab and Negro peoples, and 
owing to the fact that this commingling 
has been less pronounced in some portions 
of the country than in others, several well- 
marked Himyaritic groups can be distin¬ 
guished. To the N. and E. are the Tigre, 
Avhose territory is roughly bounded on the 
S. by the Tacazze ri\ r er; and to the S. and 
W. are the Amharas. The Shoas of the 
S. E. differ but little from the Amharas. 



Abyssinia 


Abyssinia 


Of these the Tigre best represent the origi¬ 
nal Himyaritic invaders, and their language 
(Tigrinya) is nearer to the original lan¬ 
guage, known as Geez, which is still used 
in religious ceremonies. The Amhara, how¬ 
ever, are the preponderant section, and their 
language (Amharinya), besides being the 
literary language, is used in commerce and 
diplomacy. In the more S. parts of the 
country there are various Hamitic tribes 
known as Gallas, and to the W. and S. W. 
of Lake Dembea there are the negro Shan- 
kallas. The Danakil along the Led Sea 
coast, the Shoho S. W. of Massowa, and 
other groups are Mohammedan Arabs. The 
Ethiopians are characterized by good pro¬ 
portions. They are of medium height, with 
broad shoulders, a high forehead, a straight 
or sometimes aquiline nose, thick lips, a 
pointed chin, and a rather more protruding 
mouth than in Europeans. The hair is usu¬ 
ally somewhat curly, and in color they vary 
from black to a very light brown. Some 
of them show negro characters. The na¬ 
tional religion is a form of Christianity 
originally introduced from Alexandria in 
the 4th century. One of its characteristic 
tenets is the monophysite doctrine that de¬ 
nies the human nature of Christ. The head 
of their church is a priest called the abuna, 
who has for long been a foreigner. He is 
consecrated by the patriarch of Alexandria 
and has great power, but his influence is 
practically curtailed by the all but equal 
power of the national head of the church, 
or echaghey. The churches, which are usu¬ 
ally small and poorly constructed, are ar¬ 
ranged in a manner similar to that of a 
Jewish temple. The Virgin is highly rev¬ 
erenced, and there are a large number of 
saints, many of whom are regarded as worthy 
of almost as much honor as the Saviour. 

In nearly all the provinces and districts 
marriages are performed with great sim¬ 
plicity, and are as easily dissolved. There 
is an old code of laws called the King’s 
Guide, which is ascribed to the Emperor 
Constantine. It gives to the father the 
power of life and death over his children, 
and to the king the same power over his 
subjects. Blinding and death are the penal¬ 
ties for a son’s revolt again t his father, or 
a subject’s rebellion against the king. Blas¬ 
phemy and lying are punished by the loss 
of the tongue, thieving by that of the right 
hand. A murderer is handed over to the 
family of his victi] i t~> meet death in the 
same way as that victim, but if the murder 
was unintentional a money price only is 
exacted. The educational advantages are 
very slight; the clergy instruct a few chil¬ 
dren in grammar, Bible texts, and poetry. 

History .— The Abyssinians were convert¬ 
ed to Christianity in the time of the Em¬ 
peror Constantine, by some missionaries 
sent from Alexandria. In the 6th century 
the power of the sovereigns of their king¬ 


dom had attained its height; but before 
another had expired the Arabs had invaded 
the country, and obtained a footing in Adel, 
though they were unable to extend their con¬ 
quests farther. For several centuries sub¬ 
sequently the kingdom continued in a dis¬ 
tracted state, being now torn by internal 
commotions and now invaded by external 
enemies (Mohammedans and Gallas). To 
protect himself from the last the Emperor 
of Abyssinia applied, about the middle of 
the 16th century, to the King of Portugal 
for assistance, promising, at the same time, 
implicit submission to the Pope. The solic¬ 
ited aid was sent, and the empire saved. 
The Roman Catholic priests having now 
ingratiated themselves with the emperor 
and his family, endeavored to induce them 
to renounce the tenets and rites of the 
Coptic Church, and adopt those of Rome. 
This attempt, however, was resisted by the 
ecclesiastics and the people, and finally 
ended, after a long struggle, in the expul¬ 
sion of the Roman Catholic priests about 
1630. The kingdom, however, gradually fell 
into a state of anarchy, which, about the 
middle of the 18th century, was complete. 
The king, or negus as he was called, re¬ 
ceived no obedience from the provincial gov¬ 
ernors, who, besides, were at feud with one 
another, and severally assumed the royal 
title. 

Abyssinia thus became divided into a num¬ 
ber of petty independent states. A remark¬ 
able, but, as it proved, quite futile attempt 
to resuscitate the unity and power of the 
ancient kingdom was commenced about the 
middle of the 19th century by King Theo¬ 
dore, who aimed at the restoration of the 
ancient kingdom of Ethiopia, with himself 
for its sovereign. He introduced European 
artisans, and went to work wisely in many 
ways, but his cruelty and tyranny counter¬ 
acted his politic measures. In consequence 
of a slight, real or fancied, which he had 
received at the hands of the British gov¬ 
ernment, he threw Consul Cameron and a 
number of other British subjects into prison 
in 1863, and refused to give them up. To 
effect their release an army of nearly 12,000 
men, under the command of Sir Robert Na¬ 
pier, was dispatched from Bombay in 1867. 
The force landed at Zoulla on the Red Sea 
in November, and marching up the country 
came within sight of Magdale, the capital 
of Theodore, in the beginning of April, 
1868. After being defeated in a battle Theo¬ 
dore delivered up the captives and shut him¬ 
self up in Magdala, which was taken by 
storm on April 13. Theodore was found 
among the slain, the general opinion being 
that he had fallen by his own hand. 

After the withdrawal of the English fight¬ 
ing immediately began among the chiefs of 
the different provinces, the three most pow¬ 
erful, Kasa, Gobasie, and Menelek, strug¬ 
gling for the supremacy. This state of 



Abyssinian Church 


Academics 


matters continued for some time, but at 
last the country was divided between Kasa^ 
who secured the N. and larger portion, and 
assumed the name of Johannes, and Mene- 
lek, who gained possession of Shoa. Lat¬ 
terly Johannes made himself supreme ruler, 
with the title of emperor, or king of kings 
(Negus Negusti). Taking advantage of the 
troubles in Abyssinia the Egyptians an¬ 
nexed Massowa and adjoining territory on 
the Red Sea; and hostilities were repeatedly 
carried on between them and Johannes. In 
1885 the Egyptian forces were withdrawn, 
and Italy, with the consent of Great Brit¬ 
ain, declared a protectorate over Massowa 
and the strip of territory along the coast 
of the Red Sea. In the following year the 
Italians pushed inward to Saati, a few 
miles W. of Massowa, an action which led 
to war with the Emperor Johannes. An 
Abyssinian force was sent in 1887 to recover 
Saati, but though a small Italian force was 
cut to pieces at Dogali, the Italians main¬ 
tained their position. 

On the death of the Emperor Johannes 
in 1889, while fighting against the Mah- 
dists, Menelek, who had concluded an alli¬ 
ance with Italy, raised himself to the im¬ 
perial throne. The result of this was the 
strengthening of the Italian hold on the 
country. The Italians regarded their treaty 
with Menelek as giving them a protectorate 
over Abyssinia, and by 1892 the whole of 
Ethiopia was generally recognized as within 
the Italian sphere. Proceeding to extend 
and strengthen their position the Italians in 
1889 occupied Keren, capital of the Bogos 
country, situated some 60 miles W. of Mas¬ 
sowa, and also fortified Asmara, to the 
S. W. of Massowa. Adua, the capital of 
Tigre, and the center of opposition to Mene¬ 
lek, was occupied in the following year. 
The Mahdists were also defeated, and Kassa- 
la in the Sudan was occupied by the Italians. 
Menelek, however, latterly repudiated the 
Italian protectorate, broke with his former 
allies, and in 1896 his troops inflicted on 
them such a defeat as gave a death-blow to 
their claim of a protectorate over all Abys¬ 
sinia. The treaty concluded in that year 
between Menelek and the Italians practical¬ 
ly abrogated the treaty of seven years be¬ 
fore, but left Italy in possession of a strip 
along the Red Sea coast from the French 
colony of Obok on the S. to Ras Kasar on 
the N., known officially as Eritrea (Eryth- 
raea). A British mission in 1897 was favor¬ 
ably received by the emperor, and the boun¬ 
daries between Abyssinia and the British 
Somali protectorate were arranged. Pop. 
5,000,000. 

Abyssinian Church, the name of a sect of 
the Christian Church established in Abys¬ 
sinia. The forms and ritual of the Abyssin¬ 
ian Church are a strange compound of pa¬ 
ganism, Judaism, and Christianity. It is 
governed by a bishop, who is styled abuna. 


Acacia, a genus of plants belonging to 
the mimosa ?, one of the leading divisions of 
the great leguminous order of plants. They 
abound in Australia, in India, in Africa, 
tropical America, and generally in the hotter 
regions of the world. Nearly 300 species are 
known from Australia alone. They are 
easily cultivated in greenhouses, where they 
flower, for the most part, in winter or early 
spring. The type is perhaps the Acacia Ara- 
bica, or gum arabic tree, common in India 
and Arabia. It looks very beautiful with its 
graceful, doubly pinnate leaves and its heads 
of flowers like little velvety pellets, of 
bright gamboge hue. Other species than the 
A. Arabica pro¬ 
duce gum arabic. 

That of the shops 
is mostly derived 
from the A. vera, 
a stunted species 
growing in the 
Atlas mountains 
and other parts 
of Africa. A.VereJc 
and A. Adansonii 
yield gum Senegal. 

A. catechu fur¬ 
nishes catechu. 

Other species con¬ 
tain tannin, and 
are used in tan- acacia arabica. 
ning. Others yield 

excellent timber. The pods of A. concinna 
are used in India for washing the head, 
and its acid leaves are employed in 
cookery. The bark of A. Arabica is a 
powerful tonic; that of A. ferruginea and A. 
leucophcea, with jaggliery water superadded, 
yields an intoxicating liquor. The fragrant 
flowers of A. Farnesiana, when distilled, pro¬ 
duce a delicious perfume. In pharmacy, 
acacia is the inspissated juice of the unripe 
fruit of the mimosa nilotica. It is brought 
from Egypt in roundish masses wrapped up 
in thin bladders. The people of that coun¬ 
try use it in spitting of blood, in quinsy, and 
in weakness of the eyes. 

Acacius, St., Bishop of Amida, in Meso¬ 
potamia. He sold the church plate to re¬ 
deem 7,000 starving Persian slaves. Ver- 
sanius, the king, was so affected by this 
noble action that he sought an interview 
with the bishop, which resulted in a peace 
between that prince and Theodosius I., a. d. 
420. 

Academics, a name given to a series of 
philosophers who taught in the Athenian 
Academy, the scene of Plato’s discourses. 
They are commonly divided into three sects: 

(1) The Old Academy, of which Plato was 
the immediate founder, was represented suc¬ 
cessively by Speusippus, Xenocrates, and 
Polemon. (2) To them succeeded Arcesi- 
laus, the founder of the Middle Academy. 
Under his hands, the Platonic method 




Academic des Beaux Arts 


Academy, French 


assumed an almost exclusively polemical 
character. His main object was to re¬ 
fute the Stoics, who maintained a doc¬ 
trine of perception identical with that 
promulgated by Dr. Reid in the 18th 
century. Socrates is said to have pro¬ 
fessed that all he knew was that he knew 
nothing. Arcesilaus denied that he knew 
even this. Wisdom he made to consist in 
absolute suspension of assent; virtue, in the 
probable estimate of consequences. He was 
succeeded by Lacydes, Telecles, Evander, and 
Hegesinus. (3) The New Academy claims 
Carneades as its founder. His system is a 
species of mitigated scepticism. He was suc¬ 
ceeded by his disciple, Clitomachus. Cliar- 
mides, the third and last of the new acade¬ 
micians, appears to have been little more 
than a teacher of rhetoric. 

Academie des Beaux Arts (a-kil-dem-e 
da boz-ar'), founded in Paris, 1795, sup¬ 
planted the Royal Academy of Painting and 
Sculpture and that of Architecture. It was 
reorganized in 1803 and again in 1816, and 
now has 40 members, of whom 14 are paint¬ 
ers, 8 sculptors, 8 architects, 4 engravers, 
and 6 composers; 10 exempt members, 40 
corresponding members, and 10 “free” cor¬ 
responding members. Since 1858 it has been 
preparing a special dictionary, of which 
some volumes have appeared. 

Academy, the gymnasium in the suburbs 
of Athens in which Plato taught, and so 
called after a hero, by name Academus, to 
whom it was said to have originally be¬ 
longed. The word is also applied to a high 
school designed for the technical or other 
instruction of those who have already ac¬ 
quired the rudiments of knowledge; also a 

universitv. 

%/ 

Anciently, there were two public acade¬ 
mies: one at Rome, founded by Adrian, in 
which all the sciences were taught, but 
especially jurisprudence; the other at Bery- 
tus, in Phoenicia, in which jurists were prin¬ 
cipally educated. Academy is the name, 
also, of a society or an association of artists, 
linked together for the promotion of art, 
or of scientific men, similarly united for the 
advancement of science, or of persons united 
for any more or less analogous object. Thus 
the French possess the celebrated Academy 
or Institute, established by Cardinal Riche¬ 
lieu in 1635, for fixing and polishing the 
French language. The use of the word 
“ academy,” different from the ancient one, 
is believed to have arisen first in Italy at 
the revival of letters in the 15th century. 
The nearest approach to these institutions 
in America is the Smithsonian Institution 
in Washington. 

Academy, French, an institution founded 
in 1635 by Cardinal Richelieu for the pur¬ 
pose of refining the French language and 
style. It became in time the most influ¬ 


ential of all literary societies in Europe. To¬ 
gether with the Academy of Inscriptions 
and Belles Lettres, the Academy of Moral 
and Political Sciences and the Academy of 
Sciences, it composes the National Institute 
of France. It published in 1694 the first 
edition of a dictionary. It has exercised a 
conservative influence on French literature, 
and favors taste rather than originality. It 
consists of 40 members, besides a director, 
a chancellor, and a secretary. In 1793 it 
was suppressed by the convention, but wao 
re-established in 1816. The French Academy 
originated in a simple meeting of friends 
who met at the house of Conrart, one of 
their number. These reunions were held in¬ 
formally for many years. At last they at¬ 
tracted the attention of Richelieu, who, in 
1634, proposed to form an Academy, and, 
from the 13th of March in that year, a rec¬ 
ord was kept of their transactions and a di¬ 
rector or chancellor and a perpetual secre¬ 
tary were appointed. The Academy wa9 
definitely formed by letters patent of Louis 
XIII., in January, 1635; they were regis¬ 
tered by Parliament July 10, 1637. At first 
the number was 30. The perpetual secre¬ 
taries have been, since the foundation, 19, 
and the incumbent receives a salary of 6,000 
francs and lodgings at the Institute. Ordi¬ 
nary members receive 1,500 francs a year. In 

1880 the discussion of the qualifications of 
candidates which had been in vogue for more 
than 10 years was abolished, but restored 
in 1896. In 1671 the sessions of the Academy 
became public. The library of the Institute 
was founded by Louis XIV., who presented 
to it 660 volumes. The members of the Acad¬ 
emy, often spoken of as “ the forty im¬ 
mortals,” were, in 1901, with the dates of 
their election: Ernest W. G. B. Legouv6, 
1855; Due de Broglie, 1862; Emile Ollivier, 
1870; Alfred J. F. Mezieres, 1874; Gaston 
Boissier, 1876; Victorien Sardou, 1877; Due 
d’ Audiffret-Pasquier, 1878; Aim§ J. E. 
Rousse, 1880; Rene F. A. Sully-Prudhomme, 

1881 ; Adolph L. A. Perraud, 1882; Edouard 
J. H. Pailleron, 1882; Frangois E. J. Copp6e, 
1884; Joseph L. F. Bertrand, 1884; Ludovic 
Halevy, 1884; Vallery C. O. Gr6ard, 1886; 
Comte d’Haussonville, 1886; Jules A. A. 
Claretie, 1888; Vicomte de Vogu6, 1888; 
Charles L. de Freycinet, 1890; Julien Viaud, 
1891; Ernest Lavisse, 1892; Vicomte de Bor- 
nier, 1893; Paul L. Thureau-Dangin, 1893; 
Ferdinand Brunetiere, 1893;. Albert Sorel, 
1894; Jos6 M. de Heredia, 1894; Paul Bour- 
get, 1894; Henri Houssaye, 1894; Jules Le- 
maitre, 1895; Anatole France, 1896; Mar¬ 
quis de Beauregard, 1896; Gaston Paris, 
1896; Andre Theuriet, 1896; Comte Vandal, 
1896; Comte de Mun, 1897; Gabriel Hano- 
taux, 1897; Claude J. B. Guillaume, 1898; 
Henri L. E. Lav£dan, 1899; Paul Deschanel, 
1890; Marquis de Vogue and Edmond Ros¬ 
tand, 1901. 



Academy of Arts 


Academy of Sciences 


Academy of Arts, The Royal, a British 
institution for the encouragement of paint¬ 
ing, sculpture and designing; founded in 
1708 by George III., with Sir Joshua Rey¬ 
nolds as president. It is composed of a 
president (P. R. A.), 40 academicians (R. 
A.), and 20 associates (A. R. A.), which 
include professors of painting, architec¬ 
ture, anatomy, and perspective. It holds 
an annual exhibition, open to all artists, 
at Burlington House, London, of paintings, 
sculpture and designs which reach a cer¬ 
tain standard of merit. 

Academy of Design, National, an Amer¬ 
ican institution, in New York city, founded 
in 1826, conducting schools in various 
branches of the fine arts, and holding semi¬ 
annual exhibitions at which prizes are 
awarded. The membership consists of acad¬ 
emicians, who are the corporate body and 
use the title N. A. (National Academician), 
and the associates, who use the title A. N. 
A. (Associate of the National Academy), all, 
of necessity, artists. Laymen may become 
fellows of the academy on payment of 
graded fees. 

Academy of Fine Arts, The, a French 
institution, originally founded in 1648 at 
Paris under the name of the Academy of 
Painting and Sculpture. In 1795 it was 
joined to the Academy of Architecture, and 
has borne its present name since 1819. It 
publishes memoirs, proceedings, and a dic¬ 
tionary of the fine arts. It has 41 members, 
besides corresponding members, etc. 

Academy of France at Rome, an insti¬ 
tution for the advanced study of the fine 
arts in Rome, Italy, founded by Colbert in 
1666, during the reign of Louis XIV. It was 
at first established in the ruined villa Man- 
cini on the Corso, and, in 1803, at the villa 
Medicis. The young artists, painters, sculp¬ 
tors, architects, engravers and musicians 
who secure the annual prizes of the Acad¬ 
emy of Fine Arts in Paris spend four years 
there, with an annual pension of 3,500 francs 
and traveling expenses. 

Academy of Inscriptions and Belles 
Lettres, an institution founded at Paris by 
Colbert in 1663, under the name of Petite 
Academie. It was composed originally of 
four members, chosen by the ministry to be¬ 
long to the Academie Frangaise. The first 
members, Chapilain, Charpentier, the Abbe 
de Bourzers, and the Abbe Cassagne, met in 
a salon of the Louvre or in Colbert’s library 
and devoted themselves to composing the 
inscriptions for the monument erected by 
Louis XIV. and the metals struck in his 
honor; hence their popular name. They 
undertook a medallic history of the reign 
of the king. In 1701 the Academy assumed 
its definitive form; 40 academicians were 
named. In 1803 the Academy was recon¬ 
stituted and became the third class of the 


Institute. Comparative philology, Oriental, 
Greek, and Roman antiquities and epi¬ 
graphy have received the attention of the 
Academy, which has published a series of 
invaluable records and works. 

Academy of Medicine, a French institu¬ 
tion, founded in Paris in 1820, for the pur¬ 
pose of keeping the government informed on 
all subjects appertaining to the public 
health. It lias the sections of medicine, sur¬ 
gery, and pharmacy, and its publications 
are highly prized by sanitarians. 

Academy of Moral and Political 
Science, founded at Paris in 1795, became 
the second class of the Institute. It was 
suppressed by Napoleon in 1803, but was re¬ 
established by Louis Philippe in 1832, and 
forms the fifth class of the Institute, and 
is composed of 30 members, divided into 5 
sections, with 5 free academicians, 5 foreign 
associates, and 30 corresponding members. 

Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila= 
delphia, an institution founded in 1812. It 
has one of the best natural history collec¬ 
tions in the world—especially rich in stuffed 
birds — and a valuable scientific library. It 
has published “ Journals ” since 1817, and 
“ Proceedings ” since 1841. 

Academy of Political and Social 
Science, American, an institution organ¬ 
ized at Philadelphia in 1889 and incorpo¬ 
rated in 1891. It has a large number of 
members and publishes bi-monthly “ An¬ 
nals.” 

Academy of Sciences, an institution 
founded at Paris, in 1666, by Colbert and ap¬ 
proved by Louis XIV. in 1699. It published 
about 130 volumes of memoirs from 1666 
to 1793, when it was suppressed. It was re¬ 
established in 1816. It has now 66 mem¬ 
bers, in 11 sections, with two perpetual 
secretaries and 100 corresponding members. 

Academy of Sciences and Arts, Amer= 
ican, an academy established in Boston in 
1780 by the Council and House of Repre¬ 
sentatives of Massachusetts; the successor 
of an institution founded by Franklin. It 
has published “ Proceedings ” since 1846, and 
“Memoirs” since 1785. 

Academy of Sciences, The Imperial, a 

Russian institution, founded in St. Peters¬ 
burg by Catherine I., in 1725, and largely 
endowed by Catherine II. It has 15 pro¬ 
fessors, a president and director, a fine li¬ 
brary containing 300,000 volumes and many 
manuscripts, and a museum very rich in 
curiosities and objects of natural history. 
It has published “ Transactions ” since 1728, 
and at present it publishes two volumes an¬ 
nually, called “ Acta Academire,” including 
many memoirs on the higher mathematics 
and the astronomical observations at Pul- 
kowa. 



Academy of Sciences 


Acanthus 


Academy of Sciences, The National, an 

American institution, founded in 1863, con¬ 
sisting of 100 members, elected from among 
the most distinguished scientific men of the 
United States; analogous to the Royal So¬ 
ciety of London. 

Academy of Sciences, The Royal, a 

Danish institution, established in Copen¬ 
hagen by the King of Denmark in 1743. It 
has published transactions (“Skrifter”) 
pince its foundation, and memoirs (“ Afhand- 
linger”) since 1823. 

Academy of Sciences, The Royal, a 

German institution, in Berlin, founded by 
Frederick I., in 1700; had Leibnitz as its 
first director, and held its first meetings in 
1711. It is divided into four sections, de¬ 
voted to mathematics, physics, philosophy, 
and history. It publishes memoirs and 
monthly reports. 

Academy of Sciences, The Royal, a 

Swedish institution, known also as the 
Royal Swedish Academy, founded in Stock¬ 
holm as a private society in 1739; incor¬ 
porated under its second name in 1741; is¬ 
sues annual volumes of “ Transactions/’ first 
published quarterly. 

Academy, The Royal Spanish, an insti¬ 
tution established at Madrid, in 1714, for 
the same purposes as the French Academy. 
The number of members is limited to 24. 

Acadia, a former French colony in North 
America, including Nova Scotia and nearly 
all of New Brunswick, settled in 1604. It 
grew so slowly that it numbered only 900 
inhabitants in 1684. When, by the peace of 
Utrecht (1713), it was given to the English, 
the inhabitants, having refused to take the 
oath of allegiance, were ordered to leave 
their homes, and 5,000 emigrated to Louis¬ 
iana and Georgia, and 2,000 were trans¬ 
ported and scattered over New England. 
The story of their sorrow is touchingly in¬ 
troduced into Longfellow’s “ Evangeline.” 

Acalephae, the third class of the radiata, 
Cuvier’s fourth sub-kingdom of animals. In 
English they are called sea-nettles. They 
were defined as zoophytes which swim in the 
sea, and in the organization of which some 
vessels are perceived which are most fre¬ 
quently only productions of the intestines, 
hollowed in the parenchyma of the body. 
They were divided into A. simplices and A. 
hydrostciticce; the first contained the genera 
medusa, a*quorea, etc. 

Acanthaceae, an order of monopetalous 
exogens, with two stamina; or, if there are 
four, then they are didynamous. The ovary 
is two-celled, with hard, often hooked, pla¬ 
centae, and has from one or two to many 
seeds. There are often large, leafy bracts. 
The acanthacece are mostly tropical plants, 
many of them being Indian. They have both 


a resemblance and an affinity to the Scrophu - 
lariacece of this country, but are distin¬ 
guishable at once by being prickly and 
spinous. In 1846 Lindley estimated the 
known species at 750, but it is believed that 
as many as 1,500 are now in herbariums. 
The acanthus, so well known in architect¬ 
ural sculpture, is the type of the order. The 
acanthacece are divided into the following 
sections, tribes, or families: (1) Thunber- 
giese; (2) Nelsoniese; (3) Hygrophileae; 
(4) Ruelliese; (5) Barlerieae; (6) Acan- 
these; (7) Aphelandreae; (8) Gendarusseae; 
(9) Eranthemeae; (10) Dicleptereae; and 
(11) Andrographideae. 

Acanthite, a mineral classed by Dana un¬ 
der his chalcocite group. Composition AgS. 
It has about 86.71 of silver and 12.70 of sul¬ 
phur. It is orthorhombic; the crystals are 
generally prisms with slender points. Hard¬ 
ness, 2.5 or less. Sp. gr. 7.16 to 7.33. Lus¬ 
ter, metallic. Color, iron-black. Sectile. 
Found at New Friburg, in Saxony. 

Acantholimon, a genus of plants belong¬ 
ing to the order plumbaginacece, or lead- 
worts. About 40 species are known from 
Persia, Asia Minor, and Greece. Acantholi¬ 
mon glumaceum is a pretty plant, with pink 
flowers and white calyx, occasionally culti¬ 
vated in garden rockeries. 

Acanthurus, a genus of fishes belonging 
to the family teuthidce. The A. chirurgus 
of the West Indies is called the surgeon-fish, 
because it extracts blood from the hands of 
those who, in handling it, forget that it has 
a spine in its tail. 

Acanthus, the name of three ancient 
cities: (1) in Egypt, (2) in Caria, and (3) in 
Macedonia. The latter city is noted for the 
construction, across the neck of the penin¬ 
sula of Mount Athos, of the great canal 
through which sailed the fleet of Xerxes on 
its way to Greece. Later, when a tributary 
city of Athens, it revolted and joined the 
Spartans, who were at war with the Athe¬ 
nians. It is further noted as the city where 
the Acanthus coins were made as early as 
the 5th century b. c. These coins show the 
early efforts of barbarous tribes to use the 



produce of their silver mines. At a later 
period the representations on some of these 
coins were of the highest artistic merit. 

Acanthus, a genus of plants, the typical 
one of the order acanthacece , or acanthads. 























Acapulco 


Acceleration 


In English it is inelegantly termed bear’s 
beech, or, more euphoniously, brank ursine. 
There are several species. Most have a sin¬ 
gle herbaceous stalk of some height, thick, 
great, pinnatifid leaves, and the flowers in 
terminal spikes. 

In architecture, it is the imitation, in the 

capitals of the Corin¬ 
thian and Composite 
orders, of the leaves 
of a species of acan¬ 
thus, the A. spin- 
osus, which is found 
in Greece. The acan¬ 
thus first copied is 
supposed to have 
been growing around 
a flower pot; and the 
•merit of adopting 
the suggestion thus 
afforded for the ornamentation of the capi¬ 
tal of a pillar is attributed to Callimachus. 
Another species, the A. mollis, grows in 
Italy, Spain, and the South of France. 
Both are cultivated in Great Britain. 



ACANTHUS. 


Acapulco (ak-a-pol'ko), a seaport in 
Mexico on the Pacific Ocean; has a large 
and nearly land-locked harbor, but the cli¬ 
mate is unwholesome. It exports to San 
Francisco hides, cedar timber and fruit. 
Nearly the whole city was destroyed by 
earthquakes in 1799, in 1837, and again in 
1852. Population, 12,320. 

Acarides, or Acarina, the second order of 
the trachearian subclass of spiders. It is 
also called monomerosomata. It contains 
the families Linguatulidce , Simoneidce, Ma- 
crobiotidce, Acaridce, Ixodidce, Hydrach- 
nidce, Oribatidce, Bdellidce and Trombidiidce., 
The young of most species have at first 
birth six legs, to which another pair is 
added on their first molting. 

Acarnania, or Akarnania, a province of 
ancient Greece, forming the westernmost 
portion; named, according to tradition, 
from Acarnan, son of Alamaeon, who settled 
the region. At the beginning of the Pelo¬ 
ponnesian war the inhabitants were rude 
and piratical, and they always remained be¬ 
hind the other Greeks in civilization. They 
were good slingers and faithful and cour¬ 
ageous soldiers. Under the Romans it was 
a province of Macedonia. It is now, with 
iEtolia, a province of the Grecian kingdom. 
Pop. (189G) 170,565; capital Missolonghi. 

Acarus, the mite; a genus of insects of 
the tribe acaridce, order arachnida. They 
are oviparous, have eight legs, two eyes, 
and two jointed tentacula, and are very pro¬ 
lific. All the species are extremely minute, 
or even microscopic, as the cheese-mite (ac¬ 
arus domesticus), and many of them para¬ 
sitic; of the latter, the itch-insect ( sar - 
coptes scabici) is a remarkable example. 
It is a microscopic animal, found under the 


human skin, in the pustules of a well-known 
cutaneous disease. Many others infect the 
skin of different animals, and sometimes in 
considerable numbers. They are found at¬ 
tached to the creature upon which they live 
by means of a curiously constructed mouth 
that is so firmly implanted into the skin as to 
make it difficult to remove the acarus with¬ 
out tearing off its head, except with the as¬ 
sistance of a knife. It consists of four 
lancet blades, each furnished with sharp 
teeth, so arranged that, while the instru¬ 
ment freely pierces the skin, to draw it 
back again by force is out of the question; 
and, although the acarus can probably de¬ 
tach it by its own efforts, it is useless to 
employ foreign violence for that purpose. 
In the center, between these barbed lancets, 
is the passage to the stomach of the para¬ 
site. The mites are active insects, and pos¬ 
sess great powers of life, resisting, for a 
time, the application of boiling water, and 
living long in alcohol. 

Acastus, son of Pelias, King of Thessaly; 
married Astydamia or Hippolyte, who fell 
in love with Peleus, son of .Eacus, when in 
banishment at her husband’s court. Peleus, 
rejecting the addresses of Hippolyte, was 
accused before Acastus of attempts upon her 
virtue, and soon after, at a chase, exposed 
to wild beasts. Vulcan, by order of Jupiter, 
delivered Peleus, who returned to Thessaly, 
and put to death Acastus and his wife. 

Acca Laurentia, the wife of Faustulus 
the shepherd, and the nurse of Remus and 
Romulus. Some say she was a courtesan, 
and have called her Lupa. The Romans 
made her a goddess, and devoted a holiday 
to her service. 

Accad, one of the four cities which are 
said to have been the beginning of Nimrod’s 
kingdom. (Gen. x: 10.) It is supposed 
that the ruins called Akkerkoof, in Sitta- 
cene, pertain to the ancient Accad. They 
are situated about 9 miles W. of the Tigris, 
at the point where it makes its nearest ap¬ 
proach to the Euphrates. 

Accademia della Crusca.an Italian in¬ 
stitution, founded at Florence by Grazzini 
in 1582, with the object of purifying or sift¬ 
ing the Italian language. It published, in 
1613, the first edition of a dictionary which 
established the Tuscan dialect as the 
standard of the Italian language. It was 
incorporated with the Florentine academy, 
but was revived again early in the 19th cen¬ 
tury. 

Acceleration, in natural philosophy, the 
rate of increase of velocity of a moving 
body in a unit of time. If the acceleration 
is uniform, as in the case of a body falling 
or ascending under the action of gravity, the 
velocity is proportional to the time, and the 
space moved through varies as the square 






Accent 


Accident 


of the time. The acceleration of gravity 
is the increasing rate of motion with which 
a falling body approaches the earth, and is 
reckoned as a little more than 32 feet a 
second. Minus, or negative, acceleration is 
the corresponding loss of motion. In astron¬ 
omy, the secular acceleration of the moon’s 
mean motion is an increase of about 11 
seconds per century in the rapidity of the 
moon’s mean motion. It was discovered by 
Halley and explained by Laplace. Acceler¬ 
ation of the fixed stars is the measure of 
time by which a fixed star daily gains on 
the sun on passing the meridian. A star 
passes the meridian 3 minutes 55.9 seconds 
earlier each day; not that the star’s motion 
is really accelerated; it is that the sun’s 
progress is retarded, as, in addition to his 
apparent diurnal motion through the heav¬ 
ens, he is also making way to the E. at 
the rate of 59 minutes 8.2 seconds a day. 

Accent, that stress or emphasis given by 
the voice to a certain syllable or syllables 
of a word, or to certain notes in a bar of 
music; also, the peculiar intonation of one 
spoken language when compared with an¬ 
other. The term further denotes marks 
used in printing or writing to show the po¬ 
sition of the stress. In a dissyllable there 
is but one accent, as a-back', but in a poly¬ 
syllable there are more than one. In tran- 
substantiation there are properly three — 
tran'-sub-stan'-ti-a'-tion. One of these, how¬ 
ever — that on the fifth syllable, the a just 
before the tion — is greater than the rest, 
and is called the primary accent; the others 
are called secondary. There is a certain an¬ 
alogy between accent and emphasis, empha¬ 
sis doing for whole words or clauses of sen¬ 
tences what accent does for single syllables. 
By a change of stress we often indicate the 
change of an adjective or a noun into a 
verb, as fre'quent (adj.), frequent' (verb) ; 
pro'ject (noun), project' (verb). In an¬ 
cient Greek, accents marked the rise and 
fall in pitch of the voice, and were three in 
number, the acute (&), the grave (a), and 
the circumflex (a or a). The same marks 
are now used in French, though they have 
mostly only historical or etymological in¬ 
terest, and do not indicate a difference in 
pronunciation. A mark similar to the 
acute accent is sometimes used to signify 
stress in English words, chiefly in poetry, 
and one like the grave is used to mark as 
a separate syllable letters otherwise not pro¬ 
nounced so, e. g., learned, abhorred. Marks 
sometimes called accents are used in mathe¬ 
matics, e. g., a' + 5' (read a prime plus b 
prime). Accent in music is the greater in¬ 
tensity given to certain notes, as distin¬ 
guished from their length in time and their 
quality or timbre. In geometry and trigo¬ 
nometry a circle at the right of a figure in¬ 
dicates degrees, one mark, minutes, two 
marks seconds of a degree, as 13° 4' 5". In 

4 


mensuration and engineering, the mark de¬ 
notes feet, inches and lines, as 4' 6" 10'". 

Acceptance, a bill of exchange drawn on 
one who agrees absolutely or conditionally 
to pay it, according to the tenor of the docu¬ 
ment itself. To render it so valid that, if 
the drawee fail to liquidate it, the drawer 
may be charged with costs, the promise of 
the drawer must be in writing under or 
upon the back of the bill. 

Accessory, in law, one who is not the 
chief actor in an offense nor present at its 
commission, but still is connected with it 
in some other way. Accessories may become 
so before the fact or after the fact. Sir 
Matthew Hale defines an accessory before 
the fact as one who, being absent at the time 
of the crime committed, does yet procure, 
counsel, or command another to commit a 
crime. If the procurer be present when the 
evil deed is being done, he is not an ac¬ 
cessory, but a principal. An accessory af¬ 
ter the fact is one who, knowing a felony to 
have been committed, receives, relieves, com¬ 
forts and assists the felon. In high treason 
of a pronounced character there are no ac¬ 
cessories — all are principals. In petit trea¬ 
son, murder, and felonies, there may be 
accessories; except only in those offenses 
which, by judgment of law, are sudden and 
unpremeditated, as manslaughter and the 
like, which, therefore, cannot have any ac¬ 
cessories before the fact. So, too, in petit 
larceny, and in all crimes under the degree 
of felony, there are no accessories either be¬ 
fore or after the fact; but all persons con¬ 
cerned therein, if guilty at all, are prin¬ 
cipals. (Blackstone’s “Commentaries,’’ 
book iv, chap, iii.) 

Acciaioli, Renatus (atch-yl-6'le), a Flor¬ 
entine, who conquered Athens, Corinth, and 
part of Bceotia. Lived in the beginning of 
the 15th century. He bequeathed Athens to 
the Venetians; Corinth to Theodosius Paleo- 
logus, who married his eldest daughter; and 
Bceotia, with Thebes, to his natural son An¬ 
thony, who also got Athens; but this was 
retaken in 1455 by Mohammed II. 

Accident, an unforeseen occurrence, par¬ 
ticularly if it be of a calamitous character. 
This is the most common use of the word. 

In logic: (a) Whatever does not really 
constitute an essential part of a person or 
thing; as the clothes one wears, the saddle 
on a horse, etc. (b) The qualities or attrib¬ 
utes of a person or thing, as opposed to the 
substance. Thus bitterness, hardness, etc., 
are attributes, and not part of the substance 
in which they inhere, (c) That which may 
be absent from anything, leaving its essence 
still unimpaired. Thus a rose might be 
white without its ceasing to be a rose, be¬ 
cause color in the flowers of that genus is 
not essential to their character. 

Accidents, in logic, are of two kinds 



Accipiter 


Acclimatization 


separable and inseparable. If walking be 
the accident of a particular man, it is a 
separable one, for he would not cease to be 
that man though he stood still; while, on the 
contrary, if Spaniard is the accident con¬ 
nected with him, it is an inseparable one, 
since he never can cease to be, ethnologically 
considered, what he was born. (Whately's 
“Logic,” book ii, chap, v, § 4.) 

In grammar, a property attached to a 
word which nevertheless does not enter into 
its essential definition. Each species of 
word has its accidents: thus those of the 
noun substantive are gender, declension, and 
number. Comparison in an adjective is also 
an accident. 

In heraldry, an additional note or mark 
on a coat of armor, which may be omitted 
or retained without altering its essential 
character. 

In medicine, a symptom of a disease. 

Accipiter, a genus of raptorial birds be¬ 
longing to the family falconidce. It is from 
this genus that the whole order is frequently 
called accipiters. Formerly the genus ac¬ 
cipiter contained, as among the ancient Ro¬ 
mans, both the sparrow-hawk and the gos¬ 
hawk, but now only the former is retained 
in it, the goshawk receiving the name of 
Astur palumbarius. The word is also ap¬ 
plied to a bandage applied over the nose; 
so called from its likeness to the claw of a 
hawk. 

Accipitrinze, sparrow hawks, a family 
of raptorial birds. Type, accipiter. 

Accius or Attius, Lucius, a Latin tragic 
poet, born about 170 b. c. He took most of 
his themes from Grecian history and mythol¬ 
ogy, but in some instances lie dramatized 
scenes from the history of Rome — for ex¬ 
ample, in his tragedy of “ Brutus; ” but 
only fragments of his works remain. 

Acclimatization, the process of accus¬ 
toming plants or animals to live and propa¬ 
gate in a climate different from that to 
which they are indigenous. The word ac¬ 
climation has been used to signify the 
change which an organism undergoes on 
being subjected to a new climate, and ac- 
climatation to signify the process through 
which the change is produced. Acclimatiza¬ 
tion is an acclimation so conducted as to 
adapt the organism permanently to its new 
home. These words have been found fault 
with on the ground that the influences to 
which an organism is subjected from change 
of locality are not wholly due to climate. 
But besides the influences which are wholly 
due to climate, there are others which are 
indirectly affected by it, such as food, and 
as climate may fairly be taken as represen¬ 
tative of local influences, no great inac¬ 
curacy can result from using it in this 
sense. The word naturalization has been 
suggested instead of acclimatization, but it 
is more properly applied to the case of ani¬ 


mals or plants taking readily to a new coun¬ 
try with a climate and other circumstances 
similar to what they have left. European ani¬ 
mals, such as horses and cattle, have been 
naturalized without difficulty in America, 
and the rat, rabbit, and pig, with several 
kinds of English birds, in various places, 
without any evidence of acclimatization. 
Similar instances occur among plants, as 
with thistles in New Zealand. Cultivated 
plants, on the other hand, are said to be 
acclimatized when they can be propagated 
without artificial protection, although they 
will not propagate themselves, and even if 
they are sown wild they will not spread in 
the country to which they have been intro¬ 
duced. 

The possibility of acclimatization has 
been denied by some authorities, but this 
seems an extreme position, and can hardly 
be maintained except by denying to a large 
extent the need of acclimatization, on the 
hypothesis, that is to say, that as some 
plants and animals are much more widely 
spread than others, they have had originally 
a wider adaptation which the others are in¬ 
capable of acquiring. To the extent that cli¬ 
matic influences develop qualities in plants 
and animals which cannot be maintained 
without these influences, this hypothesis 
may be true. The general character of the 
plants of the tropics, for example, differs 
widely from that of the plants of the tem¬ 
perate regions, and these again differ as 
widely from those of the polar regions, and 
no amount of acclimatization would trans¬ 
fer the distinctive characters of the vegeta¬ 
tion of one of these regions to any of the 
others. 

This principle implies a limit to the 
power of acclimatization which requires 
to be borne in mind and applied in cases 
of attempted acclimatization, otherwise 
much labor may be thrown away. The 
clothing of certain animals and the quali¬ 
ties of certain plants depend upon climate, 
and when it is attempted to transfer such 
animals or plants they at once begin to 
undergo modifications. The special qual¬ 
ities on which they were valued become 
feebler from the first, and gradually cease 
to distinguish them to an appreciable ex¬ 
tent. If acclimatization is attempted for 
the sake of such qualities, the partial and 
temporary effect is all the gain that can be 
counted on from the mere naturalization of 
the foreign species. Continued attention 
and cultivation may, indeed, do something 
more toward retaining the exotic qualities, 
but in this case acclimatization cannot be 
considered as complete, and continued labor 
must be counted on as one of the condi¬ 
tions of success. If by acclimatization, 
however, we understand merely the success¬ 
ful introduction of a new race into a cli¬ 
mate where it has not before been propa¬ 
gated, with such modifications of qualities 
as conduces to the success of its propaga- 



Acclimatization 


Acclimatization 


tion, there seems no reason to doubt either 
the possibility of the process or the benefits 
which may be derived from well-directed 
efforts to promote it. The migrations of the 
human race afford the first instance of suc¬ 
cessful acclimatization. If we regard the 
whole of mankind as one family we find 
that by extensive modifications they have 
been enabled to extend over the whole 
world, living in regions the most opposed in 
respect to climatic influences. If we do not 
regard mankind as a single race there are 
historical instances of migrations less ex¬ 
tensive, yet sufficient to prove both climatic 
influence and the power of adaptation to it. 
The Jews, who have preserved their purity 
of race with scrupulous care, may be taken 
as an example. 

If any annals had been kept of the 
diffusion of plants and animals, even within 
historical times, many illustrations would 
no doubt have been afforded both of the 
natural mode and duration of the process 
and of the effects of acclimatization. But 
the records of this kind are comparatively 
few. Next to man domestic animals, such 
as the horse, the ox, the dog, the sheep, 
and the various species of poultry, afford 
the best illustrations of adaptation. The 
grain which is cultivated in almost every 
country is indigenous to very few, and the 
vine, the olive, and other fruit trees have, 
within historical times, been introduced into 
Europe from the East. In times which are 
comparatively recent the cultivation of the 
silk-worm has traveled from China to 
France. 

The systematic study of acclimatization 
has only been entered upon in very recent 
times, and the little progress that has been 
made in it has been more in the direction of 
formulating anticipative, if not arbitrary 
hypotheses, than of actual discovery of the 
silent course of nature. The attention of 
experimenters has been directed, first, to 
the modifying effects of climate on individ¬ 
uals. 

The theory of Herbert Spencer is that 
every organ and function of a living animal 
undergoes modification under new condi¬ 
tions, generally in the direction of adapta¬ 
tion to those conditions. But the observed 
modifying effects of climate on individuals 
in the direction of acclimatization are so 
slight that it is on this ground some ob¬ 
servers have denied the existence of any 
such thing at all. If, however, there is any 
truth in the observations on which the pos¬ 
sibility of acclimatization rest, there must 
be such effects, however slight. If the first 
individuals submitted to the effects of a 
hostile climate sustained no modification 
adapting them to it, it cannot be supposed 
that such an effect would be produced in the 
mere act of generation, and consequently 
the second race would be no better adapted 
to stand the climate, and would have no 


more tendency to receive adaptive modifi¬ 
cations than the first. Plants, which are 
commonly much more limited in their nat¬ 
ural range than the higher animals, are also 
in some respects more amenable to acclima¬ 
tization. By means of propagation by cut¬ 
tings, etc., the life of the individual can be 
indefinitely prolonged, and Mr. Darwin be¬ 
lieves that indications of adaptation to cli¬ 
mate can be established in the case of 
plants propagated in this way. In regions 
where the same species of plants or animals 
are widely diffused, varieties, often seem¬ 
ingly arbitrary, are found to distinguish 
particular localities, and though the nature 
of the variation may seem to have no con¬ 
nection with soil or climate, each variety 
is usually found best adapted to its own 
situation. The existence of a power of 
adaptation would seem by such facts to be 
established, but whether as generally as is 
assumed by Mr. Spencer is altogether an¬ 
other question. 

Assuming a positive modifying influence 
of climate and the accompanying circum¬ 
stances of change of situation, there is an 
indirect way in which, when acclimatization 
is attempted on a large scale, climatic in¬ 
fluences cooperate to promote it, namely, 
by killing off the individuals, whether of the 
original stock or the succeeding genera¬ 
tions, least adapted by constitution to un¬ 
dergo the necessary adaptation. This is 
the principle of natural selection. The 
natural process of adaptation is, however, 
so slow and uncertain — that is to say, 
when it is applied arbitrarily, when the 
place from which the organisms to be ac¬ 
climatized are to come and the place where 
they are to go are selected by human agents 
for their own ends — that various means 
have been tried to facilitate the process. 
The object of these means is, of course, to 
utilize all the agents which nature employs 
to the full extent of their capability, in¬ 
stead of leaving their utilization or non¬ 
utilization to the control of fortuitous cir¬ 
cumstances. 

The two most important means hitherto 
employed for facilitating acclimatization 
are the selection of favorable varieties and 
the interposition of intermediate acclimati¬ 
zation. 

The selection of varieties is the means 
by which breeding or propagating is made 
subservient to acclimatization. The theory 
upon which the selection rests is that the 
offspring of two parents bear a general re¬ 
semblance to their parents, with certain spe¬ 
cific or individual differences, which differ¬ 
ences, in their turn, as well as the general 
resemblance, are capable of being trans¬ 
mitted by generation. The breeder or prop¬ 
agator has no control over the differences 
thus naturally produced in generation. 
They may or may not be in the direction he 
wishes. But out of a given number of in¬ 
dividual varieties which have a natural 



Accolade 


Acephall 


tendency to diverge in all directions some 
will be more suitable for a specific purpose 
than others, or even than the parent which 
is held to occupy the central position. By 
selecting, then, the most favorable varieties 
for breeding, a succeeding race will be got 
having the desired qualities in a higher 
measure than their ancestors, and these 
again, it is said, will form the center of a 
new series, some of which will extend still 
further in the direction of the qualities it 
is desired to cultivate, and which may thus 
be further improved by each successive se¬ 
lection. Some naturalists hold the possi¬ 
bilities of the extension of breeding in this 
way in a given direction, that is, of the 
development in a successive series of organ¬ 
isms of particular qualities or organs in 
preferences to others, to be indefinitely 
great, or even absolutely unlimited; others 
hold them to be strictly limited by species. 
The numerous varieties which many species 
of plants and animals present are sufficient 
in any view to afford considerable scope for 
adaptation to climate, to which accordingly 
they may be made by judicious selection to 
contribute. See Darwinian Theory. 

Accolade, in heraldry, the ceremony by 
which in mediaeval times one was dubbed 
a knight. On the question what this was, 
antiquaries are not agreed. It has been 
made an embrace round the neck, a kiss, or 
a slight blow upon the cheek or shoulder. 
In conferring knighthood, Queen Victoria 
struck the kneeling subject lightly on the 
shoulder with a sword and used the words 
“ I bid thee rise. Sir Knight.” 

Accolti, Bernardo (ftk-kol'te), an Italian 
poet (1465-1535). Greatly admired by his 
contemporaries, especially for his brilliant 
gift as an improviser, he was styled “ The 
Only (one) of Arezzo” (L’Unico Aretino). 
Leo X. esteemed him highly, and made him 
apostolic secretary, cardinal, and papal le¬ 
gate at Ancona. He drew up the papal 
bull against Luther (1520). 

Accommodation, the process by which 
the mind is brought into adjustment with 
its surroundings; adaptation. 

In physiology, the accommodation of the 
eye is that function of the eye by which 
objects, whether near or distant, may be 
seen distinctly. It is accomplished by the 
relaxing or contracting of the ciliary mus¬ 
cle. 

In biology, the process by which an or¬ 
ganism becomes adapted to its environment, 
or to the conditions by which it is sur¬ 
rounded. 

In commerce, it usually denotes tempor¬ 
ary financial assistance rendered by one 
merchant or bank to another. 

Accordion, a well-known keyed instru¬ 
ment with metallic reeds. The sounds are 
produced by the vibration of the several 
metallic tongues, which are of different sizes, 


air being meanwhile supplied by the move¬ 
ment of the opposite sides of the instru¬ 
ment, so as to constitute a bellows. The 
accordion was introduced into America from 
Germany about 1828. Improvements have 
been made on it in the flutina, the organ- 
accordion, and the concertina. 

Account, in banking, commerce, law, and 
ordinary language, a registry of pecuniary 
transactions; such a record as is kept by 
merchants, by housewives, and by all pru¬ 
dent people, with the view of, day by day, 
ascertaining their financial position. A bill 
or paper sent in by tradespeople to those 
who do not pay for goods on delivery. In 
it is entered the name of the debtor, each 
item of his debt, and the sum of the whole. 

To open an account is to begin pecuniary 
transactions with, so that one’s name is 
entered for the first time in the books of 
the banker or merchant. 

An open account, or an account current, is, 
commercially, one in which the balance has 
not been struck; in banking, it is one which 
may be added to or drawn upon at any time, 
as opposed to a deposit account, where no¬ 
tice is required for withdrawals. To keep 
an open account is to keep an account of 
the kind now stated running on, instead of 
closing it. A stated account is one which 
all parties have, either expressly or by im¬ 
plication, admitted to be correct. 

Accumulator, Electrical. See Elec¬ 
trical Accumulator. 

Aceldama, a field purchased by the Jew¬ 
ish chief priests and elders with the 30 
pieces of silver returned by Judas. It was 
used as a place of interment for strangers. 
The traditionary site is on a small plateau 
half way up the southern slope of the val¬ 
ley of Hinnom, near the junction of the 
latter with the valley of Jehoshaphat. (See 
Matt, xxvii: 3-10; Acts i: 18, 19.) 

Acephala, or Acephalans, the fourth class 
of Cuvier’s great division or sub-kingdom 
of the animal creation, called mollusca. 
He included under it two orders — the tcs- 
tacea, or acephalans, with shells, generally 
bivalve, and the nuda, or naked acephalans, 
without shells. The class was a natural 
one, but the name was objectionable, inas¬ 
much as the mollusks of the class brachi- 
opoda are also without apparent heads. 
Hence, new names have been found for the 
acephala, viz., concliifera and lamelli- 
branchia. 

Acephali, in civil history, certain level- 
ers, in the reign of Henry I. of England, who 
acknowledged no head or emperor. 

In Church history (a) the name applied 
to those who, on occasion of a dispute which 
arose in the Council of Ephesus, a. n. 431, 
refused to follow either John of Antioch or 
Cyril of Alexandria. (b) The name ap¬ 
plied, in the 5th and 6th centuries, to a 



Acer 


Acetones 


large section of the followers of the Mon- 
ophysite, Peter Mongus, who cast him off 
as their leader because of his accepting a 
peaceful formula, called the Henoticon. 
They soon afterward split into three par¬ 
ties, the Anthropomorphites, the Barsanu- 
phites, and the Essianists, who again gave 
origin to other sects, (c) Bishops exempt 
from the jurisdiction and discipline of a 
patriarch. 

Acer, a genus of arborescent or shrubby 
plants, order accrinece, many of which 
are extremely valuable for the sake either 
of their timber, or of their ornamental ap¬ 
pearance. The acer rubrum, or red maple, 
is a tree 50 feet in height, very common in 
low woods throughout the Atlantic States. 
Its trunk is covered with smooth bark, 
marked with large white spots, becoming 
dark with age. In spring its appearance is 
remarkable for the deep crimson flowers 
with which it is thickly clothed. The wood, 
particularly that of the variety called curled 
maple, is much used in cabinet work. The 
acer saccharinum, or sugar tree, is a tree 
70 feet in height, 3 feet in diameter, found 
throughout the United States, and consti¬ 
tuting the greater part of some of the for¬ 
ests of New England. The wood is hard 
and has a satin lustre, but it is readily at¬ 
tacked by insects, and is not of much value, 
except when its grain is accidentally waved, 
and then it is in request for the cabinet¬ 
makers. The branches become numerous 
and finely ramified in open situations, and 
in summer are clothed with a foliage of un¬ 
common luxuriance and beauty. The flow¬ 
ers are very abundant, and, suspended on 
long, thread-like pedicels, are most delicately 
beautiful. The saccharine matter contained 
in its ascending sap, obtained by tapping 
the trunk in the spring, is perhaps the most 
delicious of all sweets; an ordinary tree 
yields from 5 to 10 pounds in a season. 
The acer Pennsylvanicum, or whistle-wood, 
is a small tree or shrub, 10 to 15 feet high, 
very common in the northern woods of the 
United States; prized in Europe in orna¬ 
mental gardening. The bark is smooth, and 
beautifully striped lengthwise with green 
and black. Flowers large, yellowish-green, 
succeeded by long clusters of fruit, with 
pale-green wings. 

Aceraceae, Acerineae (De Candolle), or 
Acera (Jussieu), a natural order of poly- 
petalous exogenous plants, consisting of 
trees with simple leaves; flowers with eight 
stamens; a samaroid, two-celled fruit, and 
the inflorescence in axillary corymbs or 
racemes. In 1845 Bindley estimated the 
known species at 60. They are spread over 
the temperate parts of the northern hemi¬ 
sphere. 

Acestes, or /Egestus, son of Crinisus and 
iEgesta, and king of the country near Dre- 
panum, in Sicily. He assisted Priam in 


the Trojan war, entertained /Eneas during 
his voyage, and helped him to bury his 
father on Mount Eryx. In commemoration 
of this, /Eneas built a city there, and called 
it Acesta. 

Acetic Acid, the acid which imparts sour¬ 
ness to vinegar, vinegar being simply acetic 
acid diluted, tinged with color, and slightly 
mingled with other impurities. The for¬ 
mula of acetic acid is 

CJT,0(OH),or F C f ^[,or C ^*° j O 

= methyl-formic acid. It is formed by the 
acetous fermentation of alcohol. Acetic acid 
is a monatomic monobasic acid. Its salts 
are called acetates. A molecule of acetic 
acid can also unite with normal acetates 
like water of crystallization. Its principal 
salts are those of potassium, sodium, and 
ammonium, a solution of which is called 
spiritus mindereri. The acetates of barium 
and calcium are very soluble. Aluminum 
acetate is used in dj^eing. Lead acetate is 
called sugar of lead, from its sweet taste. 
It dissolves in 1% parts of cold water; it 
also dissolves oxide of lead, forming a basic 
acetate of lead. Basic cupric acetate is 
called verdigris. Acetic acid below 15.5° 
forms colorless transparent crystals (glacial 
acetic acid), which melt into a thin, color¬ 
less, pungent, strongly acid liquid, soluble 
in alcohol, ether, and water. It boils at 
118°. Its vapor is inflammable. 

Pyroligneous acid is impure acetic acid, 
formed bv the destructive distillation, at 
red heat, of dry hard wood, as oak and beech. 

Acetic Ethers [example, ethyl acetate, 


are formed by replacing the typical H in 
acetic acid by a radical of an alcohol, as 
ethyl, etc. Ethyl acetate is a fragrant 
liquid, sp. gr. 0.890, boils at 74°; methyl 
acetate boils at 56°. 

Acetones, or Ketones, are the aldehydes 
of secondary alcohols (see Alcohol). Thus 
secondary propyl alcohol, when oxidized, 
loses two atoms of hydrogen, and gives 
dimethyl ketone, ordinarily known as 
acetone. 

Secondary Propyl Alcohol. Acetone. 

CH S - CHOH - CH 3 - H 2 = CH 3 - CO - CH 3 . 
A series of such acetones is known, of which 
acetone is typical. It may be prepared by 
distilling acetate of calcium. It is a limpid 
liquid, having a taste like that of pepper¬ 
mint, and is readily soluble in alcohol, ether 
and water. Its sp. gr. is about .79, its 
boiling point being 130° F. (56° C.). It 
has recently been used in America for the 
manufacture of chloroform, which is ob¬ 
tained from it by distillation with bleach- 
ing-powder. It is a solvent for gums and 
resins, as well as for gun-cotton. 




Acetylene 


Achard 


Acetylene, a hydrocarbon having the for¬ 
mula C 2 H 2 , also called ethine. The carbon 
atoms are united to each other by three 
bonds. It is produced by passing an elec¬ 
tric current between carbon poles in an 
atmosphere of hydrogen, and also by the 
incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. It 
is a colorless gas, specific gravity, 0.92, has a 
peculiar odor, and burns with a bright flame; 
it forms a red precipitate with ammoniacal 
cuprous chloride, which, by the action of 
nascent hydrogen, is converted into ethy¬ 
lene, C 3 H 4 . 

Acetylene Gas, an illuminating gas formed 
by the action of water on Calcium Carbide 
(q. v.). This gas has come into general 
favor with cyclists for its brilliancy, safety 
and the persistence of its flame in all cir¬ 
cumstances. Recent experiments made to 
produce cheaper calcium carbide, by a new 
process, resulted in demonstrating that it 
can be produced at a cost of from half a 
cent to three cents a pound, or one-fifth its 
original cost. This will bring acetylene gas 
within the reach of every one, and it will 
probably eventually supersede other gas 
and electric lights. One kilogram of cal¬ 
cium carbide produces about 300 litres of 
acetylene gas. Acetylene takes fire at 480° 
Cent.; at 700° it decomposes into car¬ 
bonic acid and hydrogen. It explodes when 
it is mixed with from 35 to 97 per cent, of 
atmospheric air. In liquid form it is al¬ 
most as dangerous as dynamite, and in 
many countries its transportation is forbid¬ 
den. With copper, it forms explosive com¬ 
binations. For use in motors, a mixture 
of 10 volumes of acetylene and 12 volumes 
of atmospheric air is most advantageous. 

Acetylene Lamp, a lamp designed for 
utilizing acetylene as an illuminant. Acety¬ 
lene lamps have come into general use 
among cyclists. In some of the lamps, car¬ 
tridges filled with calcium carbide are used, 
and the dropping of the water into the car¬ 
tridge is regulated by an adjustable valve. 
The acetylene flame is very brilliant, and 
much more difficult to extinguish by force 
of wind, or shock, than an oil flame. These 
properties render it very valuable as a bi¬ 
cycle illuminant. 

Achaea (ak-a'a, or ak-Ta), a surname 
of Pallas, whose temple in Dauma was de¬ 
fended by dogs who fawned upon the Greeks, 
but fiercely attacked all other persons. A 
name applied to Ceres, and derived from 
achos, a word expressive of her grief for 
the loss of her daughter, Proserpine. 

Achaea, a Greek province. See Aciiaia. 

Achaeans, a generic term employed by 
Homer to designate the whole Hellenic host 
before Troy, from their mythological ances¬ 
tor, Achseus, grandson of Helen. 

Achaei (ak-a-e, or ak-i'e), the descend¬ 
ants of Achseus, the son of Xuthus, and 


grandson of Helen. Achaeus, having commit¬ 
ted manslaughter, was compelled to take 
refuge in Laconia, where he died, and where 
his posterity remained under the name of 
Achaei, until they were expelled by the 
Heraclidse. Upon this, they passed into the 
northern parts of Peloponnesus, and, under 
the command of Tisamenus, the son of Ores¬ 
tes, took possession of the country of the 
lonians, and called it Achaia. The suc¬ 
cessors of Tisamenus ruled until the time 
of Gyges’ tyranny, when Achaia was par¬ 
celed into 12 small republics. Three of 
these — Patrse, Dymfe, and Pharae — became 
famous as a confederacy, 284 years b. c., 
which continued formidable upward of 130 
years,under the name of the Achaean League, 
and was most illustrious whilst supported 
by the splendid virtues and abilities of 
Aratus and Philopcemen. They directed 
their arms for three years against the 
vEtolians, and rose to be powerful by the 
accession of neighboring states, and freed 
their country from foreign slavery. At last, 
however, they were attacked by the Romans, 
and, after one year’s hostilities, the Achaean 
League was totally destroyed, b. c. 147. 
From this period the Peloponnesus was re¬ 
duced to the condition of a Roman province, 
bearing the name of Achaia. The name of 
Achaei is generally applied to all the Greeks 
indiscriminately by the poets. 

Achaia, a small Greek district lying along 
the N. coast of the Peloponnesus. Achaia 
forms, along with Elis, a department in the 
modern kingdom, and its chief town is 
Patras. As the Achaians (Achaeans) were 
the ruling people of the Peloponnesus in 
heroic times, Homer speaks of the Greeks 
generally as Achaioi. Their 12 little towns 
formed *a confederacy, renewed in 281 b. c., 
and subsequently extended, under the name 
of the Achaean League, throughout Greece, 
until 146 b. c., when Greek liberty fell un¬ 
der the power of Rome. 

Achard, Franz Karl (ach'art), a German 
chemist, born in Berlin in 1754. He devoted 
himself to the development of the beet-sugar 
manufacture, and, after six years of "la¬ 
borious endeavor, he discovered the true 
method of separating the sugar from the 
plant. He was appointed director of the 
class of physics in the Academy of Science, 
in Berlin, and died in 1821. 

Achard, Louis Amedee (a-shar'), a 
French novelist and publicist, born in 1814. 
Originally a merchant, he became a contrib¬ 
utor to several papers in Paris in 1838. Af¬ 
ter the revolution of 1848 he was for a time 
active as a political writer in support of the 
royalist cause. From 1848to 1872 the “Revue 
des Deux Mondes ” brought out a new story 
from his pen almost every year. He depicts 
pre-eminently conflicts in family life and so¬ 
ciety. “Parisian Letters” (1838, under 
the pseudonym “ Grimm ” 1 made his reDU- 



Acharnae 


Achilles Tatius 


tation; his other works are “Belle Rose” 
(1847) ; “The Royal Chase” (1849-1850) ; 
“Castles in Spain” (1854), a collection of 
stories; “ The Shirt of Nessus ” (1855), etc. 
He died in 1875. 

Acharn^, a large town of Attica, where 
the Tyrans encamped when they marched 
against Trasybulus, and where the Lacedse- 
inonians, under their king, Archidamus, 
pitched their tents when they made an ir¬ 
ruption into Attica at the beginning of the 
Peloponnesian war. Aristophanes, in the 
comedy which takes its title from this town, 
represents the inhabitants as charcoal-mak¬ 
ers ; and other comic writers stigmatize them 
as rough and boorish. 

Achates, a friend of iEneas, whose fidel¬ 
ity was so exemplary that fid us Achates 
(the faithful Achates) became a proverb. 

Acheen. See Atcheen. 

Achelous (ak-el-o'us or ak-el-os'), the 
son of Oceanus and Terra, or Tetliys, god of 
the river of the same name in Epirus. As 
one of the numerous suitors of Dejanira, 
daughter of /Eneus, Achelous entered the 
lists against Hercules, and, being inferior, 
changed himself into a serpent, and after¬ 
ward into an ox. Hercules broke off one 
of his horns, and Achelous, being defeated, 
retired into his bed of water. The broken 
horn was given to the goddess of plenty. 

Achenwoll, Gottfried, a German scholar, 
born in Elbing, Prussia, Oct. 20, 1719; be¬ 
came professor at the University of Gottin¬ 
gen, first of philosophy and afterward of 
law; is regarded as the founder of the sci¬ 
ence of statistics. He died in Gottingen, 
May 1, 1772. 

Acheron, the river of sorrow, which 
flowed round the infernal realms of Hades, 
according to the mythology of the ancients. 
There was a river of Thesprotia, in Epirus, 
of the same name, and also one in Italy, 
near which Alexander, king of the Molossi, 
was slain; both of which, from the unwhole¬ 
some and foul nature of their waters, were 
supposed to communicate with the infernal 
stream. 

Acherusia, a lake of Campania, near 
Capua. Diodorus mentions that, in Egypt, 
the bodies of the dead were conveyed over a 
lake called Acherusia, and received sentence 
according to the actions of their lives. The 
boat which carried them was called Baris, 
and the ferryman Charon. Hence arose the 
fable of Charon and the Styx, etc. 

Achillea (ak-il-e'a), a genus of plants be¬ 
longing to the order asteraccce. The achillea 
millefolium, commonly called the yarrow, or 
milfoil, is common in fields in the northern 
states. Its white or rose-colored flowers 
adorn many of our meadows, particularly 
those with siliceous soils, from June to Sep¬ 
tember. From these flowers, which are oc¬ 


casionally substituted for hops in brewing, 
an essential oil is obtained, and an infusion 
of the leaves and flowering heads is said to 
be a valuable stomachic. The pretty garden 
plant known as white bachelor's button is 
a cultivated variety of a species of achillea. 
The generic name is derived from Achillee, 
who is said to have discovered the medicinal 
properties of the milfoil while studying bot¬ 
any under Chiron, the fabulous centaur. 

Achilles (ak-il 'ez), son of Peleus, king of 
the Myrmidons, in Thessaly, and of Thetis, 
daughter of Nereus. Fate had decreed that, 
if he fell before Troy, he should gain ever¬ 
lasting renown; if he returned home, he 
should enjoy a long, but inglorious, life. He 
chose the former alternative, and joined the 
Grecian army, in which he was pre-eminent 
in valor, strength, swiftness and beauty. 
During the first 
nine years of the 
war we have no 
minute detail of 
his actions; in the 
tenth, a quarrel 
broke out between 
him and the gen¬ 
eral-in-chief, Aga¬ 
memnon, which 
led him to with¬ 
draw entirely 
from the contest. 

In consequence, 
the Trojans, who 
before scarcely 
ventured without 
their walls, now 
waged battle i 
the plain with 
various issue, till achilles. 

they reduced the 

Greeks to extreme distress. The Greek 
council of war now sent its most in¬ 
fluential members to soothe the anger 
of Achilles, and to induce him to re¬ 
turn to arms, but without effect. Rage and 
grief, caused by the death of his friend Pa- 
troclus, slain by Hector, induced Achilles to 
return to battle. Thetis procured from He- 
phrestus a fresh suit of armor for her son, 
who, at the close of a day of slaughter, 
killed Hector, and dragged him at his cha¬ 
riot wheels to the camp. Here ends the his¬ 
tory of Achilles, so far as it is derived from 
Homer. By later authors, a variety of fable 
is mixed up with this simple narrative. 
Thetis is said to have dipped him, while an 
infant, in the Styx, which rendered him in¬ 
vulnerable except in the heel by which she 
held him, and he was killed at last by a 
wound in the heel. 

Achilles Tatius (a-kil'ez ta'shi-us), a 
Greek writer of romances; born at Alexan¬ 
dria; flourished in the 5th century of our 
era. He wrote “ The Loves of Clitophon 
and Leucippe,” an erotic story in florid 









Achilles Tendt> 


Achromatic 


style, and without much regard to unity or 
consistency of plot. That the story was 
very popular in its day is proved by the 
number of copies of it that are still in MSS. 
An English translation by Anthony Hodges 
was published in 1G38. 

Achiliis Tendo, a tendon, so called be¬ 
cause, as fable reports, Thetis, the mother 
of Achill es, held him by that part when she 
dipped him in the river Styx to make him 
invulnerable. It is the strong and powerful 
tendon of the heel, which is formed by the 
junction of divers muscles, and which ex¬ 
tends from the calf to the heel. When this 
tendon is unfortunately cut or ruptured, as 
it may be in consequence of a violent exer¬ 
tion or spasm of the muscles of which it is 
a continuation, the use of the leg is imme¬ 
diately lost; and, unless the part be after¬ 
ward successfully united, the patient will 
remain a cripple for life. The. indications 
are to bring the ends of the divided parts 
together, and to keep them so until they 
have become firmly united. 

Achmet I. (afih'met), Emperor of the 
Turks, who succeeded his father, Mahomet 
III., in 1G03. He was then only 15, and 
began his reign by endeavoring to suppress 
a rebellion, which lasted two years. He 
next engaged in a war with the Germans, 
in which he was assisted by the famous 
Bethlem Gabor. Peace was concluded in 
1606, but he continued to be disturbed by 
insurrections, and the security of his throne 
was threatened by a pretender to his right¬ 
ful inheritance. He indulged in sensual 
pleasures and in field sports; but, though 
proud and ambitious, was less sanguinary 
than his predecessors. He died in 1617. 

Achmet II., successor to his brother Soly- 
man in 1691. He died in 1695. 

Achmet III., son of Mahomet IV.; as¬ 
cended the imperial throne in 1703, on the 
deposition of his brother, Mustapha II. He 
sheltered Charles XII. of Sweden after the 
battle of Pultowa, and declared war against 
the Russians, but, soon after, concluded an 
advantageous peace. He likewise made war 
on the Venetians, and recovered from them 
the Morea; but in an attack on Hungary 
his army was defeated by Prince Eugene, in 
1716, at the battle of Peterwardein. Ach¬ 
met was dethroned in 1730. He died in 
prison in 1736. 

Achmet Pasha, a Turkish general under 
Solyman the Magnificent. He compelled the 
Knights Hospitallers to evacuate Rhodes, af¬ 
ter a desperate siege, in 1522. Sent to 
Egypt to suppress a rebellion, he assumed 
the insignia of royalty. His treason was 
promptly punished. He was stifled in a 
bath, and his head was sent to the Sultan. 

Achmet Tewfik Pasha, a Turkish states¬ 
man, born in 1818, at Constantinople. His 
father was a Greek convert; his mother was 


a Jewess. He was educated at Paris; re¬ 
turned to Constantinople and received a 
place in the bureau of translation. In 
1847 he began to publish a statistical year¬ 
book concerning Turkey. He was appointed 
commander for the Porte, and displayed 
great diplomatic talent, and was sent, in 
1851, as Ambassador to Persia. On his re¬ 
turn he became a member of the State 
Council and of the military council. He 
was regarded as one of the leaders in the 
Turkish reform party. In 1857 he was 
minister of justice. In 1860 and 1861 he 
was Ambassador to Paris, where he won the 
dislike of the court on account of his ear¬ 
nest protest against the Assyrian expedi¬ 
tion. In 1863 he was deposed from his new 
office in the ministry and devoted himself 
to learned studies. He translated Moli6re 
into Turkish, and wrote a geographical text¬ 
book for schools. In 1877 the Sultan ap¬ 
pointed him President of the first Turkish 
Chamber of Deputies; then he became Gov¬ 
ernor-General of Adrianople, and showed 
himself a stern ruler in the war of 1877. 
In 1878 he was Premier and signed the Peace 
of Santo Stefano. He died in June, 1891. 

Achromatic, in optics, colorless. 

Achromatic Telescope .— The name given 
by Dr. Bevis to an improved form of the 
refracting telescope constructed by Dollond 
in 1761. When a single lens is used for the 
object glass of a telescope, the image of the 
object is fringed with color, and, hence, high 
magnifying powers cannot be used, unless 
the focal length of the lens is very consider¬ 
able. Sir Isaac Newton, from experiments 
made on the refrangibility of light, had er¬ 
roneously concluded that the size of the ob¬ 
ject glasses of refracting telescopes could 
not be enlarged beyond three or four inches. 
For this reason he turned his attention to 
reflected light, in which the image of the 
object is uncolored. Reflecting telescopes of 
the Gregorian form were from Newton’s 
time generally used. In the middle of the 
18th century, Dollond, a Spitalfields weaver, 
undertook a course of experiments with the 
object of ascertaining the correctness of 
Newton’s statements. His researches were 
rewarded by the valuable discovery that by 
using two different kinds of glass, and giv¬ 
ing to the surfaces of each lens a different 
curvature — the focal lengths of the two 
lenses being in a certain ratio — an image 
of the object could be obtained free from 
color; while, by a skillful arrangement of 
the radii of the surfaces of each glass, the 
errors arising from spherical aberration 
could be entirely removed. In the early 
telescopes made by Dollond and his son 
Peter, the object glass was usually a double 
concave lens of flint enclosed between two 
convex glasses of crown; but modern object 
glasses have only a concave lens of flint com¬ 
bined with a convex of crown or plate. A 




Achsharumov 


Acids 


century ago flint glass of a size suitable for 
large telescopes could not be obtained; but 
more recently the removal of the excise duty, 
and the success attained by Guinand and 
others in glass manufacture, has enabled 
English and foreign opticians to construct 
achromatic telescopes of considerable magni¬ 
tude, with object glasses of 12, 15, and even 
26 inches diameter, the area of aperture hav¬ 
ing the property of increasing in a consider¬ 
able ratio the power of the telescope to 
penetrate into space and render visible the 
minutest objects. Achromatic telescopes, 
from their convenient size and comparative 
cheapness, have been, and still are, generally 
used by astronomers in Great Britain, 
Europe and America, and by their aid many 
modern discoveries have been made. So per¬ 
fect is the image formed by a well-corrected 
achromatic object glass that almost any 
magnifying power can be applied; and thus 
a telescope of this form three or four feet 
in length is superior in its definition and 
surpasses in magnifying power one of the 
old unwieldly telescopes 100 feet long. The 
eyeglasses of the telescope also require to 
be free from color and aberration, and the 
correction of these defects is accomplished 
by an arrangement of the lenses forming 
the eye piece. 

Achromatic Microscope .— In a compound 
microscope, an image of the object is first 
formed by the objective, and afterward en¬ 
larged by the lenses constituting the eye¬ 
piece. Till about the year 1830, the object- 
glasses of microscopes were mostly formed 
of single or combined lenses, the apertures 
of which, in order to obtain a distinct image 
of the object, were exceedingly small. The 
labors of modern opticians to adapt the 
achromatic principle to compound micro¬ 
scopes were rewarded by the construction 
of lenses in which the images of objects were 
rendered distinct in their minute details, 
even when high magnifying powers were ap¬ 
plied. In a modern microscopic objective, 
not only is the color corrected and the image 
free from distortion, but, by an increase in 
the angle of aperture, the penetrating power 
of the objective is considerably increased, 
and less magnifying power is required from 
the eyepiece. With a good objective of one- 
eighth of an inch focus, magnifying powers 
ranging from 450 to 1,200 diameters can be 
obtained by using different eye pieces. 

Achsharumov, Nikolei Dmitriyevich 

(hch-sha-ro'mof), a Russian novelist and 
critic, born in St. Petersburg, Dec. 15, 1819. 
Among his successful novels are “ The 
Double” (1850), “The Gambler,” “The 
False Name,” “An Unusual Case,” and 
“ The Model.” As a critic he attracted at¬ 
tention by his comments on the writings of 
Herbert Spencer, Tolstoi, Turgeniev, Dos- 
toievski, etc. 


Aci (8/che), or Aci Reale, a seaport 
town in Sicily, province of Catania, well 
built with lava, having a castle and many 
fine edifices. It has manufactories of silks, 
linens, cutlery, and filigree work, in which 
an extensive trade is carried on. Here was 
the cave of Polyphemus and the grotto of 
Galata?a. It is celebrated for its mineral 
waters. Pop. 37,216. 

Acidimetry, the process of determining 
the quantity of real acid in a sample of 
hydrated acid. This may be done by volu¬ 
metric or by weight analysis. The former 
method is carried out by ascertaining the 
measured quantity of a standard alkaline 
solution required to saturate a given volume 
of the acid. That by weight analysis can 
be effected in more ways than one. A con¬ 
venient one is to decompose a known weight 
of the acid with an excess of acid carbonate 
of sodium or potassium, and estimate by 
weight the quantity of carbonic anhydride 
evolved. When this is done, the quantity 
of real acid can, without difficulty, be ascer¬ 
tained. 

Acids, in chemistry, a salt of hydrogen in 
which the hydrogen can be replaced by a 
metal, or can, with a basic metallic oxide, 
form a salt of that metal and water. Acid 
oxides of the same element are distinguished 
by the termination of -ous and -ic — as sul¬ 
phurous and sulphuric — the latter contain¬ 
ing the most oxygen; they are also called 
anhydrides. They unite with water and 
form acids having the same terminations. 
By replacement of the hydrogen by a metal 
they form salts distinguished by the termi¬ 
nations -ite and -ate respectively. These 
acids are called oxygen acids; formerly it 
was thought that all acids contained oxy¬ 
gen, this element being regarded as the acidi¬ 
fying principle (generating acid). But 
many acids are formed by direct union of 
hydrogen with an element, as hydrochloric 
acid (HC1), hydrosulpliuric acid (H 2 S), or 
with an organic radical, as hydrocyanic 
acid, H(CN). Acids which are soluble in 
water redden blue litmus, and have a sour 
taste. Acids are said to be monobasic, di¬ 
basic, tribasic, etc., according as one, two, 
or three atoms of hydrogen can be replaced 
by a metal. Organic acids can be produced 
by the oxidation of an alcohol or aldehyde. 
They contain the monad radical (HO'OC), 
once if they are monobasic, twice if dibasic, 
etc. They are also classed as monatomic, 
diatomic, etc., according as they are derived 
from a monatomic or diatomic alcohol, etc. 
Acids derived from a diatomic alcohol can 
be alcohol acids or aldehyde acids. Many 
organic acids occur in the juices of vege¬ 
tables, some in animals, as formic acid in 
ants. 

In Mineralogy .— In W. Phillips’ arrange* 
ment of minerals, his third class. He ar- 



Acland 


Aconcagua 


ranges under it sulphuric acid and boracic 
acid, both of which occur native. 

Acland, Lady Christian Henrietta Caro* 
line, commonly called “ Lady Harriet,” an 
English woman of rank, born in 1750; 
daughter of the first Earl of Ilchester; went 
through Burgoyne’s campaign, in 1777, with 



her husband, Maj. John Dyke Acland, dur¬ 
ing the war of the Revolution, meeting with 
many strange adventures, the narrative of 
which has been printed both in England and 
America. She died in 1815. 

Acland, Sir Henry Wentworth Dyke, 

an English sanitarian, born in 1815. He 
was long an expert on cholera and the 
various forms of plague. From 1857 to 
1894 he was Professor of Medicine at Ox¬ 
ford, besides serving on various sanitary 
bodies. He was author of “ Memoirs of the 
Cholera,” etc. He died Oct. 16, 1900. 

Acilius Glabrio, a Roman consul, of ple¬ 
beian origin, b. c. 191. Sent against Anti- 
oclius, King of Syria, he was victorious, 
and on his return he had a triumph. He 
was the first to whom a statue of gold was 
erected in Italy. Accused by the patricians 
of keeping back the public spoils, he suc¬ 
ceeded in escaping condemnation. His “ An¬ 
nals of Rome,” written in Greek, are full 
of fables. Another Acilius Glabrio, consul 
in the reign of Domitian, and put to death, 
on a charge of conspiracy, was remarkable 
only by his strength, having fought and 
killed a lion in the circus without receiving 
a wound. 

Acipenser a genus of fishes in the Lin- 
naean system, the distinguishing character¬ 
istics of which are that the mouth is re¬ 
tractile and destitute of teeth, and the gills 
have only one aperture on each side. The 
genus acipenser is separated by Agassiz 
from the other cartilaginous fishes. It 
forms a link between the osseous and carti¬ 


laginous fishes, having its gills protected by 
an operculum, and only a single issue, or 
gill-opening, on each side of the respiratory 
currents; but at the same time having no 
rays to the branchiostegal membrane, and 
having the whole of its true internal skele¬ 
ton in a cartilaginous state. By Cuvier, 
therefore, the genus acipenser is placed in 
the cartilaginous division of fishes, but sep¬ 
arated from the rays, sharks, and lampreys, 
which have five or more gill-openings on 
each side, to form, along with the genera 
spatularia and chimsera, the order eleuthero- 
branchiata, or those which have the bran- 
chiaj free at their outer circumference. In 
the system of Agassiz the sturgeons are 
joined with the sauroid fishes, siluri, polyp- 
terus, and some other genera, to form the 
order ganoides. 

Acis (as'es), a shepherd of Sicily, with 
whom Galatea fell in love; upon which his 
rival, Polyphemus, through jealousy, 
crushed him to death with the fragment of 
a rock. The gods changed Acis into a 
stream, which rises from Mount iEtna, and 
which is now called Jaci. He was the son 
of Faunus and the nymph Simsethis. This 
fable forms the subject of a beautiful mod¬ 
ern opera. 

Acne, a genus of skin diseases containing 
those characterized by pustules, which, after 
suppurating imperfectly, become small, 
hard, red, circumscribed tubercles on the 
skin, resolving themselves but slowly. 
Among the leading species of the genus are 
(1) the A. simplex, consisting of small vari, 
which break out on the face, the shoulders, 
and the upper part of the back; (2) A. fol- 
licularis, or maggot-pimple; (3) the A. in- 
durata, or stone-pock; and (4) the A. resa- 
ccce, or carbuncled face. 

Acolyte, Acolyth, and Acolothist, in 

the Roman Catholic Church, one of the in¬ 
ferior orders of the clergy, whose office it is 
to attend upon the deacons and subdeacons 
in the ministry of the altar, to light and 
hold the candles, to bear the incense, to pre¬ 
sent the priest with wine and water, etc. 
In the primitive Church, the acolytes were 
in holy orders, and ranked next to the sub¬ 
deacons ; but, at che present time, the duties 
of the acolyte are very often performed by 
laymen and chorister boys. 

Aconcagua, a province of the republic of 
Chile, bounded N. and VV. by the Province of 
Quillota, E. by the Andes, and S. by Santi¬ 
ago. Area, 5,845 square miles. The moun¬ 
tain Aconcagua is the loftiest of the Andes, 
being 23,910 feet above the level of the sea. 
Productions are maize, wheat, beans, pump¬ 
kins, melons, and other garden produce; 
vineyards and orchards are plentiful, and in 
summer numerous flocks are pastured on the 
slopes of the Andes; figs, nectarines, peaches, 
etc., are sent to Santiago and Valparaiso. 
Gold is found and copper is worked in 








Aconite 


Acoustics 


mines. Pop. (1003), 132,070; chief town, 
San Felipe. On the S. side of the mountain 
Aconcagua rises a river of the same name, 
which flows S. W. and joins the Pacific 12 
miles N. of Valparaiso. 

Aconite, a plant of the genus aconitum , 
the aconitum napellus, familiarly known as 
the monk’s-hood, or wolf’s-bane. Its active 
principle, the aconitine, is a virulent poison. 
It is a native of Europe, and is cultivated 
as a garden plant for the sake of its hand¬ 
some purple flowers. 

Aconitine, or Aconitia, a powerful vege¬ 
table alkaloid, prepared from the root of 
the aconitum napellus (aconite). It is one 
of the most virulent of poisons, but, at the 
same time, a very valuable medicine. Ex¬ 
ternally applied, it produces on the skin a 
prickling sensation, which is followed by a 
peculiar numbness. An ointment contain¬ 
ing aconitine is often used in cases of neu¬ 
ralgia, acute rheumatism, and diseases of 
the heart. The homoeopathic physicians 
make a great use of it in fevers. Its nar¬ 
cotic action is so active that a fiftieth of a 
grain may endanger the life of an adult. 
The most effectual antidote in case of poi¬ 
soning is warm water, administered till it 
produces vomiting, after which stimulant 
remedies should be applied internally and 
externally. The alkaloid consists of the ele¬ 
ments carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxy¬ 
gen ; its formula being C 3 3 H 42 N 12 . 

Acontius, a youth of the island of Cea, 
who went to Delos to see the sacred rites 
which were performed there by a crowd of 
virgins in the temple of Diana, and fell in 
love with Cydippe, a beautiful virgin. Not 
daring, however, to ask her in marriage, on 
account of the meanness of his birth, he pre¬ 
sented her with an apple, on which were in¬ 
scribed these words: “ I swear by Diana, 
Acontius shall be my husband.” Cydippe 
read the words, and, feeling herself com¬ 
pelled by the oath she had inadvertently 
taken, married Acontius. 

Acorn, the well known fruit of the oak. 
In the early ages, acorns constituted a prin¬ 
cipal part of the food of man. (Ovid’s 
‘‘Metamorphosis,”i, 106; Vergil’s “Georgies,” 
i, 8.) At present they are used for the feed¬ 
ing of pigs, etc. 

Acorn Shell, the popular name for the 
balanus and other cirripeds, which inhabit 
a tubular shell whose base is usually formed 
of calcareous laminae. Its shell is composed 
of many pieces, and thus capable of enlarge¬ 
ment to the wants of the enclosed animal, 
which performs its necessary functions by 
an aperture at the top. The tentacula from 
this animal being feathered, our credulous 
ancestors believed that it gave origin to a 
bird called the barnacle-goose. These curi¬ 
ous, but common, shells are found in all seas, 
They are affixed to marine bodies, and their 


peduncle is sometimes found a foot long. 
Their growth must be exceedingly rapid. A 
ship going out with a perfectly clean bottom 
will often return, after a short voyage, cov¬ 
ered with them. 

Acorus, a genus of plants, order oron- 
tiaccce. The acorus calamus, or sweet flag, 
a member of this genus, is the only native 
aromatic plant of northern climates; the 
root powdered might supply the place of for¬ 
eign spices. It blossoms during the months 
of May and June. The thick, creeping stem 
or rhizome, commonly called the root, is the 
valuable part of the plant; it is somewhat 
spongy and powerfully aromatic, and has a 
bitterish taste. It is used by the rectifiers 
to improve the flavor of gin. Perfumers 
make use of it in the manufacture of hair- 
powder, and tanners in the preparation of 
peculiar sorts of leather. From the fresh 
rhizome a volatile oil is obtained by distilla¬ 
tion, used in making aromatic vinegar and 
for scenting snuff. In medicine, the sweet 
flag is sometimes used as an aromatic stim¬ 
ulant and mild tonic, and many physicians 
speak highly of its beneficial effects in cases 
of ague. It grows in the United States, in 
Europe and Asia. It is supposed to be the 
calamus of the Song of Solomon; hence its 
botanical name, acorus calamus. 

Acosta, Joseph, a Spanish Jesuit, who, 
from being a missionary in Peru, became 
provincial of his order; born at Medina del 
Campo in 1547; died at Salamanca in 1600. 
His “ History of the West Indies,” first 
printed in Spanish, is universally known 
and esteemed. 

Acotyledons, those plants which are 
propagated by spores, and not by true seeds. 
Cotyledons are the rudiments of the first 
leafy organs which make their appearance 
in the development of plants springing from 
seeds, properly so called. These rudimentary 
organs do not exist in spores, which are 
accordingly said to be acotyledonous. The 
cryptogamous or flowerless plants of Lin¬ 
naeus are identical with the acotyledons of 
later botanists. In the natural order they 
are divided into two classes, the thallogens 
and the acrogens. 

Acoustics, the science of sound. We are 
sensible of sound when we are affected by 
certain vibrations in the air or other mat¬ 
ter in contact with our organs of hearing. 
In ordinary cases of hearing the vibrating 
medium is air, but fishes hear under water, 
and all substances capable of vibrating 
may be employed to propagate and convey 
sound. When a bell is struck it alters in 
shape, and while it continues to sound it 
vibrates about its natural figure, to which, 
as the sound dies, it gradually returns. 
The vibrations of the bell are communicated 
to the particles of air surrounding it, and 



Acoustics 


Acoustics 


from these to particles outside them, until 
they reach the ear of the listener. Let two 
box-shaped pipes of similar form, and 
whose linear dimensions are as 1 is to 2, be 
fixed on the wind-chest of an organ; it will 
be found that, on making them speak, the 
note of the small one will be what is called 
an octave higher than the note from the 
large one. The portion of air determined 
in size and shape by the interior of the 
small pipe on being disturbed passes 
through its initial condition twice for 
once that the air in the large pipe passes 
tnrough its initial condition. When a pipe 
is long compared with the dimensions of its 
sectional area, the note is not affected sen¬ 
sibly by the sectional area. Suppose we 
take an ordinary flute, having all the holes 
stopped except the mouth; a player sound¬ 
ing the fundamental note sets the contained 
air vibrating in a way which we shall at¬ 
tempt to describe. The air at the mouth 
cannot differ much as to condensation and 
rarefaction from the atmosphere with which 
it is in contact; but as we move down the 
pipe from the mouth the contained air is in 
less free contact, and thus it may differ 
from the atmosphere as the rapidly-moving 
air at the mouth alternately gives what 
may be called an accumulated crush in¬ 
ward and then a rush outward. We have 
at the mouth a place of greatest motion, 
and of nearly invariable pressure; as we 
proceed inward the motion is less, but the 
variation of pressure becomes greater, till, 
at the middle of the length of tne tube, the 
motion is a minimum and the variation of 
pressure is a maximum. This point is 
called a node. At the end of the pipe the 
air is again in the same state as to varia¬ 
tion of pressure as at the mouth. The 
mouth and end of the pipe are called anti¬ 
nodes. If the player blows so as to give 
the first overtone of the pipe, it will de¬ 
velop two nodes and three anti-nodes; the 
second overtone will have three nodes and 
four anti-nodes, and so on. If the end of 
tne flute is closed, then there must always 
be a node at the stoppage, and the pipe 
sounds a fundamental note the same as that 
of an open pipe twice as long. When the 
overtones of a closed pipe are sounded there 
must always be an odd number of nodes. 
The frequencies of vibration therefore fcr 
the fundamental note and overtones of open 
pipes are 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . and for the funda¬ 
mental note and overtones of closed pipes 
they are 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . 

Musical sounds are comparatively simple, 
and are combined to give pleasing sensa¬ 
tions according to easy numerical relations. 
The loudness of a note depends on the de¬ 
gree to which it affects the ear; the pitch of 
a note depends on the number of vibrations 
to the second which produce the note; the 
timbre or character of a note depends on the 
body or bodies whose vibrations produce 


the sound, and is due to the form of the 
paths of vibrating particles. The gamut is 
a series of eight notes, which are called by 
the names Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, Do 2 , 
and the numbers of vibrations which pro¬ 
duce these notes are respectively propor¬ 
tional to 24, 27, 30, 32, 36, 40, 45, 48. The 
numerical value of the interval between 
any two notes is given by dividing one of 
the above numbers corresponding to the 
higher note by the numbers corresponding 
to the lower note. The intervals from Do 
to each of the others are called a second, a 
major third, a fourth, a fifth, a sixth, a 
seventh, and an octave respectively. The 
interval from La to Do 2 is a minor third. 
An interval of f is a major tone; L° is a 
minor tone; is called a limma. 

Returning to the vibrating column of air 
inside a flute pipe, described above: Suppose 
the fundamental note is sounded, then the 

1 

pipe is half a wave length, let n be the 

2 

number of vibrations per second producing 
the note, the velocity is nl. When other 

l 


gases than air are employed, the length - 

2 

must be varied to produce a definite note of 
n vibrations to the second; thus we have a 
means of measuring the velocity of sound in 
different gases. In an analogous manner 
the longitudinal vibrations of rods of solid 
bodies may be employed to determine the 
velocity of sound in different substances. 
The determination of the velocity of sound 
in air by actual observation agrees with 
the number obtained in the manner indi¬ 
cated above. The velocity of sound in a 
gas is proportional to the square root of the 
absolute temperature. If we take 1,090 feet 
per second as the velocity of sound in air at 


_ ; V - I „ itiu uc wic ve¬ 

locity in feet per second at any other ordi¬ 
nary temperature t°. Considering sound 
vibrations mathematically, we get v = 


V 


E 

D 


where v is velocity, E elasticity 


measured by the quotient of a small in¬ 
crease of pressure divided by the fractional 
decrease of volume, and D is the density. 
In the case of air and other gases E is equal 
to 1.4 IP, 1.41 being the ratio of the spe¬ 
cific heat of a gas at constant pressure to the 
specific heat at constant volume. For air 
and ot her gase s, therefore, the formula is 



The pressure per square 


foot when the barometer stands at 30 
inches is about 2,121 pounds, and the weight 
of a cubic foot of dry air at this pressure 
and 0° C. temperature is .0807 lb., taking 

32.2 for gravity, the density will be • Q8Q7 

32.2 








Acoustics 


Acqui 


and the formula will stand 

2,121X32.2 

1.41 -— = 1,092 feet per 

.0807 

second. 

Laws of the Transverse Vibrations of 
Strings .— The pitch of the note given by a 
string (1) varies inversely as the length of 
the string; (2) varies as the square root 
of the tension; and (3) varies inversely as 
the square root of the weight of the string. 
(4) Strings of the same length and density, 
but of different thicknesses, will vibrate in 
the same time if they are stretched with 
forces proportional to their sectional areas. 
These laws are illustrated by an instrument 
called a sonometer, on which the length, 
tension, weight, etc., of a sounding string 
can be conveniently altered. 



first five curves the curves and changes 
when the forks are in unison, the second 
row shows the curves when the forks differ 
by an octave, and the third when they differ 
by a fifth. These curves are similar to 
curves which may be obtained by setting 
up a piece of wire, which vibrates differ¬ 
ently in two directions, in a vise, and 
twanging it. The curves are traced by the 
bright point of the wire. The curves of M. 
Lissajous may be conveniently used to lest 
whether tuning forks are in unison, and 
they are found to be more to be depended 
on for this purpose than the ear. 

Sound is reflected in a manner analogous 
to the reflection of light. When it is re¬ 
flected from a plain surface the reflected 
sound comes as if it was propagated from 
a point beyond the surface at a distance 

equal to the 
distance of the 
real point of 
p r o p a g a- 
tion from the 
surface. Sounds 
pr o d u c e d in 
one focus of 
a hollow ellip¬ 
soid are reflect¬ 






LISSAJOUS’ ACOUSTIC CURVES. 


By M. Lissajous the vibrations of differ¬ 
ent tuning forks were combined into one 
optical effect by means of little mirrors at¬ 
tached to a vibrating end of the tuning 
forks. Light from a small hole is received 
on a mirror attached to a leg of the first 
tuning fork; the beam is reflected, having 
the vibrations of this fork, to a mirror on 
a second tuning fork, and it is reflected from 
this mirror into a telescope, when it has 
the resultant motion of the two vibrations. 
Owing to the retention of optical effects on 
the retina the eye, on looking through the 
telescope, perceives a continuous curve, 
which gradually passes through a series 
of phases, returning through these phases 
continuously. The illustration shows in the 


ed to the other 
focus. Whisper¬ 
ing galleries 
are instances of 
the reflection 
of sound to a 
focus, or to 
form so u n a 
caustics. 
Echoes are fa- 
miliar in¬ 
stances of re- 
flection of 
sound. Lenses 
have been 
formed of col¬ 
lodion fi 11 e d 
with different 
gases, and by 
means of these 
sound has been refracted in a manner which 
is analogous to the refraction of light by 
glass lenses. 

Acquaviva, Andrea Matteo ( airwa¬ 
ve'va), Duke of Atri and Prince of Teramo, 
in the kingdom of Naples; born in 1456; died 
in 1528; seems to have been the first who 
conceived the idea of an “ Encyclopedia,” or 
“ Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sci¬ 
ences.” He published a work under that 
title in two volumes, folio, which, though 
scanty and defective, was found sufficient to 
give some hints for conducting a compila¬ 
tion of that kind. 

Acqui (ak'we), a district of North Italy, 
province of Alessandria, on the N. side of 















Acre 


Acrogens 


the Ligurian Apennines. Area, 445 square 
miles. Productions, corn and fruit. Chest¬ 
nut trees furnish the peasantry with an ar¬ 
ticle of common food, and silk worms are 
reared as a branch of industry. 

Acqui, its capital, is seated on the Bor- 
mida, 18 miles S. S. W. of Alessandria. 
Pop., about 12,000. It has commodious 
sulphur baths. Celebrated for its great an¬ 
tiquity, and for the remains of a Roman 
aqueduct. Acqui was taken by the Span¬ 
iards in 1745; retaken by the Piedmontese; 
and afterward dismantled by the French. 

Acre, (1) Originally, any field, whatever 
its superficial area. 

(2) From about the time of Edward I. 
the word became more definite, and its lim¬ 
its were prescribed by the Statutes 31 and 
35 Edward I., and 24 Henry VIII. By the 
Act 5 George IV., the varying measures of 
the acre current in the kingdom were re¬ 
duced to one uniform standard. The im¬ 
perial acre contains 4,840 square yards, the 
Scottish one, 6,104.12789 square yards, and 
the Irish one, 7,840 square yards. The im¬ 
perial acre is current in the United States. 
The old Roman jugerum, generally trans¬ 
lated acre, was about five-eighths of the 
imperial acre. 


NUMBER OF PLANTS FOR AN ACRE OF GROUND. 


Dist. apart. 
Inches. 

8 by 3 .. 

4 by 4 .. 

6 by 6 .. 

9 by 9 .. 

Feet. 

1 by 1 .. 

by 1^ 

2 by 1 .. 

2 by 2 .. 

2V6 by 2% 

8 by 1 .. 

3 by 2 .. 

3 by 3 .. 

8^ by 3^ 

4 by 1 .. 

4 by 3 .. 

4 by 3 .. 

4 by 4 .. 

4 y s by 4V* 

5 by 1 .. 

5 by 2 .. 

5 by 3 .. 

5 by 4 .. 

5 by 5 .. 

by 5K 

6 by 6 .. 

^ by 5% 

7 by 7 ,. 

8 by 8 .. 

9 by 9 .. 

10 by 10 .. 

11 by 11 

12 by 12 .. 

13 by 13 .. 

14 by 14 .. 

15 by 15 .. 

16 by 16 .. 

by 16tf 

17 by 17 .. 

18 by 18 .. 

19 by 19 .. 

20 by 20 .. 

25 by 25 .. 


Number of 
plants. 

. 696,960 

. 392,040 

. 174,240 

. 77,440 


43,560 

19,360 

21,780 

10.890 
6,960 

14,520 

7,260 

4,840 

3,555 

10.890 
5,445 
3,630 
2,722 
2,151 
8,712 
4,856 
2,904 
2,178 
1,742 
1,417 
1,210 
1,031 

881 

680 

537 

435 

360 

302 

257 

222 

193 

170 

160 

150 

184 

120 

108 


Dist. apart. 
Feet. 


Number of 
plants. 


30 by 30. 48 

33 by 33. 40 

40 by 40. 27 

50 by 50. 17 

CO by 60. 12 

G6 by 66 . 19 


Acre (a'kr), or St. Jean d’Acre, a sea¬ 
port of Syria, formerly called Ptolemais; on 
a promontory at the foot of Mount Carmel. 
This town, capital of the pashalic of the 
same name, is famous for the memorable 
sieges it has sustained. It was taken by 
the first crusaders in 1104, retaken by the 
Saracens in 1187, recovered by the Chris¬ 
tians under Richard Cceur de Lion, in 1191, 
and given to the Knights of St. John (in 
French, St. Jean), of Jerusalem, whence it 
received the name of St. Jean d’Acre. In 
1291 it again fell into the hands of the 
Saracens. Bonaparte attempted to storm 
this place in 1799, but retreated after a 
siege of 61 days. It was taken by Ibrahim 
Pasha, in 1832, and again by the combined 
English and Austrian squadrons, in 1840. 
Acre has been celebrated from remote an¬ 
tiquity. 

Acroceraunium (ak'ra-ker-fi'ne-um), a 
promontory of Epirus, with mountains 
called Acroceraunia, which separated the 
Ionian and Adriatic Seas. They were re¬ 
markable for attracting storms, and hence 
dreaded by mariners. Its modern name is 
Chimara. 

Acrocorinthus, a steep and lofty moun¬ 
tain, shaped as a truncated cone, overhang¬ 
ing the city of Corinth, 1,885 feet in height, 
on which was built a citadel. It was one 
of the horns on which Philip was advised to 
lay hold, in order to secure the Peloponnesus, 
figured in the heifer. It was also considered 
as one of the fetters of Greece, of which the 
others were Demetrias in Thessaly, and 
Chalcis, in Euboea. Its position was nat¬ 
urally so strong that in the time of Aratus 
a force of 400 men defended it. It affords 
one of the most magnificent prospects in the 
world. Its ascent was not permitted to 
Christians as long as the country was in the 
possession of the Turks. 

Acrogens, plants of which the growth 
takes place at the extremity of the axis. 
The word was formerly used in a wider sense 
than now. 

1. Formerly it included all flowerless 
plants — Linnseus’ cryptogamia. The term, 
however, referred not to the absence of flow¬ 
ers, or to the obscure character of the fruc¬ 
tification, but to the growth of the stem. 
All plants were divided into exogens, or 
those growing around the circumference of 
the trunk, just within the bark; endogens, 
or those growing inside, that, is, along the 
central axis; and acrogens, or those increas¬ 
ing at the extremity of the stem. In Lind- 




















































Acrography 


Acrostic 


ley’s “ Natural System of Botany,” second 
edition (1836), the acrogens, used in this ex¬ 
tensive sense, constitute the fifth class of 
the vegetable kingdom, the other four being 
exogens, gymnosperms, endogens, and rhiz- 
anths. They were made to contain five al¬ 
liances: (1) filicales (ferns); (2) lyco- 

podales (club mosses) ; (3) muscales 

(mosses); (4) charales (charas) ; and (5) 
fungales (mushrooms, lichens and algae). 

2. The meaning is now more restricted. In 
Lindley’s “Vegetable Kingdom” (1846), 
the flowerless plants compose not one, but 
two classes: (1) thallogens, and (2) acro¬ 
gens. The former are the lower in organiza¬ 
tion. The latter compose three alliances — 
muscales, lycopodales, and filicales. The 
arrangement, it will be observed, is now an 
ascending one, whereas, before, it was de¬ 
scending. 

Acrography, the art of making blocks in 
relief, with the view of printing illustra¬ 
tions from them, in place of having recourse 
to wood engraving. M. Schonberg was its 
inventor. 

Acrolein. When a candle is blown out 
a peculiar odor may be perceived before the 
wick has quite ceased to glow. This odor 
is due to the presence of a compound of 
carbon, called acrolein, which is produced 
during the slow combustion of the candle 
just before it is perfectly extinguished. This 
substance acrolein is a general product of 
the slow distillation of fatty bodies, such 
as wax, tallow, etc., but it may be more 
readily prepared by heating glycerine with 
acid sulphate of potassium in a retort, and 
purifying the distillate by appropriate 
means. Acrolein has the composition ex¬ 
pressed by the formula C 3 H 4 0; it is a color¬ 
less limpid liquid, lighter than water. It 
readily oxidizes in contact with air; it is 
soluble in water, and it is inflammable. 
Acrolein is distinguished by its intensely 
irritating odor; a few drops diffused 
throughout the air of a room render the at¬ 
mosphere insupportable. 

Acrolepis, a genus of ganoid fossil 
fishes founded by Agassiz. The species 
occur in the magnesian limestones and 
marlstones of Durham, England, which are 
of Permian age. 

Acrolithos, in sculpture, a statue whose 
extremities are of stone, the body being 
made of wood. According to Vitruvius, 
there was a temple at Halicarnassus dedi¬ 
cated to Mars, and built by Mausolus, King 
of Caria, wherein was an acrolithan statue 
of the god; and from Trebellius Pollio it 
is learned that Calfurnia set up an acroli¬ 
than statue of Venus which was gilt. 

Aerology, strictly the science of initials; 
popularly, a pastime in which names are 
given to letters beginning with the letters, 
or designations are given to objects in the 
form of signs composed of the first letter 


or letters of the names of the object. 

Acronic, in astronomy, pertaining to the 
rising of a star at the time when the sun is 
setting, or the setting of a star when the 
sun is rising. It is opposed to cosmical. 

Acronychia, in botany, a genus of Ru- 
tacccc or rue worts. A. Cunninghami , an 
evergreen shrub from Moreton bay, in Aus¬ 
tralia, has leaves with a resin smelling like 
turpentine, and flowers perfumed like those 
of the orange. 

Acropolis, the high part of any ancient 
Greek city, usually an eminence overlooking 
the city, and frequently its citadel. Notable 
among such citadels were the Acropolis of 
Argos, that of Messene, of Thebes, and of 
Corinth, but pre-eminently the Acropolis of 
Athens, to which the name is now chiefly 
applied. The Acropolis of Athens was the 
original city of Athens, later the upper city, 
as distinguished from the lower, and was 
built upon a separate spur or butte of 
Hymettus. The hill rises out of the plain, 
a mass of rock about 260 feet high, with 
precipitous sides, save a narrow access at 
the western end, where there was a zigzag 
road for chariots. The summit of this rock 
forms an uneven plain 500 by 1,150 feet at 
the maximum breadth and length. Within 
this area were reared, chiefly in the days 
of Pericles, remarkable specimens of archi¬ 
tectural art. The buildings were grouped 
around two principal temples, the Parthenon 
and the Erechtheum. Between these tem¬ 
ples stood the statue of Athena Promachos 
(fighter in front), by Phidias, the helmet 
and spear of which were the first objects 
visible from the sea. About these center 
pieces, covering the rocky height and extend¬ 
ing down the steep sides, were lesser tem¬ 
ples, statues, theaters, fanes, and odea (mm 
sic halls). Among the famous buildings on 
the sides of the Acropolis were the Dionysiac 
theater and the Odeum of Pericles, and the 
Odeum, built by Herodes Atticus in honor 
of his wife, Regilla. The ravages of accident 
and war and Athenian marble-merchants 
have largely destroyed and despoiled these 
classic works. Archeologists have secured 
many important remains of the Acropolis, 
which are preserved in the collections of 
various European capitals and in the new 
archeological museum at Athens. 

Acrostic, a poetical composition, disposed 
in such a manner that the initial letters of 
each line, taken in order, form a person's 
name or other complete word or words. This 
kind of poetical triflings was very popular 
with the French poets from the time of 
Francis I. until Louis XIV. Among other 
English writers, Sir John Davies, who lived 
in the 16th century, amused himself in this 
way. He produced 26 pieces, called “ Hymns 
to Astrea,” each of them forming an acrostie 





Act 


Acta Sanctorum 


upon the words Elizabetha Regina. The 
following is an example: 

E ternal virgin, goddess true, 

L et me presume to sing to you. 

I ove, e’en great Jove, hath leisure 
S ometimes to hear the vulgar crew, 

A nd heed them oft with pleasure. 

B lessed Astrea 1 I in part 
E njoy the blessings you impart, 

T he peace, the milk and honey, 

H umanity and civil art, 

A richer dow’r than money. 

R ight glad am I that now I live, 

E ’en in these days whereto you give 
G reat happiness and glory; 

I f after you I should be born, 

N o doubt I should my birthday scorn, 

A dmiring your sweet story. 

In the Old Testament there are 12 psalms 
written according to this principle. Of 
these, the 119th Psalm is the most remark¬ 
able; it consists of 22 stanzas, each of 
which commences with a Hebrew letter, and 
is called by its name. Acrostic verse is no 
longer cultivated by the poets and has prac¬ 
tically lost all vogue. Edgar Allan Poe, 
however, wrote some striking acrostics, 
varying the form with great ingenuity. 
One example, beginning with the first letter 
of the first line, the second of the second, 
and so on, forms a lady’s name. 

Act, in dramatic language, a portion of 
a play performed continuously, after which 
the representation is suspended for a little, 
and the actors have the opportunity of tak¬ 
ing a brief rest. As early as the time of 
Horace there were five acts in a drama, and 
this number still remains without modifica¬ 
tion. Acts are divided into smaller portions 
called scenes. (See Shakespeare through¬ 
out.) 

In parliamentary language, an ellipsis for 
an act of congress, legislature, etc. A stat¬ 
ute, law, or edict, consisting of a bill which 
has been successfully carried through both 
houses of congress or legislature, and, re¬ 
ceived the approval of the executive. 

In law: (1) Anything officially done by 
the court, as the phrases “ Acts of Court,” 
“Acts of Sederunt,” etc. (2) An instru¬ 
ment in writing for declaring or proving the 
truth of anything. Such is a report, a cer¬ 
tificate, a decree, a sentence, etc. 

In bankruptcy, an act, the commission of 
which, by a debtor, renders him liable to be 
adjudged a bankrupt. 

Acts done, distinguished into acts of God, 
of the law and of men. 

In mental philosophy, an operation of the 
mind supposed to require the putting forth 
of energy, as distinguished from a state of 
mind in which the faculties remain passive. 

In this sense such expressions as the fol¬ 
lowing are used: the act of thinking, the 
act of judging, the act of resolving, the act 
of reasoning or of reason; each of these be¬ 


ing viewed as a single operation of the hu¬ 
man mind. 

In theology, the carrying out of an opera¬ 
tion in a moment, as contradistinguished 
from the performance of a work requiring 
a considerable time for its accomplishment. 

Act of Settlement, an act of the Parlia¬ 
ment of England in 1701, vesting the hered¬ 
itary right to the English throne in Sophia, 
Electress of Hanover, and her Protestant de¬ 
scendants, constituting the source of the 
sovereignty of the house of Hanover or 
Brunswick, the present ruling line. The act 
prohibited the king (or queen) from going 
to war in defense of non-English powers 
without the assent of Parliament. 

Act of Supremacy, (1) An act of the 
Parliament of England, in 1534, by which 
the king was made the sole and supreme 
head of the Church of England. (2) A re¬ 
enactment of the above, with changes, in 
1559. 

Act of Toleration, an act of the reign of 

William and Mary, granting freedom of re¬ 
ligious worship, under certain compara¬ 
tively moderate conditions, to all dissenters 
from the established Church of England, ex¬ 
cept Roman Catholics and persons denying 
the Trinity. This act, as confirmed in the 
reign of Anne, was the basis of various sub¬ 
sequent measures of religious toleration, cul¬ 
minating in the Catholic Relief Act of 
George IV., and the still more liberal legis¬ 
lation of Victoria. 

Act of Uniformity. (1) An act of the 

Parliament of England (1559), adopting a 
revised liturgy for the Church of England, 
entitled “ An Act for the Uniformity of 
Common Prayer and Service in the Church, 
and Administration of the Sacraments.” 
(2) An act of Parliament (1062), requiring 
that the revised Book of Common Prayer 
and Ordination of Ministers, and no other, 
should be used in all places of public wor¬ 
ship and be assented to by clergymen. By 
this test more than 2,000 non-conforming 
clergymen were ejected from their churches. 
It took effect on St. Bartholomew’s Day 
(Aug. 24, 1602), and accordingly is known 
in English history as the “ Bartholomew 
Act,” the day of its enforcement being 
known as “ Black Bartholomew.” 

Acta Sanctorum, or Martyrum, the col¬ 
lective title given to several old writings, 
respecting saints and martyrs in the Greek 
and Roman Catholic Churches, but now ap¬ 
plied especially to one extensive collection 
begun by the Jesuits in the 17th century. 
This great undertaking has considerable im¬ 
portance, not only in a religious point of 
view, but also with regard to history and 
archaeology. Commenced by the Jesuit Ros- 
weyd, continued by J. Bolland, the work 
was carried on (1661) by a society of 
learned Jesuits, who were styled Bolland- 



Actaea 


Actinism 


ists, until 1794, when its further progress 
was prevented through the invasion of Hol¬ 
land by the French. In recent times, the 
undertaking has been resumed. 

Actaea, a genus of plants belonging to the 
order ranunculacece, or crowfoots. One spe¬ 
cies, the A. spicata = the bane-berry, or 
herb-christopher, is indigenous to many 
lands. It bears black berries, which are 



poisonous. With alum, they yield a black 
dye. The roots are antispasmodic, expec¬ 
torant, and astringent. A. racemosa, the 
snakeroot, receives its English name from 
being used in the United States as an anti¬ 
dote against the bite of the rattlesnake. 

Actseon (ak'ti'on or ak-te'on), son of 
Aristeus, was a great lover of hunting. One 
day, as he was pursuing a hart, he spied 
Diana bathing herself with her nymphs; 
which so enraged the goddess, that she threw 
water upon him and changed him into a 
hart, and afterward he was torn in pieces 
by his own dogs. 

Actinia, in zoology, a genus of polypes, 
with many arms radiating from around their 



ACTINIA. 


mouth, in a manner somewhat resembling 
the rays of the sun surrounding his disc, or 
a double flower. From this arrangement of 
the tentacles, coupled with the bright col¬ 


ors of these animals, they are called also 
animal flowers. Though simple and not ag¬ 
gregated, they still have a somewhat close 
affinity to the coral-building polypes. They 
are the type of the class actinozoa. Cuvier 
placed them with his polypi carnosi. They 
feed on Crustacea, mollusca, small fishes, etc. 
In 1847, Dr. Johnston enumerated 20 spe¬ 
cies as British. 

Actinic Rays, rays capable of producing 
chemical decomposition, as in photography, 
in the coloring of flowers and fruit. For¬ 
merly these rays were thought to belong ex¬ 
clusively to the blue and ultra blue parts of 
the spectrum, but now it is known that rays 
of any wave length may produce chem¬ 
ical changes; that that will happen depends 
upon the kind of substance a given ray 
falls upon, rather than the particular qual¬ 
ity of the ray or its source, and one may 
make a photograph of the whole spectrum, 
extending a long way beyond the visible 
part, in both directions, by choosing a 
proper sensitive agent for the plate. All 
ether waves, from all sources and of all 
lengths, may now be considered as actinic, 
some substances being decomposed by cer¬ 
tain wave lengths and other substances by 
different wave lengths. 

Actinism, the chemical principle of light. 
Three distinct principles emanate from the 
sun — light, heat, and actinism. Numerous 
examples of the effects of their influence 
occur daily, which are erroneously attrib¬ 
uted to the light which we see. It is ac¬ 
tinism which fades colors, bleaches linen, 
rots fabrics, tans the human skin, puts out 
the fire, and performs the operations of 
photography. It acts principally by ab¬ 
stracting oxygen from the bodies which it 
affects. Fire is extinguished by sunlight, 
through the diminution of the amount of 
oxygen necessary for combustion; and pho¬ 
tographic operations are mostly effected by 
the reduction of oxide of silver to the metal¬ 
lic state, by the abstraction of its oxygen. 
There may be actinism without light, or 
vice versa. Yellow glass transmits the lat¬ 
ter, but stops the former. Dark blue glass, 
which transmits but little light, is quite 
pervious to actinism. Blue objects reflect 
great quantities of it, while red or yellow 
ones reflect but little or none. The electric 
and lime lights give out great quantities of 
actinism from their blue tinge; and gas and 
candles but very little, from their yellow 
color. The amount of actinism received 
from the sun differs considerably, according 
to the time of year, being at its maximum 
about the end of March, and gradually di¬ 
minishing until the end of December, when 
it arrives at its minimum. Actinism, in 
large quantities, is necessary to the proper 
condition of the human system. It has been 
proved that when dark rooms have been col- 









Actinograph 


Acts of the Apostles 


ored with yellow paint or paper, the inhab¬ 
itants of them have been sickly or delicate; 
as soon, however, as the color was changed 
to blue, a marked difference in their state 
of health took place. 

Actinograph, an instrument invented by 
Mr. Hunt for regulating the variations of 
chemical influence on the solar rays. It is 
described in “ British Association Reports ” 
for 1845 and 1846. 

Actinolite (Greek aktis, genit. aktinos = 
a ray, and lithos = a stone. The translation 
of the German strahlstein — radiated stone), 
a variety of amphibole. It is the actinote of 
Hafiy. Its affinity and composition are indi¬ 
cated by Dana’s compound name for it — 
magnesia-lime-iron amphibole. It is bright 
green, or greyish-green, the green color being 
imparted by the iron it contains. It occurs 
crystallized, columnar, fibrous, or massive. 
Sp. gr., 3 to 32. There are three sub-varie¬ 
ties of it—glassy actinolite, which occurs in 
long, bright green crystals; asbestiform ac¬ 
tinolite, and radiated actinolite. 

Actinometer, an instrument for measur¬ 
ing either the intensity of sunlight, or its 
chemical activity. A device for doing this 
was first invented, by Sir John Herschel, in 
1825. Dr. John W. Draper devised a dif¬ 
ferent one afterward, but these have only 
a historic interest now, since the significance 
of actinism is better understood. 

Actinomycosis, the name now given to 
a disease long known to occur in cattle, but 
confounded with tubercle or sarcoma. In 
1877, Bollinger, of Munich, showed that lit¬ 
tle yellow grains are always present, con¬ 
sisting of a minute fungus, with its my¬ 
celium arranged in a radiate manner. To 
this fungus he gave the name actinomyces; 
and further observation has confirmed his 
view that it is the cause of the disease. Ac¬ 
tinomycosis is most common in cattle; oc¬ 
curs also in pigs, and (rarely) in man. It 
consists of tumors, sometimes of large size, 
formed of inflammatory material deposited 
round numerous grains of the fungus. They 
frequently suppurate and break down. In 
cattle, they occur usually in the jaws, mouth 
and stomach; in man, in the neck, lungs, and 
adjacent parts. 

Actinozoa, a class of animals included in 
the radiata of the system of Cuvier, but 
combined with hydrozoa to form the class 
coelentera in the systems of Frey, Leuck- 
art, and Huxley. 

Actium, a promontory on the W. coast 
of Greece, jutting out on the N. W. ex¬ 
tremity of Acarnania, not far from the en¬ 
trance of the Ambracian Gulf (Gulf of 
Arta), at present called La Punta. It is 
memorable on account of the naval battle 
fought here between Antony and Octavi- 
anus Sept. 2, 31 B. c.> in sight of their ar¬ 


mies, encamped on the opposite shores of the 
Ambracian Gulf. The forces of Octavianus 
consisted of 80,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, 
and 260 ships of war; those of Antony, of 
100,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 220 
ships of war. Notwithstanding the advice 
of his most experienced generals to meet 
Octavianus by land, Antony, at the instiga¬ 
tion of Cleopatra, determined on a naval 
engagement. Soon after the beginning of 
the battle, before anything decisive had 
taken place, the timid Cleopatra fled with 
60 Egyptian ships. Antony foolishly fol¬ 
lowed her, and fled with her to Egypt. The 
deserted fleet was not overcome, however, 
till it had made a brave though hopeless 
resistance. 

Actor, in the drama, one who represents 
some part or character on the stage. Among 
the Greeks a simple chorus, who sung 
hymns in honor of Bacchus, at first consti¬ 
tuted the whole entertainment. A declaimer 
who recited the adventures of heroes, was 
introduced by Thespis for the sake of va¬ 
riety. HCschylus changed the declamation 
into the form of a dialogue between two 
persons, and Sophocles added a third. To 
this number the actors in the Greek drama 
were limited; and the Romans adopted the 
same rule in tragedy. In comedy the num¬ 
ber of actors was not restricted. Actresses, 
in the drama, appear to have been wholly 
unknown to the ancients, men or eunuchs 
always performing the female parts. Lat¬ 
terly actresses did appear under the Roman 
empire, but were very ignominiously treat¬ 
ed. Charles II. is said to have first en¬ 
couraged the public appearance of actresses 
in England; and there is evidence that the 
queen of Charles I. performed in a court 
theater. Actors were long excluded from 
good society, and actresses still longer, and 
perhaps the English were the first who ad¬ 
mitted the most distinguished into their 
first circles. At Athens actors were highly 
honored. At Rome they were despised, and 
deprived of the right of suffrage. The rea¬ 
son of this difference is, that among the 
Greeks the actors were freeborn citizens, 
and the dramatic performances had their 
origin in the sacred festivals; but among 
the Romans the drama was introduced by 
persons of the lowest class. 

Acts of the Apostles, the fifth book of 
the New Testament. It contains a narrative 
of the achievements of the leading apostles, 
and especially of St. Paul, the greatest and 
most successful of them all. Its author was 
St. Luke (compare Luke i: 1-4 with Acts 
i: 1), who was Paul's companion from the 
time of his visit to Troa (Acts xvi: 8-11) 
to the advanced period of his life when he 
penned the second epistle to Timothy (II 
Tim. iv: 11). Internal evidence would 
seem to show that it was written in all 
probability about a. d. 61, though external 
testimony from the fathers to its existence 



Acupuncture 


Adam and Eve 


is not obtainable till a considerably later 
date. The undesigned coincidences between 
the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles of 
Paul are numerous and important. 

Acupuncture, an operation in which the 
insertion of needles is employed for the 
cure of different species of rheumatism, eye 
diseases, lumbago, etc. The operation 
simple, may be easily performed, gives 
little pain, causes neither bleeding nor in¬ 
flammation, and seems at times of surpris¬ 
ing efficacy. The invention of acupuncture 
is ascribed to the Chinese and Japanese, 
who acquire great skill in the use of it, by 
practising on a figure of wood or paste¬ 
board. It was first known in Europe in the 
17th century, but had been forgotten till 
some French surgeons revived it recently. 
It is now chiefly used for alleviating pain, 
sometimes by using the needles as conduc¬ 
tors of galvanism, sometimes by using hol¬ 
low needles through which a sedative is 
injected. This is found effectual in afford¬ 
ing immediate relief in neuralgia. The 
mere insertion of the needle itself often 
gives temporary relief. 

Adagio (ad-azh'e-o), a slow or very slow 
movement or measure of time in music. In 
the more extended compositions of orches¬ 
tral or chamber music, the second or third 
movement is generally marked adagio, and 
serves as a contrast to the rapid and ener¬ 
getic movement of the preceding and follow¬ 
ing parts of the sonata or symphony. The 
distinctive feature of the adagio being its 
power of expression, it affords the most di¬ 
rect means to the composer of manifesting 
his individuality of feeling. The finest 
specimens of the adagio are found in the 
works of the old masters, above all in 
Beethoven. In recent works, our composers 
have generally succeeded better in their 
rapid movements than in the adagio. 

Adalbert, a great German ecclesiastic, 
born of a noble family about 1000; was ap¬ 
pointed Archbishop of Bremen and Ham¬ 
burg in 1045, and papal legate to the North 
in 1053. He soon extended his spiritual 
swav over Scandinavia, and carried Chris- 
tianity to the Wends. In 10G3 he became 
tutor of the young Henry IV., and soon, 
spite of the opposition of the nobles, ruled 
over the whole kingdom. His ambitious 
mind now conceived the design of founding 
a great northern patriarchate, which should 
vie with the Roman Curia itself; but he 
died, too soon for his vast design, at Goslar, 
March 16, 1072. 

Adam and Eve, the names of the first 
pair of human beings in the account of the 
creation given in the book of Genesis. 
Adam is strictly a generic name, appli¬ 
cable to both man and woman, as used in 
the book of Genesis, but U came to be a 
proper name, used with the article, as in 


chapters ii, iii, and iv. The origin of the 
name is uncertain, but is usually connected 
with the Hebrew root Adam, “ to be red.” 
It is often derived from Adamah, “ the 
ground,” but this is taking the simpler from 
the more developed form. The Assyrian 
equivalent is A damn, “ man,” used only in 
a general sense, not as a proper name. This 
is connected by Sir Henry Rawlinson and 
Professor Sayce with Adamatu, “ red skins,” 
the Assyrian word by which the dark- 
skinned Accadians of primitive Babylonia 
are designated in the bilingual tablets. Eve 
is the Hebrew Hawaii, which name, accord¬ 
ing to Gen. iii: 20, Adam gave her as the 
“ mother of all living.” Literally, the word 
means “ life.” 

The early part of Genesis contains two 
somewhat different accounts of the creation 
of Adam. In the earlier account (i: 26-30), 
the creation of man and woman is given 
after the creation of the animals; in the 
second account (chapter ii), the creation of 
Adam is mentioned before that of the ani¬ 
mals, and the forming of Eve afterward. 
The first narrator is commonly called the 
Eloliistic, from his use of the name Elohim 
for God; the second, the Jehovistic, from 
his using the name Jehovah Elohim. The 
Elohistic narrator simply states that God 
created man in His own image. Man is cre¬ 
ated at the close of the six days’ work as 
the lord of the whole lower world, for whom 
all things are made. The Jehovistic narra¬ 
tor gives a detailed account of Paradise, the 
original sin of Adam and Eve, their sub¬ 
jection to the curse, and expulsion from 
Eden. It is, in Ewald’s phrase, the his¬ 
tory proper of the creation of man. The 
first condition of Adam and Eve is one of 
innocent simplicity. They are placed in 
Eden, where they are allowed to taste freely 
of the fruit of every tree save one. Tempta¬ 
tion comes from without, through the ser¬ 
pent’s persuading Eve that the divine pro¬ 
hibition is really intended to keep human 
beings from becoming as wise as God. Eve 
yields to the temptation, and leads Adam 
also into her sin; and thus the moral con¬ 
sciousness of man awoke, and spiritual 
death passed upon mankind. Adam and 
Eve are then driven out of Paradise, and 
prevented, by the cherubim and a flaming 
sword which turned every way, from re¬ 
turning “ to take also of the tree of life, 
and eat, and live forever.” Adam lives 930 
years; has three sons, Cain, Abel, and Seth, 
then sons and daughters. 

Such is the form of the story which has 
usually been interpreted by orthodox Jews 
and Christians as a narrative of literal his¬ 
tory, notwithstanding many difficulties 
about the anthropomorphic details, and the 
admitted uncertainty of the point where the 
literal ends and the figurative begins. Many 
of the later Jews explained the story as an 



Adam and Eve 


Adam and Eve 


allegory. Philo, the foremost writer of the 
Alexandrian school, explains Eve as the 
sensuous part, Adam as the rational part, 
of human nature. The serpent attacks the 
sensuous element, which yields to the temp¬ 
tation of pleasure, and next enslaves the 
reason. Clement and Origen adapted this 
interpretation somewhat awkwardly to 
Christian theology. Augustine explained 
the story as history, but admitted a spirit¬ 
ual meaning superinduced upon the literal; 
and his explanation was adopted by the re¬ 
formers, and. indeed, generally, by the ortho¬ 
dox within the Romish and the various Prot¬ 
estant churches alike. More modern critics 
have sought to separate the kernel of history 
from the poetical accretions, and attribute 
the real value of the story, not to its form, 
but to the underlying thoughts. Martensen 
describes it as a combination of history and 
sacred symbolism, “ a figurative presenta¬ 
tion of an actual event.” The narrative 
may be regarded as embodying the philoso¬ 
phy of the Hebrew mind applied to the ever¬ 
lasting problem of the origin of sin and 
suffering; a question the solution of which 
is scarcely nearer us now than it was to the 
primitive Hebrews. It is not the form of 
the story which is material here, but the 
substance and the meaning; and the ele¬ 
mental truth of the fall of man by misuse 
of his free will remains a religious fact, 
apart altogether from the historical form 
in which the fact is stated. In the Pauline 
theology Adam stands as the covenant head 
or federal representative of the whole hu¬ 
man race, in contradistinction to Christ, 
“the second man,’’.“the last Adam.” 

The fundamental ideas of pantheism and 
emanation, which formed the basis of the 
great religions of the ancient world, were 
perfectly consistent with a vague theory of 
the origin of man, which explained him as 
having issued somehow from the very sub¬ 
stance of divinity itself by a kind of spon¬ 
taneous generation — a development of the 
chain of emanations — rather than as the 
result of a free act of a creative will. Such is 
the account in the “ Sanchoniathon,” a frag¬ 
ment of a Phoenician cosmogony that has 
reached us in a Greek version. Egyptian 
accounts explain that the fertile slime left 
by the Nile, under the vivifying influence 
of the heat of the sun’s rays, sprouted into 
the bodies of men ; or, as expressed in mytho¬ 
logical form, men sprung from the eye of 
the sun-god. This emanation produced the 
material body, but a later demiurgic process 
molded the form to beauty and communi¬ 
cated to it a soul. Various nations were 
thus formed by different goddesses; the 
Egyptians — the highest race in the world 
— were molded by the supreme demiurge, 
Khnoum. One very detailed Babylonian ac¬ 
count of the creation is preserved in the 
Greek of Berosus. According to it there 


was a time when there was nothing but 
darkness and an abyss of waters, inhabited 
by a monstrous brood of composite crea¬ 
tures, over which presided a woman named 
Omoroca (“the sea,” Tiamat). Bel cut this 
woman asunder, making of her lower half 
the earth, and of her upper half the heavens, 
while he destroyed all the creatures within 
her. He next cut off his own head, on 
which the other gods kneaded the blood as 
it gushed out with earth, and from it formed 
men. Hence it is that they are rational and 
partake of divine knowledge. Next he 
formed, in the same way, the animals, then 
the stars, the sun, the moon, and the five 
planets. Here, leaving out the polytheistic 
element, the facts follow the same order as 
in the narrative of the Jeliovistic author of 
Genesis. 

An ancient Greek account represents Pro¬ 
metheus as making the first man out of 
earth, or clay and water, and then quicken¬ 
ing him with fire stolen from heaven; but 
earlier accounts limit his work to the latter 
function, and make men spring up out of 
the soil. Hesiod describes man in his primi¬ 
tive state as free from sickness and evil be¬ 
fore Prometheus stole fire from heaven, and 
Pandora, who corresponds to Eve, brought 
miseries to the earth. Prometheus gives 
man the capability of knowledge; his daring 
theft is for man the beginning of a fuller 
and higher life. iEschylus regards Prome¬ 
theus as the representative of humanity, led 
into misery by his self-will, until he submits 
to the higher will of God. This corresponds 
with the story of Genesis, save that in the 
latter the spiritual features are clearer and 
more distinct. 

Science and the Unity of Man .— The ques¬ 
tion of the unity of man has caused much 
controversy. The old chronology was set 
aside when geology and archaeology made it 
manifest that man existed on the earth 
many thousands of years ago. This dis¬ 
covery removed the chief difficulty of the 
monogenists, who had to account for the 
great varieties in the present races of men 
as having sprung from one common stock 
within a limited period of time. The polyg- 
enists pointed to the remarkable perma¬ 
nence of type, in spite of the differentiating 
conditions of climate and circumstance, to 
prove that such races as the negroes, Mon¬ 
golians, and whites were distinct species — 
each sprung from a separate origin in its 
own region. But fuller knowledge of sav¬ 
age man has demonstrated the essential 
identity in the working of his mind, as well 
as the structure of his body, with the most 
cultured races; and experience has shown 
that all the present races, in spite of form 
and color, are capable of forming crossed 
races of every combination. Moreover, the 
modern doctrine of evolution, or the devel¬ 
opment of species, has confirmed the monog- 



Adam 


Adams 


enist theory in insisting against constitut¬ 
ing separate species where the differences 
are moderate enough to be accounted for 
as due to variation from a single type. 

The question of the original unity or di¬ 
versity of language is not, however, neces¬ 
sarily identical with that of the unity of 
the human race. For, even allowing man¬ 
kind to have descended from a single pair, 
language might not have originated till long 
after they had passed away; and the forma¬ 
tion of language may not have taken place 
at once, but may have been a gradual proc¬ 
ess going on for ages. However this may 
be, the faculty of speech is still one grand 
mark of distinction between man and the 
brute; and the fact remains that no anthro¬ 
poid ape has ever raised himself to the level 
of articulate-speaking man. 

The story of Adam has been a rich subject 
both in literature and art. It was fre¬ 
quently treated by the medieval painters, 
and formed the material of many mysteries 
and other poems. Of more modern works, 
it is enough to mention the splendid epic of 
Milton, “ Paradise Lost.” Here Adam and 
Eve are the archetypal man and woman, 
sketched with outlines that can only be 
compared for grand simplicity with Michael 
Angelo’s two frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, 
of Adam and of Eve coming into life. 

Adam, Juliette (Mme. Edmond Adam, 
nee Lamber), a French journalist and au¬ 
thor of many works; born Oct. 4, 183G; ed¬ 
itor of the “ Nouvelle Revue” (the organ 
of the Extreme Republicans), which she 
founded in 1879. Her second husbarrl, Ed¬ 
mond Adam, was a prominent politician; 
became a life senator, and died in 1877. She 
retired from journalism in 1899. 

Adam de la Hale (a-don'de la ill), a 
French poet and composer, born at Arras, 
about 1235; nicknamed the Hunchback of 
Arras, although he was not deformed. His 
satirical extravaganza, “ The Play of Adam, 
or The Play in the Arbor” (1262), consti¬ 
tutes the earliest comedy in the vulgar 
tongue; while the pastoral drama, “The 
riay of Robin and of Marion,” may be 
looked upon as the earliest specimen of 
comic opera. He died at Naples, about 
1287. 

Adam’s Apple, in botany (1) the name 
given by Gerarde and other old authors to 
the plantain tree (musa paradisiaca), from 
the notion that its fruit was that sinfully 
eaten by Adam in Eden. (2) The name 
given, for the same reason, to a species of 
citrus. 

In anatomy, a protuberance on the fore 
part of the throat, formed by the os hyoides. 
The name is supposed to have arisen from 
the absurd popular notion that a portion of 
the forbidden fruit, assumed to have been 
an apple, stuck in Adam’s throat when he 
attempted to swallow it. 


Adam’s Bridge or Ra=ma’s Bridge, a 

chain of shoals across the Gulf of Manaar, 
between Hindustan and the island of Cey¬ 
lon, in the Ramajana fabled to have been 
constructed by monkeys. 

Adam’s Peak, a mountain in the middle 
of the island of Ceylon. It is a resort of 
Moslem and Buddhist pilgrims, and also 
notable on account of an upright shadow 
which it casts, apparently projected on va¬ 
por. Height, 7,420 feet. The native name 
is Samanella. The cone forming the sum¬ 
mit is a naked mass of granite, terminating 
in a narrow platform, in the middle of 
which is a hollow, 5 feet long, having a re¬ 
semblance (increased by human agency) to 
a human footstep. Mohammedan tradition 
makes this the scene of Adam’s penitence, 
after his expulsion from Paradise; he stood 
1,000 years on one foot weeping for hia 
sin; hence the mark. To the Buddhists, 
the impression is the Sri-pada, or sacred 
footmark, left by Buddha on his departure 
from Ceylon; and the Hindus recognize 
Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu. Multi¬ 
tudes of devotees visit the mountain. 

Adams, Abigail, wife of John Adams, 
second President of the United States; born 
at Weymouth, Mass., Nov. 23, 1744. Her 
letters, contained in “ Familiar Letters of 
John Adams and His Wife, Abigail Adams, 
during the Revolution,” evince keen political 
sagacity, and throw valuable light upon the 
men and the public affairs of the time. She 
died at Quincy, Mass., Oct. 28, 1818. 

Adams, Brooks, an American essayist 
and politician, born at Quincy, Mass., 1848. 
He is the son of Charles Francis Adams, 
and a lawyer by profession. Besides con¬ 
tributions to magazines, he has written 
“ The Emancipation of Massachusetts ” 
(1887), and “The Law of Civilization and 
Decay.” 

Adams, Charles, an American historical 
and religious writer, born in New Hamp¬ 
shire in 1808; was a Methodist clergyman. 
Among his numerous works are “ Evangel¬ 
ism in the Middle of the 19th Century” 
(1851); “Women of the Bible” (1851); 
“Life of Cromwell” (1867); “The Earth 
and Its Wonders” (1869) ; “Life Sketches 
of Macaulay” (1880). He died in 1890. 

Adams, Charles FoIIen, an American 
dialect poet, born at Dorchester, Mass., 
April 21, 1842; author of “ Leedle Yawcob 
Strauss, and Other Poems” (1878); “Dia¬ 
lect Ballads” (1887), etc. 

Adams, Charles Francis, an American 
statesman, born in Boston, Aug. 18, 1807; 
was candidate for Vice-President in 1848, 
twice elected to Congress, was Minister to 
England from 1861 to 1868, and member of 
the Geneva Arbitration Commission of 1871. 
His chief literary work was “ Life and 
Works of John Adams ” (10 vols., 1850- 



Adams 


Adams 


1856), his grandfather. He also edited the 
writings of his father, John Quincy Adams. 
He died in Boston, Nov. 21, 1886. 

Adams, Charles Francis, an Ameri¬ 
can publicist and lawyer, son of the preced¬ 
ing, born in Boston, May 27, 1835. He served 
in the Union army during the Civil War. 
Besides notable articles in the “ North 
American Review,” on railroad management, 
he has published “ Chapters of Erie ” 
(1871) ; ‘‘Three Episodes of Massachusetts 
History” (1892) ; “Essays on Educational 
Topics” ( 1879), and a biography of his 
father (1900). He was for several years 
President of the Union Pacific railway, but 
resigned in 1890. 

Adams, Charles Kendall, an American 
historian and educator, born at Derby, Vt., 
Jan. 24, 1835. He became President of Cor¬ 
nell University (1885), of the American 
Historical Association (1890), of the Uni¬ 
versity of Wisconsin (1892), and editor-in- 
chief of “Johnson’s Universal Cyclopaedia” 
(1892). He wrote “Democracy and Mon¬ 
archy in France” (1872); “Christopher Co¬ 
lumbus, His Life and Work” (1892); besides 
many valuable papers on historical and edu¬ 
cational topics. He died July 27, 1902. 

Adams, Frank Dawson, geologist, born 
in Montreal, Canada, Sept. 17, 1859; gradu¬ 
ated at McGill University in 1878; took 
advanced courses at the Sheffield Scientific 
School of Yale, and at Heidelberg Univer¬ 
sity, applying himself particularly to lith¬ 
ology and physical geology. In 1888 he be¬ 
came Lecturer on Geology at McGill Univer¬ 
sity, and, in 1893, succeeded Sir William 
Dawson as Logan Professor of Geology 
there. 

Adams, George Burton, an American his¬ 
torical writer, born in Vermont in 1851. 
He is a Professor of History at Yale Univer¬ 
sity. He is the author of “ Civilization 
During the Middle Ages ” (1883), and “ The 
Growth of the French Nation.” 

Adams, Hannah, an American literary 
pioneer, born at Medfield, Mass., in 1755; 
died at Brookline, Mass., Nov. 15, 1832. 
Her principal works were an “ Autobiog¬ 
raphy; ” “History of New England” 
(1799); “History of the Jews” (1812); 
besides several writings on topics connected 
with religion. 

Adams, Henry, an American historian, 
born in Boston, Mass., Feb. 16, 1838; grand¬ 
son of J. Q. Adams. He was for some time 
editor of the “ North American Review,” 
and Professor of History in Harvard College. 
He wrote biographies of eminent public 
men: “ The Life of Albert Gallatin ” (1879) ; 
“John Randolph” (1882); and studies 
of particular episodes of American history: 
“ Documents Relating to New England Fed¬ 
eralism ” (1877). His principal work is 
the “ History of the United States from 
1801 to 1817,” 1 


Adams, John, 2d President of the United 
States; born in Braintree, Mass., Oct. 19, 
1735. He was educated at Harvard and 
adopted the law as a profession. His at¬ 
tention was directed to politics by the ques¬ 
tion which began to excite the colonies as 
to the right of the English Parliament to 
impose taxation upon them, and he took 
up a position strongly opposed to the claims 
of the mother country. In 1765 he pub¬ 
lished in the Boston “ Gazette ” some es¬ 
says, which were reprinted in London in 
1768, under the title of “A Dissertation on 
Canon and Feudal Law,” the subject really 
treated in which was the government of 
the colonies and the rights of the colonists. 
In 1774 he was chosen a delegate from Mas¬ 
sachusetts to the 1st Continental Congress. 
On his return he was appointed a member 
of the Provincial Congress, which had al¬ 
ready begun to take aggressive measures 
against the home government. In 1775 he 
again attended the Continental Congress at 
Philadelphia, in which he set himself in de¬ 



termined opposition to all attempts at rec¬ 
onciliation with the home government, and 
succeeded in persuading Congress to take 
means of national defense. To* secure the 
good-will of Virginia he proposed Washing¬ 
ton for the command of the army. Next 
session he was appointed a member of com¬ 
mittee on naval affairs, and drew up the 
regulations which still form the basis of 
the American naval code. At the beginning 
of 1776 he accepted the post of chief-justice 
of Massachusetts, but lie soon after re¬ 
signed the appointment. He published at 
this time “ Thoughts on Government, ap¬ 
plicable to the Present State of the Ameri¬ 
can Colonies,” in which he supported self- 
government by the different colonies with 
confederation. On May 13, 1776, he sec¬ 
onded the motion for a declaration of inde¬ 
pendence proposed by Lee of Virginia, and 
was appointed a member of committee to 
draw it up. The declaration was drawn 
up by Jefferson and fought through Con¬ 
gress by Adams. He was also appointed a 




Adams 


Adams 


member of the Committee on Foreign Rela¬ 
tions. He was next appointed chairman of 
the board of war and ordnance, a position 
which he held for 18 months. Near the end 
of 1777 he was sent to France on a special 
mission, and for 10 years he resided abroad 
as representative of his country in Fiance, 
Holland, and England. He succeeded in ne¬ 
gotiating various loans with Holland, and 
after taking part in the peace negotiations 
was appointed, in 1785, the first ambassador 
of the United States to the court of St. 
James. He was recalled in 1788 and elected 
Vice-President of the republic under Wash¬ 
ington. In 1790 he published “Discourses 
on Davila,” in which he opposed the prin¬ 
ciples of the French revolution. In 1792 
he was reelected Vice-President, and at the 
following election he became President. 
The country was then divided into two par¬ 
ties, the Federalists, who favored aristo¬ 
cratic and were suspected of monarchic 
views, and the Republicans. Adams ad¬ 
hered to the former party. Hamilton did 
his utmost with his own party to prevent 
the election of Adams, and his term of office 
proved a stormy one, which broke up and 
dissolved the Federalist party. His re- 
election was again opposed by Hamilton, 
which ended in effecting the return of the 
Republican candidate Jefferson. Living to 
a great age he survived the contemporaries 
who had despised him, and became, as one 
of the last survivors of the Revolution, a 
hero to the following generation. In 1820 
he became a member of a State convention 
to revise the constitution of Massachusetts. 
He died July 4, 1826, on the 50th anniver¬ 
sary of the Declaration of Independence, 
and on the same day as Jefferson, who had 
been engaged with him in drawing it up. 
Adams’s works were ably and carefully ed¬ 
ited by his grandson Charles Francis Adams. 

Adams, John Quincy, 6th President of 
the United States, son of John Adams, 
2d President; born in Braintree, Mass., 
July 11, 1767. In his 11th year he accom¬ 
panied his father on his first embassy to 
France, and was placed at school near Paris. 
He returned with his father in about 18 
months, but soon went back to Europe, and 
attended school in Holland and at the Uni¬ 
versity of Leyden. At the age of 15 Francis 
Dana, his father’s secretary of legation, 
who had been appointed on a diplomatic 
mission to Russia, took him with him as 
his private secretary. After 14 months’ 
stay in Russia he traveled back alone 
through Sweden and Denmark to The Hague. 
Soon after his father’s appointment as am¬ 
bassador at London he returned home to 
complete his studies. He graduated at Har¬ 
vard in 1788, entered the office of Theophi- 
lus Parsons, and in 1791 was ad¬ 
mitted to the bar. He now began to take 
an active interest in politics. He wrote a 
series of letters to the Boston “ Sentinel ” 
under the signature of “ Publicola,” in re¬ 


ply to Payne’s “ Rights of Man,” and in 

1793 defended Washington’s policy of neu¬ 
trality under the signature of “ Marcellus.” 
These letters attracted attention, and in 

1794 Washington appointed him minister 
to The Hague. In 1798 he received a com¬ 
mission to negotiate a treaty of commerce 
with Sweden. On the accession of Jeffer¬ 
son to the presidency he was recalled. The 
Federalist party had still sufficient influ¬ 
ence in Massachusetts to elect him to the 
Senate in 1803. On the question of em¬ 
bargo, he abandoned his party. Having 
lost his reelection on this account, he im¬ 
mediately resigned his seat and retired to 
the professorship of rhetoric at Harvard, 
which he held from 1806 to 1809. On the 
accession of Madison he was appointed 
(1809) ambassador to Russia. He assisted 
in negotiating the peace of 1814 with En¬ 
gland, and was afterward appointed resi¬ 
dent minister at London. On the accession 
of Monroe to the presidency he was offered 
and accepted the post of Secretary of State, 
and at the expiration of Monroe’s term of 
office he succeeded him in the presidency 
(1825). In 1831 he was returned to Con¬ 
gress by Massachusetts, and represented 
that State till his death, Feb. 21, 1848. 

Adams, Juiius Walker, an American 
civil engineer, born in Boston, Mass., Oct. 
18, 1812; took part of the course at the 
United States Military Academy; was en¬ 
gaged for many years on railroad and water¬ 
works construction, and planned the sew¬ 
erage system of Brooklyn, N. Y.; was Col¬ 
onel of the 67th New York Volunteers in the 
Civil War; and was the pioneer engineer of 
the East River bridge. He died Dec. 13, 
1899. 

Adams, Maude, an American actress, 
born at Salt Lake City, Nov. 11, 1872; 
daughter of an actress who was leading wo¬ 
man of a stock company in that city, under 
the stage name of Adams. At 16 years 
of age Miss Adams joined E. H. Sothern’s 
company in the “Midnight Bell;” after¬ 
ward she was in Charles Frohman’s stock 
company, and later supported John Drew. 
She made a great success in J. M. Barrie’s 
“Little Minister ” in 1899-1900. 

Adams, Oscar Fay, an American com¬ 
piler and miscellaneous writer, born in 
Worcester, Mass. Besides various compila¬ 
tions, including a “ Dictionary of American 
Authors” (1897), he has written “Dear 
Old Story-Tellers” (i889) ; “The Story of 
Jane Austen’s Life” (1891); “The Pre¬ 
sumption of Sex, and Other Papers ” 
(1892). 

Adams, Samuel, an American statesman 
and Revolutionary patriot, born at Boston, 
Mass., in 1722. He was elected to the Massa¬ 
chusetts legislature in 1765, was a delegate 
to the first Continental Congress in Phila¬ 
delphia, and a signer of the Declaration of 



Adams 


Addison 


Independence. He was active in framing 
the constitution of his native state, which 
he served as President of the Senate, Lieu¬ 
tenant-Governor (1789-1794), and Governor 
(1794-1797). He was zealous for popular 
rights, and fearless in his opposition to 
monarchism. He died in 1803. 

Adams, Sarah Flower, an English hymn- 
writer; born at Great Harlow, Essex, Feb. 
22, 1805. In 1834 she was married to Wil¬ 
liam Bridges Adams, a noted inventor. She 
was the author of “ Vivia Perpetua,” a dra¬ 
matic poem (London, 1841), and of many 
lyrics and hymns, the most popular of which 
is “ Nearer, My God, to Thee ” (1860). She 
died in August, 1848. 

Adams, William Davenport, an English 
journalist and critic, born in 1851. He has 
published “A Dictionary of English Litera¬ 
ture” (1878) ; “The Witty and Humorous 
Side of the English Poets” (1880) ; “By- 
Ways in Bookland ” (1888); “A Book 

of Burlesque” (1891); “With Poet and 
Player” (1891). He died July 27, 1904. 

Adams, William Taylor, an American 
author and editor, best known by the pseu¬ 
donym “ Oliver Optic; ” born July 30, 1822. 
He was a voluminous and highly popular 
writer of fiction for young readers, his 
works including several series of travel and 
adventure: “Young America Abroad,” 

“ Starry Flag Series,” and others. He died 
March 27, 1897. 

Addams, Jane, an American philanthro¬ 
pist, born in Cedarville, Ill., Sept. 6, I860. 
She was graduated at Rockford College in 
1881, and after post-graduate studies in Eu¬ 
rope and the United States, became an ac¬ 
tive social reformer. She inaugurated in 
1889 the establishment known as Hull 
House, an adaptation of the “ social settle¬ 
ment ” plan to Chicago conditions. She has 
acted as street cleaning inspector in Chi¬ 
cago, and has lectured on the improvement 
of the condition of the poor in great cities. 

Adder, etymologically, nadder, the n hav¬ 
ing been attracted to the article and lost. 
The common English name of the viper is 
pelias berus. Its color is yellowish-brown 
or olive, with a double series of black spots 
along the back. The sides are a little paler 
and are also spotted with black. The adder 
has a broad, triangular head and a short 
tail. It rarely exceeds two feet in length. 
The adder is the only poisonous reptile in 
Great Britain, and is found in most of the 
countries of Europe. In the United States 
the name is popularly applied to several 
harmless snakes, but the true adder does 
not occur. 

Addington, Henry, Viscount Sidmouth, 

an English statesman, born May 30, 1757; 
educated at Winchester and Brasenose Col¬ 
lege, Oxford; studied law, and, through the 
influence of Pitt, entered Parliament 


(1784) ; was speaker of the House of Com¬ 
mons (1789-1801); chancellor of the ex¬ 
chequer and first lord of the treasury; put 
through a bill disqualifying clergymen from 
sitting in the House of Commons, and later, 
with Pitt’s advice, negotiated (1802) the 
Peace of Amiens, a cessation of war much 
needed by England. In 1805 he was raised 
to the peerage. As Home Secretary (1812— 
1822), he was strict in his administration 
of justice and in oversight of the press and 
public meetings. Partly due to his too great 
zeal was the Manchester massacre. He re¬ 
signed in 1824, disapproving of the recog¬ 
nition of the independence of Buenos Ayres. 
He died Feb. 15, 1844. 

Addison, Joseph, an English essayist, 
son of the Rev. Lancelot Addison, subse¬ 
quently dean of Lichfield; born at his fath¬ 
er’s rectory, Milston, Wiltshire, May 1, 1672; 
passed through the schools of the Rev. Mr. 
Nash at Amesbury, Wiltshire, and the Rev. 
Mr. Taylor at Salisbury, and at the age of 
11 was sent to the Charterhouse, where he 
made the acquaintance of his friend and 
future collaborator Steele. At the age of 
15 he proceeded to Oxford, entering first at 
Queen’s College, but two years later being 
elected to Magdalen College, on account, it 
is said, of his skill in Latin versification. 
He took the degree of M. A. in 1693, and 



JOSEPH ADDISON - . 


held a fellowship in his college from 1699 
to 1711. He had contemplated entering on 
the clerical profession, but was diverted 
from his purpose by his literary tastes and 
by the early patronage which he received 
from some of the greatest statesmen of the 
Whig party. Addison had the good fortune 
to secure as his earliest patron the poet 
Dryden. With sympathetic appreciation 
of Dryden’s skill as a translator of clas¬ 
sical poetry, the young scholar addressed to 
him some complimentary verses, which the 
poet approved of and inserted in his “ Mis¬ 
cellanies” in 1693. A translation of the 
fourth “ Georgic,” with the exception of the 
story of Aristaeus, by Addison, appeared in 
the same collection in 1694, and he subse- 




Addison 


Addison 


quenlly translated for it two and a half 
books of “ Ovid.” A still higher honor was 
conferred on Addison by Dryden in prefix¬ 
ing his prose essay on Vergil’s “ Georgies ” 
to his own translation of that poem, which 
appeared in 1097. Addison published in 
1694 “ An Account of the Greatest English 
Poets,” a running criticism in verse, which 
he dedicated to his fellow student, the after¬ 
wards celebrated Dr. Sacheverell. It is said 
to be chiefly notable for the ignorance, com¬ 
mon to the day, which it displays of early 
English poetry. 

Through the introduction, it appears, 
of Congreve, Addison early secured an able 
and powerful patron in Charles Montague, 
afterwards Earl of Halifax, and in 1695 his 
own pen secured a greater in Lord Somers. 
He dedicated to this nobleman, then lord- 
keeper, a poem on one of King William’s 
campaigns, and received as his reward a 
pension of £300 to enable him to travel in 
order to fit himself for the service of the 
king. In 1699, in which year appeared a 
collection of his Latin poems in the second 
volume of the “ Musarum Anglicanarum 
Analecta,” he left England and after spend¬ 
ing more than two years in France and 
Italy was returning home through Switzer¬ 
land when he was instructed to repair as 
envoy to the quarters of Prince Eugene, 
then engaged in an Italian campaign. The 
death of King William in March, 1702, can¬ 
celled this appointment with the overthrow 
of his friends. He says, indeed, that he 
never received more than a single year’s 
payment of his pension, and had to defray 
the expenses of his travels himself. Never¬ 
theless he was able to extend his tour to 
Germany and Holland, and returned to En¬ 
gland at the close of 1703, having attempt¬ 
ed without success to procure an appoint¬ 
ment as a traveling tutor. 

During his residence abroad his pen had 
not been idle. His tragedy of “ Cato ” is 
supposed to have been written, subject to 
after revision, during his stay in France. 
During his journey across Mount Cenis he 
wrote his “ Letter from Italy,” esteemed 
the best of his poems, and in Germany his 
“ Dialogues on Medals,” which was not pub¬ 
lished till after his death. His “ Remarks 
on Several Parts of Italy in the Years 
1701-1703 ” was published in 1705. It is 
an impersonal record of impressions in 
which current events have hardly any place, 
the absorbing topic being the correspond¬ 
ences traced between passages in the Latin 
poets and the scenes it illustrates. It was 
dedicated to Lord Somers. The first minis¬ 
try of Queen Anne was a coalition one, in 
which the Whigs had still considerable pow¬ 
er, chiefly due to the victories of Marlbor¬ 
ough. Godolphin mentioned to Halifax his 
desire to have the achievements of the great 
commanders celebrated in appropriate verse. 
Halifax strongly recommended Addison, 


and the commission was at once assigned to 
him, and he produced the “ Campaign,” 
which was about as good as a poem made to 
order by a man of taste and scholarly ac¬ 
complishments, who was not quite a poet, 
could be expected to be. Before it was half 
finished Godolphin’s approval was expressed 
in the form of an appointment to succeed 
Locke as a commissioner of appeal on ex¬ 
cise. One official appointment succeeded an¬ 
other till the fall of the ministry, whose 
favor he had now made, in 1710. In 1706 
he became under-secretary of state to Sir 
Charles Hodges, next year he accompan¬ 
ied Lord Halifax as his secretary on a mis¬ 
sion to the Elector of Hanover. In 1708 he 
was elected M. P. for Lostwitliiel, a seat 
he exchanged in 1710 for Malmesbury, which 
place he continued to represent till his 
death. In 1709 he became secretary to 
Lord Wharton as Lord-lieutenant of Ire¬ 
land. 

It may here be noticed that Addison’s 
temperament, which greatly facilitated his 
elevation, determined its limit in a political 
direction. Extremely shy and even awk¬ 
ward in company, especially among persons 
of any superiority of pretension, he joined 
with this diffidence extreme caution of of¬ 
fending and solicitous anxiety to oblige. 
These qualities, which recommended him to 
men in office, wholly disqualified him for 
parliamentary life, lie is said to have once 
attempted to speak in the House; but, if 
ever he had a higher ambition, he sunk at 
once and irretrievably into the position of 
an absolutely silent member. 

The fall of the ministry in August, 1710, 
followed by the accession to power of an 
uncompromising Tory ministry, happened 
fortunately for Addison’s fame. While he 
was absent in Ireland his old school com¬ 
panion, Steele, had started a paper partly 
devoted to news but chiefly to essays of a 
social, moral, and literary character, the 
“ Tatler.” Addison discovered the author 
of the enterprise by a literary criticism 
which he had communicated to his friend, 
and was readily admitted to share in it. 
The “Tatler” was begun April 12, 1709, 
and terminated Jan. 2, 1711. It was fol¬ 
lowed on March 1 by the “ Spectator,” which 
dropped the news section and consisted en¬ 
tirely of essays. It continued till Dec. 8, 
1712. The “Guardian” succeeded, from 
March 2 to Oct. 1, 1713, and the “Specta¬ 
tor” was resumed from June 18 to Dec. 20, 
1714. The “Tatler” was published thrice 
weekly, on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Sat¬ 
urdays ; the “ Spectator ” and “ Guardian ” 
every week day. The bulk of the papers 
were contributed in nearly equal propor¬ 
tion by Steele and Addison. 

Addison’s contributions to the “ Specta¬ 
tor ” are distinguished by one of the initials 
O., L., I., O. In humorous and satirical 
character sketches he hardly excelled, per¬ 
haps hardly equalled Steele. If more re- 




Addison 


Addison 


fined he was less direct and pointed. But 
he was far ahead of his fellow contributor 
in scholarship and literary taste, and in 
the breadth and height of his ambition. He 
poured forth the stores of his knowledge on 
a greater variety of subjects, and indulged 
his imagination in more elaborate and ar¬ 
tistic creations. But besides these inde¬ 
pendent efforts of his own he aspired to be 
a judge and censor of the literary produc¬ 
tions of others, and he was, perhaps, be¬ 
yond any man of his day, well qualified for 
the task. Certainly his judgments had less 
force and perhaps less depth than John¬ 
son’s, but they had much more of breadth, 
harmony, and completeness, were woven 
with more art into a system depending on 
theoretical principles, and were delivered 
with a grace and eloquence of which the 
oracular moralist was no master. If his 
system was somewhat shallow, it had prob¬ 
ably the merit of directing attention more 
to criticism, and preparing the way for 
better and more philosophic standards of 
appreciation. Among the most remarkable 
of his contributions to the “ Spectator ” are 
his criticism on Milton’s “Paradise Lost,” 
his essays on the “ Pleasures of the Imagin¬ 
ation,” “ Vision of Mirza,” his Saturday es¬ 
says on moral and religious themes, and his 
“ Rejections on the Divine Perfections.” 
Preeminent among his character sketches is 
Sir Roger de Coverley. Steele originated 
the idea of a “ Spectator ” club and sketched 
the characters of its members. That of Sir 
Roger was immediately appropriated by Ad¬ 
dison, to whom the delicate humor of its 
subsequent development is exclusively due. 
The remaining works of Addison not yet 
mentioned are of comparatively little in¬ 
terest or importance. In opposition to the 
“ Examiner,” conducted by Swift, he wrote, 
in the latter part of 1710, five numbers of a 
“ Whig Examiner.” In 1713 he published, 
anonymously, “ The Trial and Conviction of 
Count Tariff,” a libel on the financial pol¬ 
icy of the ministry. He had assisted Steele 
at an early period with his comedy of the 
“ Tender Husband,” and the drama of “ The 
Drummer or the Haunted House ” was pub¬ 
lished by Sir Richard Steele after his death 
and attributed to him. The “ Freeholder,” 
a political paper in support of the govern¬ 
ment, published twice weekly from Dec. 23, 
1715, to June 29, 171G, was written entirely 
by him. He also wrote a work on the “ Evi¬ 
dences of the Christian Religion,” and “ Dis¬ 
course on Ancient and Modern Learning.” 
“ Cato ” was brought on the stage in April, 
1713, reluctantly, as is said, and though 
destitute of dramatic qualities and even 
deficient in poetry, had a great run of suc¬ 
cess, which was largely owing to political 
causes. 

In August, 1716, he married the Countess 
Dowager of Warwick. This connection 
brought him little accession of fortune, as 


the widow forfeited her jointure by her re¬ 
marriage. Her haughty demeanor, never¬ 
theless, is said to have made his home un¬ 
bearable to a man of his nicety of feeling. 
Whether from this cause, or from the long 
habit of frequenting taverns, to which he 
appears at first to have had rather an aver¬ 
sion, he acquired, according to prevalent re¬ 
ports, a habit of excessive wine-bibbing 
which shortened his days. These latter 
days were distinguished by a return to 
political life, and darkened by seme painful 
literary quarrels. On the death of Queen 
Anne the lords justices who assumed the 
government appointed Addison their secre¬ 
tary. For a brief period he resumed his 
former office of secretary to the lord-lieu¬ 
tenant, and in 1715 he was named, one of 
the lords of trade. In 1717 the leading 
Whigs retired from office, leaving an at¬ 
tenuated party called the German ministry. 
From this ministry, on. April 16, Addison 
accepted office as one of the principal sec¬ 
retaries of state. He was probably equally 
unqualified in point of business capacity 
and of parliamentary efficiency for this re¬ 
sponsible post, and he was probably also 
sensible of his own incapacity, for it is said 
that in accepting it he yielded to the ambi¬ 
tion of his wife. 

He retired after 11 months with a salary 
of £1,500. Of his literary quarrels one of 
the bitterest was with Pope. The cause of 
it was the publication by Tickell, Addison’s 
secretary, of a part of a rival translation of 
the “ Iliad,” which Pope suspected was Ad¬ 
dison’s own, and a remark of Addison’s 
that Tickell’s translation was more faith¬ 
ful than Pope’s. Pope in revenge wrote the 
savage satire contained in his lines on “ At- 
ticus,” which he published after Addison’s 
death in his epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot, and 
which at the time he printed and distributed 
among his friends. Addison does not ap¬ 
pear to have replied publicly, but in the 
“ Freeholder ” he liberally praised Pope’s 
“ Iliad.” Addison had also a quarrel with 
Gay, and on this occasion he appears to 
have been in the wrong, as he sent for Gay 
some time before his death, apologized for 
having injured him, and promised amends. 
But the saddest, as it appears to have been 
the paltriest, quarrel, was with his ancient 
comrade Steele. The cause of it was politi¬ 
cal. Steele attacked a bill for the limita¬ 
tion of the peerage in the “ Plebeian.” Ad¬ 
dison replied in a pamphlet called the “ Old 
Whig.” Steele answered that Addison was 
so old a Whig that he had forgotten his 
principles, and Addison made a contemptu¬ 
ous reply. Addison died of asthma and 
dropsy at Holland House, June 17, 1719. 

Of his style as a writer so much has been 
said that nothing remains to say but to 
quote the dictum of Johnson, “ Whoever 
wishes to attain an English style, familiar 
but not coarse, and elegant but not osten¬ 
tatious, must give his days and nights to 




Addison's Disease 


Adelaide 


the volumes of Addison.” Addison had 
great conversational powers, and his inti¬ 
mates speak in the strongest terms of the 
enjoyment derived from his society, but it 
is acknowledged that he was extremely re¬ 
served before strangers. There is a story 
told of his having sent for his stepson, Lord 
Warwick, on his deathbed, and addressed 
him in these terms, “ See in what peace a 
Christian can die.” It is alluded to by 
Tickell, Addison’s executor, and is first told 
circumstantially by Dr. Young, but the 
truth of the story has been questioned. Ad¬ 
dison was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
He left a daughter born in the year of his 
death. His works were published by Tickell 
in four 4to vols. in 1721. An edition, with 
notes by Bishop Hurd, in six vols. 8vo, was 
published in 1811. A more complete edi¬ 
tion, with Bishop Hurd’s notes was pub¬ 
lished and edited by H. G. Bohn (in the 
well-known series, six vols.). A recent edi¬ 
tion (in six vols.) is that of Professor 
Greene. There have been two recent edi¬ 
tions of the “Spectator” (both in eight 
vols.) edited respectively by G. A. Aitkin 
and G. G. Smith. Among “ Lives ” may be 
mentioned that by Lucy Aikin (1843), 
which drew from Macaulay an admirable 
essay, and that by Professor Courthope. 

Addison's Disease, the name of a pecu¬ 
liar skin disease, first described by Dr. 
Thomas Addison. Its symptoms are anse- 
mia, excessive debility, loss of appetite, 
faintness, flabbiness of the muscles, and a 
dingy brownish discoloration of the skin. 
The patient generally suffers from dyspep¬ 
sia, vomiting, and nervous troubles. The 
disease has sometimes been alleviated by 
careful nursing, but no cure for it has been 
found, and in the end it is invariably fatal. 

Addison, Thomas, an English physician, 
born in 1793; the discoverer of Addison’s 
disease. A collection of his writings was 
published in 1808. He died June 29, 1860. 

Add=Ran Christian University, former 
name of the Texas Christian University, a 
co-educational institution at Waco, Tex., or¬ 
ganized 1873, under auspices of Church of 
the Disciples; has grounds and buildings val¬ 
ued at over $250,000; scientific apparatus, 
$20,000; volumes in library, 5,000; produc¬ 
tive funds, $50,000; income, $65,000; profes¬ 
sors and instructors, 25; students, 380. 

Ade, George, an American journalist and 
author, born in Illinois in 1866. He has 
published “Artie: a Story of the Streets and 
Town;” “Pink Marsh” (1897), a dialect 
story, and similar efforts. 

Adelaar, Cort Siversen, one of the great¬ 
est naval commanders of the 17th century, 
was born at Brevig, in Norway, in 1622, and 
in his 20tli year was employed in the naval 
service of Venice against the Turks. On 
one occasion he broke through a line of 67 


Turkish galleys which surrounded his ship, 
sunk 15, and burned several others. Fred¬ 
erick III. secured his services as admiral of 
the Danish fleet, and ennobled him. In 1675, 
under Christian V., he took the command of 
the whole of the Danish naval force against 
Sweden, but died suddenly, at Copenhagen, 
before the expedition set out. 

Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, 
7 miles by rail S. E. of Port Adelaide, on 
St. Vincent gulf. It stands on a large plain, 
and is walled in on the eastern and suuthern 
sides by the Mount Lofty range; the town 
proper is inclosed by a wide belt of garden 
shrubbery. The first settlement was made in 
1836, and named after the queen of William 
IV. The Torrens divides the town into North 
and South Adelaide, the former being occu¬ 
pied chiefly with residences, and the latter 
forming the business portion of the town. 
Four substantial iron bridges span the Tor¬ 
rens, which has been formed by a dam into a 
lake D /2 miles long. The streets are broad 
and regularly laid out, especially in Adelaide 
proper, to the south of the river, where they 
cross each other at right angles, and are 
planted with trees. Among the public build¬ 
ings are the new Parliament Houses, erected 
at a cost of about $500,000; government of¬ 
fices, post-office, and town-hall; South Aus¬ 
tralian Institute, with museum, library and 
art galleries; and hospital. The botanical 
garden, with the botanical garden park, 
covers more than 120 acres of ground. The 
chief manufactures are woolen, leather, iron, 
and earthenware goods; but the chief im¬ 
portance of Adelaide depends on its being 
the great emporium for South Australia. 
Wool, wine, wheat, flour and copper ore are 
the staple articles of export. Among educa¬ 
tional institutions the most important are 
the Adelaide University; St. Peter’s (Epis¬ 
copal ) College; St. Barnabas Theological 
College, opened in 1881, and Prince Alfred 
(Wesleyan) College. It is the seat of an 
Anglican and of a Homan Catholic bishop. 
Glenelg, on the sea, 5 miles away, is a fa¬ 
vorite watering place. Pop., with suburbs 
(1907), 178,300. Port Adelaide, its haven, 
dates from 1840. It is a principal port of 
call for vessels arriving from Europe; has 
railway communication with Melbourne, 
Sydney, and Brisbane. Tramways were in¬ 
troduced in 1878. Pop., with Semaphore 
(1901), 21,000. 

Adelaide, Amelia Louisa Teresa Caro¬ 
line, wife of William IV., and Queen of 
England. She was sister to the Duke of 
Saxe-Meiningen, and was married July 11, 
1818. She was a lady possessed of many 
exalted virtues, and was a liberal benefac¬ 
tress of the poor. Born 1792; died 1849. 

Adelaide, Eugenie Louise, Princess of 
Orleans, daughter of Louis Philippe Joseph, 
Duke of Orleans, nick-named Egalite, and 



Adelaide 


Aden 


sister of Louis Philippe, King of France. 
Born at Paris, 1777; died in that city, Dec. 
31, 1847, two months before the dynasty of 
Orleans fell. Proscribed as an emigre in 
1792, she spent the greatest part of her ex¬ 
ile in a convent, near Freiburg, Switzerland; 
rejoined her brother in England in 1809, 
and went with him to Sicily, where she lived 
until the restoration. 

Adelaide, Marchioness of Salisbury, 

an English lady of whom it is told that 
Edward III., King of England, who was 
much taken with her charms, picked up, at 
a ball, one of her garters, which had fallen 
off in the dance. Seeing the lords and ladies 
laughing, Edward buckled the garter around 
his knee, and said, “ Honi soit qui mal y 
pem°e ” (evil be to him who evil thinks). 
This incident is said to have given rise to 
the Order of the Knights of the Garter, 
1344, an origin very much questioned by 
modern writers. < 

Adelieland (fl'del-e-l&nd), an Antarctic 
continent, discovered Jan. 20, 1840, by Du 
Mont d’Urville. It consists of a chain of 
mountains without prominent peaks, with 
a few shallow bays filled with icebergs and 
a number of islands with rounded summits. 

Adelphi College, a co-educational (non- 
sectarian) institution, in Brooklyn, N. Y., 
organized in 1896; has noimal, art, and musi¬ 
cal departments; grounds and buildings val¬ 
ued at over $556,000; productive funds, 
$75,000; scientific apparatus, $55,000; in¬ 
come, $160,000; volumes in the library, 
$12,700; faculty, 30; students, 450. 

Adelsberg, a small town of Austria-Hun¬ 
gary, in Carniola, among limestone hills, in 
a lofty and barren district, on the roa'd. 
from Vienna to Trieste, remarkable for the 
stalactical caves in its vicinity. The prin¬ 
cipal one, in the mouth of which the Poik 
disappears in a vast chasm, extends to the 
distance of two or three miles, and is found 
to terminate in a lake. After proceeding 
200 yards into it a vast gloomy space, called 
the Dome, forming a hall 300 feet long by 
100 feet high, is entered. The river is 
heard rushing below, and on crossing it by 
a wooden bridge and ascending a flight of 
steps cut in the rock, a series of lofty halls, 
supported by gigantic concretions resem¬ 
bling lofty Gothic columns, and apparently 
filled with statues of exquisite whiteness 
and delicacy, meets the view. See Stalac¬ 
tites. 

Adelung, Friedrich von, a German phi¬ 
lologist; born in Stettin, Prussia, Feb. 25, 
1768. He studied for some time at Leipsic, 
devoting himself to philosophy and juris¬ 
prudence; then went to Italy, where he re¬ 
mained several years; was appointed pri¬ 
vate secretary of Count Pohlen, with whom 
he went to St. Petersburg, where he became 


instructor of the Archdukes Nicholas and 
Michael. In 1824 he was appointed di¬ 
rector of the Oriental Institute, and in 
1825 became president of the Academy of 
Sciences. He wrote: “ Relations between 
the Sanskrit and the Russian Languages” 
(1815); “Biography of Baron Herber- 
stein” (1817); “Essay on Sanskrit Liter¬ 
ature” (1830). He died in St. Petersburg, 
Jan. 30, 1843. 

Adelung, Johann Christoph, a German 

philologist and lexicographer; born in Span- 
tekow, Aug. 8, 1732. He finished his edu¬ 
cation at Halle, and in 1759 was appointed 
professor in the Protestant academy at Er¬ 
furt, but two years after ecclesiastical dis¬ 
putes caused him to remove to Leipsic, 
where he applied himself to his great works 
on the German language and literature. In 
1787 he became librarian of the public li¬ 
brary in Dresden, an office which he held 
till his death. His life was devoted to an 
exhaustive investigation of his native 
language, which he traced to its remotest 
origins with a patience and a thoroughness 
that have remained unsurpassed, the princi¬ 
pal result being “ A Grammatical and Crit¬ 
ical Dictionary of the High German 
Tongue.” Science is further indebted to 
him for “ Mithridates, or Universal Lan¬ 
guage Lore,” in which all living tongues are 
directly or indirectly represented; and for a 
series of text-books that are still authori¬ 
tative, and, to all appearances, will long 
continue so. The first edition of his “ Dic¬ 
tionary ” was published in 1774-1786, and 
the second in 1798-1801. The latter con¬ 
tains many valuable additions, but not 
sufficient to mark the development of the 
language in the meantime. It was of great 
service, however, in fixing the standard of 
the German language. He died in Dres¬ 
den, Sept. 10, 1806. 

Aden, a peninsula and town belonging to 
Great Britain, on the S. W. coast of Arabia, 
105 miles E. of the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, 
the entrance to the Red Sea. The peninsula 
is a mass of volcanic rocks, 5 miles long 
from E. to W., and rising to 1,776 feet. It 
is joined to the mainland by a narrow, level, 
and sandy isthmus. The town is on the 
eastern shore of the peninsula, stands in 
the crater of an extinct volcano, and is sur¬ 
rounded by barren, cinder-like rocks. The 
main crater is known as the Devil’s Punch¬ 
bowl. Frequently the heat is intense; but 
the very dry, hot climate, though depressing, 
is unusually healthy for the tropics. The 
Romans occupied it in the 1st century a. d. 
Till the discovery of the Cape route to India 
(1498), it was the chief mart of Asiatic 
produce for the Western nations; but, in 
1838, it had sunk to be a village of 600 in¬ 
habitants. The increasing importance of 
the Red Sea route gave Aden great value as 
a station for England to hold; and, in 1839, 



Aden Cape 


Adipocere 


after a few hours’ contest, Aden fell into 
the hands of the British. It is of high im¬ 
portance, both in a mercantile and naval 
point of view, especially as a great coaling 
station; it has a garrison and strong for¬ 
tifications. The population and resources 
of the place have rapidly increased since 
1838, and the opening of the Suez canal in 
1869 gave it a great impetus. The annual 
value of its imports sometimes exceeds 
£2,000,000, while that of its exports (coffee, 
gums, spices) amounts to £1,500,000. It 
it a telegraphic station on the cable be¬ 
tween Suez and Bombay, and on the line 
to Zanzibar and the Cape. To provide for 
its growing population, a considerable ter¬ 
ritory on the mainland has been acquired 
and added to the peninsula, the total area 
(including the island of Perim) being 75 
square miles; and the settlement, which is 
politically connected with Bombay (7 days’ 
sailing, or 1,819 nautical miles, distant), 
has a population of over 41,000. The ma¬ 
jority of the natives are Arabs and Somalis, 
from Africa, all speaking Arabic. In the 
settlement there are, besides Aden proper, 
called the Camp, or the Crater, two other 
centers of population — Steamer Point, 
which is cooler than the Crater; and the 
outlying town of Shaikh Othman, with a 
Presbyterian mission, 10 miles toward the 
interior. 

Aden Cape, on the S. coast of Arabia, 
1,776 feet in height. This rocky peninsula, 
on which stands the town of Aden, stretches 
into the ocean about 5 miles, with an aver¬ 
age breadth of 2 1 4 miles, and is connected 
with the mainland by a sandy isthmus, % 
of a mile broad. 

Aden, Gulf of, the portion of sea lying 
between the N. coast of Aden, terminat¬ 
ing E. with Ras Jerdaffon (Cape Gardafui), 
and the S. coast of Arabia, between Ras 
Arrah and Ras Agab; the former in latitude 
12° 40' N., longitude 44° E.; the latter in 
latitude 15° 15' N., longitude 51° 30' E. Its 
length from E. to W. is thus about 480 
miles; its breadth from N. to S. varying 
from 160 to 200 miles. 

Adenitis, inflammation of the lymphatic 
glands. It almost always exists with an- 
geioleucitis — inflammation of the lym¬ 
phatic vessels. It is produced when an open 
wound of any kind comes in contact with 
irritating or poisonous matter, generally 
from without, though sometimes also gen¬ 
erated within itself. When one with a 
sore on his hand has to touch a noxious 
fluid, he should smear the wound with oil 
or grease to prevent the poisoning of the 
absorbents. 

Adenet Le Roi (ad-na' le rwa'), a French 
troubadour of the 13th century, whose sur¬ 
name is interpreted as meaning king (leader) 
of the minstrels, which function he per¬ 


formed at the court of Henri III., Duke of 
Brabant. His work consists of remodelings 
of three famous “ Chansons de Gestes,” and 
of the romance of adventure, “ Cleomades,” 
his last and most important effort. 

Adersbach Rocks, a range of mountains 
in the district of Glatz, valley of the Rie- 
sengebirge, Silesia, remarkable as being di¬ 
vided, for several miles, into detached per¬ 
pendicular columns by fissures from 600 to 
1,200 feet in depth. Geologists suppose it 
to have been of tabular sandstone, of vary¬ 
ing degrees of hardness, and that the softer 
portions, lying in upright seams, were grad¬ 
ually washed away by the action of water. 

Adiaphorists (a-de-af'or-ists), or Adiaph- 
orites, a party or wing of the Lutheran 
reformers of Germany, who held that cer¬ 
tain things practiced by the Roman Catholic 
Church were indifferent and might be re¬ 
ceived. In 1548, an ecclesiastical contro¬ 
versy broke out among the reformers. The 
Emperor Charles V. having issued a paper 
popularly called the “ Interim,” in which 
lie prescribed what faith and practice the 
Protestants were to adopt till the Council 
of Trent should dictate a permanent form 
of belief and worship, Maurice, elector of 
Saxony, urged Melanchthon and his friends 
to decide what portions of the document 
they would accept and follow. Melanchthon 
considered that, to a very large extent, the 
“ Interim ” might be accepted and obeyed. 
A controversy in consequence arose between 
the followers of Luther and those of Me¬ 
lanchthon. It was called the adiaplioristic 
controversy, and embraced two questions: 
(1) What things were indifferent; and (2) 
whether, with regard to things indifferent, 
the Emperor could or could not, in con¬ 
science, be obeyed. 

Adige (ad'e-zha), a considerable river of 
North Italy, which has its source in the 
Alps of Tyrol, above Brixen; it enters Italy 
by Bolzano and the valley of Trento, flows 
in a southern direction by Roveredo, paral¬ 
lel to and for the most part about 6 miles 
from, the lake of Garda, then, turning ab¬ 
ruptly toward the E., passes through Ver¬ 
ona and Legnano; it afterward enters the 
great Delta, between the Brenta and the 
Po, and, forming several branches, empties 
its waters in to the Adriatic Sea. It is a 
deep and rapid stream, dividing, by its 
course, the old Venetian territories from 
Lombardy proper. The valley of the Adige 
has been rendered forever memorable by the 
wars of Bonaparte. 

Adipic Acid (formula: C„H 10 O< (C 4 H 8 )" 
(CO'OH)j), an organic diatomic dibasic 
acid, produced by the oxidation of fats by 
nitric acid. 

Adipocere, a chemical substance in its 
character somewhat resembling wax or sper¬ 
maceti. It arises through the chemistry of 




Adipose Cellular Tissue 


Adjutant Bird 


nature, when the bodies of men and animals, 
buried in soil of a certain kind, are subjected 
to the action of running water, or otherwise 
brought in contact with moisture. In such 
circumstances the soft parts of the corpses, 
instead of decaying, may become trans¬ 
formed into adipocere. A notable case of 
the kind occurred in a Parisian burial- 
ground, in the year 1787. Mineral adipo¬ 
cere is a name given to a certain fatty mat¬ 
ter found in the argillaceous iron ore of 
Merthyr, Wales. 

Adipose Cellular Tissue, a term formerly 
applied to two distinct kinds of structure 
which the perfection of modern microscopes 
has now enabled physiologists to separate, 
as being different both in structure and 
function — adipose tissue, properly so called, 
and areolar tissue. 

Adipose Tissue, a membrane in a state 
of great tenuity, fashioned into minute cells, 
in which fat is deposited. It occurs in man, 
and in the inferior animals, both when ma¬ 
ture and when of imperfect development. 

Adirondack Mountains, the highest 
range in New York State, stretching from 
near Canada, on the N., to near the Mo¬ 
hawk river on the S., a distance of 120 
miles; and from Lakes George and Cham¬ 
plain, on the E., to an indefinite line on the 
W., covering an area of about 8,000 to 10,000 
square miles, and occupying parts of Clin¬ 
ton, Essex, Franklin, and Hamilton coun¬ 
ties. These mountains, the geological forma¬ 
tion of which are chiefly granite, run in 
five parallel ranges; the highest range, or 
Adirondack proper, is on the E. side of 
the district, and the peaks rise to a great 
height. Mt. Marcy is 5,345 feet; Gray 
peak, 4,900 feet; White Face, 4,870 feet, 
etc. This whole district, sometimes called 
the Adirondack Wilderness, is covered 
with dense forests, except the tallest peaks, 
and some of these forests are still unex¬ 
plored. Lumbering is carried on extensively, 
with outlets on the Hudson* and St. Law¬ 
rence. The 1,000 lakes in the valleys beau¬ 
tifully diversify the scenery. They vary in 
size from small lakes of a few acres to 
Scliroon lake, 20 square miles in area, and 
at a height of 807 feet above the sea. “ Tear 
of the Clouds,” a small lake, 4,320 feet above 
the sea, is the highest source of the Hudson. 
These lakes and streams are well stocked 
with trout and bass, and in this district are 
found black bears, wild cats, deer, otter, 
hawks, wild duck, eagles, rabbits, partridges, 
etc.; but no venomous serpents of any sort. 
The sportsman of this region usually kills 
his deer by “ still-hunting.” “ Jack-hunt¬ 
ing ” is prohibited by the State game laws. 
One of the chief pleasures in the Adiron- 
dacks is the camp life, which some of the 
annual visitors make very luxurious. 


Adirondack Park, a large district, prin¬ 
cipally forest land, set apart by the State 
of New York, in 1892, for the protection 
of the watershed of the Hudson and other 
rivers of the State, for public recreation, 
and for the practical study of forestry. It 
covers Hamilton county, and parts of Essex, 
Franklin, Herkimer and St. Lawrence coun¬ 
ties, and contains many mountains and 
lakes, besides game-fish stocked ponds; area, 
4,387 square miles. 

Aditi (ad-e'te), in the mythology of the 
Hindu Big-Vedas, Infinity endued with 
life and form, from which are born the 
Aditvas — the source and substratum of the 
universe; in later Vedic literature, the 
mother of the gods of storms (which are 
represented as life-producing), and of the 
sun. Aditi is the daughter of Daksha and 
wife of Kasyapa, and besides being the 
mother of the 33 gods, and of the sun, was 
also the mother of the Tushitas, or the 12 
Aditvas. The latter in the Vedic literature 
numbered seven and are the gods of the 
heavenly light, with Varuna at their head. 
Tn the Brahmanas and later they numbered 
12, with supposed reference to the months 
of the year. 

Adjutant, in military language, in the 
United States army, an officer selected by 
the colonel, whose duties in respect to his 
regiment are similar to those of an adjutant 
general with an army. Adjutant general: 
the principal organ of the commander of an 
army in publishing orders. The same or¬ 
gan of the commander of a corps, or depart¬ 
ment, is styled assistant adjutant general. 
The adjutant general has charge of the 
drill and discipline of the army. 

Adjutant Bird, a large grallatorial or 
wading bird of Asia belonging to the genus 
Leptoptilos and the stork family. It is 
known in India as hurgila or argala, whence 
its scientific name L . argala. The adjutant 
was the first of birds to attract the atten¬ 
tion of Bishop Heber on his landing at Cal¬ 
cutta. “ In the morning, as the day broke,” 
he wrote, “ we were much struck by the 
singular spectacle before us. Besides the 
usual apparatus of a place of arms, the 
walks, roofs, and ramparts of the fort 
swarmed with gigantic birds, the hurgila, 
larger than the largest turkey, and twice as 
tall as the heron, which in some respects 
they much resemble, except that they have 
a large blue and red pouch under the lower 
bill. . . . These birds share with the 
jackals, who enter the fort through the 
drains, the post of scavenger; but unlike 
them, instead of shunning mankind day and 
night, they lounge about with perfect fear¬ 
lessness all day long, and almost jostled us 
from our paths.” The bag or pouch under 
the bill is unconnected with the gullet, but 
is capable of being inflated at will. Its use 
lias not yet been ascertained. The bird is 




Adler 


Admiralty 


described as being an omnivorous glutton, 
to whose all-digesting stomach nothing 
comes amiss. From this species, and a sim¬ 
ilar bird, Ciconia Marabou, are obtained the 
brilliant white marabou feathers. Those of 
the latter are regarded as the most valu¬ 
able. 

Adler, Felix, an American lecturer and 
scholar, born at Alzey, Germany, 1851. The 
son of an eminent Jewish rabbi, he emi¬ 
grated when young to the United States, 
where, and at Berlin and Heidelberg, he 
was educated. After being for some time 
professor at Cornell University, he founded 
in New York (1870) the Society of Ethical 
Culture, of which he is lecturer. Similar 
societies have been established elsewhere in 
the United States and in other countries. 
He is an effective writer and speaker. He 
has published “Creed and Deed” (1878); 
“The Moral Instruction of Children” (1892). 
In June, 1902, he was called to the newly- 
created professorship of social and political 
ethics in the department of philosophy in 
Columbia University. 

Adler, Hermann, a German writer, born 
in Hanover, May 29, 1839. He has lived 
most of his life in England, where he has 
held many positions of high trust connected 
with his race, having been, since 1891, Chief 
Babbi of the British Empire, and has been 
active in general benevolence. Besides ser¬ 
mons, lectures, etc., he has written “ The 
Jews in England;” “The Chief Rabbis of 
England;” “ Ibn Gabirol, the Poet Philos¬ 
opher,” etc. 

Admetus, in mythology, the name of va¬ 
rious characters, the most noted being a king 
of Pherse, in Thessaly. Apollo, when ban¬ 
ished from heaven, is said to have tended his 
flocks for nine years, and to have obtained 
from the Parcse that Admetus should never 
die if another person laid down his life for 
him. This was cheerfully done by his wife, 
Alceste. Admetus was one of the Argonauts, 
and was at the hunt of the Calydonian boar. 
Peleus promised his daughter in marriage 
only to him who could bring him a chariot 
drawn by a lion and a wild boar. Admetus 
did this by the aid of Apollo, and obtained 
Alceste in marriage. 

Administration, in law, the management 
of the personal estate of anyone dying in¬ 
testate, or without an executor. If the de¬ 
ceased leaves real estate, the estate devolves 
upon heirs related by blood; if personal 
property is left and no executors named, 
administrators are appointed by some court. 
In England, the power of such appointment 
was vested in the ecclesiastical courts until 
1857, when it was transferred to a court of 
probate. In the United States, a surrogate 
or judg' of probate appoints the adminis¬ 
trator, und grants letters of administra¬ 


tion as authority. The administrator is a 
trustee, within the jurisdiction of a court 
of equity, as well as of probate. His duties 
are to inventory the estate, collect accounts 
due, pay all debts, and distribute the re¬ 
mainder among those entitled to it. The 
word is also applied to the official terms of 
the President of the United States, and the 
Governors of States, and to their official ad¬ 
visors. 

Admiral, the title of the highest rank of 
naval officer. The term is derived from the 
Arabic amir, or emir. The first English ad¬ 
miral was William de Leybourne (1286). 
His duties corresponded to those afterward 
vested in the lord high admiral, viz., the 
administrative powers now delegated to the 
lords commissioners of the admiralty. In 
Great Britain, there were formerly three 
grades of admirals, commanding subdivi¬ 
sions, known as the red, the white, and the 
blue, from the colors of their flags, but this 
distinction is now abolished. The last lord 
high admiral was the Duke of Clarence, af¬ 
terward William IV. In the British navy, 
admirals are classified as admirals, vice- 
admirals, and rear-admirals, ranking re¬ 
spectively with generals, lieutenant-generals, 
and major-generals. These distinctions were 
adopted in the United States navy during 
the Civil War; the rank of rear-admiral be¬ 
ing established in 1862, vice-admiral, in 
1864, and admiral, in 1866, all created for 
Farragut. David D. Porter succeeded in the 
titles of vice-admiral and admiral, both of 
which grades were abolished at his death 
(1891). In 1899, the title was recreated 
in the United States navy, and conferred 
upon George Dewey. In 1882, congress re¬ 
duced the number of rear-admirals from 10 
to 6 ; in 1899, increased it to 18, comprising 
two classes of nine each, the first corre¬ 
sponding in rank to major-generals in the 
army, and the second to brigadier-generals; 
and subsequently increased it to 24. 

Admiralty, that department of the Brit¬ 
ish Government which, subject to the con¬ 
trol of Parliament, has the supreme direc¬ 
tion of naval affairs. This was formerly in 
the hands of a lord high admiral, but, from 
the reign of George II., it has been placed 
under certain officers called lords commis¬ 
sioners of the admiralty, five 4 n number, 
whose head is termed the first lord of the 
admiralty. The high court of admiralty 
is that court which has jurisdiction over 
maritime causes. It was established in the 
reign of Edward III. Its judge was origi¬ 
nally the lord high admiral, or his deputy, 
but is now appointed by commission from 
the crown. The term is applied to the build¬ 
ing where the lords of the admiralty trans¬ 
act their business. In the United States, 
all admiralty and maritime jurisdiction is 
assigned by the Constitution to the Federal 




Admiralty Inlet 


Adoption 


courts; in the first instance, to the district 
court, whence the case may be removed to 
the circuit, and thence to the supreme court. 
It covers the Great Lakes and the navigable 
rivers. 

Admiralty Inlet, a narrow body of water, 
connecting Puget Sound with the Strait of 
Juan de Fuca. 

Admiralty Island, a mountainous island, 
90 miles long, off the W. coast of Alaska, 
to the N. E. of Sitka; belongs to the United 
States. 

Admiralty Islands, a group of 40 islands, 
to the N.E.of New Guinea; Basco, the largest 
of them, being 60 miles in length, and is 
mountainous, but fruitful. The total area 
of the islands is 878 square miles. They 
were discovered by Scliouten, in 1616. Car¬ 
teret named them in 1767. Some are vol¬ 
canic, others are coral islands. They abound 
in cocoanut trees, and are inhabited by a 
race of tawny, frizzle-headed savages of the 
Papuan stock, about 800 in number. To¬ 
gether with New Britain and some adjoin¬ 
ing groups, they were annexed by Germany, 
in 1885, and now form part of the Bismarck 
Archipelago. 

Adonai (a-do'nl), a Hebrew name for the 
Supreme Being; a plural form of Adon, 
“ lord,” combined with the pronoun of the 
first person. In reading the Scriptures 
aloud, the Jews pronounce “ Adonai ” wher¬ 
ever the old name “ Jhvh ” is found in the 
text; and the name “Jehovah” has arisen 
out of the consonants of “ Jhvh ” with the 
vowel points of Adonai. 

Adonijah, the fourth son of King David, 
by Haggith. He aimed at his father’s crown, 
but Solomon was proclaimed King of Israel, 
when Adonijah fled to the tabernacle for 
protection. After the death of David, he 
was slain by order of Solomon, b. c. 1015. 

Adonis (ardo'nis), son of Myrrha, daugh¬ 
ter of Cinyras, King of Cyprus, was born in 
Arabia. Before the birth of her son, she was 
transformed into the tree which produces 
the fragrant gum, called by her name; this, 
however, did not hinder his being brought 
into the world in due season; he grew up 
a model of manly beauty, and was passion¬ 
ately beloved by Aphrodite (Venus), who 
quitted Olympus to dwell with him. Hunt¬ 
ing was his favorite pursuit, until, having 
gone to the chase against the entreaties of 
his mistress, he was mortally wounded in 
the thigh by a wild boar. Venus, coming 
too late to his rescue, changed his blood into 
flowers^ After death, he was said to stand 
as high in the favor of Persephone (Proser¬ 
pine) as before in that of Aphrodite; but, 
the latter being inconsolable, her rival gen¬ 
erously consented that Adonis should spend 
half the year with his celestial, half with 
his infernal, mistress. The fable has been 


variously interpreted. One explanation 
makes the alternate abode of Adonis above 
and under the earth typical of the burial 
of seed, which in due season rises above 
ground for the propagation of its species; 



ADONIS AND VENUS. 


another, of the annual passage of the sun 
from the northern to the southern hemi¬ 
sphere. 

Adonis, a pheasant’s eye. A genus of 
plants so called because the red color of 
the species made them look as if they 
had been stained by the blood of Adonis. 
It belongs to the order ranunculacece, or 
crowfoots. It has 5 sepals and 5 to 10 
petals without a nectary; stamens and 
styles, many; fruit consisting of numerous 
awnless achenes, grouped in a short spike 
or head. A species — the Aclonis autumnalis , 
or corn-pheasant’s eye — is found occasion¬ 
ally in corn-fields in Great Britain,but it has 
escaped from gardens, and is not properly 
wild. It is a beautiful plant, with bright, 
scarlet flowers, and having very markedly 
composite leaves, with linear segments. 
Plants of this genus are easily cultivated. 

Adoptiani, Adoptians or Adoptionists,a 

Christian sect, which arose in Spain toward 
the end of the 8th century. Its leaders were 
Felix, Bishop of Urgel, and Elipand, Arch¬ 
bishop of Toledo, who believed that Christ 
was the Son of God, not by nature, but by 
adoption. 

Adoption, the act of taking a stranger 
into one’s family, as a son or daughter; or 
the taking of a person, a society, etc., into 
more intimate relations than formerly ex¬ 
isted with another person or society; or 
the taking as one’s own, with or without ac¬ 
knowledgment, an opinion, plan, etc., origi¬ 
nating with another; also the selecting one 
from several courses open to a person’s 
choice. 

In law, both ancient and modern, the act 
of taking a stranger into one’s family, con¬ 
stituted the person so adopted one’s heir to 



















Adorno 


Adrets 


all intents and purposes. The practice was 
common among the Greeks and Romans, and 
is still practiced in some modern nations. 
There is a law of adoption in this country. 

Adoption by matrimony is the placing the 
children of a former marriage on the same 
footing, with regard to inheritance, etc., as 
those of the present one. 

Adoption by testament is the appointing 
a person one’s heir on condition of his as¬ 
suming the name, arms, etc., of his bene¬ 
factor. 

Adoption by hair was performed by cut¬ 
ting off the hair of the person adopted, and 
giving it to the adoptive father. 

Adoption by arms, the presentation of 
arms by a prince to a brave man. These 
the recipient was expected to use for the 
protection of his benefactor. 

In heraldry, arms of adoption, the heraldic 
arms received when the last representative 
of an expiring aristocratic family adopts 
a stranger to assume his armorial bearings 
and inherit his estates. The recipient may 
obtain permission from parliament to take 
the name of his benefactor, either appended 
to, or substituted for, his own. 

In Scripture and theology, the act of ad¬ 
mitting one into the family of God, or the 
state, of being so admitted. The previous 
position of the person adopted in this man¬ 
ner was that of a “ servant, ” now he is a 
“ son,” an “ heir of God,” and a “joint heir 
with Christ.” 

In ecclesiastical language, adoption by 
baptism is the act of becoming godfather or 
godmother to a child about to be baptized. 
Unlike real adoption, however, this does not 
constitute the child heir to its spiritual 
father or mother. 

Adorno, a great plebeian family in Italy. 
It furnished many doges to Genoa. For 165 
years they struggled for supremacy, es¬ 
pecially with the Fregosi, and were defi¬ 
nitely destroyed by Andrea Doria, in 1528. 
Gabriello was doge from 1363-1371. Antoni- 
otto was four times doge toward the end of 
the 14th century. He delivered Pope Urban 
XI. when beseiged in the castle of Necera, 
by Charles III., King of Naples, made a 
crusade against the Moors and Tunis, and 
finally, to protect his country from the am¬ 
bitious plans of the Duke of Milan, placed 
Genoa under the suzerainty of Charles VI., 
of France. The following members of the 
Adorno family held office: Georges: doge 
1413-1415,* Rafael: doge 1443-1447; Bar¬ 
nabas: doge in 1447 (one month); Pros- 
pero: doge 1461-1478; Antoniotto: doge 
twice, 1513-1527. 

Adour, a river of Southern France, hav¬ 
ing its source in the mountain ridge of the 
Tourmalet, in the department of Hautes- 
Pyrenees. Its course is first N., then W. 
and S. W. and S. S. W., passing St. Sever 
and Dax. to the former of which it is nav- 
n 


igable, and it falls into the sea a little be¬ 
low Bayonne, flowing through many ex¬ 
ceedingly fertile valleys. Its whole length 
is estimated at about 200 miles. The cur¬ 
rent is rapid, and sometimes serious inun¬ 
dations are caused by the melting of the 
snows on the slopes of the Pyrenees. At 
the mouth of the river there is a shifting 
bar. 

Adowa. See Adua. 

Ad Pirum (L., “at the pear tree”), a 
Roman station N.‘ E. of Trieste, in the Birn- 
baumer Wald, on the road crossing the Alps 
into Italy; famous in connection with vic¬ 
tory of Theodosius over the Frigidus in 394. 

Adra (the ancient Abdera), a seaport of 
Southern Spain, in the province of Almeria; 
29 miles W. S. W. from the town of that 
name, near the mouth of the Adra, on an 
eminence facing the Mediterranean. The in¬ 
habitants are employed in agriculture, fish¬ 
ing, distilling brandy, and manufacturing 
lead from the ore of extensive mines in the 
neighborhood. Pop. (1900), 11,246. 

Adranos, an ancient town of Asiatic Tur¬ 
key, on a river of the same name, 10 miles 
S. W. of Olympus, and 135 miles N. E. of 
Smyrna. It is in ruins, but these are of an 
imposing and interesting character. 

Adrar (Berber, “mountain”), a large 
oasis in the Sahara, reckoned at about three 
days’ journey N. W. of Timbuktu; produces 
salt, dates, grain, and melons; chief town, 
Wadan. 

Adrastia, a daughter of Jupiter and Ne¬ 
cessity. She is called by some Nemesis, and 
is the avenger of wrong. The Egyptians 
placed her above the moon, whence she 
looked down upon the actions of men. 

Adrastus, the name of many personages, 
in ancient history, the most remarkable of 
whom is the son of Talaus and Lysimache, 
who was King of Argos. Polynices, being 
banished from Thebes by his brother Ete- 
ocles, fled to Argos, where he married Ar- 
gia, daughter of Adrastus. The king as¬ 
sisted his son-in-law, and marched against 
Thebes with an army led by seven of his 
most famous generals. All perished in the 
war, except Adrastus, who, with a few men, 
were saved from slaughter, fled to Athens, 
and implored the aid of Theseus against the 
Thebans, who opposed the burying of the 
Argives fallen in battle. Theseus went to 
his assistance and was victorious. Adras¬ 
tus, after a long reign, died from grief, oc¬ 
casioned by the death of his son, Ailgialeus. 
A temple was raised to his memory at 
Sicyon. 

Adrets, Francis de Beaumont, Baron 

des (ad-ra')> a violent French Huguenot, 
who distinguished himself by many daring 
exploits, as well as cruelties. He subse¬ 
quently became a Catholic, but died as he 

* 





Adria 


Adrian VI 


had lived, in general detestation, in 1587c 
At some places he obliged his prisoners to 
throw themselves from the battlements upon 
the pikes of his soldiers. Reproaching one 
for retreating twice from the fatal leap, 
“ Sir,” replied the man, “ I defy you, with 
all your bravery, to take it in three.” This 
keen rejoinder saved his life. 

Adria, in the Province of Rovigo, Northern 
Italy, between the rivers Po and Adige, is 
one of the oldest cities in Europe, having 
been founded by the Etruscans. So late as 
the 12tli century a. d., it was a flourishing 
harbor on the Adriatic sea, to which it gave 
name; but, by the continual deposition of 
alluvium on the E. coast of Italy, it has 
been gradually separated from the sea, from 
which it is now 14 miles distant. It still 
retains several interesting remains of Etrus¬ 
can and Roman antiquity, with a fine ca¬ 
thedral. Pop. (1901), 15,711. 

Adrian, or Hadrian, Publius TEIius, 

a Roman emperor, born at Rome, 7G a. d. 
Entering the army quite young, he became 
tribune of a legion, and married Sabina, 
the heiress of Trajan, whom he accompanied 
on his expeditions, and became successively 
prsetor, governor of Pannonia, and consul. 
On Trajan’s death, in 117, he assumed the 
government, made peace with the Persians, 
and remitted the debts of the Roman people. 
No monarch informed himself more by trav¬ 
eling than Adrian. In 120, he visited Gaul, 
whence he passed over to Britain. He af¬ 
terward visited Africa and Asia, and in 125 
was initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries 
at Athens. In his reign, the Christians un¬ 
derwent a dreadful persecution. He built 
a temple to Jupiter, on Mount Calvary, and 
placed a statue of Adonis in the manger of 
Bethlehem; he also had images of swine en¬ 
graved on the gates of Jerusalem, all of 
which acts indicate a contempt for Chris¬ 
tianity. Adrian died at Baiae, in 139. On 
his death bed he composed some Latin 
verses, addressed to his soul, which betray 
his uncertainty with regard to a future 
state. He had great virtues, which were, 
however, blended with as great vices. He 
adopted as his son Titus Antonins, on con¬ 
dition that he should adopt Marcus Annius 
Verus and the son of Lucius Verus. 

Adrian I., Pope, born at Rome; suc¬ 
ceeded Stephen III. in 772. Like his prede¬ 
cessor, he had to struggle against the power 
of the Longobards, who had invaded the 
Exarchate and other provinces bestowed by 
Pepin, King of the Franks, on the Roman 
see. Adrian applied to Charlemagne for 
assistance against Desiderius, King of the 
Longobards. The King of the" Franks 
crossed the Alps, defeated Desiderius, and 
overthrew the kingdom of the Longobards 
in Italy, in 774. Charlemagne then went 
to Rome, where Adrian acknowledged him 


as King of Italy, and the latter renewed the 
grant of the provinces bestowed on the 
Roman see by Pepin. Charlemagne paid 
another visit to Adrian, at Rome, in 787, 
when his son, Pepin, was christened by the 
Pope. In 787, the seventh general council 
of the Church was held at Nica?a. Adrian 
di°d after a pontificate of nearly 24 years, 
795. Adrian was a man of talent and dex¬ 
terity; he succeeded in gaining and pre¬ 
serving the friendship of the greatest sover¬ 
eign of his time, and under him Rome be¬ 
gan to breathe again after the continual 
alarms caused by the Longobards, the last 
of the barbarian invaders of the western 
empire. 

Adrian II., born at Rome; succeeded 
Nicholas I. in the papal chair in 867. He 
had been married, and had a daughter by 
his wife Stephania, from whom he after¬ 
ward separated in order to live in celibacy. 
During the pontificate of Adrian, Photius, 
Patriarch of Constantinople, withdrew from 
the Church of Rome, from which time the 
schism between the Greek and Latin 
Churches dates, which continues to this day. 
Adrian died in 872, and was succeeded by 
John VIII. 

Adrian III., born at Rome; succeeded 
Marinus in 884, and died the following year. 

Adrian IV., the only Englishman who 
was ever raised to the dignity of the papal 
chair, succeeded Anastasius IV. in 1154. 
His name was Nicholas Breakespere; and 
for some time he filled a mean situation in 
the monastery of St. Albans. Being refused 
the habit in that house, he went to France, 
and became a clerk in the monastery of 
St. Rufus, of which he was afterward chosen 
abbot. Eugenius III. created him cardinal, 
in 1146, and, in 1148, made him legate to 
Denmark and Norway, which nations he con¬ 
verted to the Christian faith. When nom¬ 
inated pope, he granted to Henry II. a bull 
for the conquest of Ireland. In 1155, he 
excommunicated the King of Sicily; and, 
about the same time, the Emperor Frederic, 
meeting him near Sutinam, held his stirrup 
while he mounted his horse. Adrian took 
the Emperor with him, and consecrated him 
King of the Romans, in St. Peter’s church. 
The next year the King of Sicily submitted, 
and was absolved. Died, supposed of poison, 
in 1159. Adrian, by his active conduct, left 
the papal territory in a better state than 
he found it. He was succeeded by Alexan¬ 
der III. 

Adrian V., a Genoese, succeeded Inno¬ 
cent in 1276, and died five weeks after his 
election. He was succeeded by John XX. 

Adrian VI., born at Utrecht, of an ob¬ 
scure family, advanced himself by his tal¬ 
ents to the post of vice-chancellor of the 
University of Louvain. Ferdinand of Spain 





Adrian 


Adulteration 


gave him the bishopric of Tortosa. After 
Ferdinand’s death, he was co-regent of Spain 
with Cardinal Ximenes. He was elected 
pope in 1522, after the death of Leo X., 
chiefly through the influence of Charles V., 
whose authority was then spreading over 
Italy. He died in 1525, and was succeeded 
by Clement VII. 

Adrian, city and county-seat of Lenawee 
co., Mich.; on the Raisin river, and the Wa¬ 
bash, the Lima Northern, and the Lake 
Shore and Michigan Southern railroads; 30 
miles N. W. of Toledo, Ohio. It is the seat 
of Adrian College (Methodist Protestant), 
the State Industrial Home for Girls, and St. 
Joseph’s Hospital and Academy (Roman 
Catholic), and has important manufactures, 
a large farming trade, a State bank, and 
daily and weekly periodicals. Pop. (1890) 
8,756; (1900), 9,654; (1910), 10,763. 

Adrian College, a co-educational institu¬ 
tion, in Adrian, Mich.; organized in 1859, 
under the auspices of the Methodist Protes¬ 
tant Church; has grounds and buildings val¬ 
ued at over $205,000; productive funds, 
$50,000; scientific apparatus, $10,000; in¬ 
come, $51,000; volumes in the library, 8,000; 
professors and instructors, 25; students, 
210; number of graduates since organiza¬ 
tion, over 650. 

Adrianople (Turkish, Edirne; Bulgarian, 
Odrin), the third city of European Turkey, 
stands on the navigable Maritza (the an¬ 
cient Hebrus), 198 miles W. N. W. of Con¬ 
stantinople by rail. The city has upward of 
80,000 inhabitants, of whom about one-third 
are Turks. The splendid mosque of Selim 
II., the palace, and the immense bazaar 
of Ali Pasha, may be named as its prin¬ 
cipal features. It has a silk factory, and 
a considerable trade in opium, attar of roses, 
and wine. Founded or greatly improved by 
the Emperor Hadrian, Adrianople was the 
seat of the Ottoman sultanate from 1366 
to 1453. The Russo-Turkish War was here 
concluded, Sept. 14, 1829, by the Peace of 
Adrianople. After the capture of the Turk¬ 
ish army defending the Shi plea Pass, in Jan¬ 
uary, 1878, the Russians entered Adrianople 
unopposed; and an armistice was concluded 
here on the 31st. 

Adriatic Sea, a large arm of the Mediter¬ 
ranean Sea, extending, in a N. W. direc¬ 
tion, between the E. coast of Italy and 
the W. coast of the Balkan peninsula, being 
terminated to the S. by the Strait of 
Otranto, 45 miles wide. In the N. it forms 
the Gulf of Venice, and in the N. E. the 
Gulf of Trieste. The W. coast is compara¬ 
tively low and has few inlets, and the N. 
is marshy and edged with lagoons. On the 
other side, the coasts of Illyria, Croatia, 
Dalmatia, and Albania are steep, rocky, and 
barren, with many inlets, and begirt with a 


chain of almost innumerable small, rocky 
islands. The total area of the sea, includ¬ 
ing islands, is calculated at 52,220 square 
miles — the area of the islands being 1,290; 
the mean depth is 110 fathoms, the greatest 
depth, 565 fathoms. The most considerable 
rivers flowing into the sea are the Adige and 
the Po, which are continually depositing soil 
on the coast, so that places once on the shore 
are now inland. The extreme saltiness of the 
Adriatic is probably owing to the compara¬ 
tively small quantity of fresh water poured 
into it by rivers. Navigation on the Adri¬ 
atic is safe and pleasant in summer, but in 
winter, the* N. E. gales (bora) are for¬ 
midable on account of the rocky and dan¬ 
gerous coasts on the E. Venice, Trieste, 
Ancona, Bari and Brindisi are the chief 
ports, Brindisi having special importance. 

Adua (a-do'a), a town in Tigr6, Abys¬ 
sinia, made known through the severe de¬ 
feat of General Baratieri, who, in the night 
of March 1, 1896, attacked the Abyssinian 
army of 80,000 men, under command of 
Negus Menelek. The three columns in 
which the Italians marched became sepa¬ 
rated in the mountainous regions, and the 
left wing, under General Albatone, was over¬ 
whelmed by the superiority of numbers and 
driven back. The center, under General Ari- 
mondi, and the right wing, under General 
Dabormida, made a brilliant attack on the 
Abyssinians, but their number was so in¬ 
ferior that both of them were put to flight; 
250 officers and more than 7,000 men and 
their whole artillerv were lost. On account 
of this annihilating blow the fall of the 
ministry of Crispi followed. 

Adullam (ad-ul'am), one of the cities of 
the plain, in the tribe of Judah, fortified by 
King Rehoboam. The Cave of Adullam, 
where David hid when pursued by the Phil¬ 
istines, was probably near the Dead Sea. 

Adulteration, the act of debasing a pure 
or genuine article for pecuniary profit, by 
adding to it an inferior or spurious article, 
or taking one of its constituents away. An¬ 
other definition which has been given is: 
“ The act of adding intentionally to an ar¬ 
ticle, for purposes of gain, any substance or 
substances the presence of which is not ac¬ 
knowledged in the name under which the 
article is sold.” In England, as early as 
the 13th century, the legislature attempted, 
though with but partial success, to strike a 
blow against it, in the Act 51 Henry III., 
stat. 6, often quoted as the “ Pillory and 
Tumbril Act.” In the United States, and in 
the principal European countries, the laws 
against adulterations are carefully drawn 
and systematically administered. Deliber¬ 
ate adulterations are of two classes: (1) 
Those which are injurious to health, and 
(2) those which produce no seriously hurt¬ 
ful effects. Careful investigation has demon* 




Adultery 


Adventure Bay 


strated that adulterations of the latter 
class are comparatively rare. The articles 
most liable to adulteration are milk, butter, 
spices, coffee, syrup, and molasses, cream 
of tartar, honey, vinegar, jellies, and jams, 
olive oil and canned goods. According to 
reports by American official analysts, most 
of the staple articles of common household 
consumption, while frequently subjected to 
considerable sophistication, are seldom in¬ 
juriously adulterated. For example: Spices 
and condiments are adulterated up to 66 
per cent, with exhausted spices; ground 
coffee, up to 45 per cent, with ground ce¬ 
reals, flour, and buckwheat hulls; tea, up to 
48 per cent, with exhausted tea leaves, leaves 
of other plants, and damaged tea; low-grade 
sugars, up to 20 per cent, with grape-sugar; 
syrups, up to 50 per cent, with grape-sugar 
or glucose; bread, up to 2 per cent, with 
alum, to increase its whiteness; cream of 
tartar and baking-powder, up to 44 per cent, 
with gypsum, starches, and fillers to in¬ 
crease the bulk; butter, up to 40 per cent, 
with foreign fats; vinegar, in most cases 
not at all, though it is seldom made of 
cider: olive oil, up to 60 per cent, with pea¬ 
nut and cotton-seed oil. In Massachusetts, 
in 1808, out of 10,638 samples of milk, food, 
other than milk, and drugs, 2,687 were found 
to be adulterated. 

Adultery, unlawful intercourse between 
two married persons not standing to each 
other in the relation of husband and wife, 
or between a married person and another 
unmarried. In the former case, it has been 
called double, and in the latter, single adul¬ 
tery. Varied punishments, mostly of a very 
severe character, have in nearly all coun¬ 
tries and ages been inflicted on those who 
have committed this offense. In some cases 
it has been deemed lawful for a husband or 
the woman’s father to kill the guilty per¬ 
son if taken in the act. By the law of 
England, the slaughter of the offending par¬ 
ties in such cases is deemed manslaughter 
of a not very aggravated sort. In English 
law the act is punishable only by the cen¬ 
sure of the ecclesiastical courts, but, when 
committed by a wife, it is regarded as a 
civil injury, and an action for criminal 
conversation may be brought by the hus¬ 
band against the paramour. Adultery is 
now considered in England a ground for 
total divorce. In the United States there 
is a wide diversity in the laws relating to 
this offense. In some States it has been 
made a crime, while, in others, civil pro¬ 
ceedings are allowed substantially similar 
to those of the English law. 

Adummim, a mediaeval stronghold on the 
road to Jericho ; according to tradition, the 
scene of the story of the Good Samaritan. 

Advaita, a philosophical school of India, 
founded by Sankardjtlrya (or Qankeroca- 


rya), who flourished about the middle of 
the 8th century a. d., or earlier. Its prin¬ 
cipal doctrines are that the human soul is 
not essentially different from God, but that 
it is imprisoned in the body from which at 
death it is released to return to the imper¬ 
sonal God, and that the material world is 
not different from God. Its adherents are 
called Advai'tavadin, or Confessors of Mon¬ 
ism. 

Advent, a term applied by the Christian 
Church to certain weeks before Christmas. 
Anciently, the season of Advent consisted 
of six weeks, and this is still the duration 
of it in the Greek Church. In the Catholic 
Church, however, and in the Protestant 
Churches that observe Advent, it only lasts 
four weeks, beginning with the Sunday 
nearest St. Andrew’s Day (Nov. 30), either 
before or after. It is appointed to be 
observed as a season of devotion, being in¬ 
tended to commemorate the coming of Christ 
in the flesh, and to direct the thoughts to 
Ilis second coming. This season was ob¬ 
served with great austerity by the primitive 
Christians. 

Adventists, a religious sect founded by 
William Miller; also called Millerites and 
Second Adventists ( q . v .). At first they 
believed that Christ’s second coming would 
occur in October, 1843. When that hope 
was not realized, the number of believers 
decreased. The Adventists still look with 
certainty for the coming of Christ, but not 
at a fixed time. They are now divided into 
the following bodies: Evangelical, Advent 
Christian, Seventh Day, Church of God, 
Life and Advent Union, and Churches of 
God in Jesus Christ. The following table 
gives a summary of the various Adventist 
churches in the United States, as compiled 
from statistics published in 1906: 


Denominations. 

Minis- 

Churches. 

Com- 

muni- 

1. Evangelical. 

ters. 

34 

30 

cants. 

1,147 

2. Advent Christian. 

912 

610 

26,500 

3. Seventh TTay. 

48(5 

1,707 

60,471 

4. Church of God . 

19 

29 

647 

5. Life and Advent Union 

GO 

28 

3,800 

6. Churches of God in 
Jesus Christ. 

54 

95 

2,872 

Total Adventists. 

1,565 

2,499 

95,437 


Adventure Bay, a bay on the S. E. coast 
of New Holland; discovered by Captain Fur- 
neaux in 1773, and named by him after the 
ship which he commanded, and which formed 
part of the expedition under the orders of 
Captain Cook. The anchoring ground is 
good and well sheltered, and the neighboring 
shore furnishes abundance of wood and wa¬ 
ter. Captain Cook found the aborigines to 
be mild and cheerful, but totally devoid of 
activity and genius, and nearly on a level 
with the wretched natives of Terra del 
F uego. 













Advertising in America 


Advertising in America 


Advertising in America. Advertising is 
any means of giving publicity. Originally 
it was by announcement by public crier or 
by a wall sign. Such were the methods of 
ancient Greece, Palestine, Pompeii and Rome. 
Picture signs, sometimes in colors, were used 
on doorways as insignia of the business con¬ 
ducted within; a goat indicated a dairy busi¬ 
ness, and a boy being whipped, a school. 
Through the Middle Ages the public crier was 
the chief promoter and medium of publicity, 
and he remained so until the introduction of 
printing provided more suitable means. In 
the 17th century small advertisements for 
such articles as collee, tea, medicines and 
books began to appear in the few papers 
then published. The advertisements in 
America’s colonial newspapers afford an in¬ 
teresting opportunity for studying the cus¬ 
toms and needs of the people at that period. 
In fact, the advertisements of all times are 
a valuable historical commentary. Adver- 
tising did not become an important factor in 
business until the 19th century, being ham¬ 
pered in England as late as 1854 by the 
stamp tax upon all periodicals, which acted 
as a deterrent upon publishers. The growth 
of advertising has been in a direct ratio 
with the growth of journalism, and the 
following table showing the increase in the 
number of papers in the United States 
at different periods is also indicative of 
the increase in advertising. In 1795 there 
were in the United States 200 regularly 
issued papers; in 1850, 2,526; in 1895, 
20,255. In 1905 the number of maga¬ 
zines alone was 2,900. Advertising in a 
large way began at the time of the establish¬ 
ment of the New York “Sun” in 1833, and 
the New York “Herald” and “Tribune” and 
the Philadelphia “Public Ledger” a little 
later. Since then it has grown to a point 
where at least one metropolitan daily netted 
its proprietors in 1903 a profit of a million 
dollars, most of which doubtless came out 
of the pockets of the advertisers. In 1902 
the expenditure for advertising in the 
United States was $500,000,000, which was 
increased in 1904 to a billion dollars. Of 
this sum, the magazines, trade-journals and 
newspapers get about 75 per cent. The bal¬ 
ance is divided among other forms of adver¬ 
tising, made up of such mediums as the fol¬ 
lowing: booklets, store papers, handbills, 

calendars, almanacs, gift novelties, posters, 
dead-wall signs, bill-boards, window litho¬ 
graphs and hangers, street-car cards, sam¬ 
ple distributing, electric signs, personal 
demonstration, press agents, canvassers and 
detail men. 

Within the last twenty-five years adver¬ 
tising has been specialized until in its more 
important phases it is largely in the hands 
of experts. Some of the best advertisement 
writers are employed at large salaries to 
superintend the advertising of big compa¬ 


nies. A few of the heaviest advertisers of 
the country spend annually over a million 
dollars each in publicity. The bulk of the 
newspaper and magazine advertising is 
placed through the advertising agencies, the 
first one of which was established in 1841 
in Philadelphia by V. B. Balmer. The ad¬ 
vertising agency is in reality a “middle¬ 
man,” who stands between the publisher and 
the advertiser. It places at the service of 
its patrons the assistance of skilled artists 
and advertisement writers. It receives the 
sum of money which the advertiser wishes to 
spend for a year’s publicity, selects appro¬ 
priate mediums, makes the contracts, writes 
and distributes the “copy” (if desired), 
checks up the advertisements as they appear, 
insuring the fulfilment of the contracts, and 
pays the accounts as they come due. It 
furnishes the advertiser with the clerical 
work of his campaign without charge, ob¬ 
taining its pay in the discount (given only 
to agencies) from the quoted rates of the 
publications used. Local advertisers usual¬ 
ly deal direct with their newspapers, receiv¬ 
ing a discount from the regular rates. The 
highest class of advertising is placed in the 
magazines, since they reach the highest class 
of readers. The advertising rates in the 
magazines of standard size may be said to 
approximate a dollar a page (per issue) for 
each thousand of circulation, though they 
vary from two-thirds of that amount in the 
instances of large circulations to three times 
as much in the case of some trade journals. 
Five hundred dollars is about the highest 
rate for a page of the regular magazine size, 
unless there be choice of position, such as 
outside cover page or opposite reading mat¬ 
ter inside. With the extra large-page mag¬ 
azines the rate sometimes runs as high as 
$4,000, which, however, is not excessive, 
since the circulation in such an instance 
reaches the million and a quarter mark. In 
the large-page periodicals the rate is usually 
fixed at so much per line, the length of the 
line (the width of the column) being given 
in 12-point ems. With such a circulation 
as that mentioned above, $6.00 a line is the 
rate. Without the advertising patronage, 
the newspapers and magazines of the coun¬ 
try could not exist in their present expen¬ 
sive forms. The subscription prices obtained 
by hundreds of periodicals do not amount to 
enough to pay even for the white paper used. 
The publishers themselves rarely get the full 
price. The yearly subscription rate is cut to 
the newsdealers, postmasters and special 
canvassers, while the news company, taking 
a ten-cent magazine for example, sells 
to the retail dealer for 7 or 7y 2 cents, 
and in its turn pays the publisher about 
two cents less. Besides this, the newsdealers 
have the privilege of returning unsold copies 
of most magazines. Illustrations are used 
extensively in advertising, and some of them, 




Advocate 


Odessa 


especially those on the magazine covers, are 
from drawings by prominent artists and are 
reproduced in a very expensive form. Oc¬ 
casionally an extensive advertiser will em¬ 
ploy a prize offer to attract contributions 
for his use, and the sums paid for such work 
will usually be sufficient to secure that of 
the highest class. Advertising has become 
a recognized profession, numbering thou¬ 
sands of workers in its ranks, these being 
subdivided into organizations of bill-board 
men and others; and an international adver¬ 
tising association has been formed to har¬ 
monize the interests of the experts in all 
countries. One of the important develop¬ 
ments due to the influence of advertising is 
the growth of the sale of goods by mail, and 
large mail-order houses, some of them doing 
a business of a million dollars annually, are 
c cattered over the United States. Advertis¬ 
ing has in some instances been carried to 
such an objectionable extent in the way of 
the disfiguring of natural scenery by un¬ 
sightly signs and legends, that legislative aid 
has been invoked to restrict it, and a law 
forbids the use of the United States flag for 
advertising purposes. In some cities (Phil¬ 
adelphia, for instance), the street distribu¬ 
tion of circulars and dodgers is forbidden. 

Frank Farrington. 

Advocate. (1) Originally one whose aid 
was called in or invoked; one who helped in 
any business matter; (2) In law, at first, 
one who gave his legal aid in a case, without, 
however, pleading, this being the function 
of the patronus; (3) The advocatus fisci, 
who attended to the interests of the fiscus, 
or the emperor’s privy purse. 

In the old German empire, a person ap¬ 
pointed by the emperor to do justice. In 
Germany and elsewhere juridical advocates 
were made judges in consequence of their 
attending when causes were pleaded in the 
count’s court. 

In the Medieval Church, one appointed to 
defend the rights and revenues of a church 
or monastery. The word advocate, in the 
sense of a defender of the Church, was ulti¬ 
mately superseded by that of patron, but it 
still lingers in the term advowson. 

Constitutional advocates, in Rome, pleaded 
before the consistory in cases relating to 
the disposal of benefices which they opposed. 
Elective advocates were chosen by a bishop, 
an abbot, or a chapter. Feudal advocates 
were persons assigned lands on condition of 
their fighting for the Church, leading out 
their vassals for the purpose. Matricular 
advocates defended the cathedral churches. 
Military advocates • were appointed to fight 
for the Church. Devil’s advocate, a Roman 
ecclesiastic, whose office it is to urge what¬ 
ever objections may exist to the canoniza¬ 
tion of any proposed saint. 

In English law, originally one who 


pleaded a cause in a civil, but not in a 
criminal, court. Formerly, certain persons 
called advocates, learned in the civil and 
canon law, were alone entitled to plead as 
counsel in the English ecclesiastical and ad¬ 
miralty courts, but these are now thrown 
open to the ordinary bar. 

Now, in English and American law, one 
who pleads a cause in any court, civil or 
criminal. It is not, properly speaking, a 
technical word, but is used only in a popular 
sense, as synonymous with barrister. 

The queen’s advocate was a member of the 
College of Advocates, whose office it was to 
advise and act as counsel for the crown in 
questions of civil, canon, and international 
law. He ranked next to the solicitor- 
general. 

In the army the judge-advocate is the 
officer through whom prosecutions before 
courts-martial are conducted. There is also 
a judge-advocate-general for the army at 
large. 

In Scotch law an advocate is a member of 
the faculty of advocates, or Scottish bar. 
These have not derived their privileges from 
any act of Parliament incorporating them 
into a society, but have possessed them from 
a period of unascertained antiquity. The 
association is formed on the model of that 
of the French avocats, and, like it, is pre¬ 
sided over by a dean, or doyen. 

The lord advocate is the principal crown 
lawyer in Scotland. It is his duty to act 
as public prosecutor, which he does in great 
cases in which the crown is interested, 
leaving the inferior ones to the procurators 
fiscal, who act under his instructions. He 
is virtually Secretary of State for Scotland, 
and, as a rule, it is through him that the 
Government proposes, explains, and defends 
the special legislation for that country. 

zEacus (e'ak-us), son of Jupiter, by 
iEgina, and king of the island of (Enopia. 
He was a man of such integrity that the an¬ 
cients have made him one of the judges of 
hell, with Minos and Rhadamanthus (qq.v.). 

/Ecidium, a little wheal; a genus of 
plants belonging to the alliance Fungales 
and the sub-order Cceomacei. The various 
species constitute what is called rust. The 
species are widespread and numerous. They 
are found on the dandelion, the violets, the 
pines, the epilobiums, and various other 
plants. On grain crops they may often be 
seen under the glumes of the calyx. When 
ripe they burst and discharge a powder of 
a bright orange color. One species is, in 
consequence, known to agriculturists as red 
^ un . 1 ' n °t appear to injure crops. 

It is incorrect that JEcidium berberidis, a 
parasite on the barberry, tends to produce 
mildew on wheat in its vicinity. 

^Edessa, or Edessa, a town of Mace¬ 
donia, near Pella. Caranus, King of Mace- 




>£dile 


AEgina 


donia, took it by following goats that sought 
shelter from the rain, and called it from 
that circumstance (aigras, capras) AEgeas. 
It was the burial-place of the Macedonian 
kings; and an oracle had said that, as long 
as the kings were buried there, so long 
would that kingdom exist. Alexander was 
buried in a different place; and on that ac¬ 
count some authors have said that the king¬ 
dom became extinct. 

AEdile, in ancient Rome magistrates who 
had charge of public and private buildings, 
of aqueducts, roads, sewers, weights, meas¬ 
ures, the national worship, and, specially 
when there were no censors, public morality. 
There were two leading divisions of sediles 
— plebeian and curule. Two of the former 
class were created a. u. 2G0, to assist the 
tribunes in their judicial functions. The 
same number of curule eediles were elected 
from the patricians, A. u. 387, to perform 
certain public games. For a time these offi¬ 
cers were chosen alternately from the patri¬ 
cians and the plebeians, then they were 
taken indiscriminately from either of these 
castes. Their insignia of office were like 
those of the old kings — the toga prcctexta 
(a purple robe) and the sella curulis, or 
curule chair, ornamented with ivory. To 
the ordinary two plebeian sediles Julius 
Caesar added another pair, called cereal 
cediles, to look after the corn supplies and 
the food of the capital generally. 

y'Edui (id'we or ed-u'e), one of the most 
powerful tribes in Gaul at the time of Cae¬ 
sar’s arrival (58 B. c.), whose territory 
lay between the rivers Liger {Loire) and 
Arar ( Saone ). They formed an alliance 
with Caesar, who freed them from the yoke 
of Ariovistus, but they joined the rest of 
the Gauls under Vercingetorix in the great 
and final struggle for independence, which 
was fought round the little hill-town of 
Alesia. After his victory, Caesar treated 
them leniently for the sake of their old alli¬ 
ance. Their principal town was Bibracte. 

AEeta (i'et-a), or AEetas, in mythology, 
the King of Colchis, son of Sol and Perseis, 
daughter of Oceanus, was father of Medea, 
Absvstus, and Chalciope, by Idea, one of the 
Oceanides. He killed Phryxus, son of Atha- 
mas, who had fled to his court on a golden 
ram. The Argonauts went against Colchis, 
and recovered the golden fleece by means 
of Medea, though it was guarded by bulls 
that breathed fire, and by a venomous 
dragon. This expedition has been cele¬ 
brated by all the ancient poets. 

AEgaeon, the son of Coelus or of Pontus 
and Terra, the same as Briareus. It is sup¬ 
posed that he was a notorious pirate, chiefly 
residing at A^gse, whence his name; and that 
the fable about his hundred hands arises 
from his having 100 men to manage his oars 
in Ms piratical excursions. 


AEgean Sea (e-je'an or I'gfl-an), the old 
name of the gulf between Asia Minor and 
Greece, now usually called the Grecian 
Archipelago. 

iEgeus.Gg'os or ej'us), a king of Athens, 
son of Pandion, and father of Theseus. 
When the latter sailed to Crete on his ven¬ 
turesome expedition to deliver Athens from 
the intolerable burden of the tribute due 
to the Minotaur, he promised his father to 
hoist white sails on his return as a signal 
of safety. But the hero forgot his promise 
in the joy of triumph; and his father, who 
was anxiously watching for the sign of vic¬ 
tory, seeing only the black sails of his son’s 
ship as it approached the coast of Attica, 
believed that he had perished, and flung him¬ 
self into the sea, which from him was named 
the JEgp'm. 

/Egina (e-ji'na), a Greek island about 40 
square miles in area, in the Gulf of AEgina 
(the ancient Saronicus Sinus). It is moun¬ 
tainous, with deep valleys and chasms. The 
modern town of AEgina stands on the site 
of the ancient town, at the N. W. end of the 
island. There are considerable remains 
still left of the ancient city, and the ruins 
of solidly built walls and harbor moles still 
attest its size and importance. The island 
contains about 6,000 inhabitants. The most 
ancient name of the island was CEnone, and 
the Myrmidons Jvyelt in its valleys and 
caverns. For a century before the Persian 
war it was a pros¬ 
perous State; dur¬ 
ing this period it 
was also the chief 
seat of Greek art. 

Its sailors covered 
themselves with coin of .egina. 
glory at Salamis. 

The Athenians, in 429 B. c., expelled the 
original inhabitants, whose language and 
style of art were Dorian. 

2Eginetan Sculptures. — AEgina holds an 
important position in the history of Greek 
art. On an eminence in the eastern part 
of the island stand the ruins of a temple of 
Pallas Athene. Among these ruins a series 
of statues were excavated in 1811, which are 
now the most remarkable ornaments of the 
Glyptothek at Munich. One group repre¬ 
sents a combat of Greeks and Trojans for 
the body of Achilles. The figures are true 
to nature, with the structure of bones, mus¬ 
cles, and even veins, distinctly marked; but 
there is no individuality, all the faces hav¬ 
ing that uniform forced smile which is char¬ 
acteristic of all sculpture before the time 
of Phidias. Probably they date from not 
more than 50 years before Phidias. 

AEgina, a daughter of Asopus, had AEacus 
by Jupiter changed into a flame of fire. 
She afterward married Actor, son of Myr¬ 
midon, by whom she had some children, 
who conspired against their father. She is 












iCglnhard 


JE milianus 


Baid to have been changed by Jupiter into 
the island which bears her name. 

/Eginhard, a German, educated by Char¬ 
lemagne, of whom he became the faithful 
secretary. He retired from the active scenes 
of life after the loss of Imma, his beloved 
wife, whom some have falsely called daugh¬ 
ter of the emperor, asserting that she con¬ 
veyed her husband on her shoulders from her 
house, through the snow, that his escape 
might not be traced by the jealousy of her 
father. JEginhard is the author of a valu¬ 
able life of Charlemagne, besides annals 
from 741 to 837, and letters. He died in 
840. 

^Egis (e 'jis or I'gis), the shield of Zeus, 
which had been fashioned by Hephaestus 
(Vulcan). When Zeus was angry, he waved 
and shook the aegis, making a sound like 
that of a tempest, by which the nations were 
overawed. It was the symbol of divine pro¬ 
tection, and became, in course of time, the 
exclusive attribute of Zeus and Athene. 


/Egisthus, son of Thyestes, and cousin of 
Agamemnon. He did not accompany the 
Greeks to Troy, and, during the absence of 
Agamemnon, lived in adultery with Cly- 
temnestra, his wife. He assisted her in 
murdering her husband on his return, but 
was himself put to death seven years later 
by Orestes, son of Agamemnon. This is the 
account given by Homer; the tragic poets 
make Clytemnestra alone murder Agamem¬ 
non, her motive in ./Eschylus being her jeal¬ 
ousy of Cassandra; in Sophocles and Eurip¬ 
ides, her wrath at the death of lphigenia. 
Later writers also describe iEgisthus as the 
son of Thyestes by unwitting incest with his 
daughter Pelopia. 

>Egle, in zoology, a genus of decapodous 
short-tailed crabs. The A. rufopunctata, or 
red-spotted »gle, is found in the Mauritius 
and the Philippine Islands. 

In botany, a genus of plants belonging to 
the order aurantiaccce (citron worts). The 


eegle marmelos, the bhel, bale, bihva, or 
Bengal quince, a thorny tree with ternate 
leaves and a delicious pulpy fruit, with a 
smooth, yellow, very hard rind, grows wild 
in India" Dr. Royle says that the astrin¬ 
gent rind is used in dyeing yellow. In Cey¬ 
lon a perfume is prepared from it, and the 
seed is employed as a cement. In India the 
legumes are used in asthma, the fruit, a 
little unripe, in diarrhoea and dysentery, and 
a decoction of the root and bark in hypo¬ 
chondriacal complaints and palpitation of 
the heart. 

In astronomy, an asteroid, the 9Gth found. 
It was discovered by Coggia, on Feb. 17, 
1868. 

/Egospotamos, a town, in the Thracian 
Cliersonesus, on a river of the same name, 
where the Athenian fleet, consisting of 180 
ships, was defeated by Lysander, on the 13th 
of December, b. c. 405, in the last year of 
the Peloponnesian War. 

yEgyptus (e-jip'tus or i'gip-tus), son of 
Belus, and brother to Danaus, gave his 50 
sons in marriage to the 50 
daughters of his brother. 
Danaus, who had established 
himself at Argos, and was 
jealous of his brother, obliged 
all his daughters to murder 
their husbands the first night 
of their nuptials. This was 
executed, with the exception 
that Hypermnestra alone 
spared her husband, Lynceus. 
Even iEgyptus was killed by 
his niece Polyxena. iEgyptus 
was king, after his father, of 
a part of Africa, which from 
him has been called HCgyptus. 

yEIfric, an Anglo-Saxon ab¬ 
bot, surnamed Grammaticus; 
born about 955. He became 
Archbishop of Canterbury; 
compiled a Latin grammar and glossary; 
translated most of the historical books of 
the Old Testament and canons for the regu¬ 
lation of the clergy; and was active in re¬ 
sisting the Danish invaders. He died in 
November, 1005. 

/Elianus, Claudius (e-li-a'nus), a noted 
Roman sophist who flourished dn the first 
half of the 2d century. Of his many works, 
written in Greek, three are extant: “ Peas¬ 
ants’ Letters,” purporting to be written 
by different peasants in Attica; “Various 
Histories,” or narratives, in 14 books; 
“ Of the Nature of Animals,” anecdotes 
of animals. Editions of his works 
were published in 1731, 1780, and (Paris) 
1805. 

/Emilianus, C. Julius, a Moor, who,from 
the lowest stations, rose to be Emperor of 
Rome. He reigned only four months, when 
he was killed, in his 46th year, by his owu 



PART OF THE TEMPLE OF ATHENE, AT HCGINA. 


































































































































yEmilius Paulus 


Eolians 


soldiers, who then offered the crown to Va¬ 
lerian. 

/Emilius Paulus, the name of several 
historical persons, the most remarkable of 
whom was the son of the consul yEmilius 
Paulus, who fell in the battle of Cannae, 21G 
B. c. Young yEmilius inherited his father’s 
valor, and enjoyed an unwonted degree of 
public esteem and confidence. In 168 b. c. 
he was elected consul for the second time, 
and intrusted with the war against Perseus, 
King of Macedon, whom he defeated in the 
battle of Pydna. 

yEneas (en-e'as), a Trojan prince, son of 
Anchises and the goddess Venus. The care 
of his infancy was intrusted to a nymph; 

but at the age of 5 he 
was recalled to Troy, and 
placed under the inspec¬ 
tion of Alcathous, the 
friend and companion of 
his father. He afterward 
improved himself in Thes¬ 
saly, under Chiron, whose 
house was frequented by 
all the young princes and 
ENEAS’ flight heroes of the age. Soon 
from troy. after his return home, 
he married Creusa, Pri¬ 
am’s daughter, by whom he had a son, 
called Ascanius. When Troy was in 
flames, he carried away upon his shoulders 
his father Anchises and the statues of 
his household gods, leading by his hand 
his son Ascanius, and leaving his wife 
to follow behind. According to Vergil and 
other Latin authors, he was sailing from 
Sicily to Italy when he landed in Epirus, 
and was driven on the coasts of Africa and 
received by Dido, Queen of Carthage, to 



whom, on his first interview, he gave one of 
the garments of the beautiful Helen. Dido 
being enamored of him, wished to marry 
him; but he left Carthage by order of the 
gods. In his voyage he passed to Cum®, 
where the Sibyl conducted him to hell, that 


he might hear from his father the fate which 
awaited him and all his posterity. After a 
voyage of seven years, and the loss of 13 
ships, he arrived in the Tiber. Latinus, 
the king of the country, received him with 
hospitality, and promised him his daughter 
Lavinia, who had been before betrothed to 
King Turnus by her mother Amata. To pre¬ 
vent this marriage, Turnus made war 
against yEneas; and, after many battles, the 
contest was terminated by a combat between 
the two rivals, in which Turnus was killed. 
yEneas married Lavinia, in whose honor he 
built the town of Lavinium, and succeeded 
his father-in-law. His reign was but of 
short duration, various accounts being given 
of the cause of his death. 

/Eneid, one of the great epic poems of 
the world. It was written in Latin by Ver¬ 
gil, and published after his death, which 
took place about 16 b. c. Its hero is 
yEneas, one of the Trojan chiefs, whose ad¬ 
ventures during and after the siege of Troy 
it recounts, till the time when he succeeded 
in fully establishing himself in Italy. The 
poet, like the majority of his countrymen, 
believed that the imperial family of the Cae¬ 
sars had yEneas for tlieir remote ancestor, 
and that many other illustrious Romans 
were descended from his companions in 
arms 

Eolian or AzoYi c, one of the three great 
dialects of the Greek language, the others 
being the Doric and the Ionic. The expres¬ 
sion, Attic dialect, often occurs, but this 
should be regarded as the normal type of 
Greek rather than as a divergent dialect of 
that tongue. 

yEolic digamma, a letter similar in char¬ 
acter and sound to the letter F. It is so 
called because the yEolians used to prefix it 
to certain words beginning with a vowel, 
and insert it between the vowels in the 
middle of words. It does not appear as a 
letter of the ordinary classical Greek 
alphabet. 

yEolic rocks are those formed by the ac¬ 
tion of the wind. Example, sand dunes. 
They are sometimes called also aerial 
rocks. 

yEolic verse, called also eulogic, archilo- 
chian and pindaric verse, is a verse consist¬ 
ing of one iambus or spondee, then of two 
anapests separated by a long syllable, and 
then another syllable concluding all. 

yEolian Harp, a harp played by yEolus 
— in other words, by the wind. It is made 
by stretching strings of catgut over a 
wooden sound-box. If exposed to the action 
of the wind, a succession of pleasing sounds 
proceeds from it, plaintive when the breeze 
is slight, but bolder as it increases in 
force. 

Eolians, the name of one of those peo¬ 
ples classed under the general appellation 























/Eolus 


/Erolite 


of Greeks. We trace the name of zEolians 
to Thessaly, their primitive abode, as far as 
we know, where they appear to have been 
closely related to the Phthiotic Achaeans of 
the same country. The Achoei of the Pelo¬ 
ponnesus were kinsmen, and, in fact, part 
of the iEolians; and the great emigration, 
commonly called the iEolian, was an emigra¬ 
tion of Achaean people. It seems probable 
that the emigration from the Peloponnesus 
commenced before the Dorian invasion, or 
return of the Heraclidae, as it is often called, 
which caused so great a revolution in the 
peninsula. Strabo says that the iEolian 
settlements in Asia were four generations 
prior to those called the Ionian. The 
iEolian colonies on the Asiatic main land 
were widely spread, extending at least from 
Cyzicus, along the shores of the Hellespont 
and the iEgean, to the river Caicus, and even 
the Hermus. Many positions in the interior 
were also occupied by them, as well as the 
fine island of Lesbos, with Tenedos, and 
others of smaller importance. Homer men¬ 
tions all these parts as possessed by a dif¬ 
ferent people; which would be a proof, if 
any were wanting, that the race of new set¬ 
tlers came after his time. There were 12 
cities or States included In the older settle¬ 
ments in that tract of Asia Minor on the 
iEgean, which was known in Greek geogra¬ 
phy by the name of iEolis, and formed a 
part of the subsequent larger division of 
Mysia. Smyrna, one of them, which early 
fell into the hands of the Ionians, the neigh¬ 
bors of the Hilolians, still exists nearly on 
the old spot, with exactly the same name, 
thus adding one to the many instances of 
the durable impression made by Greek col¬ 
onists wherever they settled. 

/Eolus (e'o-lus), the god of the winds, 
who was fabled by the early poets to have 
his seat in the floating island of iEolia; but 
the Latin and later Greek poets placed him 
in the Lipari isles. Here the winds were 
pent up in vast caves, it being the duty 
of iEolus to let them loose and to re¬ 
strain their violence, at the pleasure of 
Jupiter. 

/Eon, a period of time, a lifetime, a gen¬ 
eration ; a long space of time, eternity; a 
space of time clearly marked out; a period, 
an age, a dispensation. 

In ancient philosophy and theology, 
among the gnostics, a virtue, attribute, or 
perfection of God, personified and regarded 
as an inferior sort of god or goddess. Thus 
Valentinian, in the 2d century, taught that 
in the pleroma (the gnostic name for the 
habitation of God) there were 30 aeons, 15 
male and 15 female; besides these there were 
four unmarried — Horus, Christ, the Holy 
Spirit, and Jesus. 

In modern science and literature, a period 
of immense duration, specially one of those 


which geology makes known, as the Silurian 
and Devonian aeons. 

/Epinus, Francis Maria Ulric Theo¬ 
dore (ep'e-nos), a distinguished electrician, 
who was the first to see the affinity between 
magnetism and electricity in its full extent, 
and to perceive how these may illustrate 
each other. He is also the inventor of the 
condenser of electricity, and of the elec¬ 
tropus. He published several memoirs re¬ 
lating to philosophical subjects, and seems 
to have devoted a considerable portion of his 
time to mechanical pursuits. Born at Ros¬ 
tock, Germany, in 1724; died at Dorpat; in 
Livonia, in 1802. 

/Erodynamics, the science which treats 
of the force exerted by air when in motion. 
See Dynamics. 

/Erolite or Aerolith, a stone which falls 
from the air, or sky. The name is somewhat 
inappropriate, now that it is known that 
the connection of these stones with the air 
is but slight, they simply traversing it as, 
under the operation of gravity, they fall 
from the regions beyond to the earth. They 
have also received the name of meteorites, 
from the fact that the fall of one or more 
aerolites is generally preceded by the ap¬ 
pearance of a meteoric fire ball, which, af¬ 
ter gleaming forth for a brief period, then 
explodes, irresistibly suggesting the infer¬ 
ence that the aerolites which fall constitute 
its fragments. Hence, aerolites and large 
meteors are classed under one category. 
Sometimes aerolite and meteorite are made 
quite synonymous terms; but it is better to 
draw a distinction between the two, making 
meteorite the general word and limiting 
aerolite to the stony varieties of the genus. 
The aerolites, in this limited sense, as a 
rule, fall to the ground in an incandescent 
state. They are generally sub-angular, but 
with the angular points rounded off, and are 
coated, to the depth of about a quarter of 
a line, with a black crust like varnish. 
When fractured, they commonly display a 
series of small, gray spherical bodies in a 
gritty substance, occasionally with yellow 
spots interspersed. When thus consisting 
of stony spherules they are sometimes 
termed chondritic aerolites, from Gr. chon¬ 
drites = of the shape or size of groats; 
chondros — a corn, grain, groat. Iron is 
found in large quantity in nearly every 
aerolite, sometimes malleable, and some¬ 
times in a state of oxide. It is always in 
connection with nickel. Other substances 
found in more limited quantity in aerolites 
are silica, magnesia, sulphur, alumina, lime, 
manganese, chrome, cobalt, carbon, soda, and 
water. No new element has been found, but 
the combination of the old ones is different 
from any occurring in this planet. Though 
the fact that stones could fall from the sky 
to the earth was doubted by the scientific 



FIG. 

1 . 

2 . 

3. 

4 . 

5 . 

6 . 

7 . 

8 . 
9 . 

10 , 11 . 

12 . 

13 . 


AERONAUTICS.—AERIAL MACHINES. 

Langley’s Flying Machine. 

Chanute’s Gliding Machine—off. 

Chanute’s Gliding Alachine—stopping. 

The Maxim Flying Machine. 

The Boiler of the Maxim Machine. 

Balloon with Electric Motor. 

Propeller of same, with Motor and Gearing enlarged. 
Great Captive Balloon used at Paris. 

Section of Car of same. 

Knot of ordinary Netting as compared with that adopted 
Netting of Captive Balloon. 

Outline Diagram of the Santos-Dumont Air Ship. 
Parachute as it appears when descending. 


AERONAUTICS 



FOR DESCRIPT 




































































































































\L MACHINES 



OTHER SIDE 





























































































































































Aeronautics 


Aeroplane 


almost till the close of the 18th century, 
the occurrence of such a phenomenon had 
been again and again popularly reported in 
various countries, and from a high period 
of antiquity. There is reason to believe that 
the object of worship in many a pagan 
shrine in ancient times was an aerolite; that 
this was the case with the idol worshipped 
in the great temple of Diana, at Ephesus, is 
all but implied in the town clerk’s words. 
“The image which fell down from Jupiter” 
(Acts xix: 35). 

Aeronautics, the constructing and op¬ 
erating of practical airships and flying ma¬ 
chines. 

The word Aeronautics indicates primarily 
and traditionally the principles governing 
the construction and operation of balloons 
(see Balloon), but since the advent of the 
aeroplane and other forms of flying ma¬ 
chines the meaning has been extended to 
include these also. (See Aeroplane and 
Flying Machine). 

Since, however, the theories and practice 
of the two types of levitating apparatus are 
radically different, there are properly two 
distinct sciences connoted by the word 
aeronautics. These are aviation, or the sci¬ 
ence of flight, and ballooning, or the science 
of aerostation. 

Aeroplane, a flying machine consisting 
of one or more surfaces of area sufficient to 
support the weight of human beings in the 
air, when propelled at high speed by a suit¬ 
able motor. 

At the present time the aeroplane seems 
to be the most promising answer to man's 
age-long prayer for the power of flight. It 
most closely imitates the behavior of the 
eagle, condor, albatross, and other large 
birds, which float for hours, high in the air, 
without apparent movement of the wings. 
As such birds are the longest and strongest 
fliers, as well as the largest, they would 
seem to furnish more appropriate models 
for artificial flying machines than the quick¬ 
flapping smaller birds and insects, which the 
designers of the various forms of ornithopter 
(see Flying Machine) have attempted, 
rather unsuccessfully, to imitate. Like 
every other artificial flying apparatus, ex¬ 
cept the balloon, the aeroplane demands for 
its sustention in the air some constantly 
acting agent of propulsion, failing which 
it will inevitably fall to the ground. In¬ 
deed, the element of motion is the sole 
secret of the successful “heavier-than-air” 
flying machine. This principle is exhibited 
also in a projectile, such as a stone, arrow, 
javelin or bullet, which, hurled strongly 
and rapidly by the force of mere muscle, 
a sling, a bowstring, or gunpowder, re¬ 
spectively, can maintain its elevation above 
the earth, flying through the air as long and 
as far as the momentum of the original 
hurling impulse endures. Similarly a stiff 


card or disc of tin, projected from the hand 
in an approximately horizontal plane, may 
be so impelled as to soar to a considerable 
height before losing its balance and falling 
edgewise. The hurling energy acts to keep 
the card or tin disc afloat so long as the air 
can be made to serve as a support, so to 
speak, against gravity, or so long as no 
edge tips toward the ground. 

Given the possibility of perfectly bal¬ 
ancing a plane or concaved surface in the 
air, and keeping it immovable laterally, it 
would remain suspended, theoretically, for 
as long a period as the elasticity of the air 
beneath would enable it to resist the pull 
of gravity, and in direct ratio to its area. 
This principle is well exhibited in the para¬ 
chute, an umbrella-shaped structure, hang¬ 
ing beneath which a man may jump from a 
high-flying balloon and be wafted slowly and 
safely to earth. The weight of the man 
acts to hold the parachute parallel to the 
earth, so that, unless its fabric be rent, it 
utilizes the elastic property of the air in 
resisting the violent pull of gravity. With 
strongly moving air currents, on the other 
hand, acting upon a surface, and against a 
stable anchorage, we have the familiar 
phenomenon of the kite. 

Such examples prepare us to understand 
the two fundamental requirements of success¬ 
ful artificial flight, as now recognized by all 
authorities: first, an engine or prime mover 
capable of developing high speed and power 
with small weight; second, some control¬ 
lable mechanical means for maintaining the 
balance necessary to resist the down-pull of 
gravity as surely and effectively as vital 
instinct achieves it for birds and other 
flying creatures. Contrivances built to at¬ 
tain these ends can readily maintain the 
steady flight of an aeroplane at one con¬ 
stant elevation and in one direction. There 
must be provided, also, suitable rudders; 
one set for changing the direction laterally 
in a horizontal plane, and another for ele¬ 
vating or lowering the plane of travel. The 
latter device is essential for any attempt at 
soaring or descending. 

The modern aeroplane is a developed 
glider of the type used in the experiments 
of the German, Otto Lilienthal, and of the 
American, Octave Chanute, which were con¬ 
tinued to a successful issue by the Wright 
brothers, Wilbur and Orville. Lilienthal 
used a biplane consisting of two wings 
“broadly resembling those of a bat.” With 
this apparatus he made over 2,000 gliding 
flights between 1891 and 1890 from the 
summit of a hill near Berlin, his attention 
being principally occupied with experimen¬ 
tal observations on the best means of pre¬ 
serving equilibrium. He partially solved 
the problem by shifting his weight to 
counteract any deviations from a stable 
center of gravity; rather a crude device 



Aeroplane 


Aeroplane 


from the viewpoint of present standards. 
Somewhat after Lilienthal, Chanute and 
Herring began their experiments, also with 
a biplane glider, fashioned, however, more 
nearly on the lines of up-to-date machines. 
Their contribution to the control of the 
machine was the method of compensating 
eccentricities in the center of pressure by 
alternating the pitch of the planes, rather 
than the less wieldy and decidedly danger¬ 
ous method of shifting the carried weight. 
They also were the first to use adjustable 
tails and rudders for promoting the con¬ 
trol of the apparatus. The Wright brothers, 
profiting directly by the experience and in¬ 
structions of Chanute, began their mem¬ 
orable experiments in 1900. Three years 
later, after a large number of gliding 
flights, they first used a motor and pro¬ 
pellers, thus transforming their improved 
glider into a true self-propelling aeroplane. 

Most notable among the contributions 
made by the Wrights must be mentioned 
the device of warping the tips of the planes 
to counteract the tendency to slide sidewise 
from the horizontal. This “transverse con¬ 
trol,” as it is termed, is effected by wire 
connections from a lever convenient to the 
operator’s hand, and is contemporaneous 
with an appropriate movement of the verti¬ 
cal steering rudder, the two motions com¬ 
bining to keep the machine in equilibrium. 
Although the device of warping the planes 
is claimed as original by the Wrights, who 
have protected it by a broad basic patent, 
others contend that it was used by a 
Frenchman named Mouillard as early as 
1895, and was also suggested by Chanute. 
Curtiss and others accomplish the same re¬ 
sult by the use of ailerons, or subsidiary 
horizontal planes, set parallel to and be¬ 
tween the main planes, and capable of being 
swung on pivots to any desired angle. 

That successful mechanical flight was not 
earlier achieved is due principally to two 
simple elements: first, to the very recent 
perfection of high-powered engines of small 
weight; second, to the apparent inability of 
inventors to handle properly their machines. 
With sufficient experience in control and 
operation several of the earlier types of 
aeroplanes would probably have flown. Most 
of the constructive elements were antici¬ 
pated years before successful flight was 
achieved. As long ago as 1843 a certain 
Henson published in England drawings and 
descriptions of a proposed steam-propelled 
aeroplane, which not only in general de¬ 
sign, but also in special constructive details, 
strangely anticipated several of the well- 
known French monoplanes of the present 
day. With his high-pressure engine, for 
which he claimed the remarkable efficiency, 
for those days, of one horsepower per each 
30 pounds of weight, Henson’s aeroplane 
might have attained a speed sufficient to 


keep it in the air. So far as is known, 
however, he made no attempt to build a 
practical machine from his designs. 

Among later experimenters whose efforts 
have greatly furthered the science of avia¬ 
tion, although themselves failing of the 
glory of success, may be mentioned Maxim, 
Ader and Langley. Maxim began experi¬ 
menting as early as 1888, and in 1894 pro¬ 
duced his completed machine. It was a very 
large affair, spreading some 4,000 square feet 
of supporting surfaces. It was designed to 
carry three men, and was provided with a 
steam motor of 363 horsepower weighing 
some 10 pounds per horsepower. The whole 
weighed 8,000 pounds, and was flown free 
but once, and then unintentionally, the re¬ 
sult being that the machine was upset and 
broken by reason of its defective equilibrium 
in a side wind. In 1897 Ader tested an 
apparatus (his third), which reproduced 
with a few modifications the complete struc¬ 
ture of a bird. It spread 270 square feet 
of surface and weighed 1,100 pounds, in¬ 
cluding a steam engine of 40 horsepower, 
weighing some 7 pounds per horsepower. 
This apparatus rose into the air upon a 
trial conducted under the auspices of the 
French War Department, which had de¬ 
frayed the cost, but was upset by a wind- 
gust for lack of adequate equilibrium, and 
the government declined to advance any 
more funds. In 1901 Kress, of Vienna, 
tested an apparatus of 1,011 square feet 
sustaining surfaces, mounted upon floats 
so as to start and alight on water, equipped 
with a gasoline motor of 30 horsepower, 
which weighed 28 pounds per horsepower; 
the whole weighing 1,870 pounds, with the 
operator. It gained a good speed, but just 
as it was rising from the water it was upset 
by a side wind and sank to the bottom. 
The funds being exhausted, further experi¬ 
menting stopped. In 1903 Langley, after 
fourteen years of experimentation, at¬ 
tempted to launch an apparatus carrying a 
man, similar to models which had several 
times previously flown nearly a mile. The 
full-sized machine was built ($50,000) at 
the cost of the United States Government 
as a war engine. It spread 1,040 square 
feet of sustaining surface and weighed 830 
pounds, this including a gasoline engine of 
52 horsepower weighing less than 5 pounds 
to the horsepower, including cooling water, 
carbureter, battery, etc. Two attempts were 
made, and on each occasion something went 
wrong with the launching-gear, so that the 
apparatus fell instead of flying. There is 
little doubt that it would have flown if it 
had been properly launched, but here again 
further funds were refused, and the experi¬ 
ments were unwisely discontinued. 

The necessity of persistent and long- 
continued experimentation to discover the 
principles governing the control of flying 





Aeroplane 


Aeroplane 


apparatus was early recognized by Maxim 
and Langley, whose multitudinous observa¬ 
tions still supply valuable data for prac¬ 
tical designers. The Wright brothers ex¬ 
perimented steadily for nearly eight years 
before attempting their first public demon¬ 
strations in America and France. Accord¬ 
ing to reliable accounts, they labored for 
one whole year to perfect their knowledge 
of the best means for steering their ma¬ 
chine. Other apparently small details occu¬ 
pied similarly extended periods of effort, 
even with the full benefit of the knowledge 
gleaned by Chanute and other pioneers. 
Thus only did they learn the “feel of the 
air.” 

In practical operation all types of aero¬ 
plane are perfectly similar, achieving like 
results by like mechanical means. In leav¬ 
ing the ground an aeroplane is urged for¬ 
ward by the rotation of its propellers, 
making the initial ascent at that angle with 
the horizon which is determined by the lift 
of its horizontal elevation or tilting rudder. 
Several types of aeroplane are equipped 
with wire wheels upon which they run 
along the ground until the speed of the pro¬ 
peller is sufficient to lift the apparatus 
safely into the air. The Wright machine 
regularly slides along an inclined plane on 
runners. Until the required propeller speedy 
is attained the elevation rudder is depressed. 

Once in the air the apparatus continues 
to aviate, so long as the speed is sufficient, 
all its movements being controlled by the 
tilting and vertical rudders, and its balance 
by the transverse control. The manual con¬ 
trols are also adequate to the task of allow¬ 
ing it to glide safely to earth with the 
engine stopped. The aviation of an aero¬ 
plane has been compared to the progress of 
a man running across a lake covered with 
blocks of cut or broken ice. Should the 
man stand still upon any of the blocks, he 
would sink, but, by virtue of a sufficient 
momentum, he may spring from one to 
another, not resting upon any one suffi¬ 
ciently long to allow it to sink with him. 
Professor Langley used the figure of a 
skater rushing at high speed over thin ice, 
and, because of his speed, failing to break 
through, as otherwise he must do. In the 
aeroplane, moving rapidly through the air, 
the center of gravity and the center of 
pressure are so effectively balanced that it 
is literally progressing constantly beyond 
each and every point at which it must other¬ 
wise be pulled inevitably to the ground. In 
this respect it is also analogous to a tight¬ 
rope walker, who maintains his balance 
principally by walking constantly along his 
narrow path, each successive step taking 
him from and beyond one and then another 
point at which he is in danger of falling off. 

In view of the principles above stated, it 
is obvious that the most desirable construc¬ 
tion in the supporting surfaces of an aero¬ 


plane is the one by which the elasticity of 
the air may constantly be utilized to give 
the apparatus an upward impulse as it 
moves forward. This is actually accom¬ 
plished by constructing the surfaces concave 
on the under side, rather than flat; or, in 
other words, building an aeroplane that is 
not a true plane surface. The concavity, 
moreover, is not made on a true arc, but 
rather on an eccentric curve, in which the 
greatest curvature is located on a transverse 
line about one-quarter the total depth of 
the “plane” from the front. From this 
point the surface curves gently to the rear. 
The effect produced by this construction is 
that the currents of air, rushing beneath 
the curved surface from in front, are com¬ 
pelled to ascend somewhat abruptly, form¬ 
ing a series of rotary motions in this 
“pocket,” and producing the strongest pres¬ 
sure there, and thus imparting an inclined 
upward tendency to the front edge of the 
“plane.” This effect is heightened by the 
action of air currents on the upper surface, 
where a rarefaction, or partial vacuum, 
occurs on the forward portion of the high 
curve, the air sliding to the rear over the 
inclined surface and thus greatly assisting 
the lifting effect of the condensing air be¬ 
neath. The line along which the air acts 
to elevate the planes, as just described, de¬ 
termines the so-called “center of pressure,” 
which in practical aeroplanes is just for¬ 
ward of the center of gravity, where the 
downward-pulling tendency is felt. The 
forces acting upon these two centers are 
constantly equalized and equilibrium main¬ 
tained by manipulation of the tilting rud¬ 
der for forward balancing and by the trans¬ 
verse control, warping the plane tips, for 
lateral balancing. 

Another element highly essential to the 
proper balanced operation of an aeroplane 
is the line of thrust, along which acts the 
propelling force of the propeller. It should 
be so disposed as to contribute to the aver¬ 
age equilibrium of the apparatus. The 
angle of incidence, or angle of inclination 
of the supporting plane to the line of flight, 
is of equal importance. The “planes” are 
not only curved, but also tipped upward 
and forward. In the Wright machine this 
angle is about 2 degrees; with the Bleriot 
monoplane it is about 12 degrees, varying as 
the type and special peculiarities of any given 
machine. Although the angle of incidence 
is an essential element in promoting the 
success of aviation, it need not be large. 
Indeed, authoritative opinion favors the 
smaller angles. 

The proportions of an aeroplane vary ac¬ 
cording to the speed at which it is to be 
propelled. The higher the speed, the smaller 
the possible dimensions. Langley deter¬ 
mined, as the result of long-continued ex¬ 
perimentation, that the necessary area of 
the supporting plane varies inversely as the 



Aeroplane 


Aeroplane 


square of the velocity. On the same prin¬ 
ciple, he determined that in a biplane the 
distance between the two horizontal sup¬ 
porting planes should not be less than the 
depth of the plane from front to rear for 
speeds of forty miles per hour and under. 
As speeds increase the planes may be set 
nearer together. 

While the constructive elements of aero¬ 
planes have been modeled on the anatomy 
of birds and other dying creatures as 
closely as an artificial machine can imitate 
a natural machine or organism, the engine 
developing the necessary propelling energy 
has been steadily approaching nearer to 
nature’s efficiency standards. According to 
accurate observations, the muscles of birds 
are able to develop energy in the ratio of 
between 15 and 20 pounds weight to the 
horsepower. Previous to 1890, when me¬ 
chanical science received a new impulse in 
the impending development of the automo¬ 
bile, the average efficiency for engines was 
in the neighborhood of 200 pounds per 
horsepower. Since that time the high-speed 
internal-combustion or gasoline engine has 
been so far perfected that an efficiency of 
5 pounds per horsepower, or even less, is 
constantly available. With such improve¬ 
ments in the constructive details of aero¬ 
planes as are inevitable in the next few 
years, we are rapidly approaching the time 
when artificial flight will be both swifter and 
stronger in ratio of the carried weight than 
is natural flight. 

At the present time there are two dis¬ 
tinct types of aeroplane in practical opera¬ 
tion: the biplane, consisting of two hori¬ 
zontal carrying “planes,” the one set above 
the other, somewhat after the design of a 
box kite; the monoplane, consisting of a 
single carrying surface, disposed like the 
spread wings of a Hying insect at either side 
of the framework carrying the motor, the 
driver’s seat, and the operating devices. The 
construction of the biplane has been com¬ 
pared to a Hying beetle with his wing cases 
extended above his film-like wings; that of 
the monoplane to a huge dragon-fly with his 
elongated abdomen extending far to the rear 
of the point where the wings insert upon 
the thorax. The biplane is the type most 
favored in America, while the monoplane is 
peculiarly European. While several experi¬ 
menters have proposed machines consisting 
of three or more planes, nothing practical 
has been produced along these lines. 

The general principles already outlined 
apply to both types of aeroplane, but there 
are peculiar features in both cases which 
deserve special notice. Thus the monoplane 
has the long, rigid, tail-like structure to 
the rear of the main plane, which is lacking 
in- the biplane, but which, as its advocates 
claim, contributes to the stability of the 
apparatus in the air. To this tail are 
attached the rudders for both steering and 


elevation. In the biplane, on the other 
hand, the prevailing practice has been hith¬ 
erto to attach the tilting rudder on an 
outrigger in front of the main planes and 
the steering rudder at the rear 

The types of engine used for the propul¬ 
sion of aeroplanes are in general design and 
efliciency similar to those used on auto¬ 
mobiles. The V-shaped multiple-cylinder 
motor is steadily gaining in favor for bi¬ 
planes ; while the rotary motor, one in 
which the cylinders are disposed on the 
radii from a common center and rotate 
about it in operation, has been used to some 
extent and is increasing in favor. 

In point of size and speed of propellers, 
practice is fairly uniform. In the biplane 
the rule is to set the propeller at the rear, 
but in the monoplane the propeller is set 
m front, pulling the machine in the direc¬ 
tion of travel. The Voisin biplane alone 
among machines of its type has the propeller 
in front. 

The Wrights are the originators of and 
still the only notable designers using the 
two-propeller arrangement. They dispose 
their propellers to the rear of their lower 
main plane, the two being geared to revolve 
in opposite directions. The advantage 
claimed for this arrangement is that it is 
possible to use lower rotative speeds with¬ 
out reducing the total thrust; any speed 
of the propeller greater than a certain 
definite number of revolutions per minute 
being a distinct disadvantage. One objec¬ 
tion frequently urged is that in the event 
of breaking one propeller the other will 
cause the aeroplane to move in a circle in¬ 
stead of straight ahead. To this the answer 
has always been made that the breakage of 
a propeller is an imperative signal to stop 
the engine and descend to earth. 

The various methods in use for main¬ 
taining the horizontal equilibrium of an 
aeroplane are in general only so many modi- 
ifications of the Wright tip-warping device. 
Several early monoplanes used auxiliary 
wing tips, which could be raised and de¬ 
pressed by the operator as required. Other 
models, however, provide to bend the main 
plane on a line about one-fourth the length 
from the tip. The Curtiss biplane, as pre¬ 
viously stated, uses small auxiliary planes 
set between the main planes, and these, by 
virtue of tilting manually produced, are 
capable of neutralizing sidewise falling ten¬ 
dencies. In the Farman biplane the ailerons 
are downward-hanging flaps hinged at the 
rear of the main planes. In travel these 
assume a horizontal position under wind 
pressure. On a sidewise tip of the machine 
the ailerons on the low side are pulled down 
and act to right the machine by opposing 
a resistance to the air, which is resolved 
into a lifting effort. The Voisin biplane 
does away with all necessity for manual 
regulation of the equilibrium by the device 






/Eschines 


AEschylus 


of “partitioning,” which is to say intro¬ 
ducing rigid vertical partitions between the 
two main planes, transforming the space 
into several cells or boxes open in the direc¬ 
tion of travel. Owing to the resistance 
offered to the air, these partitions oppose 
any deviation from the horizontal in lateral 
directions, thus leaving the operator free 
to devote attention to steering his machine. 

J. E. Homans. 

zEschines, a celebrated Athenian orator, 
the rival and opponent of Demosthenes ; 
born in Attica, in the demus of Cothocidse, 
389 B. c. His father, according to Demos¬ 
thenes, was the slave of a schoolmaster, and 
his mother is described as a dancer. As 
Aeschines himself and his brothers held 
honorable positions in the Athenian com¬ 
monwealth, one of his brothers having for 
three years been one of the 10 Athenian 
generals, it is probable that these accounts 
of the meanness of his origin have been ex¬ 
aggerated by party malice. His father was 
poor, and kept a school, in which Aeschines 
in his youth performed menial offices not 
deemed honorable in a free-born Athenian. 
According to Demosthenes, his father was 
named Tromes, but Aeschines, in order to 
make him appear of better family, called 
him Atrometus. After assisting in his 
father’s school ACschines was employed as 
a professional gymnast. He underwent the 
usual period of military service, was em¬ 
ployed as a scribe by the statesmen Aristo- 
phon and Eubulus, went upon the stage as 
an actor, and served with distinction in sev¬ 
eral important campaigns particularly 
those of Mantineia and Tamynae. After the 
last-named battle he was sent to carry home 
the news of the victory, and obtained a 
crown as the reward of his valor. 

He had already begun to acquire reputa¬ 
tion as a public speaker, and was at first 
a zealous opponent of the growing power 
of Macedon. In 348 he was sent to the 
Peloponnesus to secure a union of the Greeks 
against Philip, but failing in his mission he 
became convinced of its impracticability. 
He was afterward employed to negotiate 
peace with Philip, and continued thereafter 
steadfastly to support the Macedonian alli¬ 
ance. Though openly accused of bribery, 
he was for a long period employed and 
trusted by the Athenians, among whom he 
headed the Macedonian party, but having 
failed in 330 b. c. in a prosecution against 
Ctesiphon for proposing to bestow a crown 
of gold upon Demosthenes, on which occa¬ 
sion Demosthenes made his celebrated ora¬ 
tion “ On the Crown,” he withdrew from 
Athens. Although this accusation had been 
delayed till the Macedonian party was pre¬ 
dominant, JEschines did not obtain the num¬ 
ber of votes (one-fifth) necessary to free 
him from a fine of 3.000 drachmas for bring¬ 
ing a false accusation. He afterward em¬ 
ployed himself for several years teaching 


rhetoric in Ionia and Caria. After the 
death of Alexander (323 b. c.), he went to 
Rhodes, and established a school of elo¬ 
quence. He died in Samos, 314 b. c. 

Three of the orations of Aeschines are ex¬ 
tant— one made against Timarchus, who 
accused him after his second embassy to 
Philip of having been bribed; another ora¬ 
tion on the embassy; and a third against 
Ctesiphon. He is said to have read this 
oration to his pupils at Rhodes, and on their 
expressing surprise at his failure he replied, 
“ You would cease to be astonished if you 
had heard Demosthenes.” 

AEschylus, the first in order of time of 
the three great tragic poets of Greece; born 
in Eleusis, Attica, in 525 b. c. Euphorion, 
his father, was probably connected with the 
mysteries of Demeter, and he is said him¬ 
self to have been initiated. In 499 b. c. 
he made his first appearance as a competi¬ 
tor for the prize of tragedy, but was 
not successful. Before attaining his first 
triumph he had to appear as an actor on a 
grander scene. He was present, and highly 
distinguished himself, at the battles of 
Marathon, Artemisium, Salamis, and Pla- 
taea. He must have gained as a poet by his 
experience in this momentous struggle, and 
probably too his fame as a warrior would 
help to recommend his compositions as a 
poet to his countrymen. His first dramatic 
victory was achieved in 484 b. c. The 
names of the pieces which composed his 
trilogy at this time are not known. The 
“ Persse ” (“Persians”), the earliest of his 
extant pieces, formed part of a trilogy which 
gained the prize in 472 b. c. Altogether he 
is reputed to have composed 70 tragedies 
and gained 13 triumphs. In the satirical 
pieces which accompanied the trilogy of 
tragedies he is said also to have been a 
master. Only seven of his tragedies are ex¬ 
tant. They are: “The Persians” (re¬ 
markable as being founded on contemporary 
events), “The Seven against Thebes,” 
“ The Suppliants,” “ Prometheus Bound,” 
“ Agamemnon,” “ The Choepliori,” and 
“ The Eumenides.” The last three form the 
trilogy of the “ Oresteia ” (so named as be¬ 
ing based on the story of Orestes), the only 
complete Greek trilogy we possess. It 
was represented in 458 b. c., between which 
date and that of “ The Persians ” the others 
were brought out; but, according to a sug¬ 
gestion of Bockh, the representation of the 
“ Oresteia ” in 458 b. c. was a repetition in 
the absence of the poet. 

Tn 468 b. c. he was defeated by Sophocles, 
and is said to have retired through morti¬ 
fication at this defeat to the court of Hiero, 
King of Syracuse. Of the fact of his resi¬ 
dence at Syracuse at this time there ap¬ 
pears to be no doubt, and without ascribing 
his retirement to mere jealousy, there are 
other reasons for associating it with his 



AEschylus 


AEscuIapius 


defeat. AEschylus belonged to the old aris¬ 
tocratic party, which had long been on the 
decline. His rival Sophocles, whose first 
appearance as a dramatist had thus been 
honored with a triumph, was favored by 
the democratic party, Cimon himself being 
one of the judges. The decline of his party 
might thus render Athens an uncongenial 
residence to AEschylus, and indispose him 
for an arduous contest in which he did not 
feel that justice was done to his claims. 
During his residence at Syracuse he com¬ 
posed many pieces, in which he not only se¬ 
lected local subjects, but used words unin¬ 
telligible to the Athenians. Unless Bbckh’s 
theory is received it must be supposed that 
AEschuylus returned to Athens for the 
representation of his “ Oresteia.” There is a 
story that he was accused before the Areop¬ 
agus for impiety either in representing the 
“ Eumenides ” on the stage or in divulging 
the mysteries of Demeter; and it is to the 
period of this representation that the ac¬ 
cusation is usually referred. If Aeschylus 
came to Athens he must soon have returned 
to Sicily, where he died in Gela in 456. A 
tomb was erected to him, with an epitaph 
by himself, in which he speaks of himself 
as an exile from Athens, and refers to his 
part in the battle of Marathon, but not to 
his writings. Of the manner of his death 
an improbable story is told, namely, that 
an eagle, mistaking his bald head for a 
stone, let fall a tortoise on it to break the 
shell, and thus killed him. 

AEschylus was in a sense the creator of 
the Greek tragedy, the stage up till his time 
being occupied with comparatively feeble 
productions. His style, as is common with 
early poets, was grand, sublime, and full of 
energy, though sometimes erring in exces¬ 
sive splendor of diction and imagery. Lon¬ 
ginus, the celebrated Greek critic, complains 
of it as being often harsh and overstrained. 
His plays have little or no plot, and in per¬ 
sonal portraiture he does not represent the 
subtle complexities of human character, 
which belong to a later development of art, 
but the bold outlines of strength and daring 
which pertain to the conception of gods and 
heroes. A fatalistic tendency dominates his 
views'of the unseen, and by making men the 
sport of superior beings supplies abundant 
material for tragedy. An ethical principle 
of retribution is not, however, wholly lost 
sight of. The practice of contending for 
the prize with a trilogy of plays was es¬ 
tablished before his time, but he was the 
first to reduce the trilogy to a unity by 
linking together three distinct but asso¬ 
ciated subjects, each of which formed the 
theme of a play complete in itself yet re¬ 
lated to the others. 

Aeschylus was a great improver of the 
stage as well as of the drama. He introduced 
a second actor upon the scene, and was thus 
the founder of true dramatic dialogue, to 


which he subordinated the chorus, which 
had formerly been the principal part. At 
a subsequent period he followed the exam¬ 
ple of Sophocles in introducing a third actor. 
The dialogue he introduced was measured 
and formal, and without the license of 
broken lines. This gave it a distant and 
stately character agreeable to the kind of 
superhuman heroes which it suited the 
genius of AEschylus to put upon the stage. 
To make the appearance of his personages 
suitable to their character, he introduced 
the thick-soled cothurnus or buskin to raise 
the stature of the actors, and he gave them 
dresses appropriate to the parts they had to 
play. He himself sometimes acted in his 
own plays. He also made use of the scene- 
painter’s services, and Agatharchus is said 
to have painted for him the first scenes 
drawn according to the laws of linear per¬ 
spective. From the testimony of Aristotle, 
however, it seems to be doubtful whether 
scene-painting was actually introduced by 
AEschylus or Sophocles. After its introduc¬ 
tion it would no doubt be used by both. He 
carefully trained the dancers to represent 
incidents in the play by appropriate action, 
and he removed from the stage scenes of 
violence and blood. 

By a special decree of the Athenian people 
a chorus was provided at the public ex¬ 
pense for any one who wished to produce 
any work of Aeschylus a second time. After 
his death his sons Euphorion and Bion, and 
his nephew Philocles, gained triumphs with 
works of his over Sophocles and Euripi¬ 
des, and thus was established a tragic 
school of AEschylus, which continued to 
flourish for more than a century. The 
first edition of AEschylus was printed at 
Venice in 1518. The best of the earlier edi¬ 
tions was that of 
Stanley (London, 

1663). The best 
recent editions are 
those of Ahrens 
(Paris, 1877), 

Weeklein (Berlin, 

1884), and F. A. 

Paley (in the 
“ Bibliotheca Clas- 
sica ”). There are 
English poetical 
tran slations by 
Pot ter, Blaekie, 

Plumptre, Mors- 
head, and Swan- 
wick, and a prose 
translation by Pa¬ 
ley. 

AEsculapius (es- 
ku-la'pe-us), the 
god of medieine, 
son of Apollo and 

the nymph Coronis. Apollo brought his son to 
Chiron, who instructed him in medicine and 
hunting. In the former, he acquired a high 










/Esop 


/Esthetics 


degree of skill, so as to surpass even the 
fame of his teacher. He not only prevented 
the death of the living, but even recalled the 
dead to life. Jupiter, however, induced by 
the complaints of his brother, Pluto, slew 
Aesculapius with a thunderbolt. After his 
death, he received divine honors. Aescu¬ 
lapius had two sons, Machaon and Podalir- 
ius, who were called Asclepiades, and, dur¬ 
ing the Trojan War, made themselves fa¬ 
mous as heroes and physicians. His daugh¬ 
ters were Hygeia, laso, Panacea, and iEgle, 
the first of whom was worshipped as the 
goddess of health. /Esculapius is repre¬ 
sented with a large beard, holding a knotty 
staff, round which was entwined a serpent, 
the symbol of convalescence. Near him 
stands the cock, the symbol of watchfulness. 
He is sometimes crowned with the laurel of 
Apollo. Sometimes his little son, Teles- 
phorus, is represented beside him, with a 
cap upon his head, wrapped up in a cloak. 
Sometimes also /Esculapius is represented 
under the image of a serpent only. 

/Esop (e'sop), 
a Greek fabulist, 
who lived in the 
7 th century b. c. 
According to tra¬ 
dition, he was a 
captive of war, 
and for part of 
his life a slave. 
Many of his fa¬ 
bles have been 
* traced to Egyp¬ 
tian and Indian 
sources. Soc¬ 
rates, during his 
imprisonment, 
put into verse a 
portion of the 
Aesopian fables. 
A more complete collection of them was 
by Babrius, a Greek fabulist. In the 

lapse of time, what might be called the 
Aesopian canon was much obscured, and 

spurious fables were incorporated into it. 

The stories related of ^Esop, even by the 
ancients, are not entitled to credit. 



iESOP. 


/Esopus, Clodius, a celebrated actor who 
flourished about the 670th year of Rome. 
He was a contemporary of Roscius. His 
folly in spending money on expensive dishes 
made him as conspicuous as his dramatic 
talents. He is said, at one entertainment, 
to have had a dish filled with singing and 
speaking birds, which cost $4,000. When 
acting, he entered into his part to such a 
degree as sometimes to be seized with a 
perfect ecstasy. Plutarch mentions a report 
concerning him while representing Atreus, 
that, deliberating how he should revenge 
himself on Thyestes, he was so transported 
beyond himself that he smote one of the 
7 


servants who was crossing the stage, and 
killed him on the spot. 

/Esthetics, the name given to the branch 
of philosophy or of science which is con¬ 
cerned with that class of emotions, or with 
those attributes, real or apparent, of ob¬ 
jects generally comprehended under the 
term beauty, and other related expressions. 
The term {Esthetics first received this ap¬ 
plication from Baumgarten, a German phi¬ 
losopher, who was the first modern writer to 
treat systematically on this subject. Kant 
uses the word {esthetics ( aisthetikos, per¬ 
ceivable by the senses) in a broader ety¬ 
mological sense, treating in his transcenden¬ 
tal {Esthetic of the a priori principles of 
sensuous knowledge. There are, as indi¬ 
cated, two modes of treating {esthetics, sci¬ 
entifically or empirically, by collection and 
collation of the objects or associations by 
which the sesthetieal emotions are excited, 
and philosophically by analysis and deter¬ 
mination of the cause or source and mode 
of the emotions. Neither of these modes is 
independent of the other; but the scientific 
mode, from the multitude of details it in¬ 
volves, is little amenable to summary treat¬ 
ment, and in form at least we shall be com¬ 
pelled to limit ourselves to the other. 

/Esthetics, like every other branch of phi¬ 
losophy, has suffered from the conflict of 
first principles which has continually im¬ 
peded the development of details; but it 
has also profited by this conflict, which has 
itself brought out facts which might other¬ 
wise have been hid. Space will not permit 
us to give a historical summary, and we 
must confine ourselves to the briefest indi¬ 
cations of the views of the leading thinkers. 

Socrates, according to Xenophon, regard¬ 
ed the beautiful as coincident with the 
good, and both as resolvable into the useful. 
Plato, in accordance with his idealistic the¬ 
ory, held the existence of an absolute 
beauty, which is the ground of beauty in 
all things. He also asserted the intimate 
union of the good the beautiful, and the 
true. Aristotle, whose contributions to ses- 
thetics are of the highest value, treated 
of them in much more detail than Plato, but 
chiefly from the scientific or critical point 
of view. In his “ Poetics ” he declares po¬ 
etry to be a more serious and philosophical 
matter than philosophy itself. In his 
treatises on “ Poetry ” and “ Rhetoric ” he 
lays down a theory of art, and establishes 
principles of beauty. His philosophical 
views were in many respects opposed to 
those of Plato. He does not admit an ab¬ 
solute conception of the beautiful; but he 
distinguishes beauty from the good, the use¬ 
ful, the fit, and the necessary. He resolves 
beauty into certain elements, as order, sym¬ 
metry, definiteness, and a certain magni¬ 
tude, which appears to be relative to the 
perceptive capacity. A distinction of 
beauty, according to him, is the absence of 






/Esthetics 


/Esthetics 


lust or desire in the pleasure it excites. 
Beauty has no utilitarian or ethical object; 
the aim of art is merely to give immediate 
pleasure; its essence is imitation; the chief 
objects of imitation in poetry and music 
are passions, dispositions, and actions. The 
essence of poetry consists in this imitation, 
and not in form. The end of tragedy, he 
says, is to effect a purification of pity and 
fear by means of these passions themselves. 
He also speaks of a purifying effect of music 
in quieting wilder forms of excitement. As 
this seems a contradiction of his negation 
of an ethical end in aesthetics it has been 
disputed whether this purification is ethical 
or sesthetical. Plotinus agrees with Plato 
and disagrees with Aristotle, in holding 
that beauty may subsist in single and sim¬ 
ple objects, and consequently in restoring 
the absolute conception of beauty. He dif¬ 
fers from Plato and Aristotle in raising art 
above nature. When the artist has logoi 
(the equivalent in the system of Plotinus 
of the ideas in that of Plato) for his models 
his creations may be more beautiful than 
natural objects. Baumgar ten's treatment 
of aesthetics is essentially Platonic. He 
made the division of philosophy into logic, 
ethics, and aesthetics; the first dealing with 
knowledge, the second with action (will and 
desire), the third with aesthetics. 

Where Baumgarten fails of a Platonic 
standard is in' limiting aesthetics to the 
conceptions derived from the senses, and in 
making them consist in confused or obscure 
conceptions, in contradistinction to logical 
knowledge, which consists in clear concep¬ 
tions. Kant defines beauty in reference to 
his four categories, quantity, quality, rela¬ 
tion, and modality. In accordance with the 
subjective character of his system he denies 
an absolute conception of beauty, but his de¬ 
tailed treatment of the subject is inconsist¬ 
ent with the denial. Thus he attributes a 
beauty to single colors and tones, not on any 
plea of complexity, but on the ground of 
purity. He holds also that the highest mean¬ 
ing of beauty is to symbolize moral good, 
and arbitrarily attaches moral characters 
to the seven primary colors. The value of 
art is mediate, and the beauty of art is in¬ 
ferior to that of nature. He classifies the 
arts according as they express the (sub¬ 
jective?) aesthetic idea. The treatment of 
beauty in the systems of Sclielling and He¬ 
gel can with difficulty be made comprehen¬ 
sible without a detailed reference to the 
principles of these remarkable speculations. 
Idealistic systems, which, to say the least, 
it is difficult to distinguish from pantheism, 
while it is impossible to find a beauty and 
even sublimity in the boldness of their de¬ 
velopments, they may be described from an 
outside point of view as exaggerations of 
Platonism, in which human consciousness is 
made the exhaustive measure of universal 
being. The control of subject and object, 


which with Schelling constitutes the abso¬ 
lute, is seen in artistic conception within 
the limits of the ego, and a feeling of infin¬ 
ite satisfaction accompanies this perfect 
perception by intelligence of its real self. 
Art accordingly is higher than philosophy, 
and the beauty of art is superior to the 
beauty of nature. Schelling’s views of art 
are not clearly developed into particular 
criticism. In tragedy he finds a conflict of 
liberty in the subject with objective neces¬ 
sity. In art, according to Hegel, the abso¬ 
lute is immediately present to sensuous per¬ 
ception. With him, as with Schlegel, it is the 
highest revelation of beauty, and superior to 
nature. The beautiful is the shining of the 
idea (the Hegelian idea, or absolute notion 
into which all existence is resolvable) 
through a sensuous medium. Its essence 
accordingly is in appearance, and in this 
it differs from the true. Its complement is 
religion, which embodies the certainty of the 
idea. 

Hegel classifies the arts according to the 
supremacy of form and matter, a classifica¬ 
tion which appears somewhat superficial, 
and is very open to criticism. He treats of 
beauty in much detail, and where he is 
not Hegelian he is essentially Platonic. 
The extravagance of Hegelianism, along 
with its pantheistic tendencies, become more 
pronounced in the systems of the followers 
of Hegel, into which we have not space to 
enter. English writers on beauty are nu¬ 
merous, but they rarely ascend to the 
heights of German speculation. Shaftes¬ 
bury adopted the notion that beauty is per¬ 
ceived by a special internal sense; in which 
he was followed by Hutcheson, who held 
that beauty existed only in the perceiving 
mind, and not in the object. Numerous En¬ 
glish writers, among whom the principal are 
Alison and Jeffrey, have supported the 
theory that the source of beauty is to be 
found in association — a theory analogous 
to that which places morality in sympathy. 
The ability of its supporters gave this view 
a temporary popularity, but its baselessness 
has been effectively exposed bv successive 
critics. Dugald Stewart attempted to show 
that there is no common quality in the 
beautiful beyond that of producing a cer¬ 
tain refined pleasure; and Bain agrees with 
this criticism, but endeavors to restrict the 
beautiful within a group of emotions chiefly 
excited by association or combination of 
simpler elementary feelings. Herbert Spencer 
avails himself of a hint supplied by Schiller, 
which he makes subservient to the theory 
of evolution. He makes beauty consist in 
the play (sport) of the higher powers of 
perception and emotion, defined as an ac¬ 
tivity not directly subservient to any proc¬ 
esses conducive to life, but being gratifica¬ 
tions sought for themselves alone. He 
classifies aesthetic pleasures according to the 
complexity of the emotions excited, or the 



Esthetics 


^Esthetics 


number of powers duly exercised; and he 
attributes the depth and apparent vague¬ 
ness of musical emotions to associations 
with vocal tones built up during vast ages. 
Among numerous writers who have made 
valuable contributions to the scientific dis¬ 
cussion of aesthetics may be mentioned 
Winckelmann, Lessing, Jean Paul Richter, 
the Schlegels, Gervinus, Helmholtz, and 
Ruskin. 

The theory of Plato affords, we believe, 
the true basis both of philosophical appre¬ 
hension and of scientific investigation of the 
beautiful. What is meant when it is said 
there is no common quality in what is 
recognized as beauty beyond the excitement 
of a pleasurable emotion? It is not pre¬ 
tended that all pleasurable emotions are 
comprehended in the notion of beauty; the 
mere excitement of pleasure is not then suf¬ 
ficient to distinguish the notion. Is the use 
of the term then a mistake, and does it im¬ 
ply nothing more than the arbitrary group¬ 
ing together of some pleasurable emotions 
to the exclusion of others? We have the 
most conclusive psychological evidence in 
the structure of all languages that this is 
not the case, and that there is some no¬ 
tion, simple or complex, subjective or ob¬ 
jective, requiring this term to express it. 
If, then, we attempt to distinguish between 
pleasurable emotions, and to group them 
as emotions of beauty or emotions not of 
beauty, we must either suppose our emo¬ 
tions to be self-excited, or we must assume a 
corresponding difference in the exciting 
cause. We have thus got both an objective 
and a subjective beauty and it remains to 
inquire into the nature of the object, wheth¬ 
er real or phenomenal, simple or complex, 
by which the notion of beauty is excited. 
Association cannot be an original cause of 
the emotion, for association as such, and 
without regard to the nature of the asso¬ 
ciation, can excite no definite emotion such 
as that of pleasure. If the notion of beauty 
then is actually excited by association, as 
it undoubtedly is, it remains to be inquired 
by what association, and by what elements 
of the association? Nor can the explana¬ 
tion of Aristotle and other philosophers be 
received, that beauty is merely a recogni¬ 
tion of harmony, proportion, symmetry, and 
such modes in complex objects, for it is as 
undoubted that there is a self-beauty, the 
beauty of a straight line in being straight, 
of a circle in being round, or of blueness in 
being blue, as that there is a beauty of har¬ 
mony and proportion. Lastly, we cannot 
limit beauty to the objects of the senses; all 
that is perceived by intelligence, whether 
in the forms or processes of matter, or in 
the states or operations of mind, is capable 
of exciting the emotion of beauty. There is 
then no common category in which the 
beautiful can be included except the beau¬ 
tiful. It is not the useful, or the good, or 


the true, the great or small, the high or low, 
but the beautiful. Rut Plato has also 
shown that our ideas, though not resolvable 
into each other, are mutually dependent 
and related. They are united in concrete 
thought and apprehension, and they form in 
their totality a whole which constitutes the 
oneness of intelligence. If beauty then can¬ 
not be resolved into other notions, its re¬ 
lations to and combinations with these no¬ 
tions can be traced, and this constitutes its 
philosophical definition. 

Our knowledge is indeed too limited to 
enable us to trace all the relations of ideas 
which are infinite, but a just use of psychol¬ 
ogy enables us to apprehend in their sim¬ 
plest form even the highest verities, and 
Plato, in associating in one triad beauty, 
goodness, and truth, has expressed the high¬ 
est relation and evolved the highest knowl¬ 
edge attainable of them. The psychological 
evidence of this union lies within the range 
of experience, and its generalization is the 
legitimate operation of reason. To a lim¬ 
ited intelligence goodness and truth (or 
reality) seem often wide apart, but every 
intelligence must apprehend the desirable¬ 
ness of their union, and occasionally wit¬ 
ness practical exemplifications more or less 
perfect of it. If uniting such partial real¬ 
izations we assume that to a perfect intel¬ 
ligence truth and goodness would be in 
perfect unity, the contemplation of this 
union will excite in us the highest emotion 
of beauty. This, then, may be regarded as 
both the type and the exhaustive realiza¬ 
tion of the notion of beauty. This trinity 
has, as indicated also by Baumgarten, a 
relation to the distribution or natural opera¬ 
tion of our faculties. We have reason to 
apprehend truth, imagination to perceive 
beauty, and conscience to recognize good¬ 
ness. Imagination as a mental faculty 
must not be understood as a mere power of 
reproducing objects of sense in the form of 
pictorial images. It is the mental power by 
which we apprehend and combine at will all 
the elements directly presented to our con¬ 
sciousness, whether from external observa¬ 
tion or internal experience. It, as well as 
reason, is operative, but it differs from rea¬ 
son both in its mode of operation and in 
its end. Instead of the slowly elaborate 
process by which reason searches out the 
true relations of its objects, it seeks by the 
readiest process objects of immediate con¬ 
templation on which it can dwell with sat¬ 
isfaction, and accordingly selects for com¬ 
bination those elements which present to it 
the most immediate affinities. In its con¬ 
structive data it is as comprehensive as rea¬ 
son, but in its processes it is less sure. It 
even forms hypotheses, that is, semblances of 
reason, but it leaves reason to verify them. 
Hence the reason why the perception of the 
beautiful has been assigned to an inner 
sense. Hence also the reason why the ap- 



/Esthetics 


/Esthetics 


prehension of beauty separates itself from | 
the apprehension of truth and of goodness. 

The apprehension of beauty is always the 
apprehension of some perfection, of some 
identification of the good in the real, but 
in order to produce the emotion of beauty 
this identification must be manifest. This 
it is, and this alone apparently, which asso¬ 
ciates beauty with the work of imagination 
rather than with the work of reason, and 
makes the former the special faculty of 
beauty. The processes of reason are slow, 
and their results remain long imperfect; 
thus there is no immediate realization of 
the perfection of truth attained by them; 
but when some final discovery completes a 
chain of reasoning, and a whole truth stands 
revealed, there is an immediate perception 
of goodness in the completed truth, and the 
emotion of beauty is at once evoked. The 
work of imagination is subject to the review 
of reason, but as reason and imagination 
work on the same fundamental principles, it 
is the application of these principles alone 
which reason can review. Particular mani¬ 
festations of beauty are thus capable of 
analysis, and we may resolve the elements 
of the most complex manifestations into 
two, self-beauty and beauty of combination. 
The first exists when the simple type or 
idea is realized in the example, when a 
straight line is straight, a circle round, a 
color or a sound pure. When a type is 
suggested by simulation, on the contrary 
but so imperfectly realized that the defect 
is apparent, the result is ugliness. It thus 
needs no metaphysics to distinguish beauty 
from its opposite. In combination beauty 
is given when perfect types are combined 
according to laws of symmetry, proportion, 
and design. Every single curve, for exam¬ 
ple, has a particular law, and that curve 
is beautiful when produced according to its 
law; but when a variety of curves are com¬ 
bined according to some law of symmetry 
in one outline, there is, besides the self¬ 
beauty of the several curves, a beauty in the 
observance of the law of combination, and 
in this complex beauty of outline, besides 
the manifested beauty of form, there may be 
suggested beauties of suppressed continua¬ 
tions. So with combinations of sound and 
color and more complex combinations, as in 
the forms of animal and vegetable life. 

Two related laws of beauty in combina¬ 
tion appear to be the production of the 
greatest variety with the least expenditure 
of means, and the repetition under slight 
modifications of similar forms. The latter 
from the comparisons it suggests has a 
highly educative effect on the perceptive 
faculties. Thus all the canons of beauty 
are absolute, but as these canons are appli¬ 
cable only to the elements, whether of self¬ 
beauty or of combination, and as we are 
ignorant of the laws which determine the 
number and variety of the more complex 


combinations, which we learn to know only 
by observation and comparison, principles 
of criticism only can be formed, and no ab¬ 
solute standard of taste for common em¬ 
pirical observation. Diversities of opinion 
are thus easily accounted for. The exist¬ 
ence of beauty in the object is distinct from 
its perception, and in a complex object each 
observer will only perceive those beauties 
which the capacity and training of his own 
faculties enable him to perceive. Even the 
demonstration to reason of the observance 
of a law of beauty will not help a defective 
capacity. The instrumentality of our 
senses in interpreting to us the beauties of 
nature demands particular attention. Beau¬ 
ty in an object implies relation of the ob¬ 
ject to mind in which the canons of beauty 
exist, but not surely to the perceiving mind 
only but also to the conceiving or creating 
mind. The perception of beauty thus es¬ 
tablishes a community between the perceiv¬ 
ing and the creating mind. It is an evi¬ 
dence of the validity of the information we 
derive from those operations of our senses 
which are deemed most arbitrary. It is 
the stamp of the Creator on the instruments 
of our faculties. 

It is easily possible for art within a nar¬ 
row range to excel nature, for while nature 
supplies our types, she rarely carries out in 
any individual example all the details of 
typical excellence variously presented. The 
whole causes of these deviations of nature 
from her own standards it is impossible to 
assign, but observation shows that ethical 
causes have a place among them, and the 
best reason of men has always inclined to 
give them a larger place than actually ap¬ 
pears. In this also art imitates nature, 
but in this wider sphere to suppose that art 
could excel nature would be to assume the 
superiority of man to the Author of nature. 
There is thus no ethical indifference for art. 
To limit it to the mechanical imitation of 
r'ture, or the mere selection and combina¬ 
tion of lesthetical types without an ethical 
purpose, would be to place it below the level 
of reason, and to contradict instead of imi¬ 
tate nature. In assigning a purifying 
effect to art Aristotle spoke truly as a 
critic and historian, and to denude this 
purification of an ethical significance would 
be to lower his authority as a witness, but 
not to alter the fact. No canon of criticism 
is more frequently repeated at the present 
day than that of Aristotle, that art is with¬ 
out ethical end. This criticism, however, is 
not true to nature. Art cannot cease to be 
testhetical in order to be ethical. It must 
always deal with the perceptive, but within 
its own province it is subject to its own 
ethical code, and it has besides affinities 
with the general ends of ethics which can¬ 
not be ignored with impunity. The pleas¬ 
ure it affords must always be pure, and it 
may also be instructive. 




/Etion 


Affinity 


/Etion (a-e'she-on or It'e-on), a Greek 
painter, whose pictures of the nuptials of 
Alexander and Iioxana, shown at the Olym¬ 
pic games, obtained for him, although he 
was quite unknown, the daughter of the 
president in marriage. 

>Etius (e'te-us), a famous general, in the 
reign of Valentinian III., Emperor of the 
West. He was brought up in the emperor’s 
guards, and, after the battle of Pollentia, 
in 403, was delivered as a hostage to Alaric, 
and next to the Huns. On the death of 
Honorius he took the side of the usurper, 
John, for whose service he engaged an army 
of Huns. He was afterward taken into favor 
by Valentinian. Being jealous of the power 
of Boniface, governor of Africa, he secretly 
advised his recall, and, at the same time, 
counseled the governor not to obey the man¬ 
date. This produced a revolt, which caused 
an irruption of the Vandals into that prov¬ 
ince. The treachery of iEtius being discov¬ 
ered, a war ensued between him and Boni¬ 
face, in which the latter was slain. iEtius 
now appealed to the Huns, of whom he 
raised a large army, and, returning, so 
greatly alarmed Placidia, the mother of Val¬ 
entinian, that she put herself into his power. 
He defended the declining empire with great 
bravery, and compelled Attila to retire be¬ 
yond the Rhine. He was stabbed, in 454, 
by Valentinian, who had become jealous of 
his fame and influence. 

yEtna. See Etna. 

/Etolia (e-toTe-a), a district of ancient 
Greece, lying on the N. coast of the Gulf 
of Corinth. It was divided from Acarnania 
by the river Achelous, and on the N. touched 
Thessaly. In later times, these boundaries 
were considerably extended to the N. and 
E. The country had few cities; was, ex¬ 
cept on the coast, generally wild and bar¬ 
ren. Here, according to the legend, Meleager 
slew the Calydonian boar. The iEtolians 
make a great figure in the heroic age of 
Greece; but, at the time of the Pelopon¬ 
nesian War, they were rude and barbarous. 
The HCtolian confederacy, first called into 
existence about 323 b. c., became an im¬ 
portant rival to the Achoean League. Their 
assembly was styled the Pansetolicon. They 
sided with the Romans against the Achaean 
League, but afterward aided Antiochus III. 
against the Romans, and were subjugated 
by the Romans in 189 b. c., though not 
formally included in a Roman province till 
146. Along with Acarnania, /Etolia now 
forms a department of the modern kingdom 
of Greece, with a united area of over 3,000 
square miles. The mountains in the N. E. 
are offsets of the Pindus chain, and slope 
steeply on the S. W. down to the central 
plains. The chief towns are Missolonglii 
and Lepanto. 


Affiliation, the adoption of the child of 
another; the act of connection with a so¬ 
ciety. An order of affiliation is that which 
a magistrate issues on the oath of a woman, 
to compel the father of an illegitimate child 
to provide for his maintenance. If the 
mother be of sufficient ability to maintain 
the bastard while it is dependent upon her, 
and neglect that duty, so that it becomes 
chargeable to a county, she is liable to be 
punished, under the provisions of the va¬ 
grant act. If she be not of sufficient ability, 
the law will compel the father to supply a 
fund for its maintenance. 

Affinity. (1) Neighborhood; (2) relation¬ 
ship by marriage; (3) union, connection. 

In ordinary language and law, literally, 
the relationship contracted by marriage be¬ 
tween a husband and his wife’s kindred, or 
between a wife and her husband’s kindred. 
It is opposed to consanguinity, or natural re¬ 
lationship by blood. It is of three kinds: 

(1) Direct, viz., that subsisting between a 
husband and his wife’s blood relations, and 
vice versa; (2) secondary, or that which 
subsists between a husband and his wife’s 
relations by marriage; and (3) col¬ 
lateral, or that which subsists between a 
husband and the relations of his wife’s 
relations. 

In biology, a resemblance, or resemblances, 
on essential points of structure, between 
species, genera, orders, classes, etc., really 
akin to each other, and which should be 
placed side by side in any natural system 
of classification. Affinity differs from anal¬ 
ogy, the latter term being applied to resem¬ 
blances between animals or plants not really 
akin, but which ought to be more or less 
widely separated in classifications. Thus 
the falcons, the hawks, the eagles, etc., are 
related to each other by genuine affinity; 
but the similarity on certain points, such 
as the possession of retractile claws, be¬ 
tween the raptorial birds and the feline race 
of mammals, is one only of analogy. 

In chemistry, chemical affinity, or chem¬ 
ical attraction, is the force by which union 
takes place between two or more elements 
to form a chemical compound. According 
to another definition, it is a force exerted 
between two or more bodies at an infinitely 
minute distance apart, by which they give 
rise to a new substance, having different 
properties to those of its component parts. 
Elements have the greatest affinity for other 
elements which differ most in their chem¬ 
ical properties. Thus, H has great affinity 
for Cl and 0, but the affinity between O 
and Cl is much weaker. Acids unite readily 
with alkalies; most metals, with sulphur. 
When two salts are mixed together, they 
are decomposed if an insoluble substance 
can be formed: thus AgNO,-f-NaCl yields 
NaN0 3 and insoluble AgCl, and BaCL-f- 
MgSO* yields MgCl 2 and insoluble BaS0 4 . 





Affirmation 


Afghanistan 


A strong acid generally expels a weaker 
one, as 11 2 S0 4 expels IICl or C0 2 , and C0 2 
precipitates Si0 2 ; but when two salts are 
fused, if a more volatile compound is formed, 
it is driven off, as when NH 4 C1 is heated 
with dry CaC0 3 , then (NH 4 ) 2 C0 3 volatilizes. 
Si0 2 , fused with salts, expels the strongest 
acids and forms silicates. Iron filings, 
heated to redness, in a tube, decomposes the 
vapor of water, but H 2 , passed over redhot 
oxide of iron, reduces it to a metallic state. 
These reactions are due to the diffusion of 
gases, the resulting gas being diffused 
through the mass of vapor passing through 
the tube. The relative affinities between 
different substances varies with their tem¬ 
perature, insolubility, and power of vapor¬ 
ization. The nascent state is favorable to 
chemical combination: thus, H and N unite 
readily when organic matter containing N 
is decomposed by heat or putrefaction; also 
H with S. This is due to the bonds of the 
atoms being liberated at the moment of de¬ 
composition. Disposing affinity is the ac¬ 
tion of a third body, which brings about the 
union of two other bodies, as Ag-j-Si0 2 and 
alkali form a silicate of silver; Pt is at¬ 
tacked by fused KHO. Organic decomposi¬ 
tions in the presence of caustic alkali, or 
lime, are also examples. Catalysis is the 
action of a body to bring about a chemical 
reaction while the body itself undergoes 
no perceptible change, as Mn0 2 in the prep¬ 
aration of 0 from KC10 3 . Certain chemical 
compounds at high temperatures are dis¬ 
sociated from each other, as NH 4 C1 at high 
temperatures forms NH 3 +HC1. Chemical 
union is promoted by finely dividing the 
substances; thus, finely divided metals, as 
iron or lead, take fire in the air, uniting 
with 0. Alternation of temperature alters 
the affinity; thus, mercury heated to its 
boiling-point absorbs oxygen, which it lib¬ 
erates at a higher temperature; also, BaO 
absorbs 0 at a low heat, forming Ba0 2 , and 
gives it off at higher temperatures. Strong 
bases generally replace weaker bases; thus, 
alkalies precipitate oxides of iron, etc. 

Affinity of solution is such an affinity 
as exists between a soluble salt and the 
fluid in which it is dissolved. Till the liquid 
is saturated with the salt, the two can com¬ 
bine in an indefinite ratio, instead of being 
limited to the fixed proportions in which 
alone chemical affinity operates. 

In natural philosophy, current affinity is 
the force of voltaic electricity. 

Affirmation, the act of affirming, in the 
sense of solemnly declaring in a court of 
law that certain testimony about to be given 
is true. Also, the statement made. First, 
the Quakers and Moravians, who objected on 
conscientious grounds to take oaths, were 
allowed to make solemn affirmations in¬ 
stead; now, everyone objecting to take an 
*For Map, see Persia. 


oath has the same privilege; but, as is just, 
false affirmations, no less than false oaths, 
are liable to the penalties of perjury. 

Affre, Denis Auguste (iif-fr), was 
born Sept. 27, 1793, and, in 1840, on account 
of his prudent and temperate character, was 
made Archbishop of Paris by the Govern¬ 
ment of Louis Philippe. Though not yield¬ 
ing a blind submission to all the measures 
of that government, he abstained from of¬ 
fensive opposition; and when, in 1848, a 
republic was proclaimed, he kept aloof from 
political strife, but displayed earnest care 
for the public welfare. During the June 
insurrection, he climbed on a barricade in 
the Place de la Bastille, carrying a green 
bough in his hand, as a messenger of peace; 
but he had scarcely uttered a few words, 
when the firing recommenced, and he fell 
mortally wounded, to die next day, June 
27th. He was the author of several the¬ 
ological writings, and of a work on Egyptian 
hieroglyphics. 

* Afghanistan, the land of the Afghans, 
a country in Asia, of a quadrangular shape, 
lying chiefly between lat. 30° and 38° N.; 
Ion. 61° and 73° E. It is bounded on the E. 
mainly by India and Indian frontier tribes, 
S. by Baluchistan, YV. by Persia, and N. by 
the Russian Transcaspian territory, Bok¬ 
hara, and the Russian Pamir territory. The 
length from E. to W. is about 500, the 
breadth about 450 miles. The boundaries 
have recently been all defined, and the area 
is about 210,000 square miles. The popula¬ 
tion is estimated at between 4,000,000 and 
5,000,000. 

Topography .— Afghanistan consists chief¬ 
ly of lofty, bare, uninhabited table-lands, 
ranges of snow-covered mountains, and deep 
ravines and valleys. Many of the last are 
well watered and very fertile, but about four- 
fifths of the whole surface is rocky, moun¬ 
tainous, and unproductive. The surface on 
the N. E. is covered with lofty ranges be¬ 
longing to the Hindu Kush, whose heights 
are often 18,000 and sometimes exceed 
20,000 feet. The loftiest passes are above 
12,000 feet, and the road often passes along 
the base of mural precipices rising from 
2,000 to 3,000 feet. The whole N. E. portion 
of the country has a general elevation of 
over 0,000 feet; but toward the S. W., in 
which direction the principal mountain 
chains of the interior run, the country sinks 
down to not more than 1,600 feet. The 
principal avenues of communication between 
Afghanistan and India are the famous Ky- 
ber Pass, by which the Kabul river enters 
the Panjab; the Gumul Pass, also leading 
to the Panjab; and the Bolan Pass no the 
S., through which the route passes to Sind. 
Of the rivers, mostly in the center of the 
country, the largest is the Helmund, which 
flows in a S. W. direction more than 400 
miles, till it enters the Hamoon or Seistan 




Afghanistan 


Afghanistan 


swamp, previous to which, however, its 
water is almost all drawn off by canals for 
irrigation. It receives the Arghandab, a 
considerable stream. Next in importance 
are the Kabul in the N. E., the Hari Rud 
in the N. W. The only lake worth mention 
(the Hamoon being almost entirely in Per¬ 
sia) is that called Ab-Istada, a shallow 
sheet of water about 12 miles in diameter, 
situated toward the E. of the country at 
the height of about 7,000 feet. 

Climate and Productions .— The climate 
is extremely cold in the higher, and intense¬ 
ly hot in the lower regions. On the whole, 
however, it is salubrious, yet diseases are 
more common than we might expect. The 
most common trees are pines, oaks, the wild 
olive, cypress, birch, walnut, and holly. 
Many indigo-yielding plants grow sponta¬ 
neously on offsets of the Hindu Kush, and 
asafeetida is common. In the plains the 
mulberry, tamarisk, acacia, date palm, wil¬ 
low, plane, and poplar are found; and fine 
fruits, in the greatest variety and abund¬ 
ance, grow wild. The cultivable land, a 
very small proportion of the whole area, is 
under indifferent management. In many 
parts two harvests are annually reaped. The 
principal crops are wheat, forming the 
staple food of the people; barley, given to 
horses; peas and beans, rice, maize, and 
several of the grains of Hindustan. Other 
crops are tobacco, madder, some sugar cane, 
and cotton. The more important domestic 
animals are the camel and dromedary, the 
horse, ass, and mule, the ox, and sheep with 
large fine fleeces and enormous fat tails; 
of wild animals there are the tiger, bears, 
leopards, wolves, jackal, hyena, foxes, etc. 
The minerals include all the more valuable 
metals, particularly iron, which along with 
lead is about the only metal worked. The 
manufactures are unimportant, but the 
trade is extensive, and employs about 24,000 
camels. The chief exports are wool, horses, 
silk, carpets, rosaries, fruits, madder, etc. 
A considerable amount of wool is forward¬ 
ed to Karachi for export. The chief polit¬ 
ical divisions are Kabul, Jalalabad, Ghazni, 
Kandahar, Herat, and Afghan Turkes¬ 
tan. The chief towns are Kabul, Kandahar, 
Ghazni, and Herat. 

Peoples .— The inhabitants belong to dif¬ 
ferent races, but the Afghans proper form 
the great mass of the people. These call 
themselves Pushtaneh or Puktaneh, Afghans 
being the Persian name. They are an Iranic 
race, and are divided into a number of 
tribes, among which the Duranis and Gliil- 
zais are the most important, the latter be¬ 
ing the strongest of all the tribes. A tra¬ 
dition, evidently modern and legendary, 
gives them an Israelitisli origin. The Af¬ 
ghans are bold, hardy, and warlike, fond 
of freedom and resolute in maintaining it, 
but of a restless, turbulent temper, and 
much given to plunder. Their language is 


distinct from the Persian, though it con¬ 
tains a great number of Persian words, and 
is written like the Persian with the Arabic 
characters. In religion the Afghans are 
Mohammedans of the Sunnite sect. Other 
races in Afghanistan are the Hazareh, a 
Mongol race living chiefly in the N. W.; the 
Tajiks, who are a remnant of the aboriginal 
population, and are scattered over the coun¬ 
try; and the Hindkis, an Indian race living 
in the E. 

History .— Of the early history of Afghan¬ 
istan little is known — a circumstance the 
less to be regretted that its interest com¬ 
mences only with modern times. The col¬ 
lective name of the country itself is of mod¬ 
ern and external origin, not being used by 
the Afghans themselves. In 1738 it was 
conquered by the Persians under Nadir 
Shah. In 1747 he was murdered, and Ah¬ 
med Shah, one of his generals, obtained 
the sovereignty of Afghanistan, and became 
the founder of the Durani, the first Afghan 
dynasty, which lasted about 80 years. At 
tne end of that time Herat was all that re¬ 
mained in the hands of a Durani sovereign, 
while Dost Mohammed Khan, the ruler 
of Kabul, had acquired a preponderating 
influence in the country. He was desirous 
of gaining the assistance of the British 
against Persia, but believing that he was 
meditating treachery against them, they 
resolved to dethrone him and restore Shah 
Sliuja, a former ruler. In April, 1839, a 
British army under Sir John Keane entered 
Afghanistan, and after overcoming some 
slight resistance entered Kabul, and placed 
Shah Sliuja on the throne. A force of 
8,000 was left to support the new sovereign, 
and the rest of the army returned to India. 
Sir W. Macnaghten remained as envoy at 
Kabul, with Sir Alexander Burnes as as¬ 
sistant envoy. The Afghans were by no 
means content with the new state of affairs, 
however. A widespread conspiracy was or¬ 
ganized, which came to a head on Nov. 2, 
1841, when Burnes, Macnaghten, and a 
number of British officers, besides women 
and children, were murdered. The other 
British leaders were disheartened and par¬ 
alyzed, and a treaty was made with the Af¬ 
ghans, at whose head was Akbar, son of 
Dost Mohammed, by which the former 
agreed to withdraw the forces from the 
country, while the latter were to furnish 
them with provisions and escort them on 
their way to Jalalabad. On Jan. 6, 1842, 
the British left Kabul and began their most 
disastrous retreat. The cold was intense, 
they had almost no food — for the treacher¬ 
ous Afghans did not fulfil their promises 
— and day after day they were assailed by 
bodies of the enemy. By the 13th, 26,000 
persons, among whom were many camp fol¬ 
lowers, women and children, were destroyed. 
Some were preserved as prisoners, but only 



Afghanistan 


Africa 


one man, Dr, Brydon, reached Jalalabad 
with the dismal news. 

Jalalabad, in which General Sale was 
stationed with a small force, was soon after 
besieged by Akbar, but on the approach of 
General Pollock, who had forced his way 
through the Kyber Pass with a fresh army 
from India, the Afghan forces withdrew. 
After joining his forces with those of Gen¬ 
eral Nott, who had meanwhile maintained 
himself in Kandahar, and had taken Ghaz¬ 
ni, General Pollock entered Kabul and soon 
finished the war, though not without some 
hard fighting. Dost Mohammed again ob¬ 
tained the throne of Kabul, and acquired 
extensive power in Afghanistan. He joined 
with the Sikhs against the British; but in 
1855 he made an offensive and defensive al¬ 
liance with the latter, which he renewed 
in 1857. He died in 1863, having nominated 
his son Sliere Ali his successor. Pie enter¬ 
ed into friendly relations with the British, 
and this state of matters continued till 
1878, when the Ameer having repulsed a 
British envoy and refused to receive a Brit¬ 
ish mission (a Russian mission being mean¬ 
time at his court) war was declared against 
him, and the British troops entered Afghan¬ 
istan (Nov., 1878). They met with compar¬ 
atively little resistance; the Ameer fled to 
Turkestan, where he soon after died; and 
his son Yakoob Khan having succeeded 
him concluded a treaty with the British (at 
Gandamak, May, 1879), in which a certain 
extension of the British frontier, the con¬ 
trol by Great Britain of the foreign policy 
of Afghanistan, and the residence of a 
British envoy in Kabul, were the chief stip¬ 
ulations. 

Not long after this settlement, however, 
the British resident at Kabul, Sir Louis P. 
Cavagnari, and the other members of the 
mission, were treacherously attacked and 
slain by the Afghans, and troops had again 
to be sent into the country. Kabul was 
again occupied and Kandahar and Ghazni 
were also taken; while Yakoob Khan was 
sent to imprisonment in India. In 1880 
Abdur-Ralnnan, a grandson of Dost Mo¬ 
hammed, was recognized by Great Britain 
as Ameer of the country. The occupation 
of Merv by Russia in 1881, and the subse¬ 
quent continuous pushing forward of the 
Cossack outposts toward Herat and the 
S., now began to be seriously considered by 
the British as menacing India. After some 
negotiations between the two governments, 
it was ararnged that an Anglo-Russian com¬ 
mission should be constituted to settle the 
frontier between Afghanistan and Russian 
territory. In the meantime, however, the 
Russian troops were advancing, and in 1885 
they reached Penjdeh, where they came into 
conflict w T ith a body of Afghans. For a 
time war seemed imminent between Great 
Britain and Russia, but it was at last set¬ 
tled that the boundary line extending from 


the Hari Rud to the Oxus should run so as 
to exclude Penjdeh, but include Meruchak 
in Afghanistan, following the Oxus E. from 
about Khojah Saleh to Lake Victoria, N. 
of Chitral. The boundary between Afghan¬ 
istan and British India was long uncertain, 
but in 1893 an arrangement was come to 
between the Ameer and Sir Mortimer Du¬ 
rand. The boundary then agreed on was 
demarcated shortly afterward and is so 
drawn as to leave Chitral, Bajaur, Swat, 
Chilas, and Waziristan to Great Britain, 
while Afghanistan is given the territories 
of Asmar, Birmal, and Kafiristan. The 
Ameer’s annual subsidy was also increased 
from *12 to 18 lacs, and restrictions on the 
import of arms, etc., were removed. Abdur- 
Rahman proved himself a vigorous ruler 
and the steady friend of Great Britain, and 
did much under the guidance of Englishmen 
to civilize his subjects and develop the re¬ 
sources of his country. He was for a time 
suspected of secretly assisting the frontier 
tribes in their revolt in 1897, but he later 
gave unmistakable proof of his loyalty. He 
died in Kabul, Oct. 3, 1901. His second 
son, Prince Nasrullah Khan, visited Great 
Britain in 1895 and received many tokens 
of British friendship. 

Africa, one of the three great divisions 
of the Old World, and the third in area of 
the five continents, lies nearly due S. of 
Europe and S. W. of Asia. It is of a com¬ 
pact form,, being nearly equal at its ex¬ 
treme points in length and breadth. The 
N. section of the continent, however, has 
an average breadth of nearly double the S. 
This great change of form arises mostly 
from the greater projection of the upper 
part toward the W., and the transition on 
this side from the broad to the narrow sec¬ 
tion is effected suddenly by an inward turn 
of the W. coast, which faces S. for nearly 
20° of longitude, forming the Gulf of 
Guinea, the greatest indentation of the 
coast. 

Topography .— Africa is united to Asia at 
its N. E. extremity by the Isthmus of Suez, 
now crossed by a great ship canal. From 
this point the coast runs in a W. and some¬ 
what N. direction to the Strait of Gibraltar, 
the point of greatest proximity to Europe. 
This N. coast forms the S. shore of the 
Mediterranean Sea, and brings all the N. 
countries of Africa into close proximity 
with the European and Asiatic countries 
lying contiguous to that great ocean high¬ 
way, which formed tho chief medium of 
communication between the principal divis¬ 
ions of the ancient world. It presents some 
considerable indentations, the chief of which 
is that forming the Gulfs of Cabes and 
Sidra. From the Isthmus of Suez S. the 
coast runs in a somewhat E. direction, 
parallel to the Asiatic peninsula of 
Arabia, and between the two lies the long 
and narrow expanse of the Red Sea. To the 





























































































• , 











. 


























































































































































































































































Africa 


Africa 


S. of Arabia the African coast projects con¬ 
siderably to the E., overlapping and again 
running nearly parallel with the S. coast 
of Arabia, with which it forms the Strait 
of Bab-el-Mandeb and Gulf of Aden. After 
this projection, terminating in Cape Guar- 
dafui, the coast trends to the S. W. with 
comparatively slight undulations till it 
reaches the S. extremity of the continent. 
About midway, separated from the main¬ 
land by the Mozambique Channel, and at 
a distance of 250 miles, is the great island 
of Madagascar. With the exception of those 
named, the coast of Africa presents no 
great indentations. The total extent of 
coast accordingly, considering that the con¬ 
tinent is almost entirely surrounded with 
water, is comparatively small. It is esti¬ 
mated at 16,000 miles, a fifth less than that 
of Europe. Africa is washed on the W. by 
the Atlantic Ocean, on the S. by the South¬ 
ern Ocean, on the E., below the Gulf of 
Aden, by the Indian Ocean. The continent 
at its S. extremity presents a coast-line of 
nearly 400 miles, exclusive of indentations, 
to the Southern Ocean. This is what is 
compendiously known as “ the Cape,” first 
doubled by Bartholomeu Dias and Vasco da 
Gama. The principal indentations of the 
S. coast are Algoa bay and False bay. 

Africa extends from lat. 37° 20' N. to 
lat. 34° 51' S., and the extreme points, Cape 
Blanco and Cape Agulhas, are nearly 5,000 
miles apart. From W. to E., between Cape 
Verde, Ion. 17° 32' W., and Cape Guardafui 
(Jerdaffun), Ion. 51° 16' E., the distance 
is about 4,600 miles. The continental area 
is estimated at 11,500,000 square miles. 
The islands belonging to Africa are not 
numerous, and, except Madagascar none of 
them is large. In the Atlantic Ocean there 
are Madeira, the Canaries, the Cape Verde 
Islands, the Bissagos, the islands off the 
coast of Guinea, Fernando Po, St. Thomas, 
Annobon, etc., Ascension Island, St. Helena, 
and Tristan d’Acunha; in the Indian 
Ocean, Sokotra, Zanzibar, Comoro Isles, 
Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, with their 
dependencies; and some small islands in 
the Southern Ocean. The total area of the 
African islands is 239,000 square miles. 

Northern A frica .— The interior of Africa 
forms two great divisions nearly corre¬ 
sponding with the external diversity of 
form already indicated. The N. section 
has its greatest extension from E. to W., 
the S. from N. to S. The N. division lies 
for the most part above the sixth degree of 
N, latitude, extending from the Atlantic on 
the W. to the Somali coast and the Red 
Sea on the E. Its principal feature is the 
Sahara or Great Desert, which is inclosed 
on the N. by the elevated plateau of Bar¬ 
bary and that of Barca, on the E. by the 
Nile valley, on the W. by the Atlantic 
Ocean, and on the S. by the Niger and the 
countries of the Sudan. The N. coast re- I 


gion (plateau of Barbary) is traversed by 
the Atlas system and its continuations, ris¬ 
ing to the height of 13,000 feet or even 
more. Exclusive of the mountains it has 
an elevation of from 1,500 to 3,000 feet. 
From Barca, where the former level pre¬ 
vails, it descends gradually toward Egypt. 
The character of the desert, though suffi¬ 
ciently inhospitable, is much less uniformly 
monotonous than till recent researches it 
was commonly reputed to be. Instead of 
an undeviating sandy plain irregularly in¬ 
terspersed with speck-like oases, it contains 
elevated plateaux and even mountains with 
more or less permanent streams, and habit¬ 
able valleys which lose themselves in the 
vast low-lying tracts of sand with which 
the more elevated regions alternate. The 
desert itself is furrowed with t cadis (dry 
river-beds) radiating in all directions, while 
under the sand collections of water have 
been found, which by means of artesian 
wells have been turned to account by the 
French in their dependency Algeria. A 
considerable nomadic population is thinly 
scattered over the habitable parts of the 
desert, and in the more favored regions 
there are settled communities (see Sa¬ 
hara). To the S. of the Sahara, and sep¬ 
arating it from the plateau of Southern 
Africa, a belt of pastoral or steppe coun¬ 
try extends across Africa. This region has 
received the general name of the Sudan, 
and includes the countries on the Niger, 
around Lake Tchad, and E. to the elevated 
region of Abyssinia. 

Southern Africa .— From Lake Tchad the 
country begins to rise till below the 10th 
degree of N. latitude, where the edge of 
the elevated plateau of high or Southern 
Africa begins. This division of the con¬ 
tinent is, as far as known, completely sur¬ 
rounded, at a distance of 50 to 300 miles 
from the coast (which is usually low but 
rising inland), by what looks like ranges 
of mountains varying in breadth and height, 
but which are really the escarpment of a 
table-land, or series of table-lands, of con 
siderable elevation and great diversity of 
surface and direction, having hollows filled 
with great lakes, rivalling those of America 
in extent, and terraces over which the riv¬ 
ers break themselves in falls and rapids. 
The S. division has, like the N., a desert 
region — the Kalahari desert — but it is of 
small extent compared to the Sahara. In 
some respects it resembles the Sahara, but 
possesses more vegetation. The mountains 
which inclose the S. table-land are mostly 
much higher on the E. than on the W., and 
the slope of the land and the flow of the 
principal rivers, with the exception of the 
Zambezi, is from E. to W. The E. edge of 
the plateau reaches its highest elevation 
and greatest extent in the mountainous 
country of Abyssinia, with heights of 10,000 
to 14,000 or 16,000 feet. From this the sys- 




Africa 


Africa 


tem extends N. in detached ranges or occa¬ 
sional elevations between the valley of the 
Nile and the lied Sea, with gradually dimin¬ 
ishing height to the very delta of the Nile. 
The E. edge of the Abyssinian plateau pre¬ 
sents a steep unbroken line of 7,000 feet in 
height for several hundred miles. This 
line of elevation extends S. toward Lakes 
Rudolf and Stefanie, and thence in a nar¬ 
row belt and at a lower average level to 
the N. E. of the Victoria Nyanza; it then 
proceeds in a S. direction to Kilima-Njaro, 
beyond which the plateau merges into the 
Pare mountains in the neighborhood of the 
Pangani river. Immediately to the S. of 
Lake Rudolf, Mount Nyiro rises to a height 
of 10,000 feet; Mount Elgon, to the N. E. 
of Victoria Nyanza, 14,100 feet; Mount 
Ivenia, 18,370 feet; and Kilima-Njaro, 19,- 
000 feet; Mount Meru, to the W. of Kilima- 
Njaro, 14,000 feet. The general level of the 
plateau between Mount Kenia and the 
lakes is from 5,000 to 7,000 feet. 
To the W. of Victoria Nyanza, between 
Lakes Albert and Albert Edward, Mount 
Ruwenzori rises to a height of 18,000 feet, 
and the active volcanic Kirunga moun¬ 
tains, S. of Lake Albert Edward, to 13,000 
feet. All these mountains are volcanic in 
origin, and between Kilima-Njaro and the 
lake signs of volcanic activity are still visi¬ 
ble. The central plateau reaches its great¬ 
est average height, over 4,000 feet, in the 
region embracing Lakes Victoria Nyanza, 
Tanganyika, and Nyasa; it forms a broad 
belt reaching close to the E. coast, and in an 
equally broad belt extends from Lake Nyasa 
to the W. coast. Above this are numerous 
detached heights, like the Rubeho moun¬ 
tains, W. of Zanzibar, the Livingstone 
mountains around the N. of Lake Nyasa, 
and the Mlanje heights S. of that lake; 
Mount Mlanje being 9,G80 feet. South of 
the Zambezi occur the Mashona and Matop- 
po highlands, rising in places to from 5,000 
to 7,000 feet. Immediately to the S. of the 
Middle Limpopo a series of mountains be¬ 
gins which, under various names — Zout- 
pansberg, Libombo, Drakensberg, Compass- 
berg, Sehneeberg, etc.— extends along the 
E. and S. coast, and N. to some distance be¬ 
yond Cape Town. In Natal these rise to 
*10,000 and 12,000 feet, and in Cape Colony 
to 7,000 and 8,000 feet, the interior plateau 
averaging about 4,000 feet, but falling to a 
lower level in the Kalahari desert. Between 
the Orange river and the Kunene, and the 
latter river and the Kongo, the escarpment 
continues, rising in places to 6,000 and 
8,000 feet. The general level lowers consid¬ 
erably as the Kongo is reached. The low 
coast region extends some distance into the 
interior along this part of the W. coast, the 
descent from the interior plateau giving rise 
to the cataracts which so seriously inter¬ 
rupt navigation on the Lower Kongo. On 
both sides of the Middle Kongo extends a 


considerable area which sinks from the gen¬ 
erally high level of the interior to an aver¬ 
age of only about 1,000 feet. From the 
Kongo and Kameruns the general level of 
the coast plateau is broken by the Crystal 
and other mountains rising to 3,000 and 
4,000 feet, culminating in the Kameruns 
Peak, a volcanic mountain rising to 13,000 
feet. On the S. of the Benue, in the Atlan- 
tika group, and between the Benue and the 
Niger, we find a broken mountain group 
with heights of from 6,000 to 10,000 feet; 
while in the interior N. of the Gulf of 
Guinea there is a broad plateau, beginning 
at various distances from the coast, extend¬ 
ing across the Upper Niger, and rising to 
2,000 and 3,000 feet, with irregular ranges 
rising at places to from 5,000 to 7,000 feet. 
The Kong mountains, in the region where 
the Niger has its sources, as a range do not 
exist. As the Middle Niger is approached 
the general level lowers to that of the 
Sahara, while N. the low coast region ex¬ 
tends far into the interior till the Atlas is 
reached. 

Rivers .— The Nile is the only great river 
of Africa which flows to the Mediterranean. 
It is now known to receive its waters pri¬ 
marily from the country drained by the 
great lakes the Victoria Nyanza, the Albert 
Nyanza, and the Albert Edward Nyanza, 
and especially from the Victoria Nyanza, 
which itself receives numerous streams. The 
Victoria Nile connects the Victoria and the 
Albert Nyanza, and on leaving the latter 
the river flows in a wdnding course, of which 
the direction is almost due N. without fur¬ 
ther lake expansion, to the Mediterranean. 
In descending from the lake elevations (of 
the Victoria 3,900, of the Albert Edward 
3,200 feet, the latter connected by the Sem- 
liki river with the Albert 2,300 feet) it 
makes, both between the lakes and in its 
subsequent course, numerous falls. Those 
in Upper Egypt are known as the Cataracts. 
Between lat. 5° and 10° N., under the name 
of Bahr-el-Jebel, it receives numerous tribu¬ 
taries, mostly from the country to the S. 
and W. the principal on the left bank being 
the Bahr-el-Ghazal, on the right the Sobat. 
After this it takes the name of the White 
Nile, and receives through the Bahr-el- 
Azrek and Atbara, or Blue Nile and Black 
river, the drainage of Abyssinia. The At¬ 
bara brings the mud which forms so 
precious a deposit in Egypt. After this the 
Nile flows for 1,200 miles to the sea without 
receiving a tributary. Altogether it drains 
an area of more than 1,000,000 square miles. 
The Indian Ocean receives numerous Afri¬ 
can rivers, most of which are short, being 
the drainage merely of the external slopes 
of the escarpment of the interior plateau. 
Among the most considerable rivers on this 
coast are the Jub, which is formed by sev- 
ei al streams rising in the border slopes 
near Abyssinia, is navigable with difficulty 
to Bardera, and enters the ocean at the 




Africa 


Africa 


equator; the Webbe Shebeli, formed by 
streams rising on the S. E. slopes of Abys¬ 
sinia, and losing itself in the sands on the 
coast near the mouth of the Jub; the Tana 
from Mount Kenia discharging at Witu; 
the Sabaki S. of the Tana; the Eufiji or 
Lufiji; the Rovuma, which flows from the 
mountains E. of Lake Nyasa; the Beira; 
and the Limpopo or Crocodile river, which 
enters the ocean N. of Delagoa bay. The 
only great river flowing from a distant 
point of tins interior which breaks the moun¬ 
tain barrier of the E. is the Zambezi, which 
has its embouchure between the Beira and 
Rovuma. It is the fourth in size of the 
continent. It drains a large part of + he 
great tract of pastoral country 8. of the 
equatorial region. Several streams coming 
from the swampy plateau on the borders of 
Lunda and the Garenganze country unite 
to form the Zambezi, the principal being' 
the Liba from the S. W. edge of the Garen¬ 
ganze country. In its middle course it is 
joined by the Kafue and Loangwe from the 
N. and the Shire from Lake Nyasa, and 
by the Chobe and some smaller streams 
from the S. Below the Chobe are the Vic¬ 
toria Falls, one of the greatest cataracts 
in the world, from which the river flows in 
a semicircular course to the ocean, breaking 
through the Lupata mountains, and dis¬ 
charging by several mouths, the most nav¬ 
igable of which is the Chinde. The river is 
navigable by vessels of some size to the 
Kebrabasa rapids beyond the Shire, but 
above that only by boats and canoes. The 
drainage area of the Zambezi is 514,000 
square miles. 

Of the Atlantic rivers, the Senegal, Gam¬ 
bia, and Niger have their origin in the 
mountains near the coast of Senegambia. 
The Senegal flows in a N. and W. direction, 
its volume varying much according to the 
season. In the rainy season it is navigable 
for 500 to 700 miles, in the dry season for 
about a fourth of that distance. The Gam¬ 
bia takes a winding course to the W., and is 
navigable for about 400 miles, nearly its 
whole extent. The greatest of these rivers, 
the Niger, rising in the inner slope of the 
same mountains, flows N. E. to Timbuctoo, 
whence it turns first E. and afterward S. E., 
receiving the Sokoto, to its junction with 
the Benue, which comes from the moun¬ 
tains S. of Lake Tchad. The upper 
part of the Niger is called the Joliba, 
and is flanked by several great swampy 
lakes; it afterward acquires the name of 
Quorra or Kawara. In the N. part of its 
course it touches on the great desert. It is 
navigable for light vessels above Timbuctoo. 
Between the Sokoto and the Benue it is in¬ 
terrupted by shoals and rocks to below 
Bussa, From the junction it flows due S. 
to the ocean, where it forms a wide alluvial 
delta, and enters by a number of mouths, 
the most distant of which are 200 miles 


apart. The main channel is called the Nun. 
The drainage area of the Niger is 810,000 
square miles. The Kongo, the second in 
extent of basin and the greatest in volume 
of the African rivers, flows from different 
slopes of the same water-partings as the 
Zambezi. Its identification with the Luala- 
ba, the great streaifi discovered by Living¬ 
stone in the center of the continent, was es¬ 
tablished by Stanley in 187G-1877, this en¬ 
terprising traveler having descended the 
river to the Atlantic from a point in the in¬ 
terior W. of Lake Tanganyika. The Luku- 
ga, the outlet of Tanganyika discovered by 
Cameron, is a tributary of the Lualaba. 
The Chambeze, which rises in the mountains 
between Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika, is 
the remotest source of the Kongo system. 
It falls into Lake Bangweolo, from which it 
issues under the name Luapula, and flows 
N. to Lake Mweru; from the N. side of this 
lake issues the Lualaba, which passes 
through a magnificent series of lake-like ex¬ 
pansions and receives numerous tributaries. 
Below Stanley Falls it receives the Lomami, 
and above Stanley Pool the Kwa, which is 
formed by the junction of the Kasai-San- 
kuru system with the Lukuallu or Kwango. 
Other tributaries come from the S., and in 
the N. it is fed by the Ubangi, which, under 
the name of the Welle-Makua, comes from 
the water-parting between the Nile and 
Kongo systems. The total length of the 
Kongo is about 3,000 miles, and its drainage 
area 1,450,000 square miles. Unlike most 
of the African rivers, the mouth of the 
Kongo forms an estuary. It is estimated 
to pour into the ocean a larger body of 
water than the Mississippi. The Kwanza 
rises in the Mossamba mountains, and 
curves N. W. to the ocean. Like most Af¬ 
rican rivers, its upper course is interrupted 
by cataracts, and its mouth closed by a bar. 
The Kunene rises on the opposite side of 
the same watershed, and flows S. W. to the 
Atlantic. From it S. to the Orange river 
follows a dry belt, through which no consid¬ 
erable river flows to the sea. The Orange, 
though it rises near the E. coast, and flows 
nearly across the S. part of the continent 
passes for the greater part of its course 
through a desert region, receiving no tribu¬ 
taries, and is a shallow stream. Its head¬ 
waters, the Vaal and the Nu Gariep, rise on 
opposite slopes of the Drakenberg moun¬ 
tains, and flow to their junction round op¬ 
posite sides of the Orange River Colony. 
The Great Fish river, which drains Great 
Namaqualand, enters the Orange river near 
the termination of its course. 

The rivers which reach the ocean do not 
account for the whole drainage of Africa. 
There are two great aftd numerous smaller 
tracts from which no large river reaches the 
sea. The two great areas of internal drain¬ 
age correspond with the two great deserts. 
That of the N. desert is estimated at 4,000,- 
000 square miles. As already indicated, it 



Africa 


Africa 


is furrowed with water-courses in every di¬ 
rection, which lose themselves in the sand. 
The Bahr-el-Ghazal, which is usually dry, 
but intermittently flows out of Lake Tchad, 
terminates in a salt lagoon on the border 
the desert to the N. of the lake. In the S. 
the Zuga or Botletle, which forms the out¬ 
let of Lake Ngami, in the Kalahari desert, 
loses itself in salt lagoons at greater or less 
distance, according to the supply of water. 
A region of inland drainage, with salt la¬ 
goons, also exists between the Victoria Ny- 
anza and the coast range of mountains. 
In the low coast land E. of Abyssinia the 
Hawash river loses itself in the sands be¬ 
fore reaching the sea; and the Webbe, as 
already stated, which flows S. from the So¬ 
mali peninsula to near the equator, likewise 
terminates in a salt lagoon on the border 
of the ocean. The Omo flows into the N. 
end of Lake Budolf. 

Lakes. — The only lake of considerable 
extent N. of lat. 5° N. is Lake Tchad, an 
enormous flooded swamp. Lake Tana in 
Central Abyssinia, the salt Lake Asal in 
the E., and Lakes Dembel and Abayo in 
Gallaland, are comparatively small. Be¬ 
tween 5° N. and 15° S. is a series of lakes 
forming one of the most striking features 
of the continent. Almost in a line, be¬ 
ginning in the S., are Lakes Nyasa, Tan¬ 
ganyika, Lifu, Albert Edward, Albert, all 
lying in more or less elongated rifts or 
gorges. The series is continued by Lakes 
Rudolf (salt) and Stefanie in the N. E., 
and according to some authorities, by the 
ancient lake now the Red Sea, and by the 
Dead Sea in Palestine. The great Lake 
Victoria, which touches the equator on the 
N., is of a different type, as is Lake Bang- 
weolo (another flooded swamp) on the S. 
of Tanganyika, and Lake Mweru in the N. 
of Bangweolo. Lake Rikwa or Leopold, 
between Nyasa and Tanganyika, is partly of 
the rift type, w T hile Lake Ngami in the Kala¬ 
hari region is a swamp which sometimes 
dries up. Lake Leopold II. and Lake Ma- 
lumba are attached to the Lower Kongo. 
Lake Dilolo is in the swampy region form¬ 
ing part of the watershed between the 
Kongo and Zambezi. There are numerous 
salt lagoons in the N. portion of the Sahara. 

Climate .— The climate of Africa is main¬ 
ly influenced by the fact that, except the 
countries on the N. and S. coasts, it lies 
almost entirely within the tropics. The 
equator, as already observed, cuts it nearly 
through the middle, so that it belongs in 
latitudinal, though unequally in longitudi¬ 
nal extension, to the N. and S. tropics. It 
is the only continent which extends un¬ 
broken from the N. to the S. tropics, and 
is consequently the hottest of all. The 
two sections N. and S. of the equator have, 
as has already been observed, in some re¬ 
spects a very considerable resemblance in 
their general features, the chief modifying 


circumstances being the greater elevation 
and the smaller longitudinal extension of 
the G. division, which, by bringing it more 
within the influences of the ocean, tends to 
modify its climate. 

In the belt immediately under the equa¬ 
tor, both N. and S., vegetation is intense, 
and rain abundant. For about 10° N. and 
S. we find true tropical forests, mainly to 
the W. of the great lakes, on the Middle 
and Upper Kongo and its affluents, and 
along a belt of the W. coast in the Niger 
region. To the E. of the great lakes, where 
the rainfall is not so abundant, are con¬ 
siderable areas of poor steppe and scrub 
country, and generally over the tropical 
region the trees are scattered and the coun¬ 
try more park-like than forestal. Animal 
life, from herds of elephants to innumerable 
swarms of insects, abounds in these luxuri¬ 
ant regions. To the N. and S. of the equa¬ 
torial belt, as the rainfall diminishes, the 
forest region is succeeded by open pastoral 
and agricultural country. This pastoral 
belt extends, in the N., across the Sudan, 
from Senegambia to Abyssinia; on the S., 
from Angola and Benguela to the Zambezi. 
This is followed by the rainless regions of 
the Sahara on the N. and the Kalahari 
desert on the S., extending beyond the trop¬ 
ics, and bordering on the agricultural and 
pastoral countries of the N. and S. coasts, 
which lie entirely in the temperate zone. 

The winds and rains in Africa are chiefly 
produced by the successive exposure of the 
various intertropical belts to the vertical 
rays of the sun. The monsoons of the In¬ 
dian Ocean exercise the principal modifying 
influence. From March to September the 
S. W. monsoon blows from Africa to Asia, 
and during the remaining months the N. E. 
monsoon blows toward the African coast. 
The indraught of air charged with moisture, 
at the seasons when the sun is overhead, 
produces the rainy seasons within the trop¬ 
ics, and as the incessant rarefaction of the 
air by heat continually draws in fresh sup¬ 
plies, the rainfall is on the whole abundant, 
varying from 50 to 100 inches in the region 
between 10° N. and the Tropic of Capricorn. 
In a patch on the Gulf of Guinea the 100 
inches is exceeded, though in Somaliland 
there are almost rainless patches. Near 
the tropics, to which the sun comes only 
once a year, there is only a single rainy 
season, while in the central part of the zone, 
which the sun traverses twice in his pas¬ 
sage between the tropics, there are two dis¬ 
tinct rainy seasons, a greater and a less, 
according as the wind is in a direction 
which brings more or less' moisture, except 
in some places in the interior, where the 
two rainy seasons are so protracted as to 
blend into one, lasting, as in the Manyuema 
country, from September to July, or in some 
other parts even longer. The rainy season 
usually begins soon after the sun has 




Africa 


Africa 


reached his zenith, but on the E. coast the 
monsoon charged with the moisture of the 
Indian Ocean brings it earlier. In the 
deserts, as already observed, there is hardly 
any rain, and this applies also to Egypt, 
which, but for the Nile, would be no better 
than the Sahara. The chief cause of the 
rainlessness of the deserts is the direction of 
the winds, which causes the chief moisture¬ 
bearing currents to pass before reaching 
them over hot and thirsty regions which 
deprive them of their moisture, and espe¬ 
cially the mountain screens which intercept 
the moisture of the winds both from N. E. 
and S. W. Another cause is the want of 
elevated regions to attract the moisture 
actually contained in the atmosphere, as in 
the higher regions of the desert periodical 
rains do occur. The high mountains of the 
E. plateau and the intervening tropical re¬ 
gions deprive the N. E. monsoon of all its 
moisture before it reaches the Kalahari des¬ 
ert. Hence the apparently anomalous cir¬ 
cumstance that the greatest heat is found 
after the equatorial region is passed. The 
rapid radiation of heat in the desert causes 
a very great fall of temperature after the 
sun is down, so that sometimes frosts are 
generated, and this in some measure sup¬ 
plies the want of rain by condensing the 
moisture in dew. In the desert, too, 
scorching winds are generated, those of the 
N. afflicting Egypt and the countries on the 
Mediterranean coast. The hottest part of 
the Sahara is in Nubia, where the Arabs 
say the soil is like a fire, and the wind like 
a flame. The coasts of tropical Africa, 
especially the W. coast, where European 
settlements have been formed, have been 
found to have a deadly climate for Euro¬ 
peans. 

Geology, Minerals .— The geology of Afri¬ 
ca is still very little known. Very ancient 
crystalline rocks are found rising into moun¬ 
tain ranges and sometimes spread over large 
areas. Most of the rocks that overlie them 
belong to the older formations, so that the 
continent as a whole is supposed to be of 
very ancient date. The sands which cover 
so large an area are believed to be mainly 
of seolian origin, and not to have been 
formed by the action of water. The porous 
clay found so abundantly in West Africa 
is of comparatively recent date. The region 
around Tanganyika is of Jurassic origin. 
Around the great lakes are abundant evi¬ 
dences of enormous volcanic activity at no 
very remote date; and, as already men¬ 
tioned, active volcanoes are not unknown. 
Tanganyika, according to recent views, may 
at one period have been connected with the 
sea. Salt is abundant, though often scarce 
from want of communication and working 
organization. Gold is found in abundance 
in Southern Africa from the Transvaal re¬ 
gion to the Zambezi, and a number of very 
productive mines have been opened in the 


Transvaal. Diamonds have been found in 
large numbers, and in apparently inexhaus¬ 
tible supply, on the Vaal river and its trib¬ 
utaries. In the S. central district, par¬ 
ticularly the country of Katanga, iron and 
copper are found, and are worked in some 
districts in the countries bordering on the 
Lualaba. Copper is also found in Loanda, 
iron in Angola, and lead, tin, iron, and cop¬ 
per in Great Namaqualand; iron, copper, 
and coal are found in Natal, 

Vegetation .— The center of Africa pos¬ 
sesses, as already mentioned, an exuberant 
tropical vegetation. The open pastoral 
belt at the extremities of the tropics is dis¬ 
tinguished by a rich and varied flora. A 
special characteristic of the vegetation of 
the S. extremity of Africa is the remark¬ 
able variety, size, and beauty of the heaths, 
some of which grow to 12 or 15 feet, and 
form miniature forests. Cycadaceoe and bul¬ 
bous and orchidaceous plants, aloes and 
other succulent plants, also abound. The 
baobab or monkey-bread tree, first discovered 
by Adanson in Senegal, is found from the 
Sudan to Lake Ngami, and palms of one va¬ 
riety or another are diffused over almost 
every part of Africa. The date palm is the 
special characteristic of the desert, to which 
it is peculiarly adapted, and there it forms 
the principal means of subsistence. It is 
also cultivated as a garden plant in the N. 
coast regions. This district as well as 
Egypt has an ancient celebrity for its fer¬ 
tility in grain. Wheat and maize are culti¬ 
vated, fruit trees also abound, and grooves 
of oranges and olives distinguish the land¬ 
scape. The castor oil plant, the fig tree, 
the dwarf palm, and the lotus, formerly an 
important article of food, are here charac¬ 
teristic forms. The common oak, the cork 
oak, and the pine form the staple, and the 
cypress, myrtle, arbutus, and fragrant tree 
heaths the ornaments of the woods. The 
pastoral tropical belt presents a different 
order of vegetation. Besides the baobab, 
the cabbage palm, the oil palm, the wax 
palm, the shea butter tree, the cotton tree, 
the African oak, and the mangrove here 
prevail; rice and maize are cultivated; the 
principal fruits are the banana, papaw, 
custard apple, lemon, orange, and tamarind. 
India-rubber plants are found in various 
forms, both as trees and as climbing plants 
in abundance both in East and West Tropical 
Africa. The prevalent plants of this dis¬ 
trict are also found in the fertile parts of 
Nubia. To the N. E. of this region frankin¬ 
cense, myrrh, cinnamon, and cassia abound. 
The coffee plant is a native of the Southern 
Abyssinian region, and also of Western 
Tropical Africa, where it forms thick woods. 
This plant is supposed to have been trans¬ 
ported from Africa to Arabia. Abyssinia, 
though coffee and spices are native products, 
possesses generally, from its elevation, the 
vegetation of a temperate region. The 




Africa 


Africa 


swamps of the tropical region abound with 
papyrus. The cassava, yam, pigeon pea, 
and ground nut are cultivated as bread 
plants. 

Animals. — The fauna of Africa is exten¬ 
sive and varied, and numerous species of 
mammals are peculiar to the continent. 
According to a common view of the geo¬ 
graphical distribution of animals, the N. 
of Africa belongs to the Mediterranean sub- 
region, while the rest of the continent forms 
the Ethiopian region. Africa possesses 
numerous species of the order quadrumana 
(apes and monkeys), most of which are 
peculiar to it. They abound especially in 
the tropics. The most remarkable are the 
chimpanzee and the gorilla. The lion is 
the typical carnivore of Africa. Latterly 
he has been driven from the coast settle¬ 
ments to the interior, where he still reigns 
king of the forest. There are three vari¬ 
eties, the Barbary, Senegal, and Cape lions. 
The leopard and panther rank next to the 
lion among carnivora. Hyenas of more than 
one species, and jackals, are found all over 
Africa. Elephants in large herds abound 
in the forests of the tropical regions, and 
their tusks form a principal article of com¬ 
merce. These are larger and heavier than 
those of Asiatic elephants. The elephant 
is not a domestic animal in Africa as it is 
in Asia. The rhinoceros is found, like the 
elephant, in Middle and Southern Africa. 
Hippopotami abound in many of the large 
rivers and the lakes. The zebra and quagga 
used to abound in Central and Southern 
Africa, but the latter is said to be now 
entirely extinct. Of antelopes, the most 
numerous and characteristic of the rumina¬ 
ting animals of Africa, at least 50 species 
are considered peculiar to this continent, 
of which 23 used to occur in Cape Colony. 
The giraffe is found in the interior, and is 
exclusively an African animal. Several 
species of wild buffaloes have been found in 
the interior, and the buffalo has been natur¬ 
alized in the N. The camel, common in the 
N. as a beast of burden, has no doubt been 
introduced from Asia. The horse and the 
ass (onager) are natives of Barbary. The 
cattle of Abyssinia and Bornu have horns 
of immense size, but extremely light. In 
Barbary and the Cape of Good Hope the 
sheep are broad-tailed; in Egypt and Nubia 
they are long-legged and short-tailed. Goats 
are in some .parts more numerous than 
sheep. The ibex breed extends to Abyssinia. 
Dogs are numerous, but cats rare, in Egypt 
and Barbary. The former in the N. 
towns serve as scavengers. Bears, wolves, 
and foxes are found only in the N. The 
birds of Northern Africa are almost iden¬ 
tical with those of the S. of Europe and the 
Asiatic countries bordering on the Mediter¬ 
ranean. Many of the African birds are 
famed for the brilliancy of their plumage, 
such as the sun birds, bee cater, roller. 


plaintain eater, parrots, and kingfishers. 
The ostrich is found nearly all over Africa, 
but especially in the desert. A remarkable 
bird of Southern Africa is the secretary 
bird or serpent eater, which renders great 
service to the inhabitants by killing ser¬ 
pents. Another peculiar bird of South Af¬ 
rica is the honey-guide cuckoo, which points 
out the nests of bees. The whale-headed 
stork, remarkable for its enormous beak, 
may also be mentioned. Owls, falcons, 
eagles, and vultures are numerous. Water- 
fowl are abundant on the lakes and rivers, 
and there are many species of quails and 
partridges. One species of gallinaceous 
bird, the Guinea fowl, has been domesti¬ 
cated in other countries. Reptiles, owing to 
the dryness of the climate, are comparative¬ 
ly few. The largest is the crocodile, which 
abounds in the great rivers and tropical 
lakes. There are several species of venom¬ 
ous serpents, including the horned viper 
and the African cobra. The chameleon is 
common. The rivers and coasts abound 
with fish of numerous species, and some of 
them of the most brilliant coloring. In¬ 
sects are numerous. Among the more 
troublesome species are the locust, tsetse, 
and white ant. 

Inhabitants, Civilization, etc .— There is a 
marked distinction between the races in the 
N. and E. of the great desert and those in 
the Central Sudan and the rest of Africa 
and the S. The main elements of the popu¬ 
lation of North Africa, including Egypt and 
Abyssinia, are Hamitic and Semitic, but in 
the N. the Hamite Berbers are mingled with 
peoples of the same race as those of prehis¬ 
toric Southern Europe, and other types of 
various origins, and in the E. and S. E. 
with peoples of the negro type. The Sem¬ 
itic Arabs ars found all over the N. region, 
and even in the Western Sahara and Central 
Sudan, and far down the E. coast as trad 
ers. The Somalis and Gallas are mainly 
Hamitic. In the Central Sudan and the 
whole of the country between the desert 
and the Gulf of Guinea the population is 
pure negro — people of the black, flat- or 
broad-nosed, thick-lipped type, with narrow 
heads, woolly hair, high cheek-bones, and 
prognathous jaws. Scattered among them 
are peoples of a probably Hamitic stock. 
Nearly the whole of the narrow S. section of 
Africa is inhabited by what are known as 
the Bantu races, of which the Zulu or Kaf¬ 
fir may be taken as the type. The languages 
of the Bantu peoples are all of the same 
structure, even though the physical type 
vary, some resembling the true negro, and 
others having prominent noses and com¬ 
paratively thin lips. The Bushmen of South 
Africa are of a different type from the 
Bantu, probably the remains of an aborig¬ 
inal population, while the Hottentots aro 
apparently a mixture of Bushmen and Kaf¬ 
firs. Scattered over Central Africa, mainly 



Africa 


Africa 


in the forest regions, are pigmy tribes, who 
are generally supposed to be the remains of 
an aboriginal population. The bulk of the 
inhabitants of Madagascar are of Malay 
affinities. The total population is esti¬ 
mated at about 150,000,000. 

As regards religion, a great proportion of 
the inhabitants are heathens of the lowest 
type. Mohammedanism possesses a large 
number of adherents in Northern Africa 
and is rapidly spreading in the Sudan. 
Christianity prevails chiefly among the 
Copts of Egypt, the Abyssinians, and the 
natives of Madagascar, the latter having 
been converted in recent times. Elsewhere 
the labors of the missionaries have also 
been attended with promising success. Over 
a great part of the continent, however, civil¬ 
ization is at a low ebb, and in the Kongo 
region cannibalism is extensively prevalent. 
Yet in various regions the natives who 
have not come in contact with a higher 
civilization show considerable skill in agri¬ 
culture and various mecnanical arts, as in 
weaving and metal working. Among arti¬ 
cles exported from Africa are gold and 
diamonds, palm oil, ivory, wool, ostrich 
feathers, esparto, cotton, caoutchouc, etc. 
The total annual trade has been estimated 
at £100,000,000. 

Political Divisions .— By recent arrange¬ 
ments, mainly since 1884, great areas in 
Africa have been allotted to Great Britain 
France, Germany, Portugal, Belgium, and 
Italy, as coming within their respective 
spheres of influence, in addition to colonial 
possessions proper. The areas claimed by 
the various European powers in Africa may 
be roughly estimated as follows: France, 
3,500,000 square miles; Great Britain, 2,- 
500,000 square miles; Germany, 1,000,000 
square miles; Portugal, 825,000 square 
miles; Kongo Free State, 900,000 square 
miles; Italy, 180,000 square miles; Spain, 
154,000 square miles. The former British 
colonies of Cape Colony, Natal, Orange Biver 
Colony, and the Transvaal, all acquired 
since the war with the Boers, were fed¬ 
erated in the Union of South Africa in 
1910; and the Kongo Free State became 
wholly a Belgian possession in 1908. Al¬ 
though Egypt, like Tripoli, is nominally 
under Turkey, it is actually under Brit¬ 
ish suzerainty. Abyssinia and Morocco 
are the chief native African independent 
States. 

History of Discovery .— Africa, until 
within the last few years, was the least 
known of the great divisions of the globe, 
and the problems still to be solved are 
among the most interesting to the geogra¬ 
pher of those which remain for future ex¬ 
ploration. Fifty years ago the whole of 
Central Africa was a blank; it is now at 
least as well known as South America. 
The civilized nations of the ancient world 
approached Africa from the Mediterranean 


and the Bed Sea; there is reason to believe 
that till the introduction of the camel 
in the 7th century a. d. the desert was an 
insuperable barrier between the Mediter¬ 
ranean countries and the Central Sudan. 

The name Africa is mythologically asso¬ 
ciated with Afer, a son of the Libyan Her¬ 
cules. It was the name given by the Bo- 
mans at first only to a small district of 
Africa in the immediate neighborhood of 
Carthage, and nearly corresponding with 
the Boman province formed on the destruc¬ 
tion of Carthage. The Greeks called Africa 
Libya, and the Romans often used the same 
name. The first African exploring expedi¬ 
tion on record is that mentioned by Herodo¬ 
tus as having been sent by Pharaoh Necho 
about the end of the 7th century b. c. to 
circumnavigate the continent. The navi¬ 
gators, who were Phoenicians, were absent 
three years, and according to report they 
accomplished their object. The story has 
been the subject of much controversy, and 
was for long generally discredited, but re¬ 
cent authorities of weight have pronounced 
in its favor. The next important voyage 
recorded is that of Hanno, a Carthaginian, 
down the W. coast, probably 50 or 100 years 
later. He passed a river with crocodiles 
and river horses, and probably reached the 
coast of Upper Guinea. Herodotus also 
mentions some young men of the tribe of 
the Nasamones (living near the Gulf of 
Sidra) crossing the desert in a W. direction, 
and coming to a great river where they saw 
crocodiles and black men, but it is doubtful 
if this could have been the Niger. There is 
no evidence that the Egyptians knew the 
Nile beyond the site of Khartum, though 
they may have sent ships as far as the 
coast of Somaliland by the Bed Sea. Nero 
sent an expedition up the Nile which seems 
to have penetrated up the White Nile; and 
remains of Boman origin have been found 
some distance into the Sahara. From the 
navigators and traders that frequented the 
E. coast of Africa, Ptolemy may have 
learned that the Nile issued from two great 
lakes about the equator. Mohammedanism 
was carried into North Africa in the 7th 
century, and very rapidly spread to the At¬ 
lantic. By the 10th century the Arabs had 
crossed the desert, and between this and the 
14th century Arab travelers visited the 
Central Sudan, the Niger, and other re¬ 
gions, and till comparatively recently they 
were the great authorities on much of Cen¬ 
tral Africa. 

The first impulse to a more complete ex¬ 
ploration of Africa was given by the Portu¬ 
guese prince known as Henry the Navigator, 
who, in the early part of the 15th century, 
sent out a series of expeditions along the W. 
coast. These were continued after his 
death, so that in 1486 Bartholomeu Dias 
doubled the Cape, and in 1497 Vasco da 
Gama sailed up the E. coast as far as Mom¬ 
basa, and thence to India. Thus for the first 



Africa 


Africa 


time the main outline of the African coast 
was laid down. New settlements were 
planted on the E. and W. coast by Portu¬ 
guese, French, English, Dutch, and Branden- 
burgers, but there is no authentic informa¬ 
tion that any European penetrated into the 
interior. Maps of the 16th to the 18th cen¬ 
tury were covered with lakes and rivers, 
but these were swept away as unauthentic 
by D’Anville in the middle of the 18th cen¬ 
tury, and the interior left a blank. An as¬ 
sociation for the exploration of Inner Af¬ 
rica was formed in London in 1788. Addi¬ 
tions were made to geography under its 
auspices by Mungo Park, Hornemann, 
Burckhardt, and others. 

Modern African exploration may be said 
to begin with Mungo Park, who reached the 
upper course of the Niger or Joliba, and 
wliose efforts to explore the river to its 
mouth cost him his life (1795-1805). Dr. 
Lacerda, a Portuguese, about the same time 
reached the capital of Cazembe, W. of Lake 
Bangweolo, where he died. Hornemann, 
who traveled for the same society as Park, 
perished in the desert after sending home 
accounts of Bornu and the neighboring 
States. In 1802-1806 two Portuguese trad¬ 
ers crossed the continent from Angola, 
through Cazembe’s dominions, to the Portu¬ 
guese possessions on the Zambezi. 

In 1816 Captain Tuckey, in command of a 
British expedition, sailed up the Kongo, 
which he took to be the mouth of the Niger, 
for 280 miles. About the same time Major 
Peddie, and after his death Captain Camp¬ 
bell, led a party up the Senegal through the 
Tula or Fellatah territory, returning to 
Kakundy on the Nunez. In 1817 Mr. Bow- 
ditch explored the country of the Ashantis. 
In 1818 a French traveler, Gaspard Theo¬ 
dore Mollien, discovered the sources of the 
Senegal, Gambia, and Rio Grande. In 1819 
Ritchie and Lyon traveled from Tripoli to 
Murzuk, and in 1821 Major Laing made 
some important journeys in the Mandingo 
district of Western Africa. In 1822-1824 
extensive explorations were made in North¬ 
ern and Western Africa by Major Denham, 
Captain Clapperton, and Dr. Oudney, the 
last of whom died on the way. The travel¬ 
ers proceeded from Tripoli by Murzuk to 
Lake Tchad. While Denham examined the 
S. and W. coasts of the lake, Clapperton 
proceeded W. through Bornu to Sokoto, the 
capital of the Fellatah country, on the So¬ 
koto, an affluent of the Niger. Impressed 
with the importance of establishing political 
and commercial intercourse with this dis¬ 
trict, Clapperton organized another expedi¬ 
tion for the purpose of reaching Sokoto 
from the W. coast. Setting out from Bada- 
grv, on the E. of Cape Coast Castle, on Dec. 
7, 1825, and passing through the kingdom 
of Yoruba, he reached the Niger at Bussa. 
Here he crossed the river and traversed the 
kingdom of Nupe to Kano, capital of the 


Haussa country, which he had previously 
visited, and from thence proceeded to Soko¬ 
to, in the neighborhood of which, after a 
short residence, he died. His servant, Rich¬ 
ard Lander, returned to Kano, and attempt¬ 
ed to proceed S. through the kingdom of 
Zegzeg, but was compelled by the natives to 
return to Darroro, from which he reached 
the coast. 

W. Allen, a naval officer, about this time 
accompanied a mercantile expedition up 
the Niger, which he surveyed for a certain 
distance, and in another expedition in 1848 
the same officer revised and corrected his 
survey. Major Laing, in 1826, crossed the 
desert from Tripoli to Timbuctoo, but he 
was killed on his return, and his papers 
lost. Rene Caillie, after living for some 
years on the Senegal coast learning the lan¬ 
guage, and initiating himself into the relig¬ 
ion and manners of the Arabs, made in 
1827-1828 a journey to Timbuctoo, and 
thence through the great desert to Morocco. 
Richard Lander, accompanied by his broth¬ 
er, leaving Badagry for Bussa in March, 
1830, ascended the river Niger to Yauri, 
and descending from thence, reached the 
mouth called the Nun in November. In 
1832 he traced other mouths of the river 
up to the main stream; and the identity of 
the great river, which passes under various 
names in different parts of its course, was 
thus established. 

In the S. Livingstone, who was stationed 
as a missionary at Kolobeng in 1849, passed 
through the desert of Kalahari, reached the 
Zuga or Botletle, and after a circuitous 
route discovered its source in Lake Ngami. 
In 1851 he went N. again, proceeding from 
the Zuga in a more E. direction. In lat. 
17° 25' S., and between Ion. 24° 30' and 26° 
50' E., he came upon numerous rivers flow¬ 
ing N., which were reported to be affluents 
of a larger river, the Zambezi. 

In 1848 and 1849 Krapf and Rebmann, 
missionaries stationed near Mombasa, saw 
the Kilima-Njaro and Kenia mountains. In 
1851 Francis Galton, starting from Walfisch 
bay, made an extensive survey of the Dama- 
ra and Ovampo countries, in which he found 
high pastoral and agricultural table-lands. 
An expedition under the patronage of the 
British government started from Tripoli in 
1850 to visit the Sahara and the regions 
around Lake Tchad. Richardson, the orig¬ 
inator of the expedition, was joined by two 
Germans, Drs. Overweg and Barth. In 
crossing the desert from Murzuk to Ghat 
they found some interesting sculptures 
From Ghat to Air they found the country 
wholly desert and uninhabited. On reach¬ 
ing Lake Tchad Richardson went to Kuka, 
capital of Bornu, Barth to Kano, Overweg 
to the native States of Mariadi and Guber. 
Barth and Overweg met again at Kuka in 
April, 1851, but in the meantime Richard¬ 
son had died. Overweg explored the lake 



Africa 


Africa 


and Bartli proceeded on another journey 
S. to Massena, in the kingdom of Bagirmi. 
On his return the death of Overweg left him 
to prosecute the enterprise alone. He pro¬ 
ceeded to Timbuctoo via Kano, and after 
collecting much information about the Ni¬ 
ger and its tributaries over a great part of 
the course of which he traveled on his re¬ 
turn to Kuka, he reached Tripoli in August, 
1855. Dr. Vogel, who was sent to join 
Barth, was put to death at Wadai, and his 
papers were lost. 

Dr. Livingstone began another journey 
from Kolobeng on Jan. 15, 1853. After 
staying a month at Linyanti, capital of 
the Makololo, he proceeded down the Chobe 
to Sesheke, and thence ascended the Leam- 
bye (Zambezi) to the junction of the Liba. 
After returning to Linyanti, and taking 
with him a party of Makololo, he again set 
out (Nov. 11, 1853), reached the Liba 
(Dec. 27), and proceeded to Lake Dilolo, 
where he found the watershed of the 
streams which flow N. and S. (feeders of 
the Kongo or the Zambezi) at a level of 
4,000 feet above the sea. On his return 
journey he was confirmed in the belief that 
an elevated plateau here crosses the coun¬ 
try, and forms the watershed of the whole 
continent. He next crossed the Cassabi riv¬ 
er, and on April 4 he reached the banks of 
the Kwango, both these rivers being afflu¬ 
ents of the Kongo. Crossing the Kwanza, 
he reached Loanda on May 31. On Sept. 
20 he set out on his return journey, and 
following pretty nearly the route by which 
he had gone arrived at Linyanti. Starting 
from this place on Nov. 3, 1855, he reached 
the Zambezi, and proceeding down the river, 
and visiting its falls, called by him the Vic¬ 
toria Falls, arrived at Kilimane at its 
mouth on May 20, 1856, and sailed for En¬ 
gland. Thus was accomplished by Dr. Liv¬ 
ingstone the remarkable feat of crossing the 
entire continent from sea to sea — the first 
time, so far as is known, that this was done 
by any European. In 1858 Livingstone re¬ 
turned to resume his exploration of the 
Zambezi regions. Entering the Congone 
mouth of the river in May, he ascended its 
tributary the Shire to Murchison Cataracts, 
visited Lake Shirwa and Lake. Nyasa., trav¬ 
eled on or near the Zambezi to Victoria 
Falls, established the identity of the Leam- 
bye and the Zambezi, sailed up the Shire to 
Lake Nyasa, also sailed 156 miles up the 
Rovuma river, and returned to England in 
1864. 

Between 1856 and 1865 Paul du Chaillu 
traveled extensively on the W. coast, in the 
neighborhood of the river Ogowe (or Ogo- 
bai). In 1861-1862 Maj. (afterwards Sir) 
R. F. Burton also traveled on the W. coast. 
He ascended the Kameruns mountains, and 
confirmed some of the observations of Du 
Chaillu. A French expedition visited the 
delta of the Ogowe in 1864. Since then that 
8 


river has been very fully explored, the prin¬ 
cipal expeditions having been those of Walk¬ 
er, 1866, 1873; Lieutenant Aymes, 1867- 
1868; the Frenchmen Compiegne and 
Marche, 1872-1874; Dr. O. Lenz, 1876; and 
another French expedition under Savorgnan 
de Brazza, 1876, who took possession of a 
large stretch of territory for France. This 
territory now forms part of that of French - 
Kongo, which had been traversed by various 
Frenchmen, including Brazza, Mizon, Le 
Maistre, Monteil, and others. 

In 1866 Livingstone entered on his last 
great series of explorations, the main object 
of which was to settle the position of the 
watersheds in the interior of the continent 
S. of the equator, and to discover the 
source of the Nile. Landing at the mouth 
of the Rovuma he proceeded S. W, round 
the S. end of Lake Nyasa, and then travel¬ 
ing N., reached the S. end of Lake Tangan- 
yiki (discovered by Speke and Burton in 
1858). He afterward visited Lakes Mweru 
and Bangweolo, in the basin of the Cham- 
beze, the name given to a headwater of the 
Kongo. In 1869 he reached Ujiji, on Tan¬ 
ganyika, and crossed the lake, making ex¬ 
tensive journeys in the Manyuema country, 
and reached the Lualaba or Upper Kongo, 
but could not explore it for want of boats. 
Henry M. Stanley, who had been specially 
sent by the proprietor of the New York 
“ Herald ” to search for Livingstone, met 
him at Ujiji on his return from the Manyu¬ 
ema country, relieved his necessities, and 
examined along with him the N. end of 
Lake Tanganyika. Livingstone afterward 
started on a fresh journey (in 1872) to 
determine the course of the Lualaba, in¬ 
tending to travel round the S. side of Lake 
Bangweolo, but, after suffering much from 
illness, he died on the shore of this lake 
on May 1, 1873. 

In 1872 the Royal Geographical Society 
organized two expeditions to go in search 
of Livingstone. The one, under Lieutenant 
Grandy, sailed some distance up the Kongo; 
the other, under Lieutenant Cameron, start¬ 
ed from Zanzibar for Tanganyika. On as¬ 
certaining the death of Livingstone he pro¬ 
ceeded to Lake Tanganyiki, where he se¬ 
cured Livingstone’s map, and sent it to 
Zanzibar. He ascertained the height of the 
lake; found an outlet, the Lukuga, on the 
W. side; traversed the Manyuema country; 
reached Nyangwe, Livingstone’s farthest 
point on the Lualaba; proceeded S. up the 
E. side of the valley of Lomane to Kilem- 
ba in the Urua country; and reached Ben- 
guela, on the Atlantic coast, Nov. 4, 1875. 
The identity of the Kongo and Lualaba was 
at last settled by Stanley, who between Oc¬ 
tober, 1876, and August, 1877, descended 
from Nyangwe on the latter river to the 
mouth of the former. After helping to es¬ 
tablish the Kongo Free State (1879-1885) 
Stanley proceeded in 1887 with an expedi- 





Africa 


Africa 


tion to relieve Emin Pasha, governor of 
Egypt’s equatorial province. Following the 
Kongo and its tributary the Aruwimi, Stan¬ 
ley hewed his way through a vast forest, 
arrived at the Albert Nyanza, met Emin 
there, returned for his rear-guard and 
stores, and at last brought Emin and his 
followers to Bagamoyo, on the E. coast, in 
18S9. He also discovered Lake Albert Ed¬ 
ward and the lofty mountain of ftuwenzori, 
on the Semliki, between that lake and Lake 
Albert. The Portuguese Maj. Serpa Pinto 
journeyed from Bengucla to Natal in 1878— 
1879; the Germans Wissmann and Pogge 
crossed from St. Paul de Loanda to Zanzi¬ 
bar in 1881-1882; in 1879-1880 (after the 
death of his leader, Keith Johnston), Joseph 
Thomson crossed from the E. coast by the 
N. of Lake Nyasa to the E. of Tanganyika, 
and back to Zanzibar; again in 1883-1884 
he explored the Masai country between the 
coast and Lake Victoria; Capello and Ivens 
went from Angola to Mozambique by way of 
Bangweolo in 1884-1885. 

One of the most interesting problems con¬ 
nected with African geography was the trac¬ 
ing of the source of the Nile. Among the 
first of the famous explorers in this direc¬ 
tion was James Bruce, who in 1770 reached 
the source of the Blue Nile or Bahr-el- 
Azrek, and imagined himself to have solved 
the great problem. But the real source of 
the Nile remained long unknown, the great 
lakes connected with its origin being hardly 
dreamed of till comparatively recent times. 
In 1858 Burton and Speke, crossing from 
Zanzibar, discovered Lake Tanganyika, and 
the same year Speke also reached the Vic¬ 
toria Nyanza, but did not ascertain that it 
gave rise to the Nile. Speke and Grant in 
1862 reached the place where the Nile leaves 
the lake and followed part of its course to 
Karuma Falls. At Gondokoro they met Sir 
Samuel Baker, who proceeded to investigate 
the unexplored part, but did not fully suc¬ 
ceed in his object. Baker in 1871-1873 re¬ 
turned to the scene of his explorations as 
the commander of an Egyptian force, and 
took possession of the country in the name 
of the Khedive, but added little to his pre¬ 
vious geographical discoveries. He was suc¬ 
ceeded in his command by Colonel Gordon, 
one of whose officers, Colonel Long, more 
fully traced the Nile between Karuma Falls 
and the Victoria Lake; while another, M. 
Gessi, first actually traced the Nile up to 
its outflow from the Albert Nyanza (1876). 

Since 1883 the exploration of Africa has 
been carried out by a multitude of explorers. 
In the N. the French have pushed S. from 
Algeria, and French explorers, among whom 
M. Foureau is prominent, have added great¬ 
ly to our knowledge of the Sahara. Dr. 
Junker devoted several years to exploring 
the country between the basin of the Nile 
and the Kongo. Mr. Stanley, in his great 


journey across Africa, in 1876, added largely 
to our knowledge of Lake Victoria, and of 
Uganda, the country between Victoria and 
Lake Albert. Since the British occupation 
of Uganda, Colonel Lugard and many other 
officers have mapped the country between 
the coast and the lakes, Uganda itself, and 
the country to the W. Italian and British 
explorers have added to our knowledge of 
Abyssinia and to the desert between the 
Nile and the Red Sea. Lakes Rudolf and 
Stefanie have been discovered and explored 
by Count Teleki and Lieut. Von Hohnel 
from the S., while James, Donaldson Smith, 
Cavendish, Robecclii, Bottego, and others 
have explored Somaliland, and ascertained 
that the Omo flows into Lake Rudolf. Greg¬ 
ory has investigated Mount Kenia; Meyer 
has ascended Kilima-Njaro; Baumann and 
other German explorers have visited the re¬ 
gion to the W. and S. of that mountain, 
round by the S. of Lake Victoria, and on to 
Lake Albert Edward. In 1894 Count Gbtzen 
crossed from E. to W., discovered Lake Kivu 
to the S. of Lake Albert Edward, and a lofty 
active volcano near its shores, coming out 
by the Kongo. Many other Germans have 
been busy in German East Africa, while in 
British Central Africa, Johnston, Sharpe, 
Joseph Thomson and others have filled in 
many blanks, and British naval officers have 
charted Lake Nyasa. German explorers 
have also traversed and mapped Damara- 
land and Namaqualand; Lugard has explor¬ 
ed the Uganda region; Gibbons and others 
have traversed the Barotse country. The of¬ 
ficials of the Kongo Free State have laid 
open the courses of the numerous rivers that 
feed the main stream; Hinde found the Lu- 
kuga flowing into the Lualaba; Grenfell and 
others established the connection of the 
Ubangi or Mobangi tributary on the N., 
with the Makua-Welle higher up, which had 
been explored by Junker and others. Under 
the auspices of the Royal Niger Company 
Joseph Thomson and others further explored 
the Niger; while the Benue and its tribu¬ 
taries, and the German sphere in the S. have 
been actively explored by British, French, 
and German travelers. All three nationali¬ 
ties, moreover, have been busy in the vast 
area between the Guinea coast and the great 
bend of the Niger. Prominent among them 
was Binger, who contributed more than any 
single individual to our knowledge of this 
region. The French occupation of Tim- 
buctoo has led to the navigation and explor¬ 
ation of the upper and middle river by gun¬ 
boats; while a French expedition followed 
the river from Timbuctoo to its mouth. 
Monteil crossed from Senegal to Lake Tchad 
and traversed the desert to Tripoli. French 
expeditions have crossed from the Kongo to 
the Nile, and all the river systems are now 
mapped in their main features. It may in¬ 
deed be said that the pioneer exploration of 
Africa has been completed, the most im- 




Africa 


Agamemnon 


portant blank being the region lying between 
Somaliland and the Upper Nile. What re¬ 
mains to be done is the filling up of the 
meshes between the vast network of explor¬ 
ers’ routes, and this is a task which cannot 
be completed for many years. 

Commercial Conditions .— The annual 
commerce of Africa amounts to over $700,- 
000,000, of which $429,000,000 represents 
the value of the imports. Necessarily in so 
large an area with so many tribes and peo¬ 
ples who keep no records of their transac¬ 
tions, a considerable amount of commerce 
must pass without being recorded in any 
way. 

The total imports at the ports where rec¬ 
ords are kept amounted in the latest avail¬ 
able year to $429,461,000, and the exports 
to $263,907,000. Of the exports, a large 
share, especially those from the S., is gold 
and diamonds; in the tropical region, ivory, 
rubber, palm nuts and gums, and in the N. 
a fair share of the exports are products of 
agriculture, cotton, coffee, cacao, spices, 
dates, etc. The export figures of recent 
years are less than those of former years, 
owing to the hostilities in South Africa, 
which have both reduced production and in¬ 
creased local consumption. 

The total recorded imports into Africa, 
aggregating in the latest available year 
$429,461,000, were distributed as follows: 
Into British territory, $157,575,000; French 
territory, $92,004,000; Turkish territory, 
$77,787,000; Portuguese territory, $20,795,- 
000; German territory, $8,336,000 and into 
the Kongo Free State, $4,722,000. 

Railroad development in Africa has been 
rapid in the past few years and seems but 
the beginning of a great system which must 
contribute to the rapid development, civili¬ 
zation, and enlightenment of the “ Dark Con¬ 
tinent.” Already railroads run N. from 
Cape Colony about 1,500 miles and S. from 
Cairo about 1,200 miles, thus completing 
2,700 miles of the proposed “ Cape to Cairo ” 
railroad, while the intermediate distance is 
about 3,000 miles. At the N. numerous lines 
skirt the Mediterranean coast, especially in 
the French territory of Algeria and in 
Tunis, aggregating about 2,500 miles; while 
the Egyptian railroads are, including those 
under construction, about 1,500 miles in 
length. Those of Cape Colony are over 3,000 
miles in length, and those of Portuguese East 
Africa and the Transvaal are another 1,000 
miles in length. Including all of the rail¬ 
roads constructed or under actual construc¬ 
tion, the total length of African railways is 
nearly 12,500 miles, or half the distance 
around the earth. A large proportion of 
the railways thus far constructed are owned 
by the several colonies or states which they 
traverse, about 2,000 miles of the Cape Col¬ 
ony system and nearly all of that of Egypt 
belonging to the state. 


That the gold and diamond mines of 
South Africa have been and still are won¬ 
derfully profitable is beyond question. The 
Kimberley diamond mines, about 600 miles 
from Cape Town, now supply 98 per cent, 
of the diamonds of commerce, though their 
existence was unknown prior to 1867, and 
the mines have thus been in operation but 
about 30 years. It is estimated that $350,- 
000,000 worth of rough diamonds, worth 
double that sum after cutting, have been 
produced from the Kimberley mines since 
their opening in 1868-1869, and this enor¬ 
mous production would have been greatly 
increased but for the fact that the owners 
of the various mines there formed an agree¬ 
ment to limit the output so as not to ma¬ 
terially exceed the world’s annual consump¬ 
tion. 

Equally wonderful and promising are the 
great Witwatersrand gold fields of South 
Africa, better known as the Johannesburg 
mines. Gold was discovered there in 1883, 
and in 1884 the value of the gold product 
was about $50,000. It increased with start¬ 
ling rapidity, the product of 1888 being 
about $5,000,000; that of 1890, $10,000,000; 
1892, over $20,000,000; 1895, over $40,000,- 
000; and 1897 and 1898, about $55,000,000. 
Work in these mines was practically sus¬ 
pended during the Boer war. 

The gold production of the “ Rand ” since 
1884 has been over $300,000,000, and care¬ 
ful surveys of the field by experts show be¬ 
yond question that the “ gold in sight ” 
probably amounts to $3,500,000,000, while 
the large number of mines in adjacent ter¬ 
ritory, particularly those of Rhodesia, 
whose output was valued at over $4,500,- 
000 in 1901, gives promise that South Africa 
will for many years continue to be the 
largest gold-producing field of the world. 

African Methodist=EpiscopaI Church. 
See Methodists. 

Africanus. See Scipio. 

Agamedes (aga-me'des) and Trophonius 
(tro-fo'ne-us), two architects who designed 
the entrance of the temple of Delphi, for 
which they demanded of the god whatever 
gift was most advantageous for a man to 
receive. Three days after, they were found 
dead in their beds. 

Agamemnon (ag-a-mem'non), king of My¬ 
cenae and Argos, son of Atreus and Eri- 
phyle, brother of Menelaus and commander- 
in-chief of the Grecian army at the siege of 
Troy. In the earliest and most credible au¬ 
thors, Homer and Hesiod, we find no trace 
of the long train of horrors whicn, according 
to later writers, laid waste the house of 
Pelops. Agamemnon and his brother were 
called Atridae, from their father’s name, ac¬ 
cording to the Grecian custom of giving to 
the son a patronymic name. He married 
Clytemnestra, sister of Helen. The Trojan 
war arose out of the abduction of Helen by 





Agami 


Agaricus 


Paris, son of Friam, King of Troy. It is 
commonly said that a number of the princes 
of Greece having been drawn together as 
suitors by the extraordinary beauty of 
Helen, Tyndarus exacted an oath from 
them that, on whomsoever the choice should 
fall, if the maid should be carried off, all 



the rest should unite to recover her; and 
that, in virtue of this oath, the confederate 
princes assembled under the command of 
Agamemnon. They were long detained in 
the Bay of Aulis, in Boeotia, by a calm, oc¬ 
casioned by the anger of Diana, but finally 
arrived before Troy. During the siege of 
this town, protracted for 10 years, Agamem¬ 
non appears superior to the other chiefs in 
battle and in council, and maintains, under 
all circumstances, the dignity of a com¬ 
mander. The most memorable event of the 
siege of Troy is the quarrel of Agamemnon 
and Achilles, the subject of the “ Iliad,” in 
which the former placed himself very com¬ 
pletely in the wrong. Returning from Troy, 
Agamemnon was treacherously murdered by 
his wife; who, during his absence, had 
formed an adulterous attachment with 
iEgisthus, son of the noted Thyestes. This 
catastrophe is the subject of the “Agamem¬ 
non ” of ^Eschylus, one of the most sublime 
compositions in the range of the Grecian 
drama. Orestes, son of Agamemnon, then 
a child, was saved by the care of his tutor, 
and timely flight. After passing seven 
years in exile, he returned in secret, avenged 
his father’s death bv the slaughter of his 
mother and of iEgisthus, and recovered his 
paternal kingdom, which he ruled with 
honor. 

Agami, a bird, called also the trumpeter 
from the sound which it emits. It is the 
psophia crepitans. It belongs to the family 
gruiclce, or cranes, and the sub-family pso- 
phincB, or trumpeters. It is about the size 
of a large fowl, is kept in Guiana, of which 
it is a native, with poultry, which it is said 
to defend, and shows a strong attachment 
to the person by whom it is fed. 

Agana (ag-an'ya), the principal town of 
Guam, the largest of the Ladrone Islands, 


1,500 miles E. of Luzon, Philippines, and 
1,300 miles S. of Yokohama. The Ladrone, 
or Marianne, group belonged to Spain; but, 
as a result of the war between the United 
States and Spain in 1898, the former took 
possession of the island of Guam, and, in 
1899, established a naval station and seat 
of administration at Agana, with Capt. 
Richard P. Leary, U. S. N., as first governor. 

Aganippe (ag-an-ip'e), or Aganippae, a 
celebrated fountain of Boeotia, at the foot 
of Mount Helicon. It flows into the Per- 
messus, and is sacred to the Muses, who, 
from it, were called Aganippedes. 

Agape (ag'ap-e), a love feast, a kind 
of feast held by the primitive Christians in 
connection with the administration of the 
sacred communion. Either before or after 
the Lord’s Supper — it is not completely de¬ 
cided which — the Christians sat down to 
a feast provided by the richer members, but 
to which all, however poor, who belonged 
to the Church, were invited. As piety de¬ 
clined, the agapoe began to cause scandal, 
and finally 
they were con¬ 
demned by the 
council of Lao- 
dicea and the 
3d of Carth¬ 
age, in the 4th 
century, and 
by that of Or¬ 
leans in a. D. 

541. It was, 
however, found 
hard to eradi- an agape. 

cate them, and 

finally the council in Trullo, A. d. 092, 
launched the penalty of excommunication 
against those who, in defiance of previous 
prohibitions, persisted in carrying them on. 

Agapemone (ag-a-pem'o-ne), the name 
given by the Rev. Henry James Prince, a 
clergyman who seceded from the English 
Church, to a religious society founded on 
the principle of a community of goods, which 
he established at Charlineh, near Taunton, 
England, in 1845. It once occupied a good 
deal of public attention, but now is seldom 
mentioned. 

Agapetus, the name of two Popes: (1) 
from June, 535, to April, 530, festival day, 
Sept. 20; (2) from 940 to 955, a native of 
Rome. 

Agaricus (ag-ar'e-cus), a genus of plants, 
the typical one of the fungus or mushroom 
family, consisting of the species which 
possesses a fleshy pileus or cap, with a 
number of nearly parallel or radiating 
plates or gills on its lower side, bear¬ 
ing spores, the whole being supported upon 
a more or less lengthened stalk. More 
than 1,000 species are known. They may 
be separated into five natural divisions. 















































Agaslas 


Agassiz 


according as the color of the spores is white, 
pink, ferruginous, purple-brown, or black. 
There are many sub-genera. Some species 
are poisonous. It is difficult to identify 
these with the accuracy which the import¬ 
ance of the subject demands; but the fol¬ 
lowing marks have been given: An agaric 
is poisonous, or at least suspicious, if it has 
a very thin cap compared with the thickness 
of the gills, if the stalk grows from one side 
of the cap, if the gills are of equal length, 
if the juice is milky, if it speedily decays 
into a dark, watery fluid, if the collar round 
it is like a spider’s web. All these charac¬ 
teristics do not meet in the same individual, 
but the presence of one or more of them is 
enough to inspire caution. The eatable 
agarics are the A. campestris, or common 
mushroom — that often cultivated in gar¬ 
dens; the A. Georgii; the A. pratensis, or 
fairy-ring mushroom; the A. personatus, 
etc. The A. cantliurellus, piperatus, etc., 
contain sugary matter, considered by Liebig 
to be mannite. The agaric of the olive is 
poisonous, but pickling and subsequent 
washing render it harmless, as has been as¬ 
certained by experience in the Cevennes. 
Similarly, the application of vinegar and 
salt deprives the poisonous A. bulbosus of 
its noxious qualities; but too much caution 
cannot be used in experimenting upon such 
dangerous articles of food. A curious cir¬ 
cumstance about some agarics, such as the 
A. Gardneri of Brazil and the A. olearius 
of the South of Europe, is that they are lu¬ 
minous. 

Agasias (ag-as'e-as), of Ephesus, a Greek 
sculptor who flourished about 400 b. c. 
The celebrated statue in the Louvre Mu¬ 
seum, called “ The Gladiator,” is his work. 
It is clear, however, that the statue repre¬ 
sents not a gladiator, but a warrior, perhaps 
Achilles, contending with a mounted com¬ 
batant. It was discovered in the ruins of 
a palace of the Roman emperors on the site 
of Antium. 

Agassiz, Alexander (a-ga-se'), an Amer¬ 
ican zoologist and geologist, son of J. L. R. 
Agassiz, born in Neuchatel, Switzerland, 
Dec. 17, 1835. He came to the United 
States with his father in 1849; graduated 
from Harvard in 1855; and received the de¬ 
gree of B. S. from the Lawrence Scientific 
School in 1857. In 1859 he went to Cali¬ 
fornia as assistant on the United States 
Coast Survey. From 1860 to 1865 he was 
assistant curator of the Museum of Compar¬ 
ative Zoology at Harvard University; and, 
from 1866 to 1869, superintendent of the 
Calumet and Hecla mines, Lake Superior. 
On the death of his father in 1873, he was 
appointed curator of the Museum of Com¬ 
parative Zoology, holding that position un¬ 
til he resigned in 1885. In 1900 he com¬ 
pleted a series of deep sea explorations for 


the United States government. His chief 
works are “List of Echinoderms ” (1863) ; 
“Exploration of Lake Titicaca” (1875- 
1876); “Three Cruises of the Blake, a 
Contribution to American Thalassography ” 
(1880). He died March 28, 1910. 

Agassiz, Jean Louis Rodolphe, a Swis3 
naturalist; born in Motier, Switzerland, 
May 28, 1807. He was educated at home 
till the age of 11, and passed four years at 
the gymnasium of Bienne, from which he 
was sent to the Academy of Lausanne. He 
then studied in the universities of Zurich 
(1824-1826), Heidelberg, where he attended 
the Medical School (1826-1827), and at 
Munich. In the latter city he enjoyed the 
society and instruction of several eminent 
men, including Martins, Dollinger, Fuchs, 
and Oken. On the death of Spix, the zoolo¬ 
gist, he was selected by Martius to complete 
the zoological record of an Austro-Bava- 
rian expedition to which Martius had been 
botanist. The result was a work containing 
the description and classification of the 
fishes which was published in 1829 (in Lat¬ 
in). Agassiz had not hitherto paid special 
attention to ichthyology, but from this time 
it became one of his leading pursuits. His 
parents having withdrawn his allowance, he 
applied to the publisher Cotta for assist¬ 
ance in his next book, which appeared in 
1839 and 1840, under the title of “ Histoire 
Naturelle des Poissons d’Eaux douces de 
l’Europe Centrale.” From 1834 to 1844 he 
also published five volumes, illustrated by 
Dinkel, of “ Recherches sur les Poissons Fos- 
siles.” About the time he began his prepara¬ 
tion for these works he took simultaneously 
the degree of Doctor of Medicine at Munich 
and of Doctor of Philosophy at Erlangen. 
He also at this time began to project a new 
classification in ichthyology, based on four 
classes, distinguished by the characters of 
the scales, namely, ganoids, placoids, cy¬ 
cloids, and ctenoids, since Cuvier’s system 
was not well adapted to fossil species. 

The liberality of a clergyman, a friend 
of his father, enabled him to visit Paris, and 
here he made the acquaintance of Cuvier and 
Humboldt, the latter of whom in 1833 sup¬ 
plied him with the means to begin the pub¬ 
lication of his work on fossil fishes. In 
1834 Agassiz published the “ Prodromus ” 
of a work on Echinodermata, which was fol¬ 
lowed by other publications on the same 
subject. He also published in 1842-1846 a 
“ Nomenclator Zoologicus,” containing an 
enumeration of all the genera of the animal 
kingdom, with etymologies and names and 
dates of the works of the authors by whom 
they were first named; and he prepared a 
“ Bibliography of Zoology and Geology,” 
which was afterward extended by Strickland 
and Jardine, and published by the Ray So¬ 
ciety. In 1836 he began the study of gla¬ 
ciers, and after two visits to the Alps estab¬ 
lished in 1838 a hut on the glacier of the 







Agassiz 


Agate 


Aar, which he visited every summer till 
1845. In 1840 he published his “ Etudes 
sur les Glaciers,’’ which first gave him a 
popular fame throughout Europe. It was 
followed in 1847 by his “ Systeme Gla- 
ciaire.” He piopounds in these the theory 
of a vastly extended ice area in former 
epochs. In 1846 he visited, together with 
Professor Buckland, the mountains of Scot¬ 
land, where for the first time they found 
traces of glacier action. From 1838 Agassiz 
had held the appointment of Professor of 
Natural History at Ncufchatel. He was a 
member of nearly all the learned societies 
of Europe, and had received the degree of 
Doctor of Laws from Edinburgh and Dub¬ 
lin; but his professorship was poorly re¬ 
munerated, and his costly publications had 
entailed a heavy debt, when in 1846 he went 
to the United States on a lecturing and ex¬ 
ploring tour. The professorship of zoology 
and geology in Harvard College was offered 
him in 1847, and as he had previously been 
offered the use of the United States survey 
vessels for exploring purposes he accepted 
the offer. While at Harvard he wrote sev¬ 
eral volumes, some of which were of a popu¬ 
lar nature, but most of them were devoted 
to scientific research. 

Among his more important works were: 
“ Principles of Zoology,” in connection with 
Dr. A. Gould (1848); “Lake Superior, its 
Physical Character” (1850); “Contribu¬ 
tions to the Natural History of the United 
States” (4 vols. 1857-1862); “ Zoologie 
Generate” (1854); “Methods of Study in 
Natural History” (1863). His contribu¬ 
tions to the development of the principles of 
natural science in his special departments 
are very numerous and of high authority. 
In 1855 he was enabled by the liberality of 
Nathaniel Thayer to make, for the sake of 
his failing health, a long-contemplated voy¬ 
age to Brazil. He was accompanied 
by his wife, who wrote an account 
of the voyage. In 1871 he visited the 
S. shores both of the E. and of the W. 
coast of North America. After some years 
of unsuccessful efforts to get a government 
marine station established, he was enabled 
by private munificence to fit up one on Pen- 
ekese Island in Buzzards bay. Agassiz’s 
last work was the organization of this estab¬ 
lishment, of which he wrote an account in 
1873 to the British Association. He died in 
Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 14, 1873. Agassiz 
held views on many important points in 
science differing from those which prevailed 
among the scientific men of the day. He 
adopted the opinion of a variety of human 
races, and his investigations in natural his¬ 
tory led him to the conclusion that there 
have been not only successive but distinct 
local creations. He strongly opposed the 
theory of development, refusing to accept 
the doctrine of evolution. His love of gen¬ 
eralization was great, and nearly all his 


works were written with a more or less di¬ 
rect view to some theoretical object. 

His widow, Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, 
was born in Boston, Mass., in 1823, and mar¬ 
ried in 1850. She closely identified herself 
with her husband’s scientific work, accom¬ 
panying him on many of his travels, and 
supplementing his researches with her own 
literary work. Probably she will be best 
remembered for her early agitation for the 
collegiate education of women, and as the 
president of the Harvard Annex, now Rad- 
cliffe College, from its institution till No¬ 
vember, 1899, when she resigned. Mrs. 
Agassiz published “Louis Agassiz; His Life 
and Correspondence,” and was joint author, 
with Alexander Agassiz, of “ Seaside Stud¬ 
ies in Natural History.” Died in 1907. 

Agassiz Association, a society founded 
in the United States in 1879 to promote 
scientific study, and named in honor of Prof. 
J. Louis Agassiz. Its immediate popularity 
led to the formation of a general association 
in the following year, and this is now repre-- 
sented in all parts of the world, having over 
1,000 chapters, and more than 10,000 mem¬ 
bers. 

Agassiz, Lake, a former body of water, 
stretching from the plain of the Red River 
of the North in Minnesota and North Dako¬ 
ta to an undetermined distance in Canada. 
It belonged to the last glacial epoch, and 
was named by Upham in honor of the great 
Swiss geologist. From shore lines and 
deltas still well marked it is believed that it 
extended from 30 to 100 miles E. and W., 
and upward of 400 miles N. and S., with a 
depth ranging from 200 to 400 feet. The 
overflow of the lake is supposed to have 
passed into the Minnesota river through a 
channel about 50 feet deep, 50 or more miles 
long, and more than a mile wide, the out¬ 
lines of which may still be traced readily. 
Lake Agassiz was formed, according to the 
theories of eminent geologists, by the re¬ 
treating of the ice sheet of the last great 
glacial movement. 

Agassiz, Mount, a remarkable mountain 
peak and extinct volcano, about 70 miles 
N. E. of Prescott, Ariz. It is more than 
10,000 feet above sea-level, and belongs to 
the range or group of San Francisco moun¬ 
tains. As a place of summer resort it has 
numerous attractions — grand scenery, ele¬ 
vation, excellent water, and proximity to 
the Great Canon of the 'Colorado, one of the 
greatest natural curiosities on the conti¬ 
nent. 

Agate, a mineral classed by Dana as one 
of the cryptocrystalline varieties of quartz, 
some of the other minerals falling under the 
same category being chalcedony, carnelian, 
onyx, liornstone, and jasper. Phillips and 
the earlier school of mineralogists had made 
quartz and chalcedony different minerals. 






Agatharchides 


Agave 


and placed agate under the latter species. 
The classifications differ but little; for Dana 
defines agate as a variegated chalcedony. 
He subdivides agates by their colors into 


SPECIMENS OF AGATE. 

those which are banded, those in clouds, and 
those whose hues are due to visible impuri¬ 
ties. Under the first category is reckoned 
the eye agate, and under the third the moss 
agate, or mocha stone, and the dendritic 
agate. Other terms sometimes used are 
ribbon agate, brecciated agate, fortification 
agate, etc. Of these the most familiar is 
the fortification agate, or Scotch pebble, 
found in amygdaloid, and with layers and 
markings not unlike a fortification. Moss 
agate does not, as the name would lead one 
to infer, contain moss, the appearance of 
that form of vegetation being produced, in 
most cases at least, by an infiltration of 
mineral matter. The principal supply of 
the figured agates of commerce is from 
Oberstein, in the old Palatinate, about 30 
miles E. of Treves, and 45 miles S. of Co¬ 
blenz. When they were used as buttons, 
knife-handles, and other small objects, the 
trade was much more extensive than at 
present. They are found in many parts 
of Scotland, especially at the Hill of Kin- 
noul, near Perth, where there is an amyg- 
daloidal trap very full of fine specimens. 
Large pieces of chalcedony are found in 
Brazil and Iceland, as well as in the Faroe 
islands. 

Agatharchides, or Agatharcides, a 

Greek writer on geography, born at Cnidos, 
in Asia Minor; lived n. c. 250, and wrote 
numerous works, and, among them, one on 
the Erythraean Sea, of which some extracts 
have been preserved. He is the earliest ex¬ 
tant writer who attributes the annual rise 
cf the Nile to the periodical rains in the 
upper regions of that river. 

Agatha, St., a lady of Palermo, mar¬ 
tyrized by Quintilian, the pro-consul of 
Sicily, in the persecution of Decius, because 
she would not perform idolatrous worship, 
nor submit to his impure desires. 

Agathias (a-ga'thi-as), a Greek poet and 
historian, about 536-581. He collected a 
“ Cycle ” of contemporary poems, in which 
were a few of his own compositions. We 
have still 101 of his “ Epigrams,” and the 
whole of his “ History ” of the years 
553-558. 

Agathocles (ag-ath'o-klez), a Syracusan 
of low extraction, Avho became ruler of a 
great part of Sicily. He was remarkable 


for beauty, strength, and capacity for en¬ 
during labor. In the outset of life, he be¬ 
longed to a band of robbers; afterward he 
served as a private soldier, rose to the great¬ 
est honors, and made himself master of Sy¬ 
racuse. He conquered the greatest part of 
Sicily, B. c. 317. Being defeated at Himera 
by the Carthaginians, he carried the war 
into Africa, where, for four years, he ex¬ 
tended his conquests over his enemy. He 
afterward passed into Italy and made him¬ 
self master of Crotona. In his 72d year he 
was poisoned by his grandson Archagathus, 
b. c. 2S9, after a reign of 28 years of great 
prosperity mingled with the deepest adver¬ 
sity. His • son-in-law, Pyrrhus, King of 
Epirus, inherited his influence in Sicily and 
Southern Italy. 

Agathon (ag'a-thon), a Greek tragic poet 
(448-402 b. c.). He was a close friend of 
Euripides and of Plato; and the famous 
“ Symposium ” of Plato immortalizes the 
banquet given on the occasion of Agathon’s? 
dramatic triumph, 416 b. c. 

Agave (ag-a've), daughter of Cadmus and 
Hermione, married Echion, by whom she 
had Pentheus, who was torn to pieces by the 
Bacchanals. She is said to have killed her 
husband while celebrating the orgies of Bac¬ 
chus. She received divine honors after 
death. 



Agave, an extensive genus of plants be¬ 
longing to the natural order amaryllidacece. 

The species have large, fleshy leaves, with 












Age 


Age 


teeth ending in spinous points. From the 
center of a circle of these leaves there rises, 
as the plant approaches maturity, a tall 
scape of flowers. The idea that the agave 
blossoms but once in a hundred years is a 
fable. What really happens is, that the 
plant, taking many years (10 to 70, it is 
thought) to come to maturity, flowers but 
once, and then dies. The best-known 
species is the A. Americana, or American 
aloe, called maguey by the Mexicans. Its 
hard and spiny leaves form impenetrable 
hedges. The fiber makes excellent cordage. 
The expressed juice is employed as a substi¬ 
tute for soap; also manufactured into a cider¬ 
like liquor, called pulque by the Mexicans. 
The plant originally belonged to North 
America, and is chiefly found in Mexico. 
It is now cultivated in the South of Europe. 
The A. saponaria is a powerful detergent, 
and its roots are used as a substitute for 
soap. 

Age, any period of time attributed to 
something as the whole, or part, of its dura¬ 
tion; as the age of man, the several ages of 
the world, the golden age. 

In Physiology. — If the word age be used 
to denote one of the stages of human 
life, then physiology clearly distinguishes 
six of these: viz., the periods of infancy, of 
childhood, of boyhood or girlhood, of ado¬ 
lescence, of manhood or womanhood, and of 
old age. The period of infancy terminates 
at 2, when the first dentition is completed; 
that of childhood at 7 or 8, when the second 
dentition is finished; that of boyhood or 
girlhood at the commencement of puberty, 
in temperate climates from the 14th to the 
16th year in the male, and from the 12th 
to the 14th in the female; that of adoles¬ 
cence extends to the 24th year in the male 
and the 20th in the female; that of manhood 
or womanhood stretches on till the advent 
of old age, which comes sooner or later, ac¬ 
cording to the original strength of the con¬ 
stitution in each individual case, and the 
habits which have been acquired during life. 
The precise time of human existence sim¬ 
ilarly varies. 

In Archaeology. —The Danish and Swedish 
antiquaries and naturalists, MM. Nilson, 
Steenstrup, Forchamber, Thomsen, Wor- 
saae, and others, have divided the period 
during which man has existed on the earth 
into three — the age of stone, the age of 
bronze, and the age of iron. During the 
first-mentioned of these he is supposed to 
have had only stone for weapons, etc. Sir 
John Lubbock divides this into two — the 
palaeolithic, or older, and the neolithic, or 
newer, stone period. At the commencement 
of the age of bronze that composite metal 
became known, and began to be manu¬ 
factured into weapons and other instru¬ 
ments; while, when the age of iron came in, 
bronze began gradually to be superseded by 


the last-mentioned metal. (Lyell’s “The 
Antiquity of Man”; Lubbock’s “ Prehistoric 
Times.”) 

In Law, the time of competence to do cer¬ 
tain acts. In the male sex, 14 is the age 
when partial discretion is supposed to be 
reached, while 21 is the period of full age. 
Under 7 no boy can be capitally punished; 
from 7 to 14 it is doubtful if he can; at 14 
he may. At 12 a girl can contract a binding 
marriage; at 21, she is of full age. In 
mediaeval times, when a girl reached 7, by 
feudal custom or law a lord might distrain 
his tenants for aid to marry, or, rather, be¬ 
troth her; at 9, she was dowable; at 12, she 
could confirm any consent to marriage which 
she had previously given; at 14, she could 
take the management of her lands into her 
own hands; at 16, she ceased, as is still the 
law, to be under the control of her guardian; 
and at 21, she might alienate lands and 
tenements belonging to her in her own right. 
In the United States, both males and fe¬ 
males are of full age at 21. The age at 
which minors may be punished or may 
marry varies in the several States. 

Ages of the World. — We find the ages of 
the world mentioned by the earliest of the 
Greek poets. They compared the existence 
of mankind to the life of an individual, and 
the earliest period of the world to the tran¬ 
quillity and happiness of youth. Hesiod 
speaks of five distinct ages: (1) The 

golden, or Saturnian age, when Saturn 
ruled the earth, is represented as having 
been that of perfect innocence and happi¬ 
ness. (2) The silver age, which he de¬ 
scribes as licentious and wicked. (3) The 
brazen age; violent, savage, and warlike. 
(4) The heroic age, which seemed an ap¬ 
proximation to a better state of things. (5) 
The iron age, when justice and honor had 
left the earth. 

Age of Animals. — The duration of life in 
animals is generally between seven and eight 
times the period which elapses from birth 
till they become adult; but this rule, be¬ 
sides being vague and indefinite, is quite 
useless in practice, because it affords no 
scale of gradation which would enable us 
to ascertain the precise age of individuals, 
the only inquiry of real importance or of 
practical application to the interests of so¬ 
ciety. More certain and scientific principles 
are derived from observing the growth and 
decay of the teeth. Unhappily, the observa¬ 
tions have not been till now extended further 
than to the most important domestic ani¬ 
mals. 

The Horse. — Its age is known principally 
by the appearance of the incisive teeth, or, 
as they are technically called, the nippers. 
Of these, there are six in each jaw, broad, 
thin, and trenchant in the foal, but with 
flat crowns, marked in the center with a 




Age 


Age 


hollow disk, in the adult animal. The foal, 
or milk teeth, appear 15 days after birth; 
at the age of two years and a half, the mid¬ 
dle pair drop, and are replaced by the cor¬ 
responding permanent teeth; at three years 
and a half, the two next, one on each side, 
fall, and are likewise replaced; and at the 
age of four j r ears and a half, the two ex¬ 
ternal incisors of the first set drop, and give 
room to the corresponding pair of perma¬ 
nent teeth. All these permanent nippers, as 
we have already observed, are flattened on 
the crown, or upper surface, and marked in 
the center with a circular pit, or hollow, 
which is gradually defaced in proportion as 
the tooth wears down to a level with its 
bottom. By the degree of this detrition, or 
wearing of the teeth, the age of the animal 
is determined, till the eighth year, at which 
period the marks are generally effaced; but 
it is to be observed that the external in¬ 
cisors, as appearing a year or two after the 
intermediate, preserve their original form 
proportionally for a longer period. After 
the eighth year, the age of the horse may 
be still determined for a few years longer 
by the appearance and comparative length 
of the canine teeth, or tushes. These, it is 
true, are sometimes wanting, particularly 
in the lower jaw, and in mares are rarely 
developed at all. Those of the under jaw 
appear at the age of three years and a half, 
and the upper at four; till six they are 
sharp-pointed, and at 10 they appear blunt 
and long; but after this period there are 
no further means of judging of the horse’s 
age, excepting from the comparative size, 
bluntness, and discolored appearance of the 
tushes. 

Oxen, Sheep, Goats , etc .— The age of 
the horned cattle is indicated more readily 
by the growth of horns than by the detrition 
and succession of the teeth. Their horns 
consist of a hollow sheath of horn, which 
covers a bony core of the skull, and grows 
from the root, when it receives each year 
an additional knob or ring, the number of 
which is a sure indication of the animal’s 
age. In the cow kind, the horns appear to 
grow uniformly during the first three years 
of the animal’s life; consequently, up to 
that age they are perfectly smooth and with¬ 
out wrinkles, but afterward each succeed¬ 
ing year adds a ring to the root of the horn, 
so that the age is determined by allowing 
three years for the point, or smooth part 
of the horn, and one for each of the rings. 
In sheep and goats, the smooth, or top part, 
counts but for one year, as the horns of 
these animals show their first knob, or ring, 
in the second year of their age. The age 
of other classes of animals cannot be de¬ 
termined by any general rule. In birds, it 
may be sometimes done by observing the 
form and wear of the bill; and some pre¬ 
tend to distinguish the age of fishes by the 


appearance of their scales, but their methods 
are founded upon mere hypothesis, and en¬ 
titled to no confidence. 

Age of Plants .— Plants, like animals, are 
subject to the laws of mortality, and, in 
many cases, have the period of their exist¬ 
ence determined by nature with as much 
exactness as that of an insect. It is prin¬ 
cipally to annual and biennial plants that 
a precise period of duration is fixed. The 
remainder of the more perfect part of the 
vegetable kingdom, whether herbaceous, or 
shrubby, or arborescent, consist of plants 
which may be classed under two principal 
modes of growth. One of these modes is to 
increase, when young, in diameter, rather 
than in length, until a certain magnitude is 
obtained, and then to shoot up a stem, the 
diameter of which is never materially al¬ 
tered. The addition of new matter to a 
trunk of this kind takes place by the in¬ 
sinuation of longitudinal fibers into the in¬ 
side of the wood near the center; on which 
account such trees are called endogenous, or 
monocotyledons. The other mode is, from 
the beginning, to increase simultaneously in 
length and diameter, but principally in 
length. The addition of new matter to a 
trunk of this kind takes place by the in¬ 
sinuation of longitudinal fibers into a space 
beneath the bark, and on the outside of the 
wood, near the circumference; on which ac¬ 
count such trees are called exogenous, or 
dicotyledons. 

There is scarcely any well attested evi¬ 
dence of an endogenous plant having ac¬ 
quired any considerable age, and, in fact, 
the mode of growth of such trees as palms 
seems to preclude the possibility of their 
existing beyond a definite period of no 
great extent. The diameter to which their 
trunk linally attains is very nearly gained 
before they begin to lengthen, and afterward 
all the new woody matter, which every suc¬ 
cessive leaf necessarily produces during its 
development, is insinuated into the center. 
The consequence of this is, that the woody 
matter previously existing in the center is 
displaced and forced outward toward the 
circumference; as this action is constantly 
in progress, the circumference, which in the 
beginning was soft, becomes gradually 
harder and harder by the pressure from 
within outward, till at last it is not sus¬ 
ceptible of any further compression. After 
this has occurred, the central parts will 
gradually solidify by the incessant introduc¬ 
tion by the leaves of new wood, which 
thrusts outward the older wood, till at last 
the whole stem must become equally hard, 
and no longer capable of giving way for the 
reception of new matter. As soon as this 
occurs, the tree will perish; because its 
vitality is dependent upon the full action 
of all the functions of the leaves, and the 
cessation of one is the cessation of all. 



Ageda 


Agis 


In exogenous trees, as in the oak, it is quite 
the reverse; to their existence no limited 
duration can be assigned; on the contrary, 
there is nothing physically impossible in the 
notion that some individuals now existing 
may even have been silent witnesses of the 
Noachian deluge. In consequence, first, of 
the new woody matter which is constantly 
formed by the leaves of such trees being in¬ 
sinuated beneath the bark, near the circum¬ 
ference of their trunk; and, second, of the 
bark itself being capable of indefinite dis¬ 
tension, no compression is exercised by the 
new parts upon those previously formed; on 
the contrary, the bark is incessantly giving 
way to make room for the wood beneath it, 
while the latter is, in consequence, only 
glued, as it were, to what succeeds it, with¬ 
out its own vital powers being in any de¬ 
gree impaired by compression. 

It is in the newly formed wood that 
the greatest degree of vitality resides; 
in the old wood, near the center, life, 
in time, becomes extinct; but as each 
successive layer possesses an existence 
in a great degree independent of that 
which preceded it, the death of the central 
part of an exogenous tree is by no means 
connected with a diminution of vitality in 
the circumference. The last cylinder having 
its own independent vitality, it will be ap¬ 
parent that, under circumstances constantly 
favorable to growth, individuals of this kind 
may continue to exist to the end of time. 
The way by which the age of exogenous 
trees may be computed is by cutting out a 
portion of their circumference, and counting 
the number of concentric rings that are vis¬ 
ible; the woody cylinder of one year being 
divided from the succeeding one by a denser 
substance, which marks distinctly the line 
of separation of the two years. In conse¬ 
quence of the extreme inequality in thick¬ 
ness of the annual layers of wood on op¬ 
posite sides of a stem, a person judging of 
the whole age of a tree by the examination 
of the layers of the stunted side only would 
commit errors to the amount of 00 per cent., 
and more. It is by no means impossible 
that the great age of 5,000 years and more, 
assigned by Adanson to the baobab tree of 
Africa, and by the younger De Candolle to 
the deciduous cypress of Mexico, may be 
connected with errors of this nature. 

Ageda (ag-a'da), the name of a plain, 90 
miles from Buda, where the Jewish rabbis 
held a meeting, in 1650, to debate whether 
the Messiah had come; the question was 
decided in the negative. 

Agen (a-zhon7, a town of France, capital 
of the Department of Lot-et-Garonne, on the 
right bank of the Garonne, on the railway 
from Bordeaux to Toulouse. Its situation, 
though rather unhealthy, makes it the en¬ 
trepot of the commerce between Bordeaux 
and Toulouse. Environs beautiful. Agen 


was a prsetorian city under the Roman em¬ 
perors. Pop. about 22,000. 

Agent, in law, one person who acts for 
another, called the principal. If a person 
acts as agent without authority, the sub¬ 
sequent ratification of the act will make it 
binding on the principal just as if he had 
originally directed it. When an agent acts 
within the scope of his employment, he may 
bind his principal, and the principal is liable 
for any fraudulent acts or wrong-doings of 
the agent so acting. If the agent, having 
power to bind his principal, does so ex¬ 
pressly, he is not liable; but if he exceeds 
his authority, he becomes personally re¬ 
sponsible. The agent is bound to obey the 
instructions of the principal, and, if, in vio¬ 
lating them, he binds the principal to a third 
person, he is personally liable to make com¬ 
pensation. He cannot deal in his principal’s 
affairs to his own profit. Upon the law of 
agency is based, to a large degree, the law 
of partnership. 

Agesander (aj-es-an'der), a famous 
sculptor of Rhodes, who, in the time of Ves¬ 
pasian, made a representation of the Lao- 
coon’s history, which now passes for the 
finest relic of all ancient sculpture. The 
Laocoon was discovered at Rome, in 1506, 
and afterward deposited in the Farnese pal¬ 
ace, where it still remains. 

Agesilaus (aj-es-e-la'us), King of Sparta 
(3S7-360 b. c.), was elevated to the throne 
chiefly by the exertions of Lysander. He 
was one of the most brilliant soldiers of an¬ 
tiquity. Being called upon by the Ionians 
to assist them against Artaxerxes, he com¬ 
menced a splendid campaign in Asia; but 
was compelled by the Corinthian War, in 
which several of the Grecian States were al¬ 
lied against Sparta, to leave his conquest 
over the Persians incomplete, and return to 
Greece. At Coronea (394 b. c.), he gained 
a victory over the allied forces, and in 378 
the war was concluded by a treaty of peace 
in favor of Sparta. Afterward, in the The¬ 
ban War, though hard pressed by Pelopidas 
and Epaminondas, and defeated at Mantinea 
(302), he bravely and ably defended his 
country. He fought a campaign in Egypt, 
and, returning, died in his 84th year. 

Agis (aj'is), the name of several kings 
of Sparta, of whom the most noted was 
Agis IV. He came to the throne in 244 
b. c., when the State of Sparta had fallen 
into a ruinous condition through long-con¬ 
tinued war. The riches of the State were 
in the hands of a few persons, while a great 
majority of the people were in extreme in¬ 
digence. Agis, therefore, in accordance with 
the old laws of the State, proposed the in¬ 
crease of the number of citizens by the ad¬ 
mission of a certain number of Helots and 
aliens, to be followed by the redistribution 
of landed estates by lottery. But insuper- 



Agincourt 


Agno 


able difficulties were thrown in the way; 
the people were persuaded that his schemes 
were inimical to the welfare of the State; 
and Agis was put to death, by strangula¬ 
tion (241 b. c.). 

Agincourt, now Azincourt, a small vil¬ 
lage in the center of the French department 
of Pas-de-Calais, celebrated for a bloody bat¬ 
tle between the English and French, Oct. 
25, 1415. The internal distractions of 

France, under the imbecile, Charles VI., had 
encouraged England to attempt to make 
good her ancient claims. Henry V., of Eng¬ 
land, had landed at Harfieur, had taken that 
fortress, and was marching to Calais, in or¬ 
der to go into winter quarters. But a French 
army, vastly superior in number, intercepted 
the English march to Calais, near the vil¬ 
lage of Agincourt. The invading army, 
weakened in numbers, and suffering from 
want of provisions, was still 14,000 strong; 
the French, under the Constable d’Albret, 
numbered 50,000, or more. The battle lasted 
three hours, and was a signal victory for 
the English, due mainly to the archers. As 
many as 10,000 Frenchmen are said to have 
fallen, among whom were the Constable, 
three dukes, and 90 barons. Five princes, 
among them the Dukes of Orleans and Bour¬ 
bon, were taken prisoners. The English lost 
1,000 killed. 

Agiaia (ag-l;Vya), the youngest of the 
three Graces, called also Pasiphse. 

In astronomy, one of the groups of small 
planets, revolving between Jupiter and Mars. 

In botany, a genus of dicotyledonous 
plants, order mcliacece. The flowers of ag¬ 
iaia odorata are used fo.r perfuming certain 
varieties of tea. 

Agnadeflo (an-ya-del'lo), a village of 
North Italy, 10 miles E. of Lodi, near which 
Louis XII., of France, completely defeated 
the Venetians, on May 14, 1509, and the 
Duke of Vendome gained a victory over 
Prince Eugene, in 1705. 

Agnano (an-ya'no), till 1870, a small 
lake, 3 miles W. of Naples, about GO feet 
in depth, and without visible outlet. As it 
caused malaria, it has been drained. The 
surrounding country is volcanic and moun¬ 
tainous. On the right lies the Grotta del 
Cane, and on the left are found the sulphur¬ 
ous vapor baths of San Germano. 

Agnes, St., a holy woman, who suffered 
martyrdom at the time of the persecution 
of the Christians in the reign of the Em¬ 
peror Diocletian. Having acknowledged her¬ 
self a Christian, and taken the vows of vir¬ 
ginity at the age of 13, she was besieged by 
many lovers. On her refusal to listen to 
them, or to renounce Christianity, she was 
first tortured and then exposed to dishonor. 
Being saved by a miracle, she was beheaded. 
Her emblem is a lamb, and her calendar day, 
Jan. 21. 


Agnesi, Maria Gaetana (an-ya'ze), a 
woman remarkable for her varied attain¬ 
ments, was born at Milan, in 1718. In her 
ninth year, she could converse in Latin, and 
soon acquired a mastery of Greek, Hebrew, 
French, Spanish, and German. Her father 
invited parties of learned men to his house, 
with whom, in spite of her retiring disposi¬ 
tion, Maria disputed on philosophical poinfs. 
Of her discourses on these occasions, her 
father published specimens, called “ Propo- 
sitiones Philosophic® ” (1738). After her 
20th year, she devoted herself to the study 
of mathematics, wrote an unpublished trea¬ 
tise on “ Conic Sections/’ and published her 
“ Instituzioni Analiticlie” (1748). The 
latter was a work of permanent value, and 
was translated into French and English. 
When her father was disabled by infirmity, 
she took his place as Professor of Mathemat¬ 
ics, in the University of Bologna, by the ap¬ 
pointment of Pope Benedict XIV. After her 
father’s death, in 1752, she made theology 
her study, and ultimately entered a con¬ 
vent at Milan, where, in 1799, she died, at 
the age of 81. 

Agnes Sorel. See Sorel. 

Agnew, Cornelius Rea, an American 
physician, born in New York, Aug. 8, 1830; 
Professor of Diseases of the Eye and Ear in 
New York College of Physicians and Sur- 
geons. He was a graduate of Columbia Col¬ 
lege, and later studied in Europe; was sur¬ 
geon-general of the State of New York at 
the beginning of the Civil War, when he be¬ 
came medical director of the New York State 
Volunteer Hospital. As member of the 
United States Sanitary Commission, he con¬ 
tributed largely to its success. In 1868, he 
founded the Brooklyn Eye and Ear Hospital. 
He was interested in the public schools of 
New York; became founder of the Columbia 
College School of Mines, and, in 1874, one 
of the trustees of the college. His writings 
are chiefly monographs on diseases of the 
eye and ear. He died April 8, 1888. 

Agnew, David Hayes, an American sur¬ 
geon and medical writer, born Nov. 24, 1818; 
for many years Professor of Surgery at the 
University of Pennsylvania. He was also 
the operator in several important cases, no¬ 
tably that of President Garfield. He pub¬ 
lished “ Practical Anatomy ” (1867 ) ; “ An¬ 
atomy and Its Relation to Medicine and 
Surgery; ” “ Principles and Practice of Sur¬ 
gery ” (1878 ), etc. He died March 22, 1892. 

Agno (ag'no), an important river in the 
N. W. part of Luzon, Philippine Islands. 
It is about 90 miles in length, describing 
a circuitous course, parallel with a range 
of coast mountains, and emptying into Lin- 
gayen Gulf. The town of Lingayen D M 
the mouth of the river, which is accessible 
by railway from Manila. 



Agnolo 


Agra 


Agnolo, Baccio di (an'yo-lo), an Italian 
architect and sculptor, born in Florence 
about 1460; a friend of Michel Angelo. He 
was originally a carpenter, and carved the 
choir seats in Santa Maria Novella, and the 
woodwork in the ceiling of the council hall 
of the chapel of the Palazzo Vecchio. He 
laid the marble flooring of the church of 
Santa Maria dei Fiori, of which he was 
chief builder, between 1506 and 1529. His 
principal buildings are the Palazzo Bar- 
toline, the Palazzo Pecori-Giraldi, the Pal¬ 
azzo Lanfredini, many villas in Florence, 
and the towers of San Spirito and San 
Miniato. 

Agnosticism, a school of thought which 
believes that, beyond what man can know by 
his senses or feel by his higher affections, 
nothing can be known. Facts, or, supposed 
facts, both of the lower and the higher life, 
are accepted, but all inferences deduced from 
these facts as to the existence of an unseen 
world, or of beings higher than man, are 
considered unsatisfactory, and are ignored. 
Agnostics, positivists, and secularists have 
much in common, and many people exist to 
whom anyone of the three names might be 
indifferently applied. 

Agosta, or Augusta, a small town of 
Sicily, in Yal di Noto, with an excellent 
harbor. In 1763 it was mostly swallowed 
up by an earthquake, but has been rebuilt. 
It was off this port that De Ruyter, the fa¬ 
mous Dutch admiral, in command of the 
united Dutch and Spanish fleet, April 22, 
1676, was defeated by the French, under 
Duquesne, and received his death wound. 

Agoult (a-go'), Marie Catherine Sophie 
de Flavigny, Comtesse d’, a French au¬ 
thor and socialist, born at Frankfort-on- 
Main, Dec. 31, 1805; in sympathy with the 
revolutionists of 1848. After separation 
from her husband, she became the mistress 
of the famous pianist, Franz Liszt, by whom 
she had a son and two daughters. Her 
daughter, Claire Christine, born 1830, mar¬ 
ried the author, Guy de Charnace, and wrote 
under the pseudonym of De Sault. Blan- 
dine married Emile Olivier; Cosima mar¬ 
ried first Hans von Biilow, and afterward 
Wagner. Under the pen-name of Daniel 
Stern, Mme. d'Agoult published “ Nelida ” 
(1847); “Moral and Political Sketches” 
(1849); “History of the Revolution of 1848” 
(1851) ; “Three Days of the Life of Marie 
Stuart” (1856), and “History of the Be¬ 
ginnings of the Republic in the Nether¬ 
lands, 1581-1625 ” (1872), which was 

granted a prize by the French Academy. 
Posthumously were published her “ Souve¬ 
nirs,” in which she recounted the scenes of 
her youth, and, especially, of her meeting 
with Goethe. She died at Paris, March 5, 
1876. 


Agoust, Captain de, an officer of the 
Swiss Guards, who, on May 4, 1788, 

marched the Parliament of Paris out of 
the Palais de Justice and carried off the 
key. 

Agouti, a South American animal, of the 
family hy stridden, order rodentia. The 
agoutis live for the most part upon the sur¬ 
face of the ground, not climbing nor digging 
to any depth; and they commonly sit upon 
their haunches, when at rest, holding their 
food between their forepaws, in the manner 
of squirrels. 

By eating the 
roots of the 
sugar-cane, they 
are often the 
cause of great 
injury to the 
planters. The 
ears are short, 
and the tail ru- 
dimentary. 

The animal is agouti. 

nearly 2 feet 

long. It is found in Guiana, Brazil, Para¬ 
guay, and some of the Antilles. It feeds 
voraciously on vegetable food, especially 
preferring various kinds of nuts. One 
of the other species of agouti is the 
acouchy. 

Agows, a remarkable people of Abyssinia, 
inhabiting a territory to the E.of the sources 
of the Bahr-el-Azrek (Blue river), or Abys¬ 
sinian Nile. Extent 60 miles long and 30 
broad. This district is fertile in the high¬ 
est degree. It produces large quantities of 
honey, and raises remarkably fine cattle, 
with which it almost exclusively supplies 
Gondar, the capital. There is another tribe 
called Tcheretz Agows on the northern bank 
of the Tacasse. 

Agra. (1) A former division of British 
India, now a part of the United Provinces 
of Agra and Oudh; area, 83,198 square 
miles; pop. (1901), 34,858,705. (2) A dis¬ 

trict consisting of a level plain diversified by 
sandstone hills. The soil is barren and 
sandy, and, through the failure of rains, 
famines frequently occur; area, 1,850 square 
miles; pop. (1901), 1,060,528. (3) The cap¬ 
ital of Agra district, on the right bank of 
the Jumna, 139 miles S. E. of Delhi, by rail, 
and 841 miles N. W. of Calcutta. The an¬ 
cient walls embraced an area of 11 square 
miles, of which about one-half is now occu¬ 
pied. The houses are mostly built of red 
sandstone, and, on the whole, Agra is the 
handsomest city in upper India. Some of 
the public buildings, monuments of the house 
of Timur, are on a scale of striking mag¬ 
nificence. Among these are the fortress, 
built by Akbar, within the walls of which 
are the palace and audience-hall of Shah 
Jelian, the Moti Masj id, or pearl mosque, 








Agram 


Agreement 


and the Jama Masjid, or great mosque. 
Still more celebrated is the white marble 
Taj Mahal, situated without the city, about 
a mile to the east of the fort. The city is 
considered especially sacred through Vish¬ 
nu’s incarnation there as Parasu Rama. 
Of British edifices, the principal are the Gov¬ 
ernment house, the Government College, 
three missionary colleges, the English 
church, and the barracks. The climate, dur¬ 
ing the hot and rainy seasons (April to Sep¬ 
tember), is very injurious to Europeans; 
but the average health of the city is equal 
to that of any other station in the North¬ 
western Provinces. The principal articles 
of trade are cotton, tobacco, salt, grain, and 
sugar. There are manufactures of shoes, 
pipe stems, and gold lace, and of inlaid mo¬ 
saic work, for which Agra is famous. Si- 
kander Lodi, King of the Afghans (1488- 
1517), made it his residence. In 1526, it 
was captured by Baber, but again came into 
the hands of the Afghans. In 1539, Akbar 
the Great made it his capital. Shah Jehan 
adorned it with wonderful buildings. Aur- 
ungzebe removed his residence to Delhi; and, 
after his death, the city was pillaged suc¬ 
cessively by Jats, Persians, Afghans, and 
Makrats, until, in 1784, it surrendered to 
Scinda, and, in 1803, to Lord Lake. During 
the Indian mutiny, in 1857, it was a place 
of refuge for the Europeans. It is a very 
important railway center, and has many 
claims to be regarded as the commercial cap¬ 
ital of the Northwest. Pop. (1901) 188,300. 

Agram (Croatian, Zagreb), capital of the 
Austrian Province of Croatia and Slavonia, 
lies at the foot of a richly wooded range of 
mountains, about 2 miles from the Save, 
and 142 miles N. E. of Fiume by rail. It 
is divided into three parts — the upper town, 
built upon two eminences; the lower town; 
and the episcopal town. The cathedral, dat¬ 
ing partly from the 11th century, is one of 
the finest Gothic buildings in Austria. 
Ninety per cent, of the inhabitants are 
Croats, who carry on a trade in wine, wood, 
and corn, and manufacture tobacco, leather, 
and linen. Repeated shocks of earthquake, 
in November, 1880, destroyed most of the 
public buildings, and overthrew 200 houses. 
Agram possesses a university, founded in 
1874, with 40 lecturers and 400 students, 
and a public library. Pop. (1900) 61,002. 

Agrarian, as adjective (1) general, per¬ 
taining to fields or lands; (2) special, per¬ 
taining to laws or customs, or political 
agitation in connection with the ownership 
or tenure of land. 

The agrarian laws, in the ancient Roman 
republic, were laws of which the most im¬ 
portant were those carried by C. Licinius 
Stolo, when tribune of the people, in b. c. 
367. The second rogation, among other 
enactments, provided (1) that no one should 


occupy more than 500 jugera (by one cal¬ 
culation, about 280, and by another, 333, 
English acres) of the public lands, or have 
more than 100 large, and 500 small, cattle 
grazing upon them; (2) that such portion 
of. the public lands above 500 jugera as was 
in possession of individuals should be di¬ 
vided among all the plebeians, in lots of 
seven jugera, as property; (3) that the oc¬ 
cupiers of public land were bound to em¬ 
ploy free laborers, in a certain fixed propor¬ 
tion to the extent of their occupation. When, 
at a later period, efforts were made to re¬ 
vive the Licinian rogations, such opposition 
was excited that the two Gracchi lost their 
lives in consequence, and this, with their 
other projects, proved abortive. It is im¬ 
portant to note that the land with which 
the Licinian, or agrarian, laws dealt was 
public land, belonging to the State, and not, 
as is popularly supposed, private property. 

Agrarian Party, a political organization 
in Germany, representing the interests of 
the landlords (in political life). The first 
steps toward the formation of the party 
were taken by an assembly, called together 
at Breslau, in May, 1869, by M. A. Nien- 
dorf (died 1878), and Eisner von Gronow, 
but the theory had already been formulated 
by Johann Karl Rodbertus. The organ of 
the party was “ Die Deutsche Landeszeit- 
ung,” edited by Niendorf. In February, 
1876, a constitutional assembly of agrarian 
reformers was opened, and adopted the of¬ 
ficial name of “ Steuer und Wirtschaftre- 
former.” Their programme was especially 
devoted to the abolition of taxes on land, 
buildings and trades. At first, especial em¬ 
phasis was laid on free trade, but this ob¬ 
ject fell more and more into the background 
after 1879. The Agrarian Party took an 
important share in opposing commercial re¬ 
lations with the United States, especially in 
food stuffs. 

Agreement, a mutual bargain, contract, 
or covenant. Taken in its most extended 
sense, it comprehends a large proportion of 
the transactions of civilized man in the mu¬ 
tual intercourse of society. In a more lim¬ 
ited sense, it is the mutual assent to do a 
thing; the effect of this assent, or the in¬ 
strument itself, showing what has been 
agreed. Every state has particular laws on 
this important matter. It may, however, 
be noticed as general rule: (1) That the 
assent is the essence of an agreement, and 
that the parties must be in situations to 
testify their free assent to it. Thus luna¬ 
tics, infants, and, in certain cases, married 
women, are, for obvious reasons, deemed in¬ 
capable of binding themselves by any en¬ 
gagement. (2) That the subject of agree¬ 
ment must not be tainted with illegality; 
for it would be evidently repugnant to com¬ 
mon sense that the law should be called to 
enforce performance of any act which it has 




Agricoia 


Agricultural Chemistry 


expressly forbidden, or which would be con* 
trary to its general policy. (3) In order to 
secure the aid of the law in carrying it into 
effect, an agreement must have certain qual¬ 
ities mutually beneficial to the parties, or 
must be entered into with certain prescribed 
solemnities. Courts of justice cannot be 
called upon to take cognizance of idle or in¬ 
considerate promises. An agreement must 
either be contracted by a formal instrument 
in writing, sealed and openly acknowledged 
by the party who has bound itself to it; or, 
if contracted in o loss formal manner, by 
word or otherwise, it must appear that the 
parties derive from it reciprocal benefit. 
Upon this principle, a promise to make a 
voluntary gift can never be enforced; but 
there is a continuing right in the party 
promising, to retract his promise or dona¬ 
tion, until the gift is actually completed. 
An agreement takes the name of deed, or 
specialty contract, when put in writing un¬ 
der seal, but not when put in writing for a 
memorandum. 

Agricola, Cnaeus Julius (ag-rik'o-la), 
Roman statesman and general, born in 37 
a. n. He went to Britain in 77 a. d., 
strengthened the Roman power, and ex¬ 
tended it to the Scotch Highlands. He was 
in command of the army in Britain for seven 
years, successfully subduing and pacifying 
the inhabitants. He built chains of forts 
between the Solway and the Tyne, and be¬ 
tween the Clyde and Forth. Numerous 
traces of his works exist in many parts of 
Great Britain. His success made Domitian 
jealous of him, and he retired from public 
life in 84. His life, written by his son-in- 
law, Tacitus, is considered to be one of the 
best biographies in literature. He died in 
93. 

Agricola, John, a polemical writer of ce¬ 
lebrity, born at Eisleben, Saxony, in 1492; 
died at Berlin, in 1560. From being the 
friend and scholar, he became an antagonist, 
of Martin Luther. He entered into a dis¬ 
pute with Melanchthon, advocating the doc¬ 
trine of faith in opposition to the works of 
the law, whence the sect of which he became 
leader received the name of Antinomians. 

Agricola, Rudolphus, the foremost 
scholar of the “ New Learning,” in Ger¬ 
many, was born near Groningen, in Fries¬ 
land, Aug. 23, 1443. His real name, Roelof 
Huysmann (husbandman), he Latinized 
into Agricola; and from his native place he 
was also called Frisius, or Rudolf of Gron¬ 
ingen. From Groningen he passed to Lou¬ 
vain, then to Paris, and then to Italy, 
where, during the years 1473-1480, he at¬ 
tended the lectures of the most celebrated 
men of his age, and where he entered into 
a close friendship with Dal berg, afterward 
Bishop of Worms. On his return home, he 
endeavored, in connection with several of his 
former co-disciples and friends, to promote 


a taste for literature and eloquence. Sev¬ 
eral cities of Holland vainly strove with 
each other to obtain his presence, but not 
even the brilliant overtures made to him 
by the Emperor Maximilian, to whose court 
he had repaired in connection with affairs 
of the town of Groningen, could induce him 
to renounce his independence. At length 
yielding (1483) to the solicitations of Dal- 
berg, he established himself in the Palatin¬ 
ate, where he sojourned alternately at 
Heidelberg and Worms, dividing his time 
between private studies and public lectures, 
and enjoying high popularity. He distin¬ 
guished himself also as a musician and 
painter. With Dalberg, he revisited Italy 



RUD0LPHTJS AGRICOLA. 


(1484), and, shortly after his return, died 
at Heidelberg, Oct. 28, 1485. Most of his 
works were collected by Alard, of Amster¬ 
dam (2 vols., Cologne, 1539). 

Agricultural Chemistry. Agricultural 
chemistry treats of' the composition and 
functions of soils and fertilizers, and studies 
the properties of agricultural products, and 
their relations to nutrition and the tech¬ 
nical arts. Little was known a hundred 
years ago of the real relations of chemistry 
to agriculture. Since farming has been prac¬ 
tised as an art, the value of certain fertiliz¬ 
ers, such as those produced in the barnyard, 
has been recognized, but the principles upon 
which their utilization depends were not 
understood (see Manure). One of the first 
publications on agricultural chemistry was 
entitled “Natural and Chemical Elements of 
Agriculture,” translated from the Latin of 
Count Gustavus Adolphus Gyllenborg by 
John Mills, and published in London in 1770. 
The real beginning of agricultural chemistry 
is found in a series of lectures by Sir Hum¬ 
phry Davy ( q . v.) before the Royal Agricul- 







Agricultural Chemistry 


Agricultural Chemistry 


tural Society of England, published in 1813. 
It was not, however, until thirty years later 
that agricultural chemistry received its first 
great impetus in the investigations and pub¬ 
lications of Liebig {q. v.). His work, en¬ 
titled “Chemistry in its Application to Ag¬ 
riculture and Physiology,” in 1840, marked 
a complete change in the theories of chem¬ 
istry in their application to agriculture. 
Liebig developed the “mineral” theory of the 
nutrition of plants, as opposed to the old 
“humus” or “organic” theory (see Vege¬ 
table Physiology). This laid the founda¬ 
tions for the inauguration and development 
of one of the great chemical industries, 
namely, that of the manufacture of com¬ 
mercial fertilizers; and the discovery that 
bones and rocks containing phosphorus 
could be utilized for plant food, opened a 
way for the development of agriculture be¬ 
fore unknown (see Phosphate). An illus¬ 
tration of what has been done in this line 
is shown by the phosphate industry of the 
United States. Vast quantities of phos¬ 
phates have been discovered in the United 
States in South Carolina, Florida and Ten¬ 
nessee, and in smaller deposits in other 
parts of the country. The magnitude of this 
industry at the present time is illustrated 
by the following table, showing the amount 
of phosphate rock mined for the manufac¬ 
ture of fertilizers in the principal countries 
of the world during 1902: 

Quantity: 

(Metric tons) 

305,174 
135,850 
776 
543,900 


Algeria 
Belgium 
Canada 
France 
Redonda 
West 
Snain . 
Tunis . 
United 


(British 
Indies) . . . 


Kingdom. 


V alue: 
$1,220,696 
297,848 
4.969 
2,480,454 


132 

1.150 

264,930 

87 


791 

4.600 

1,075,616 


Total. 1,251.999 $5,085,506 

United States. 1.514.254 4,693,444 

From the above table it is seen that the 
total quantity of phosphate rock produced 
in the United States is greater than in all 


the rest of the world combined. These in¬ 
vestigations of Liebig also pointed the way 
to the discovery of vast deposits of potash 
existing near Stassfurt, in Germany, and to 
the exploitation and utilization of guano 
deposits, and of the deposits of the vast 
quantities of sodium nitrate existing in 
Chile and in some other arid countries. 
These fruitful investigations in agricultural 
chemistry have made possible the great ad¬ 
vances of agriculture in the last fifty years, 
the distinctive feature of which has been 
the passing away of extensive and unscien¬ 
tific methods of culture, and the substitu¬ 
tion therefor of intensive and scientific farm¬ 
ing. Since practically all the arable lands 
in the world, except in the tropics, have 
been brought under cultivation, it is evident 
that an increasing food supply from those 
lands can come only from scientific agricul¬ 


ture increasing the yield. These improved 
methods must come chiefly from agricultural 
chemistry. The era of Liebig led to the es¬ 
tablishment in all civilized countries of ag¬ 
ricultural experiment stations, the develop¬ 
ment of which has been a characteristic il¬ 
lustration of the progress of agricultural 
chemistry during the past forty years. One 
of the most famous of these stations was 
established by Sir John Lawes at Rotham- 
sted, England, where for more than sixty 
years methodical experiments in agricultural 
chemistry have been conducted. In Germany 
large numbers of agricultural experiment 
stations are found, and smaller numbers in 
France, Austria and Russia. In the United 
States, including the insular possessions, 
there are fifty-nine experiment stations, one 
for each State and Territory, while Alabama 
has three, as have also Louisiana and Con¬ 
necticut; Hawaii, Missouri and New York 
have two each. The preponderating influence 
of chemistry in experimental work is illus¬ 
trated by these agricultural experiment sta¬ 
tions, as shown in the number of the direc¬ 
tors of these stations who are chemists. In 
round numbers, forty per cent, of the direc¬ 
tors are chemists, and in Germany this num¬ 
ber is very much larger. 

The great influence of chemistry on the 
agricultural experiment stations of this 
country is measured not alone by the num¬ 
ber of professional chemists found in the 
various directorates, but also in a compari¬ 
son of this number with that of other scien¬ 
tific men holding similar positions. Very few 
of the other sciences are represented among 
the directors of stations, and no one of them 
can compare in the number of representa¬ 
tives with the science of chemistry. Among 
the working forces of the stations, chemists 
also predominate. There are twice as many 
chemists employed in the stations as there 
are men engaged in any other professional 
scientific work. Statistics show that the 
number of chemists employed in the agri¬ 
cultural experiment stations of the United 
States is one hundred and fifty-seven, while 
the number of botanists is fifty, and the 
number of entomologists forty-two. The 
number of employees belonging to other 
branches of science is very much less than 
that of the botanists and entomologists, and 
the total number of scientific men employed 
in all other branches of scientific work in 
the stations does not greatly exceed, if, in¬ 
deed, it be equal to, the number of those em¬ 
ployed in chemical research alone. The state 
of agricultural education in the United 
States and in Europe, as well as the experi¬ 
mental work, shows the dominant influence 
of agricultural chemistry. Each State and 
Territory in this country has an agricultural 
college, in which are taught the principles 
of chemistry as applied to agriculture. 
These efforts at increasing • agricultural 












Agricultural Chemistry 


Agricultural Colleges 


knowledge are supported not only by the 
Federal Government, but also by the States. 
For the support of the agricultural experi¬ 
ment stations for the fiscal year beginning 
July 1, 1905, the Congress of the United 
States has appropriated $794,000. Each ag¬ 
ricultural college in the country should thus 
receive $25,000. The appropriation by the 
several States for the support of this work 
is estimated to be about the same as that 
given by the Federal Government. During 
the past quarter of a century the principles 
of agricultural chemistry have been applied 
very extensively to the science of nutrition, 
especially of farm animals, and, more re¬ 
cently, of man. These investigations have 
been carried out chiefly under the auspices 
of the agricultural experiment stations of 
the several States, and of the Department 
of Agriculture (see Agriculture, Depart¬ 
ment of). The results of these investiga¬ 
tions have placed nutrition upon a strictly 
scientific basis, and have not only added to 
the knowledge of this subject, but also made 
possible the introduction of economical prin¬ 
ciples which enable the farmer to maintain 
the animals of his farm at less cost and in 
better condition than ever before. 

A very common idea of agricultural chem¬ 
istry is that it consists solely of analytical 
processes applied to soils and fertilizers. 
This is a most erroneous conception. All the 
great problems connected with the nutrition 
and clothing of the human race are to be 
solved chiefly by agricultural chemistry. 
This may well be illustrated in a most 
marked way by the steps which have been 
made in the last few years toward the 
utilization of atmospheric nitrogen for 
plant food. It is known that nitrogen is 
available for plant food only in the form 
of nitric acid, and while the air contains 
vast quantities of nitrogen, in a free state, 
no part of this can be used by plants until 
it is oxidized. The development of elec¬ 
tricity has placed in the hands of the chem¬ 
ist a most valuable means of oxidizing 
nitrogen. Large quantities of nitric acid 
are produced by the direct oxidation of 
the nitrogen of the atmosphere. It is true 
that at the present time this process is not 
commercially possible because of the expense 
attendant upon it. There is every reason to 
believe, however, that the time is not distant 
when nitric acid made in this way will be 
cheap enough to warrant its use for plant 
food. The discovery of Hellriegel in 1886 
of the existence of organisms on the roots 
of leguminous plants which possess the 
faculty of oxidizing atmospheric nitrogen, 
gave a tremendous impetus to our knowl¬ 
edge of this important process. Later, 
Nobbe and Hiltner devised a means for the 
manufacture and use of cultures for the in¬ 
oculation of leguminous plants. This cul¬ 
ture was sold under the name of “Nitragin.” 


Improved methods for the manufacture and 
distribution of these organisms have been 
developed within the last two years by 
Moore, of the Department of Agriculture, 
promising renewed aid to the farmer in se¬ 
curing this cheap and efficient fertilizing 
power. Other investigations have shown 
that there is a possibility of developing the 
organisms which convert nitrogen into nitric 
acid without the aid of leguminous plants, 
and a culture under the name of “Alinit” 
has been offered in Germany for this pur¬ 
pose. It is thus seen that agricultural chem¬ 
istry, along many lines, is increasing the 
store of plant food which the world must 
utilize for its nutriment and clothing. In 
chemical technology, also, the science of ag¬ 
ricultural chemistry is highly beneficial. It 
has paved the way for the manufacture of 
starch, glucose, wine, beer, cider and the dis¬ 
tilled liquors; it assists in tanning and the 
production of tanning materials, in the man¬ 
ufacture of fertilizers, smokeless powders, 
fiber products, and, in general, in the utili¬ 
zation of agricultural products for technical 
purposes. 

The foregoing sketch of the relations of 
chemical research to the progress of agricul¬ 
ture during the past hundred years presents 
an outline view of the status of this indus¬ 
try. The true composition of the soil and 
its relations to plant growth are now known. 
The methods of utilizing plant food and of 
conserving it for the coming years have been 
fully established. The principles of plant 
growth and the chemical changes attending 
it are understood. The laws of animal nu¬ 
trition have been experimentally elucidated, 
and by their application great economy in 
the use of nutrients is effected. The 
methods whereby organic nitrogen is pre¬ 
pared for plant food have been revealed, and 
some of the ways in which atmospheric nit¬ 
rogen enters into organic combination are 
marked out. The application of the prin¬ 
ciples of chemical technology to the elabora¬ 
tion of raw agricultural products has added 
a new value to the fruits of the farm, opened 
up new avenues of prosperity, and developed 
new staple crops. The closing of the cen¬ 
tury sees in this country an endowment for 
agricultural research which excites the ad¬ 
miration of the whole civilized world, and a 
study of the personnel of the scientific corps 
shows that fully half the amount expended 
for strictly scientific investigations has been 
for chemical studies. We find chemistry in¬ 
timately associated with nearly every line of 
agricultural progress, and pointing the way 
to still greater advancement. See Agricul¬ 
ture. H. W. Wiley. 

Agricultural Colleges, educational insti¬ 
tutions, chiefly under government patronage, 
for the promotion of scientific farming. The 
investigations of Liebig demonstrated the 
perfect practicability of restoring fertility 



Agricultural Colleges 


Agriculture 


to exhausted soils, and also of rendering 
seemingly barren soils productive by intel¬ 
ligent study of the special requirements of 
special soils. The various German States 
proceeded to give the widest practical appli¬ 
cation to the principles thus established by 
Liebig, founding schools for scientific agri¬ 
cultural training, which have steadily in¬ 
creased in number and attained great effi¬ 
ciency. Other European countries have fol¬ 
lowed the lead of Germany, with advan¬ 
tageous results. In England, a Loyal Agri¬ 
cultural College was opened in 1845, and 
similar institutions have been added since. 
In 1862, the United States Congress passed 
a so-called land grant act, by which land 
scrip, representing 30,000 acres for every 
Senator and Representative, was issued to 
the States and Territories, the object being 
to provide a special fund for the creation of 
State and Territorial agricultural colleges. 
The land granted to the States by the act of 
1862 amounted to somewhat more than 10,- 
000,000 acres, which by 1000 had produced 
a permanent fund of $10,262,944, with lands 
still unsold of the estimated value of 
$4,062,850, the entire proceeds being in 
round numbers somewhat over $14,250,000. 
To this have been added other land-grant 
funds amounting to $1,441,577; other per¬ 
manent funds, $14,442,194; farms and 
grounds, $5,543,108; buildings, $16,274,000; 
apparatus, $1,955,859; machinery, $1,373,- 
696; libraries, $1,854,942; and miscellaneous 
equipment, $1,997,690, making a grand total 
of permanent plant of the value of $58,944,- 
137. On this basis 65 institutions have been 
established. In 1899 they had a total of 
35,956 students, with 2,893 professors and 
instructors, and a total income of $5,994,- 
037, exclusive of the sums received from the 
United States for agricultural experiment 
stations. Three of the land-grant colleges 
in Southern States (Mississippi, North Car¬ 
olina, and South Carolina) have recently 
established courses of study in textile in¬ 
dustry. 

The Act of 1862 was supplemented by a 
second (Aug. 30, 1890), so that under both 
acts, each State and Territory having an 
agricultural college receives an appropria¬ 
tion annually from the United States treas¬ 
ury for its support. The past few years 
have witnessed the establishment of short 
courses of study in agriculture, dairying, 
mechanic arts, household economy, etc., for 
persons who cannot take a regular course. 

The foregoing figures and statement of 
results furnish most striking and conclu¬ 
sive evidence that the policy of Congress, 
begun by the Act of 1862 and continued by 
that of 1890, has met a great public need, 
and that instead of encouraging inaction 
or indifference on the part of the States it 
has, on the contrary, stimulated them to a 
degree of activity far in advance of that 
9 


of Congress. While the amount received 
from the government by the States and Ter¬ 
ritories during the school year 1899-1900 
was $1,844,177, they appropriated a total 
of $2,916,837 toward the maintenance and 
support of the land-grant colleges. Here 
let it be recorded that the late Justin S. 
Morrill, long United States Senator from 
Vermont, was the “ father ” of this system 
of technical education in the United States. 

Agricultural Experiment Station, an 

institution devoted to investigation in the 
theory and practice of agriculture. In the 
United States and its insular possessions 
there were, in 1905, 59 such stations. The 
Office of Experiment Stations in the De¬ 
partment of Agriculture exercises a general 
supervision over the operations of the sta¬ 
tions, and directly conducts those in Alaska 
and the insular possessions. Accounts of 
the work accomplished are given in the 
periodical “Experiment Station Work,” and 
in the “Farmers’ Bulletins” of the Depart¬ 
ment. Under the Hatch Act of 1887, the 
Congress appropriated for the year begin¬ 
ning July 1, 1905, the sum of $794,660 for 
the benefit of these institutions. Aid is 
likewise given by the respective states. See 
also Agricultural Chemistry. 

Agriculture, the art of cultivating the 
ground, whether by pasturage, by tillage, 
or by gardening. In many countries the 
process of human economical and social de¬ 
velopment has been from the savage state 
to hunting and fishing, from these to the 
pastoral state, from it again to agriculture, 
properly so called, and thence, finally, to 
commerce and manufactures; though even 
in the most advanced countries every one of 
the stages now mentioned, excepting only 
the first, and, in part, the second, still exist 
and flourish. The tillage of the soil has ex¬ 
isted from a remote period of antiquity, and 
experience has from time to time improved 
the processes adopted and the instruments 
in use; but it is not till a very recent period 
that the necessity of basing the occupation 
of the farmer on physical and other science 
has been even partially recognized. Now a 
division is made into theoretical and practi¬ 
cal agriculture, the former investigating the 
scientific principles on which the cultivation 
of the soil should be conducted, and the best 
methods of carrying them out; and the lat¬ 
ter actually doing so in practice. 

The soil used for agricultural purposes is 
mainly derived from subjacent rocks, which 
cannot be properly understood without some 
knowledge of geology, while a study of the 
dip and strike of the rocks will also be of 
use in determining the most suitable direc¬ 
tions for drains and places for wells. The 
composition of the soil, manures, etc., re¬ 
quires for its determination agricultural 
chemistry. The weather cannot be properly 



Agriculture 


Agriculture 


Understood without meteorology. The 
plants cultivated, the weeds requiring ex¬ 
tirpation, the fungous growths which often 
do extensive and mysterious damage, fall 
under the province of botany; the domestic 
animals, and the wild mammals, birds and 
insects which prey on the produce of the 
field, under that of zoology. The complex 
machines and even the simplest implements 
are constructed upon principles revealed by 


ANCIENT EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURE. 


natural philosophy; farm buildings cannot 
be properly planned or constructed without 
a knowledge of architecture. Rents can be 
understood only by the student of political 
economy. Finally, farm laborers cannot be 
governed or rendered loyal and trustworthy 
unless their superior knows the human 
heart, and acts on the Christian principle 
of doing to those under him as he would 
wish them, if his or their relative positions 
were reversed, to do to him. Notwithstand¬ 
ing the enormous expansion of the manufac¬ 
turing industries in the 19th century, agri¬ 
culture is still the greatest of the occupa¬ 
tions of man. Mulliall calculates that it 
employs about 80,000,000 adult persons (not 
reckoning India and China) ; that its in¬ 
vested capital exceeds $110,000,000,000; and 
that its annual products have a value of 
$20,000,000,000. According to the same au¬ 
thority, both the capital invested and the 
value of the products have doubled since 
1840. In the United States about two-fifths 
of the population are engaged in agricul¬ 
ture. 

Historical and General Aspects .— In all 


countries and ages, history records no in¬ 
stance of any civilization attained without 
noteworthy progress in agriculture. The 
relationship of agriculture to population ex¬ 
pansion is one of the vital questions for 
economists. It appears that, in times so re¬ 
mote that their antiquity is only conjectur- 
able, an excellent system of agriculture sup¬ 
ported, in the valleys • of the Nile and 
Euphrates, populations at least as dense as 
any existing to-day. The same ag¬ 
ricultural perfection, attended by 
much the same exceptional condi¬ 
tions of the population which dis¬ 
tinguished the oldest civilizations 
of the world, is still conspicuously 
characteristic of such Oriental 
countries as retain any national 
vitality, especially India, China 
and Japan. For instance, Japan 
contains more inhabitants than the 
United Kingdom, and supports 
them without taking any food 
products from abroad (actually, 
indeed, exporting considerable 
quantities of rice), whereas Eng¬ 
land imports food stuffs to the 
value of hundreds of millions of 
dollars. 

In the Middle Ages, agriculture 
was almost wholly disregarded 
throughout Europe, and, conse¬ 
quently, civilization was generally 
at a low ebb. On the other hand, 
the era of the Saracens in Spain is 
memorable for civilization, and par¬ 
ticularly for its admirable agri¬ 
culture. Without exception, all the 
European nations that enjoy emi¬ 
nence to day possess carefully de¬ 
veloped agricultural systems, while in 
Spain, the one noticeably backward coun¬ 
try, agriculture languishes. It is prover¬ 
bial that the wealth of France is not in 
her luxurious capital, but in her provincial 
acres. Belgium and Holland, the richest 
regions of Europe in proportion to area, 
with populations correspondingly dense, 
owe their pre-eminence to the elaborate 
cultivation. The collapse of the Moham ■ 
medan power finds one of its chief ex 



PEASANTS PLOWING, 13TH CENTURY. 


planations in the indolence of the Turk and 
his neglect of the soil. European Turkey, 
having an area greater than England’s, a 



From Reliefs on the Tomb of Ti (Fifth Dynasty) at Sakharah, Egypt. 

































Agriculture 


Agriculture 


magnificent climate, and a most fertile soil, 
maintains a population scarcely one-sixth 
that of England, and its annual products are 
even more insignificant in comparison. 

The first mention of agriculture is found 
in the writings of Moses. From them we 
learn that Cain was a “ tiller of the 
ground;” that Abel sacrificed the “first¬ 
lings of his flock; ” and that Noah “began 
to be a husbandman and planted a vine¬ 
yard.” The Chinese, Japanese, Chaldeans, 
Egyptians, and Phoenicians appear to have 
held husbandry in high estimation. The 
Egyptians were so sensible of its blessings 
that they ascribed its invention to super¬ 
human agency, and even carried their 
gratitude to such an excess as to worship 
the ox, for his services as a laborer. The 
Carthagenians carried the art of agriculture 
to a higher degree than other nations, their 
contemporaries. Mago, one of their most 
famous generals, wrote no less than 28 
books on agricultural topics, which, accord¬ 
ing to Columella, were translated into Latin 
by an express decree of the Roman Senate. 
Hesiod, the Greek writer, supposed to be 
contemporary with Homer, wrote a poem on 
agriculture, entitled “ Weeks and Days,” 
which was so denominated because hus¬ 
bandry requires an exact observance of 
times and seasons. Other Greek writers 
wrote on rural economy, and Xenophon, 
among the number, but their works have 
been lost in the lapse of ages. Columella, 
who flourished in the reign of the Emperor 
Claudius, wrote 12 books on husbandry, 
which constituted a complete treatise on 
rural affairs. Pliny ascribes the invention 
of manures to the Greek King Augeas, and 
Theophrastus not only mentions six kinds 
of manures, but declares that a mixture of 
soils produces the same effects as manures. 
Cato, the Roman censor, equally celebrated 
as a statesman, orator, and general, derived 
his highest and most durable honors from 
having written a voluminous work on agri¬ 
culture. In the “ Georgies ” of Vergil, the 
majesty of verse and the harmony of num- 
Ders add dignity and grace to the most 
useful of all topics. Varro, Pliny, and 
Palladius irere likewise among the distin¬ 
guished Romans who wrote on agricultural 
subjects. 

It is interesting to note here that irriga¬ 
tion had an influential advocate as long ago 
as the time of Vergii, who in his “Geor¬ 
gies ” advises husbandmen to “ bring down 
the waters of a river upon the sown corn, 
and, when the field is parched and the 
plants drying, convey it from the brow of 
a hill in channels.” To the credit of the 
Romans let it be remembered that, unlike 
many conquerors, instead of desolating they 
improved the countries which they subdued, 
and first of all in agriculture. 

Recent Progress .— From the details of 
primitive agricultural methods given in an¬ 


cient writings and represented in monumen¬ 
tal inscriptions, it is evident that not till 
the 19th century had anything very material 
been done toward the creation of a distinc- 



OLD ROMAN PLOW. 


tive agricultural science. The original arts 
of husbandry, practiced ages ago, have sim¬ 
ply been adapted, with little improvement 



IRON HOE FROM KORDOFAN, AFRICA. 


till very lately, to modify conditions. 
Most of the mechanical appliances to which 
our ancestors were restricted — the plow, 



LOANGO NEGRESS AT FIELD-WORK. 


roller, hoe, sickle — are found pictured in 
the Egyptian inscriptions and paintings. 
It is also known that the Egyptians were 
familiar with the advantages of rotation in 
















Agriculture 


Agriculture 


crops, and that they were exceedingly intel¬ 
ligent and systematic in the administration 
of estates and the regulation of all rural 
concerns. 

Within the last hundred years, however, 
the foundations of an entirely new agricul¬ 
ture have been securely laid. The two ac¬ 
tive agencies in this change have been chem¬ 
ical science and invention. Chemical science, 
as applied to agriculture, is based on very 
simple elements. The arable surface soil 
becomes exhausted if grain is sown upon it 
in successive years, this exhaustion being oc¬ 
casioned by the removal of the mineral sub¬ 
stances necessary to the life of the grain. 
By the system of rotation, a cereal crop is 
followed by a so-called green crop, the roots 
of which penetrate deep into the subsoil and 
extract from it a fresh supply of the needful 
minerals; thus the vigor of the surface soil 
is renewed and it again produces an abun¬ 
dant grain crop. 

The fundamentals of the new rural econ¬ 
omy are to secure maximum productiveness 
on the agricultural lands, as a whole, by a 
comprehensive utilization of a great variety 
of fertilizers, and, by studying the needs of 
the soil, to apply to them the particular fer¬ 
tilizers best adapted to their nature. The 
demonstrations of experimental chemistry 
in these directions have been so effective 
that agricultural science has become one of 
the leading subjects of practical investiga¬ 
tion, receiving the actual encouragement of 
all civilized governments. The energetic 
spirit stimulated by the latest teachings 
of chemical science has reflected constant 
advance in all other departments of scien¬ 
tific agriculture, such as drainage, irriga¬ 
tion, the improvement of breeds and plants, 
meteorology, etc. 

Agricultural Interests and the Govern¬ 
ment .— The growth of agriculture and the 
evolution of enlightened governmental ad¬ 
ministration have uniformly gone hand in 
hand. The great distinguishing character¬ 
istic of the Dark Ages in Europe was the 
crushing oppression of the rural population. 
The lifting of the arbitrary burdens resting 
on the agricultural class has in all countries 
marked the beginning of the era of enlarged 
civil liberty and of diffused intelligence. 
The marvelous progress of the United States 
is above all the result of the rapid absorp¬ 
tion of lands by its own native citizens and 
by industrious immigrants from Europe. 
From the earliest period the Federal Govern¬ 
ment, having enormous tracts of unoccupied 
lands at its disposal, pursued an extremely 
liberal policy to encourage settlement (see 
Domain, Public). Thus, in a brief time, 
every section of the country was peopled and 
the foundations of a great commonwealth 
were laid. With the vigorous revival of en¬ 
terprise and thrift after the Civil War, and 
the steady advance of immigration, the 


epoch of abundant, fertile lands obtainable 
for a nominal price was brought to its close; 
and the intense rivalry witnessed at the 
opening of Oklahoma Territory was a dem¬ 
onstration of the practical termination of 
the era of settlement. In a new country, 
the soil of which has been accessible to all, 
the farmers have not been prompt to turn 
their attention to the strictly scientific as¬ 
pects of agriculture, yet the government has 
manifested appreciation of the spirit of the 
age and the needs of the future by ics gen¬ 
erous provisions for the founding of agri¬ 
cultural colleges, and by its admirable sys¬ 
tem of agricultural experiment stations. 
The latter, like the agricultural colleges, 
are modeled upon the technical institutions 
originated in Europe for scientific investiga¬ 
tion concerning all the branches of agricul¬ 
ture. The Federal Government makes an an¬ 
nual grant for experiment station purposes 
to each State and Territory in whichanagri¬ 
cultural college is in operation, and some of 
the States also contribute to the support of 
the stations. The Department of Agricul¬ 
ture of the National Government is excel¬ 
lently equipped for the promotion of agri¬ 
cultural interests in both practical and ex¬ 
perimental aspects. Its Weather Bureau, 
Bureau of Animal Industries, and various di¬ 
visions, are constantly performing work of 
much value, and a great variety of use¬ 
ful information is systematically dissem¬ 
inated. 

Productions of the United States .— A 
most striking illustration of the value of the 
agricultural industries of the United States 
is found in the following summary of the 
exports during the fiscal year ending 
June 30, 1901: Products of agriculture, 
$943,811,020; manufactures, $412,155,06G; 
mining, $37,985,333; forests, $54,317,294; 
fisheries, $7,GS3,353; and miscellaneous, 
$4,510,740; total, $1,460,462,806. The share 
of agricultural products in this great aggre¬ 
gate was 64.G2 per cent. During the fiscal 
year the value of agricultural products ex¬ 
ported exceeded that of the preceding year 
by $107,952,897, the chief increase being in 
cotton ($71,840,700) and wheat ($23,534,- 
GG3). The aggregate of the year 1910 was 
the largest ever reached by agricultural 
products, $8,926,000,000. 

The production and value of the principal 
crops in the calendar year 1910 were as fol¬ 
lows: Corn, 3,125,71*3,000 bushels, farm 
value, $1,523,968,000; all wheat, 695,443,- 
000 bushels, value, $621,443,000; rye, 33,039,- 
000 bushels, value, $23,840,000; oats, 1,126,- 
765,000 bushels, value $384,716,000; barley, 
162,227,000 bushels, value $93,785,000; 
buckwheat, 17,239,000 bushels, value $11,321,- 
000; potatoes, 338,811,000 bushels, value 
$187,985,000; hay, 60,978,000 tons, value 
$747,769,000; tobacco, 984,349,000 pounds, 
value $91,459,000 ; flaxseed, 14,116,000 bush¬ 
els, value $32,554,000; and rice (rough), 




Agriculture 


Agriculture 


24,510,000 bushels, value $10,024,000. The 
cotton crop in the year ending Aug. 31, 1010, 
was 11,420,000 bales (500 pounds each), 
value $900,000,000, and cotton exports in 
1910 aggregated $530,000,000 in value. 

Agriculture, A Century of Progress 

in. Marvelous as are the discoveries 
of the century in the domains of science, 
manufacture, and commerce, they by no 
means eclipse the contemporary achieve¬ 
ments in agriculture. Antedating every 
other industry of the race, the barometer 
of the world’s progress during all the ages 
of the past, dozing with other arts, of peace, 
of times, and peoples long departed, agricul¬ 
ture has awakened with a start, and in 
great leaps and bounds placed herself in the 
front ranks of the century’s progress. 

The division of labor in agriculture has, 
as in other productive occupations, become 
a feature of the age. Although the farmer 
should still be somewhat of an “ all around 
man,” he no longer requires to be a piow- 
wright, farm implement maker, harness 
maker, woodman, etc.; but may devote his 
entire attention to the more immediate de¬ 
mands of his vocation. 

But farming itself has come very ex¬ 
tensively under the influence of this divis¬ 
ion of labor, and each successful husband¬ 
man devotes his attention to a particular 
branch, rather than attempt the cultivation 
of every farm product needed for home con¬ 
sumption. One is a wool grower, another 
breeds horses, or raises beef, or devotes his 
attention to dairying, or market gardening, 
or fruit growing, or some other specialty. 
Often a single crop, as tobacco, onions, po¬ 
tatoes or wheat, receives his principal ef¬ 
forts. 

Among a great variety of new and im¬ 
proved methods in tillage and soil improve¬ 
ments belonging to the century, tile drain¬ 
age and sub-surface irrigation by means of 
pipes are instances of marked advance over 
old practices. 

Ensilage of forage has been a long stride 
in the economical preparation and conser¬ 
vation of cattle food. By its means, not 
only is it possible to furnish farm animals 
with a palatable and succulent food at all 
seasons, but an important saving of forage, 
and of labor in securing it is effected. The 
introduction of silage as a cattle food marks 
the dawn of an intensive husbandry hitherto 
unknown, making it possible to increase 
greatly the number of animals kept on a 
given area, and correspondingly to increase 
the food supply for the human family. 

The winter feeding of farm animals is 
no longer the task of a century ago, but 
has become a simple problem. Indeed, so 
easy has winter feeding become, that pas¬ 
turage, the blessing of our fathers, has by 
comparison become difficult, and feedeis aie 
becoming keenly alive to the needs of a bet¬ 


ter system of summer feeding than pastur¬ 
age alone affords. 

Ever since the Patriarch Jacob outwitted 
his father-in-law in the division of their 
flocks and herds by the use of “ peeled rods,” 
the art of breeding has been more or less 
faithfully pursued. If we may judge of 
the results, however, this century has wit¬ 
nessed more progress in many directions 
than the three thousand years preceding. 

Practically all the improved breeds of 
swine belong to the more recent period. 
Sheep have undergone a marked transition 
in fleshing properties, and certain breeds 
have made no less conspicuous gains in the 
quality of their fleece. A sheep producing 
52 pounds of wool in 13 months was un¬ 
heard of a generation ago. 

The beef breeds of cattle would hardly 
recognize their ancestors of a century ago 
as of the same race, while dairy cows of 
that time would forget their cud in contem¬ 
plation of a Pieterje II., with a record of 
over 30,000 pounds of milk in a single 
year. 

As instances of remarkable development 
in horses within the century may be men¬ 
tioned the American trotter and the Ken¬ 
tucky gaited saddler. In the former in¬ 
stance the unnatural trot and pace, by 
selection, breeding, development, and train¬ 
ing, have acquired the speed of a mile 
in 2 minutes 3% seconds and 1 minute 59% 
seconds, respectively, with a long list of 
performers of miles faster than 2:10. The 
perfection of a breed of horses taking each 
of five different gaits at a word from their 
riders, which every Kentucky gaited saddler 
must do, is another monument to the agri¬ 
cultural skill of the age. 

In the diversity of talents used by hus¬ 
bandmen, those of the chemist play an im¬ 
portant role. Evidence of this is found in 
the Wolff-Lehmann and other feeding stand¬ 
ards. By patient study extending over a 
long period of time and a large number of 
animals, tables have been arranged showing 
the food requirements of all common domes¬ 
tic animals, in all ordinary conditions of 
use. The chemical composition of feeding 
stuffs has been accurately determined. The 
percentages of nutrients — albuminoids, fat 
and carbohydrates (starch, sugar, fiber, 
etc.) — digested by animals have been work¬ 
ed out and recorded. Numerous tests have 
been made to determine the most advanta¬ 
geous amounts and proportions of these nu¬ 
trients for each of the various purposes for 
which animals are kept. 

These results, compiled, arranged, and 
published, give the feeder information of in¬ 
estimable value in the profitable pursuit 
of his vocation. These studies and investi¬ 
gations have not only proved of great ad¬ 
vantage in feeding animals, but have re¬ 
sulted at the same time in the discovery 



Agriculture 


Agriculture 


of principles of human nutrition having an 
important bearing on man’s subsistence. 

Great strides have been made in methods 
of preventing and overcoming animal dis¬ 
eases, deserving of far more extended men¬ 
tion that it is possible here to make. The 
discoveries of Dr. Koch, resulting in the 
preparation of tuberculin as a diagnostic 
for consumption in cattle; the inoculation 
of cattle, rendering them immune from Tex¬ 
as fever heretofore considered fatal to all 
improved breeds; the successful potassium 
iodide treatment for milk fever; and a host 
of other discoveries have marked the cen¬ 
tury in veterinary achievements. 

The occupation of the drover has passed 
away with the advent of railroad transpor¬ 
tation of farm animals. While this belongs 
to the subject of commerce, it is of incalcu¬ 
lable importance to agriculture as well. A 
very large share of the developments of 
husbandry may be ascribed to the opening 
up of the country by the grand facilities 
for transportation that now annihilate both 
time and space. Interstate and transocean¬ 
ic traffic in live stock have recently been 
greatly improved by mechanical and scien¬ 
tific efforts, until our cattle travel with a 
degree of safety and comfort not experienced 
by our human ancestors of a century gone. 

It is said that among the early town 
records of Hadley, Mass., is an entry to the 
effect that the cows gave so little milk 
through the winter that the babies had to 
take cider as a substitute. Could the moth¬ 
ers of those babies come to Hadley now 
and observe the methods whereby winter 
has become the principal dairy season in 
the region, would they not feel that their 
lives were lived too soon? 

Contrast the tedious and laborious set¬ 
ting of milk in shallow crocks for two days, 
then removing the cream with a piece of 
perforated tin, allowing it to sour in the 
kitchen, acquiring the aroma of boiled din¬ 
ners in transit, churning with a dash churn 
and kneading by hand, with the new piocess 
of converting fresh milk into “ butter for 
breakfast in a minute and a half.” 

Cooperative butter and cheese making has 
transferred this work from the kitchen 
of the busy housewife to the factory of the 
expert to the great advantage of the product 
and satisfaction of the wearied housewife. 

Perhaps the most interesting achievement 
of all is the discovery of organic ferments 
which ripen or sour cream in butter making, 
and the study of the specific effects of each 
of more than a hundred different species 
of these organisms upon the quality of 
butter. A practical side of this study is 
found in the present practice of selecting 
pure cultures of bacteria for cream ripening, 
thus avoiding those forms producing bad 
flavors and other undesirable qualities. 

In several large establishments milk is 
now being modified by changing the propor¬ 


tions of its constituents to make it closely 
resemble human milk, and for other specific 
purposes in the feeding of infants, and it 
has even been made without the interven¬ 
tion of the cow. 

One of the most signal achievements in 
the agriculture of this century was the dis¬ 
placement of so much hand labor by im¬ 
proved machinery, operated by horse, steam 
or other power. The 19 th century in 
the United States witnessed more progress 
in this department than has the whole' 
world in all time preceding. 

A liberal education in the past con¬ 
sisted mainly of the study of things of 
the past, of which the history and literature 
of the ancients formed the major portion. 
While we would not disparage the training 
that developed the master minds of former 
generations, we can but contemplate with 
satisfaction the emphasis placed on the 
study of things of the present and the eager 
reaching out into the realms of the un¬ 
known future. 

Agriculture is so emphatically a study of 
the present time that even yet few have 
begun to grasp its import; nay, there is a 
general misconception of its nature and 
scope. The science of agriculture is not, 
as is commonly supposed, a peculiar adap¬ 
tation of the arts of milking cows, planting 
corn, hoeing potatoes, or following the 
plow. On the contrary, it has drawn lib¬ 
erally on the results of all modern scientific 
research. 

During the past forty years agricultural 
colleges have sprung up in each of our 
United States, doing work calculated to 
make the 20th-century agriculture far su¬ 
perior to that of the past. 

Hand in hand with this educational work, 
investigations have been extended into all 
the varied fields of husbandry. Insects are 
yielding up their life’s history, revealing 
facts suggestive of methods of protecting 
our interests against their ravages. Micro¬ 
scopic organisms reveal a power in nature 
till now undreamed of, disclosing among 
their numbers our warm friends and our 
most deadly foes. It has become possible 
to measure in heat and motion the energy 
in every pound of food fed to our animals. 
The calorimeter faithfully measures every 
grain of gas exhaled from balance between 
the intake and outgo, and notes the expendi¬ 
ture of energy in every movement of body 
or limb. Even the eccentricities of the 
weather are not allowed to pass unnoted. 
Forecasts of storms advise the haymaker 
to be on his guard, and frosts are not allow¬ 
ed to spring upon the ungatliered crop un¬ 
announced. 

These and hosts of other things mark the 
19th as emphatically a century of progress 
in agriculture. The seed it received from 
its predecessor has grown and borne fruit a 
hundredfold. Fred S. Cooley. 




Agriculture 


Agrippina 


Agriculture, Department of, an execu¬ 
tive department of the United States Gov¬ 
ernment established by Congress in 1889 to 
gather and disseminate information concern¬ 
ing the agricultural industry. Its operations 
are conducted by the Weather Bureau; the 
Bureaus of Animal and Plant Industry, of 
Chemistry, Soils, and Entomology, of Bio¬ 
logical Survey and Forestry; and the offices 
of Experiment Stations and Public Roads. 
It maintains a herbarium, museum, labora¬ 
tory, propagating gardens, and other ad¬ 
juncts, and issues duly, monthly, and annual 
publications. 

Agrigentum (ag-re-jen'tum), the mod¬ 
ern Girgenti, a town on the S. coast of 
Sicily, founded by a colony from Gela in 582 
B. c., and in the earlier ages one of the most 
important places in the island. In its palmy 
days, about the end of the 5th century b. c., 
it is said to have contained 200,000 inhab¬ 
itants, and its territory extended right across 
Sicily. After being at first free, and then 
subject to tyrants (one of whom was Pha- 
laris), it was utterly demolished by the Car¬ 
thaginians in 405 b. c., and never quite re¬ 
covered its importance. In the course of 
the Punic Wars it was compelled to submit 
to the Romans. From 827 to 1086 b. c. it 
was in the possession of the Saracens, from 
whom it was conquered by Count Roger 
Guiscard. The modern Girgenti still shows 
numerous and splendid ruins, of which the 
best preserved is the Temple of Concord. 
The largest temple was that of Jupiter, 340 
feet long, which was never finished, and of 
which only some fragments remain. Other 
ruins are the temples of Juno, of Hercules 
and iEsculapius. Empedocles was born here. 

Agrippa, Camillo (ag-rip'pa), a cele¬ 
brated architect of Milan in the 16th cen¬ 
tury, who, under the pontificate of Gregory 
XIII., accomplished the removal of a vast 
obelisk to St. Peter’s square. 

Agrippa, Cornelius, born at Cologne, 
1486; author of two treatises on the “Van¬ 
ity of the Sciences,” and on “Occult Philos¬ 
ophy,” printed at Lyons, 1550. The monk¬ 
ish fables—of Agrippa’s black poodle, of 
his magic mirror, and of his over-curious 
pupil, who was rent in pieces by demons— 
have given place to a just estimate of his 
character as an earnest searcher after truth, 
who fain would have unlocked na¬ 
ture’s mysteries had he only held 
the right key. He died in 1535. 

Agrippa II., Herod, te- 

trarch of Abilene, Galilee, Itu- 
rea and Trachonitis, born about 
27 a. d. During his reign he 
enlarged Caesarea Philippi and 
AGRIPPA II named-it Nefonias, in honor of 
Nero. He also beautified Jeru¬ 
salem and Berytus, making the latter his 
capital. Maintained in his power by the Ro¬ 


mans, he remained faithful to their inter¬ 
ests, and tried to dissuade the Jews from 
rebelling. After the fall of Jerusalem he 
retired to Rome, where he died in 100 a. d. 
Before him the Apostle Paul made his mem¬ 
orable defense (Acts xxvi.). 

Agrippa, Menenius, consul of Rome, 
503 b. c. He is celebrated for having ap¬ 
peased a commotion among the Romans by 
the political fable of the belly and the mem¬ 
bers. Died at an advanced age, very poor, 
but universally esteemed for his wisdom 
and integrity. 

Agrippa, Menenius Vipsanius, consul, 
a Roman who, though not of high birth, rose 
to an exalted position through his own tal¬ 
ents. He was a fellow-student of Octavian 
at Apollonia in Illyria, and was one of his 
closest friends and most trusted counselors 
throughout his life. As a general, he laid 
the foundation for the sole dominion of Oc¬ 
tavian, commanded his fleet in the battle 
of Actium (31 b. c.), and did good service 
in Gaul, Spain, Syria and Pannonia. He 
was generous, upright, and a friend to the 
arts; Rome owed to him the restoration and 
construction of several aqueducts and the 
Pantheon, besides other public works of or¬ 
nament and utility. 

Agrippina, the elder, daughter of M. Vip¬ 
sanius Agrippa and of Julia, the daughter of 
Augustus, born about 12 b. c. She mar¬ 
ried Caesar Germanicus, whom she accom¬ 
panied in his military expeditions. On the 
death of the latter at Antioch, 19 a. d., she 
returned to Rome. Tiberius, jealous of the 
affection of the people for Agrippina, ban¬ 
ished her to a small island, where she died 
of hunger, in 33 a. d. 

Agrippina, the younger, daughter of the 
foregoing, and mother of Nero. After losing 
two husbands, she married her uncle, the 



AGRIPPINA, THE YOUNGER 


Emperor Claudius, whom she poisoned in 54, 
to make way for her son Nero, who caused 



















Aguardiente 


Aguinaldo 


her to be assassinated, and exhibited to 
the Senate a list of all the crimes of which 
she had been guilty. 

Aguardiente, a popular spirituous bever¬ 
age of Spain and Portugal, a kind of coarse 
brandy, made from red wine, from the 
refuse of the grapes left in the wine press, 
etc., and generally flavored with anise. The 
same name is also given to a Mexican alco¬ 
holic drink distilled from the fermented 
juice of the agave. 

Aguas Calientes (ag'waz kal-yan'taz), a 
town of Mexico, capital of a Central State 
of the same name, with an area of 2,900 
square miles, stands on a plain 0,000 feet 
above the sea level, 270 miles N. W. of the 
City of Mexico. The town is favorably sit¬ 
uated for trade, and is on the Mexican Cen¬ 
tral railway. It is surrounded by fine gar¬ 
dens, and contains some handsome public 
buildings. The environs abound in hot 
springs, from which the town takes its 
name. Pop. (1910), 44,800. 

Ague, an intermittent fever, in whatever 
stage of its progress or whatever its type. 
A person about to be seized by it generally 
feels somewhat indisposed for about a fort¬ 
night previously. Then he is seized with a 
shivering fit, which ushers in the cold stage 
of the disease. This passes at length into 
a hot stage, and it again into one character¬ 
ized by great perspiration, which carries off 
the disorder for a time. The three lead¬ 
ing types of ague are the quotidian, with an 
interval of 24 hours; the tertian, with one 
of 48 hours; and the quartan, with one of 
72 hours. The remedy is quinine or some 
other anti-periodic. Marsh miasma, or the 
effluvia arising from stagnant water, and 
marshy ground, when acted upon by heat, 
are the most frequent causes of this fever. 
Persons exposed to a climate in which ague 
prevails endemically may most effectually 
preserve themselves by carefully avoiding 
sudden changes of temperature, and the 
night and morning air, and by the constant 
use of flannel clothing. The first object in 
the treatment of this disease is a change of 
residence, without which the best remedies 
will often prove ineffectual. One peculiar¬ 
ity of this fever is its great susceptibility of 
a renewal from very slight causes, as from 
the prevalence of an easterly wind, even 
without the repetition of the original excit¬ 
ing cause. 

Aguesseau, Henri Francis d'(ag-as-6'), 
pronounced by Voltaire the most learned 
magistrate that France ever possessed, was 
born at Limoges in 1668. As procureur- 
gcneral of the Parliament, he effected many 
improvements in the laws and in the admin¬ 
istration of justice; and he displayed great 
benevolence during the famine of 1709. A 
steady defender of the rights of the people 
and of the Gallican Church, he successfully 


opposed the decrees of Louis XIV. During 
the regency of the Duke of Orleans, he be¬ 
came Chancellor of France; but in 1718 he 
fell into disgrace by opposing Law’s fatal 
system of finance. In 1720 he was reinstated, 
in 1722 was again dismissed, and did not re¬ 
sume the office of Chancellor till 1737. He 
resigned in 1750, and died Feb. 9, 1751. 

Aguilar, Grace (a-ge-liir'), an English 
novelist, born at Hackney, June 2, 1816; 
was the daughter of Jewish parents of 
Spanish origin. Her first books were in de¬ 
fense of the Jewish religion: “The Spirit of 
Judaism” (1842); “The Jewish Faith” 
(1846); and “Women of Israel” (1846). 
She is now best known by her domestic and 
sentimental novels, only one of which, 
“Home Influence” (1847), appeared in her 
lifetime. Among others are “The Vale of 
Cedars” (1850), and “The Days of Bruce” 
(1852). She died in Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
Sept. 16, 1847. 

Aguilar de la Frontera, a town of Spain, 
province of Cordova, Andalusia; 26 miles 
S. by E. from Cordova. It has three good 
squares and several handsome public build¬ 
ings, and in the time of the Moors was 
defended by a strong castle. The inhab¬ 
itants are employed in agriculture, stock- 
raising, manufacturing, and in quarrying 
lime, gypsum, and freestone. Pop. (1887) 
12,447. * 

Aguilas, a flourishing seaport of South¬ 
ern Spain, in the province of Murcia, about 
37 miles to the S. W. of Cartagena, with 
copper and lead smelting works. It carries 
on considerable trade in ores, etc. Pop. 
(1900), 15,868. 

Aguinaldo, Emilio, a leader of the in¬ 
surgents in the Philippine insurrection of 
1896, and their chief in the Spanish-Ameri- 
can War of 1898. A Chinese mestizo (of 
Chinese and Tagalog parentage), he was 
born in Imus, in the province of Cavite, in 
Luzon, in 1870. His father was a planter 
and he received liis early education at the 
College of St. Jean de Lateran and the Uni¬ 
versity of St. Tomas in Manila. Later he be¬ 
came the protege of a Jesuit priest, and was 
for a time a student in the medical depart¬ 
ment of the Pontifical University of Manila. 
In 1888, lie had some trouble with the au¬ 
thorities and went to Hong Kong. Young 
Aguinaldo there became interested in mili¬ 
tary affairs and gained a knowledge of war¬ 
fare. He learned something of the English, 
French and Chinese languages, together 
with various native tongues. He achieved 
a reputation for intelligence, ability, shrewd¬ 
ness and diplomacy, and had a personal 
magnetism which gave him influence among 
his countrymen. On the outbreak of the re¬ 
bellion against Spanish authority, in 1896, 
Aguinaldo became a commanding figure with 
the insurgents. He was at the nead of the 





Agulhas 


Ahlquist 


diplomatic party, wliich succeeded in mak¬ 
ing terms with the Spanish Government, the 
latter paying a large sum to the Philippine 
leaders to lay down their arms. Aguinaldo 
quarreled with his associates in Hong Kong 
over the division of this money, and went to 
Singapore, where he came in contact with 
the United States consul, shortly before the 
breaking out of the war between the United 
States and Spain. On the representations 
of the consul Commodore Dewey telegraphed 
to have Aguinaldo sent to him. The insur¬ 
gent leader arrived at Cavite shortly after 
the battle of Manila Bay. Aguinaldo was 
given opportunity to organize the Filipinos 
against the Spanish authority; but no 
promises were made to him and the insur¬ 
gents were never officially recognized by the 
Americans. Friction early arose and the 
Americans protested against the cruel 
treatment of Spanish prisoners by the 
Filipinos. The strain became serious at 
the capture of Manila, the insurgents 
claiming the right to sack the city, 
which the Americans denied. On June 
12, 1898, Aguinaldo organized a so- 

called Filipino Republic, with himself as 
president, but very soon proclaimed himself 
dictator. He protested against the Spanish- 
American treaty of peace, which ceded the 
Philippine Islands to the United States, and 
claimed the independence of the islands. 
He organized an extensive conspiracy among 
the native population of Manila, and ordered 
the complete massacre of the Americans, to¬ 
gether with the entire European population 
of the city, while yet at peace with them. 

The plot was discovered in time and failed. 
The intention of Aguinaldo to oppose by 
force the American occupation had been 
growing increasingly evident, and, on the 
evening of Feb. 4, 1899, his forces attacked 
the American lines in the suburbs of Manila. 
The news of this overt action caused the 
prompt ratification of the Spanish-American 
treaty by the United States Senate. Agui¬ 
naldo made a determined resistance to the 
Americans, and the rainy season soon pre¬ 
vented the latter from following up their 
uniform successes in the open field; but 
early in 1900 the organized insurrection, 
which was chiefly confined to the Tagalog 
nationality, was broken up, Aguinaldo 
driven into hiding, and his correspondence, 
order books, etc., were captured by General 
Funston, who captured Aguinaldo himself, 
March 23, 1901. Ramon Reyes Lala. 

Agulhas (ag-ol'as), Cape, the most 
Southern point of Africa, lies about 100 
miles E. S. E. of the Cape of Good Hope, in 
lat. 34° 49' S., long. 20° 0' 40" E. The point 
is very dangerous for ships; fogs are frequent, 
the currents are uncertain, and there are 
many rocks to seaward. In 1849, a light- 
hcuse was erected on the point. The Agul¬ 
has bank extends along the whole Southern 


coast of Africa, from near Natal to Sal- 
danha Bay. It has an average breadth of 
40 miles, but is difficult of navigation. The 
waters abound in fish. Agulhas (Portu¬ 
guese) means needles. 

Ahab, son of Omri, seventh king of the 
separate kingdom of Israel. He was mar¬ 
ried to Jezebel, whose wickedness instigated 
him to the commission of such acts of cru¬ 
elty and idolatry that he surpassed all his 
predecessors in impiety. He was slain by 
an arrow in a war with the Svrians, and his 
blood was licked by the dogs on the spot 
where he had caused Naboth to be murdered, 
about b. c. 876. 

Ahaggar, Hoggar, or Hogar, a moun¬ 
tainous region of the Sahara, S. of Algeria, 
with some fertile valleys, inhabited by the 
Tuarega. It rises in terraces to a height 
of nearly 7,000 feet, and some of its heights 
are covered with snow for a number of 
weeks each year. Figs, vines, dates, etc., 
are cultivated in parts. 

Ahasuerus, in Scripture history, a King 
of Persia, the husband of Esther, to whom 
the Scriptures ascribe a singular deliver¬ 
ance of the Jews from extirpation, which 
they commemorate to this day by an annual 
feast, that of Purim. Different opinions 
have been entertained as to which of the 
Kings of Persia mentioned in other histor¬ 
ical books may be the Ahasuerus of the 
Bible. He is probably the same as Xerxes. 
Ahasuerus is also a Scripture name for 
Cambyses, son of Cyrus (Ezra iv: 6), and for 
Astyages, King of the Medes (Dan. ix: 1). 

Ahaz, the 12th King of Judah, succeeded 
his father Jotham, 742 b. c. Forsaking the 
true religion, he gave himself up so com¬ 
pletely to idolatry that he is said to have 
caused his own son to pass through the 
fire to Moloch, and plundered the temple 
to obtain presents for Tiglath-pileser, King 
of Assyria, whose assistance he desired to 
obtain. His powerful ally freed him from 
his most formidable foes by invading Syria, 
taking Damascus, killing Rezin, the king, 
transporting the inhabitants to Kir, thus 
putting an end to the Syrian kingdom of 
Damascus, and by stripping Israel of the 
whole country E. of the Jordan. After a 
reign of 16 years Ahaz died and was buried 
in Jerusalem, but not among the sepul¬ 
chers of the kings. 

Ahlquist, August Engelbert (al'qvist), 
a Finnish poet and philologist, born at Kuo¬ 
pio, Aug. 7, 1826. He was appointed Pro¬ 
fessor of Finnish Language and Literature 
at the University of Helsingfors in 1862. 
His collected poems appeared under the 
title “ Sparks ” (4th ed., 1881);. besides 
which he wrote several grammatical and 
philological works, and translated Schiller 
and others into Finnish. He died at Hel¬ 
singfors, Nov. 20, 1880. 



Ahlwardt 


Aide 


Ahlwardt, Theodor Wilhelm (al'vart), 
a German Orientalist, born at Greifwald, 
July 4, 1828. He is the first living author¬ 
ity on old Arabic poetry. His chief works 
are “ On the Poetry and Poetics of the Ara¬ 
bians ” (1856) ; “ The Divans of the Six An¬ 
cient Arabic Poets” (1870). 

Ahmed (ach'medt) or Achmed=Khan, 
founder of the kingdom of the Afghans or 
Durani, born about 1724; in 1738 he was 
taken by Nadir Shah into his bodyguard 
and accompanied him on his expeditions as 
his “ asaberdar,” or staff carrier. When 
Nadir Shah was assassinated in 1747 Ahmed 
returned to Afghanistan and was made ruler 
of that country, taking the title of “ Durr 
Duri an,” “ Pearl of Pearls,” from which 
his people calied themselves Durani. He 
conquered Ghazni, Kabul, Jelalabad and 
compelled the rulers of the Punjab to pay 
him tribute. In 1745-1750 he took Herat 
and Nisliapur and subjected Khorasan and 
Seistan. In 1752 he extended his empire 
to Kashmir, and in 1756, and again in 1760, 
he plundered Delhi. He left his son Timur 
Shah dominions which extended from Khor¬ 
asan to Sirhind and from the Oxus to the 
Indian Ocean. He died about 1773. 

Ahmedabad (better Ahmadabad), chief 
town of a district in Guzerat, India, second 
among the cities of the Province of Bom¬ 
bay, is 50 miles N. E. of the head of 
the Gulf of Cambay. It was built in 
the year 1412 by Ahmed Shah, and 
finally came under the power of the 
British in 1818. It was formerly one 
of the largest and most magnificent 
cities in the East. Its architectural relics 
are gorgeous, even in the midst of decay, 
and illustrate the combination of Saracenic 
with Hindu forms, mainly of the Jain type. 
The Jama Masjid, or great mosque, rises 
from the center of the city, and is adorned 
by two superbly decorated minarets. There 
is likewise an ivory mosque, so called be¬ 
cause, although built of white marble, it is 
lined with ivory, and inlaid with a pro¬ 
fusion of gems. There are some 12 other 
mosques and six famous tombs. The modern 
Jain temple is of singular beauty. The 
prosperity of the place was almost wholly 
destroyed by the rapacity of the Mahrattas, 
but it has largely recovered, and is still fa¬ 
mous for its manufacture of rich fabrics of 
silk and cotton, brocades, and articles of 
gold, silver, steel, and enamel. The pottery 
is very superior ; and paper of various sorts 
is largely manufactured, chiefly from jute. 
Pop. (1901), 185,889. The District, mainly 
a great alluvial plain, has an area of 3,821 
square miles and a population (1901) of 
795,967, of whom about a tenth are Mo¬ 
hammedans. 

Ahn, Johann Franz, a German gramma¬ 
rian, born Dec. 15, 1796. At first he en¬ 


tered mercantile life, but soon began to 
study mathematics and modern languages. 
From 1824 till 1826 he taught in the Gym¬ 
nasium of Aix, his native city. He then 
founded a private school there which he 
kept up till 1843. Then for 20 years he 
was in charge of the modern language de¬ 
partment of the Gymnasium and real 
seliule at Neuss. He developed new and 
popular methods of teaching languages and 
was author of various grammars. He died 
Aug. 21, 1865. 

Ahriman, a Persian deity, the demon or 
principle of evil, the principle of good be¬ 
ing Oromasdes, or Ormuzd. 

Ai, a species of sloth, the bradypus tri- 
dactylus of Linnaeus. As its name imports, 
it has but three toes, or rather nails, on 
each foot, in this respect differing from the 
unau ( bradypus didactylus of Linnaeus), 
which lias but two. It is of the order eden- 
tata, or toothless mammals. It is the only 
known species of its class which has 
as many as nine cervical vertebrae, seven 
being the normal number. It is about 
the size of a cat. The tail is very 
short. The limbs also are short, but 
exceedingly muscular. It clings with ex¬ 
traordinary tenacity to the branches of 
trees. It is pre-eminent even among sloths 
for sluggishness. Its apathy is on a par 
with its inertness. Its practice is to strip 
a tree completely bare before it can prevail 
upon itself to put forth the exertion requi¬ 
site to enable it to roll itself into a ball, 
fall to the ground, and climb another tree. 
It inhabits America, from Brazil to Mexico. 

Aicard, Jean (a-kar), a French poet, born 
in Toulon, Feb. 4, 1848. His “ Poems of 
Provence ” (1874), and “ The Child’s Song ” 
(1876), were both crowned by the Academy. 
Noteworthy among Iris other works are 
“ Miette and Nore ” (1880), an idyl in Pro¬ 
vencal, which caused him to be ranked with 
Mistral, the modern troubadour; “On the 
Border of the Desert” (1888), poems, en¬ 
thusiastic traveling impressions from Al¬ 
giers; “Father Lebonnard ” (1890), a 

drama; “The King of Camargue ” (1890), 
a novel of Provence. 

Aid=de=camp, Aide=de=camp, or some¬ 
times simply Aid or Aide, an officer who 
receives the orders of a general and com¬ 
municates them. His functions are exer¬ 
cised while battles are in progress as well 
as in more tranquil times. 

Aidd, Hamilton (ii-e-da'), an English 
novelist and poet, born in Paris, France, in 
1830. He was educated at Bonn, and be¬ 
came an officer in the British army. His 
poems include “ Eleanore and Other 
Poems” (1856); “The Romance of the 
Scarlet Leaf, and Other Chronicles and 
Reminiscences” (1856), a masterly descrip¬ 
tion of Russian family life; “The Child- 



Aiken 


Ainsworth 


liood of BragofT, the Grandson” (1858), a 
sequel to the former. 

Aiken, town and county-seat of Aiken 
co., S. C.; on the South Carolina and 
Georgia and the Carolina and Cumberland 
Gap railroads; 17 miles E. of Augusta, Ga. 
It is a noted winter health resort, especially 
for consumptives; contains Aiken Institute, 
the Scofield Normal School, and the Im¬ 
manuel Training and High School; and 
has a State bank, several newspapers, manu¬ 
factories, and large cotton trade. Pop. 
(1890) 2,3G2; (1900) 3,414. 

Aikin, Lucy, an English poet and histor¬ 
ical writer (1781-1864); daughter of John 
Aikin (1747-1822), a physician and author, 
from whom she received a thorough clas¬ 
sical education; subsequently devoted herself 
to the study of English history and litera¬ 
ture. Her works include “Epistles on 
Women” (1810); “Lorimer” (1814), a 
tale; “Memoirs of the Court of Elizabeth” 
(1818); “Memoirs of the Court of James 
I.” (1822); “Memoirs of the Court and 

Reign of Charles I.” (1833) ; “Life of Ad¬ 
dison” (1843). 

Ailanthus, Aliantus, or Alianthus, a 

genus of plants belonging to the order of 
simarubacece. The glandulosa, called tree 
of heaven or Chinese sumach, a native of 
Mongolia and Japan, has very large, un¬ 
equally pinnate leaves and unpleasant¬ 
smelling flowers. In Japan it affords nour¬ 
ishment to a fine silkworm. The silk pro¬ 
duced is coarser, but more durable than mul¬ 
berry silk. It was first brought to the 
United States in 1784. Some of the largest 
ailanthus trees in America, according to 
Downing, are found in Rhode Island, where 
they were introduced from China under the 
name of the tillon tree. During tiie first 
half-dozen years it outstrips almost any 
other deciduous tree in vigor of growth, 
and leading stems grow 12 or 15 feet in a 
single season. In four or five years, there¬ 
fore, it forms a bulky head, but after that 
period it advances more slowly. In the 
United States it is planted purely for or¬ 
nament; but in Europe its wood has been 
applied to cabinet work, for which, from 
its close grain and bright, satin-like luster, 
it is well adapted. The male and female 
flowers are borne on separate trees, and both 
sexes are now common, especially in New 
York. The male forms the finer ornamental 
tree, the female being rather low, and spread¬ 
ing in its head. The ailanthus is well 
adapted to produce a good effect on the 
lawn, either singly or grouped; as its fine 
long foliage catches the light well and con¬ 
trasts strikingly with that of the round¬ 
leaved trees. It has a troublesome habit of 
producing suckers, however, which must ex¬ 
clude it from every place but a heavy sward, 


where the surface of the ground is never 
stirred by cultivation. 

Ailsa Craig, a rocky islet of Ayrshire, 10 
miles W. by N. of Girvan. Rising abruptly 
out of the sea to a height of 1,114 feet, it is 
about 2 miles in circumference. The rock is 
a mass of trap, assuming in some places a 
distinctly columnar form. On the N. W. 
perpendicular cliffs rise to a height of from 
200 to 300 feet; on the other sides, the Craig 
descends to the sea with a steep slope. Till 
the erection of a lighthouse (1883-1886), 



AILSA CRAIG. 

the only inhabitants were goats, rabbits, and 
wild fowl, solan geese, in particular, breed¬ 
ing in the cliffs in countless numbers. About 
200 feet from the summit are some springs, 
and on the ledge of a crag on the eastern 
front are the remains of an ancient strong¬ 
hold. In 1831 the Earl of Cassillis, the pro¬ 
prietor of Ailsa Craig, was raised to the 
dignity of Marquis of Ailsa. 

Aimard, Gustave (a-mar'), a French 
novelist (1818-1883). He came to the 
United States as a boy and spent a num¬ 
ber of years among the Indians; and after¬ 
ward traveled through Spain, Turkey and 
the Caucasus, returning to Paris in 1848. 
His stories, in imitation of Cooper’s Indian 
tales, although abounding in improbabilities, 
hold the attention of the reader: “The 
Trappers of Arkansas” (1858) ; “The Great 
Chief of the Aueas” (1858); “The Pirates 
of the Prairie” (1859) ; “The White Scalp¬ 
ers” (1873). 

Ainsworth, William Francis, an Eng¬ 
lish geologist; born in Exeter, England, 
Nov. 9, 1807. He was educated in London, 
Paris, Brussels, and Edinburgh, and in 1827 
qualified as L. R. C. S. On returning from a 
tour in France, during which he prosecuted 
geological investigations in the Auvergne 
and Pyrenees mountains, he became coedi¬ 
tor of the “Edinburgh Journal of Natural 
and Geographical Science.” In 1832 he went 
to Sunderland in order to study the cholera 
epidemic which had broken out, and during 
that and the following year he served as 
surgeon in various cholera hospitals. In 
1835 he joined Colonel Chesney’s Euphrates 































Ainsworth 


Air-Gun 


expedition as surgeon and geologist, and 
shortly after his return in 1837 he pub¬ 
lished “ Researches in Assyria, Babylonia, 
and Chaldsea.” During the next eight years 
he carried out further investigations in 
Asia Minor and Kurdistan on behalf of the 
Royal Geographical Society and the Soci¬ 
ety for Promoting Christian Knowledge; 
and of these he published several records. 
His “ Travels in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia 
and Armenia ” appeared in 1842, and two 
years later he published a description of 
the route of the Greeks under Xenophon 
after the battle of Cunaxa under the title, 
“ Travels in the Track of the Ten Thou¬ 
sand.” In 1888 his “ Personal Narrative of 
the Euphrates Expedition ” appeared. Other 
works of his are the “ Euphrates Valley 
Route to India,” and “ Claims of the Ori¬ 
ental Christians.” He was associated with 
many of the most important learned soci¬ 
eties, both in Great Britain and on the Con¬ 
tinent. The founding of the West London 
Hospital was largely due to him. He died 
Nov. 27, 1896. 

Ainsworth, William Harrison, an Eng¬ 
lish novelist; born in Manchester, Feb. 4, 
1805. His father, a successful solicitor, in¬ 
tended him for the same profession, and 
after giving him a sound education at the 
grammar school of his native town, had him 
articled in his 10th year to a leading so¬ 
licitor there. On his father’s death, three 
years later, he went to London to finish 
his legal education. His bent was, however, 
toward literature, and the striking success 
of his first important novel, “ Rookwood ” 
(1834), decided his profession. His fol¬ 
lowing story, “Crichton” (1837), was 
equally successful: but the popularity of 
both was greatly exceeded by that of “ Jack 
Sheppard” (1839), of which eight different 
dramatic versions were soon produced on 
the stage. About 40 other novels, dealing 
mainly with the history and traditions of 
England, several indeed with those of his 
native county, Lancaster, appeared in rapid 
succession. We can only mention a few of 
the more important: “The Tower of Lon¬ 
don” (1840); “Guy Fawkes” (1841); 
“Old St. Paul’s” (1841) ; “Windsor Castle” 
(1843) ; “ St. James’, or the Court of Queen 
Anne” (1844) ; “The Lancashire Witches” 
(1848); “The Star Chamber” (1854); 
“The Flitch of Bacon” (1854); “ Mervyn 
Clitheroe,” a semi-autobiographical tale 
(1857); “Cardinal Pole, or the Days of 
Philip and Mary” (1863); “The Spanish 
Match, or Charles Stuart in Madrid ” 
(1865); “The Constable de Bourbon ” 
(1866); “ Boscobel ” (1872); “The Good 
Old Times” (1873); “Merry England, or 
Nobles and Serfs” (1874) ; “ Stanley Brere- 
ton ” (1881) ; etc. In 1840 he became edi¬ 
tor of “ Bentley’s Magazine.” From 1842 
to 1853 he published “Ainsworth’s Maga¬ 


zine,” and for a number of years he edited 
the “ New Monthly Magazine.” He died in 
Ryegate, Jan. 3, 1882. 

Air, the gaseous substance which fills the 
atmosphere surrounding our planet. It is 
elastic, and is destitute of taste, color and 
smell. It contains by weight, oxygen, 23.10 
parts, and of nitrogen, 76.90; and by vol¬ 
ume, of oxygen, 20.90, and of nitrogen, 79.10; 
or of 10,000 parts, there are, in perfectly 
dry air, of nitrogen, 7,912; oxygen, 2,080; 
carbonic acid, 4; carbureted hydrogen, 4, 
with a trace of ammonia. But air never is 
dry; it has always in it a varying amount 
of watery vapor. When exhaled from the 
lungs, it is saturated with moisture, and 
contains about 4.35 parts of carbonic acid. 
Besides the above-named gases, recent inves¬ 
tigations conducted by Lord Rayleigh and 
Professor Ramsay of England prove that 
air contains at least four heretofore unde¬ 
tected elements, named, respectively, argon, 
crypton, metargon, and neon. 

The density of air being fixed at the round 
number 1,000, it is made the standard with 
which the specific gravity of other sub¬ 
stances is compared. If water be made 
unity, then the specific gravity of dry air 
is .0012759. At 62° Fahr. it is 810 times 
lighter than water, and 11,000 times lighter 
than mercury. At the surface of the sea, 
the mean pressure is sufficient to balance 
a column of mercury 30 inches, or one of 
water 34 feet, in height. 

Air, in music, is a piece composed of a 
certain number of melodious phrases, united 
in a regular symmetrical form, and termi¬ 
nating in the key in which it began. As 
employed in music, the origin of the word 
is unknown. Air is the most important of 
the constituents of music. A composition 
may be replete with learned and ingenious 
harmony, may abound in fugue, in imita¬ 
tion, and all the contrivances of science, but 
without good melody, will never appeal to 
the heart, and seldom afford any gratifica¬ 
tion to the ear. 

Air = Brake. See Brake, Atr. 

Air=Gun, an instrument designed to pro¬ 
pel balls by the elastic force of condensed 
air. A strong metal globe is formed, fur¬ 
nished with a small hole and a valve open¬ 
ing inward. Into this hole a condensing 
syringe is screwed. When, by means of this 
apparatus, the condensation has been 
brought to the requisite point of intensity, 
the globe is detached from the syringe and 
screwed at the breech of a gun, so constructed 
that the valve may be opened by means of a 
trigger. A ball is' then inserted in the bar¬ 
rel near the breech, so fitting it as to render 
it air-tight, and, the trigger being pulled, 
the elasticity of the condensed air impels 
it with considerable force. A piece of sim¬ 
ple mechanism may supply the barrel with 




Air-Pump Aivazovsky 


ball after ball, and thus make reloading 
of the gun after a discharge easy and very 
rapid. 

Air=Pump, an instrument invented by 
Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg, in 1050. I 
It was designed to exhaust the air from a 
receiver, but in reality it can do no more 
than reduce it to a high degree of rarefac¬ 
tion. The air-pump now generally in use 
is a considerable improvement on that of 
Guericke. A bell-fonned receiver of glass 
is made to rest on a horizontal plate of 
thick glass ground perfectly smooth. In 
the center of that plate, under the receiver, 
is an opening into a tube which, passing for 
some distance horizontally, ultimately 
branches at right angles into two portions, 
entering two upright cylinders of glass. 
The cylinders are firmly cemented to the 
glass plate, and within them are two pistons 
fitting them so closely as to be air-tight. 
Each piston is worked by a rack and pinion, 
turned by a handle; while each cylinder is 
fitted with a valve, so contrived that, when 
the piston is raised, communication is 
opened between the cylinder and the re¬ 
ceiver, which communication is again closed 
as the piston falls. It is evident that when 
anyone commences to work the machine, the 
air in the cylinders will be immediately ex¬ 
pelled the first upward motion that they 
are made to take. The valve will then fly 
open, and the air from the receiver will fill 
both the cylinders as well as itself, though, 
of course, now in a somewhat rarefied state. 
As the same process is again and again re¬ 
peated, the air will become increasingly 
rarefied, though, as stated above, an actual 
vacuum never can result from the action 
now described. 

Bianchi’s air-pump is an improvement on 
the common one. It is made of iron, and 
has but one cylinder. It can be made larger 
than the common machine, and produces a 
so-called vacuum more quickly. It is de¬ 
scribed in Ganot’s “ Physics,” Atkinson’s 
translation. 

Sprengel’s air-pump is a form of air-pump 
of a totally different kind from the ordinary 
one. It depends on the principle of convert¬ 
ing the space to be exhausted into a Torri¬ 
cellian vacuum. 

Air=Pump Gauge, a gauge for testing the 
extent to which the air has been exhausted 
in the receiver of an air-pump. It consists 
of a glass tube bent like a siphon. One leg 
is closed, as in a barometer, the other open. 
It is placed under a small bell jar communi¬ 
cating by a stop cock with the receiver, and 
the more nearly the mercury stands at the 
same level the more nearly has a vacuum 
been produced. 

Air=Pump of Steam=Engine, the pinup 
which draws the condensed steam, with the 
air commingled with it, and the condensed 


water from the condenser, and casts them 
into the hot well. 

Air=Ships. See Aeronautics. 

Air=Thermometer, an instrument de¬ 
signed to measure the degrees of heat by the 
expansion of air. When used to measure 
small differences of temperature, it is a ca¬ 
pillary tube with a bulb at the upper end, 
and with its lower end plugged into a col¬ 
ored liquid in a bottle. The air in the bulb 
at the top is heated, so as to cause a portion 
of it to be expelled, leaving the colored 
liquid free to rise a certain distance in the 
tube. An alteration of temperature will 
then make the remainder of the air in the 
tube to expand or contract with the effect 
of making the liquid correspondingly fall 
or rise in the tube. Within certain limits 
it is a delicate thermometer, and was the 
first form of that instrument as invented, 
in 1590, by Snntorio, a physician of Padua. 
It can measure only the lower temperatures. 
When employed to note higher degrees of 
heat, a bent capillary tube is substituted 
for the straight one. It agrees with the 
mercurial thermometer up to 260°, but 
above that point mercury expands relatively 
more than air. The differential thermome¬ 
ter is a modification of the air-thermometer. 

Airy, Sir George Biddell, an English 
astronomer-royal; born in Alnwick, July 
27, 1801. After an education at various 
schools, he entered Trinity College, Cam¬ 
bridge, in 1819, where he was graduated in 
1823. In 1826 he was appointed Lucasian 
Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, a 
chair once held by Newton, and he was the 
first actual director of the Cambridge Obser¬ 
vatory, holding in connection with this post 
the Plumian Professorship of Astronomy. 
In 1835 he succeeded Pond as director of 
the Greenwich Observatory, and retained 
this office till 1881, when he retired on a 
pension. His work was very varied in char¬ 
acter. He initiated at Greenwich the plan 
of immediately and completely reducing 
observations; introduced the regular obser¬ 
vation of magnetic phenomena, and of sun¬ 
spots by photography; invented new instru¬ 
ments for lunar observations; and arranged 
the British observations in all parts of the 
world of the transit of Venus in 1874. His 
chief works were “ Mathematical Tracts ” 
(1826) ; “ Ipswich Lectures on Astronomy ” 
(1849); “Undulatory Theory of Optics” 
(1866) ; “Treatise of Sound” (1869) ; and 
“Treatise on Magnetism” (1870); besides 
which he wrote numerous articles on histor¬ 
ical as well as scientific subjects for various 
periodicals. He died in Greenwich, Jan. 2, 
1892. 

Aivazovsky, Gavriel Konstantinovitch 

(l-va-zof'ske), an Armenian-Russian Orient¬ 
alist, born at Theodosia, in the Crimea, May 
22, 1812. He received his education at San 
Lazzaro, near Venice; became Professor of 
Languages; was prefect at the Armenian Col- 






Aix=la=ChapelIe 


Aix=Ia=ChapelIe 


lege at Paris; and published a “ Short His¬ 
tory of Russia” (1836), and a “History 
of the Ottoman Empire.” His brother, Ivan 
Ronstantinovitch Aivazovsky, born at 
Theodosia in 1817, devoted himself to art, 
and, in 1847, was appointed court painter 
at St. Petersburg. In 1890 he exhibited 28 
large marines in Paris. Among his best 
known works are “Winter in Russia 1 ” (1857); 
“Crimean Coast” (1867); “Tempest on 
the Black Sea” (1878) ; “Tempest on the 
Mediterranean” (1879). He died May 10, 
1900. 

Aix=la=ChapelIe (ax'la-shap-el') (German 
Aachen), the capital of a district in Rhenish 
Prussia, is sikiated in a fertile hollow, sur¬ 
rounded by heights, and watered by the 
Wiirm, 39 miles W. by S. of Cologne. Pop. 
(1905), 144,095, of whom not 7 per cent, 
are Protestants. Aix-la-Chapelle is the 
center of a valuable coal district, and of 
numerous thriving manufactories, especially 
for spinning and weaving woolen fabrics, 
and for needle and pin-making. There are 
also immense manufactures of machinery, 
bells, glass buttons, chemicals and cigars. 
As a principal station on the Belgian-Rhen- 
ish railways, Aix is an important center of 
trade. The city is rich in historical asso¬ 
ciations. It emerges from historical ob¬ 
scurity about the time of Pepin; and Char¬ 
lemagne founded its world-wide celebrity. 
Whether it was his birthplace is doubtful, 
but in 814 it became his grave. In 796 he 
had rebuilt the imperial palace, as well as 
the chapel in which Pepin had celebrated 
Christmas in 765. The present town-house 
was built in 1353 on the ruins of the palace; 
the chapel, after being destroyed by the Nor¬ 
mans, was rebuilt by Otho III. in 983, and 
forms the nucleus of the cathedral. This 
ancient cathedral is in the form of an octa¬ 
gon, which, with various additions round it, 
forms on the outside a sixteen-sided figure. 
In the middle of the octagon, a stone, with 
the inscription “ Carolo Magno,” marks the 
site of the grave of Charlemagne. In 1215 
Frederick II. caused the remains of the em¬ 
peror to be inclosed in a costly shrine. In 
the newer part of the building are kept the 
so-called “great relics,” which, once in seven 
years, are shown to the people in the month 
of July, and which attracted thousands of 
strangers in 1888. Much has of late years 
been done to restore this venerable pile. 
The columns brought by Charlemagne from 
‘Che palace of the Exarch at Ravenna, to 
decorate the interior of the octagon, had 
been carried off by the French; but most of 
them were restored at the Peace of Paris, 
and replaced in 1846. The town-house, 
adorning the market place, is flanked bv two 
towers older than itself, which suffered 
much by fire in 1883. Its coronation hall, 
162 feet long by 60 wide, in which 35 Ger¬ 
man emperors and 11 empresses have cele¬ 


brated their coronation banquet, has been 
restored to its original form, and the walls 
have been decorated with frescoes of scenes 
from the life of Charlemagne. Before the 
town-house stands a beautiful fountain, 
with a bronze statue of Charlemagne. As 
a town, Aix-la-Chapelle has recently been 
much improved. It now possesses broad 
streets, many fine public buildings, taste¬ 
ful churches and luxurious hotels; and, 
from being a quiet old city of historical in¬ 
terest, has become a busy center of manu¬ 
facturing industry. 

The name of the place is derived from the 
springs, for which it has been always fa¬ 
mous. Aa or Aachen is derived from aach, 
an old German word for water; the French 
Aix is the Latin agare, while the Chapelle in 
the French name is the chapel of the palace. 
Charlemagne granted extraordinary priv¬ 
ileges to this city. The citizens were ex¬ 
empted, in all parts of the empire, from 
personal and military service, from impris¬ 
onment, and from all taxes. In the Middle 
Ages, this free imperial city contained more 
than 100,000 inhabitants. The emperors 
were crowned in Aix-la-Chapelle from Louis 
the Pious to Ferdinand I. (813—1531). 
Seventeen imperial diets and 11 provincial 
councils were held within its walls. The re¬ 
moval of the coronations to Frankfort, the 
religious contests of the 16th and 17th cen¬ 
turies, a great fire which in 1656 consumed 
4,000 houses, combined with other causes to 
bring into decay this once flourishing com¬ 
munity. In 1793, and again in 1794, Aix-la- 
Chapelle was occupied by the French. By 
the treaties concluded at Campo Formio and 
Luneville, it was formally ceded to France, 
until in 1815 it fell to Prussia. 

The mineral springs of Aix-la-Chapelle, of 
which six are hot and two cold, were known 
in the time of Charlemagne, and have been 
frequented since as early as 1170. The tem¬ 
perature of the hot springs varies from 111° 
to 136° Fahr. They all chiefly act on the 
liver, and on the mucous surfaces of the 
skin, and are therefore efficacious in cases 
of gout, rheumatism, cutaneous diseases, 
etc. The cold springs are chalybeate, and 
not so copious. 

Treaties of Peace and Congress of Aix-la- 
Chapelle .— The first Peace of Aix-la-Cha¬ 
pelle (1668) ended the war carried on be¬ 
tween France and Spain for the possession 
of the Spanish Netherlands. The second 
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) concluded 
the war respecting the succession of Maria 
Theresa to the empire. In general, the pos¬ 
sessions of the several Sta-tes remained as 
before the war. Austria ceded Parma and 
Placentia to the Spanish Infante, Philip; 
and the possession of Silesia was guaranteed 
to Prussia. The privilege of the Assiento 
was anew confirmed to England for four 




Aix-les-Bains 


Akbar 


years, and the Pretender was expelled from 
France. 

The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle was held 
in 1818, for regulating the affairs of Europe 
after the war. It began on Sept. 30, and 
ended on Nov. 21. Its principal object was 
the withdrawal from France of the army of 
occupation, 150,000 strong, as well as the re¬ 
ceiving of France again into the alliance of 
the great powers. The Emperors of Russia 
and Austria and the King of Prussia were 
present in person. The plenipotentiaries 
were Metternich, Castlereagh and Welling¬ 
ton, Hardenberg and Bernstorff, Nesselrode 
and Capo d’lstrias, with Richelieu on the 
part of France. The five great powers as¬ 
sembled signed a protocol announcing a pol¬ 
icy known as that of the “ Holy Alliance.” 

Aix=Ics=Bains (axTa-ban'), a town of 
France, in Haute Savoie, on the E. side 
of Lake Bourget, 8 miles N. by E. of Cham- 
bery, celebrated for its sulphuretted hot 
springs, of the temperature of 112° to 117°, 
at an altitude of 823 feet above sea level. 
They were in vogue among the Romans, and 
are still extensively resorted to. Pop. 8,120. 

Ajaccio (a-yatch'yo), the chief town of 
the island of Corsica, which forms a Depart¬ 
ment of France. Its harbor, to the N. of 
the gulf of the same name, on the western 
coast of the island and at the confluence of 
the rivers Terignano and Restonico, is ren¬ 
dered unsafe by projecting rocks. It is the 
handsomest city of Corsica, and the birth¬ 
place of Napoleon I., whose house is still to 
be seen. Pop. (1901), 21,779. 

Ajalon, said to be the modern YAlo, a vil¬ 
lage a little to the N. of the Jaffa road, 
about 14 miles W. N. W. of Jerusalem; was 
the town rendered memorable by Joshua’s 
victory over the five Canaanitish kings, and 
still more so by the extraordinary circum¬ 
stance of the miraculously lengthened day. 

Ajassaluck, the Turkish name for a vil¬ 
lage on or near the site of the ancient 
Ephesus. The whole place seems to have 
been built from the ruins of Ephesian 
grandeur. Tamerlane encamped here, after 
having subdued Smyrna, in 1402. 

Ajax, the name of two heroes of the Tro¬ 
jan War. (1) Ajax, son of Telamon, King 
of Salamis, was next in warlike prowess to 
Achilles. His chief exploits, recorded in the 
“Iliad,” are his duel with Hector (7th 
book), and his obstinate defense of the ships 
in the protracted battle described in the 
13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, and 17th books. 
Blunt in manners, nigged in temper, and 
somewhat obtuse in intellect, his strength 
and stubborn courage made him a most val¬ 
uable soldier, but no favorite; and his con¬ 
fidence in these qualities induced him to de¬ 
spise divine aid, by which he roused the 
anger of Pallas, the author of his subse¬ 
quent misfortunes. After Achilles’ death, 


the armor of that hero was to be given as a 
prize to him who had deserved best of the 
Greeks. Ajax and Ulysses alone advanced 
their claims, and the assembled princes 
awarded the splendid prize to Ulysses. Ajax 
was so much mortified at this that he went 
mad, and in his fury attacked the herds and 
flocks of the camp, mistaking them for the 
Grecian leaders by whom he thought him¬ 
self so deeply injured. On recovering his 
senses, and seeing to what excesses he had 
been transport¬ 
ed, he slew him¬ 
self. (2) Ajax, 
son of Oileus, 
remarkable for 
swiftness of foot 
and skill in us¬ 
ing the bow and 
javelin. His no¬ 
toriety is chiefly 
derived from 
events subse¬ 
quent to the 
close of the 
“ Iliad.” When 
the Greeks had 
entered Troy, 

Ulysses accused 
Ajax of having ajax and achilles. • 
violated Cassan¬ 
dra in the temple of Pallas. He exculpated 
himself with an oath ; but the anger of the 
goddess at last overtook him, and he per¬ 
ished in the waves of the sea. 

Akbah, a Saracen conqueror in the first 
period of the Hegira, who overran Africa 
from Cairo to the Atlantic Ocean, and 
founded Cairoan, in the interior of Africa, 
to check the barbarians and secure a place 
of refuge to the families of the Saracens. 
He perished in a revolt of the Greeks and 
Africans. 

Akbar (ach'bar) [t. e., “the Great,” his 
proper name being Jelal-ed-din-Mohammed], 
Mogul Emperor of India, the greatest Asiatic 
monarch of modern times. His father, Hu- 
mayun, was deprived of the throne by usurp¬ 
ers, and had to retire for refuge into Persia; 
and it was on the way thither, in the town 
of Amarkot, that Akbar was born in 1542. 
Humayun recovered the throne of Delhi af¬ 
ter an exile of 12 years; but died within a 
year. The young prince at first committed 
the administration to a regent-minister, 
Beiram; but, finding his authority degener¬ 
ating into tyranny, he shook it off at the 
age of 18, and took the power into his own 
hands. At this time only a few of the many 
provinces once subdued by the Mongol in¬ 
vaders were actually subject to the throne 
of Delhi; in 10 or 12 years, Akbar’s empire 
embraced the whole of India N. of the 
Vindhya mountains, but in Southern India 
he was less successful. He conquered and 
conciliated all the independent Moham- 











A Kempis 


Akron 


medan and Hindu princes of Northern India 
from Kashmir to Behar; and, although a 
great conqueror, was yet a greater ruler. 
The wisdom, vigor and humanity with which 
he organized and administered his vast do¬ 
minions are unexampled in the East. He 
promoted commerce by constructing roads, 
establishing a uniform system of weights 
and measures, and a vigorous police. He 
exercised the utmost vigilance over his vice¬ 
roys of provinces and other officers to see 
that no extortion was practiced, and that 
justice was impartially administered to all 
classes of his subjects. For the adjustment 
of taxation, the lands were accurately meas¬ 
ured and the statistics taken, not only of 
the population, but of the resources of each 
province. For a born Mohammedan, the 
tolerance with which he treated other re¬ 
ligions was wonderful. He gave the Hindus 
freedom of worship, though he prohibited 
cruel ordeals and the burning of widows. 
He was fond of inquiries as to religious be¬ 
liefs ; and Portuguese missionaries from Goa 
were sent at his request to give him an ac¬ 
count of the Christian faith. He even at¬ 
tempted to promulgate a new religion of his 
own, an eclectic kind of deism or natural re¬ 
ligion; but it never took root. Literature 
received the greatest encouragement. 
Schools were established for the education 
both of Hindus and Mohammedans; and 
numbers of Hindu works were translated 
from Sanskrit into Persian. Abul-Fazl, the 
able minister of Akbar, has left a valuable 
history of his master’s reign, entitled “ Ak- 
bar-nameh.” After a memorable reign of 
nearly 50 years, Akbar died in 1605, and 
was buried in a noble mausoleum at Sikan- 
dra, near Agra. 

A Kempis, Thomas, See Kempis. 

Akenside, Mark, an English poet; born 
in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Nov. 9, 1721. He 
was sent by his father to the University of 
Edinburgh to qualify himself for the Pres¬ 
byterian ministry, but chose -he study of 
medicine instead. After three years’ resi¬ 
dence at Edinburgh he went to London, and 
in 1744 became Doctor of Physic. In a 
thesis which he published on receiving his 
degree, “ De Ortu et Incremento Foetus Hu- 
mani,” he proposed a new theory, which has 
been since confirmed and received. In the 
same year he published the “ Pleasures of 
Imagination,” and in the following year a 
collection of odes, and the “ Epistle to 
Curio,” a satire on Pulteney. After hav¬ 
ing unsuccessfully attempted the practice 
of his profession at Northampton and 
Hampstead, he was invited to London, 
where he became a fellow of the Royal So¬ 
ciety, was admitted into the College of 
Physicians, and in 1755 read the Gulstonian 
lectures in anatomy, and in 1756 the Croon- 
ian lectures. He was also appointed first 
assistant and afterward head physician to 


St. Thomas’ Hospital. While at London 
he published several medical essays. He 
died in London, June 23, 1770. 

Akers, Benjamin Paul, an American 
sculptor, born in 1825; studied in Florence 
and was especially noted for the rapidity 
of his work. His best known statues are 
“Una and the Lion,” “Elizabeth of Hun¬ 
gary,” “Morning,” “Evening,” “Diana and 
Endymion,” “Paolo and Francesca,” and 
“The Dead Pearl Diver.” He died in May, 
1861. 

Akron, a city of Ohio, county-seat of 
Summit co.; situated in the N. E. part of 
the State, on a range of hills overlooking 
the Cuyahoga river, here quite an insig¬ 
nificant stream, on the Ohio canal, and the 
Baltimore and Ohio, Erie, Pennsylvania, 
and other railroads, 31 miles S. of Cleve¬ 
land, and 125 miles N. E. of Columbus. A 
number of fresh-water lakes in its vicinity 
are accessible by electric roads and have 
become favored summer resorts. The city 
covers an area exceeding 11 y 2 square miles, 
and its population in 1907 was estimated 
at over 52,000. Its principal buildings are 
those of the Federal government, high 
school, Carnegie Free Library, Methodist 
Episcopal Church, Colonial Theater, and 
Grand Opera House. Buclitel College (Uni- 
versalist) is located here. 

Trade and Industry .—The city carries on 
a brisk trade in grain and other agricul¬ 
tural products, but it is chiefly important 
as an industrial center. The Ohio canal 
rises here by a series of 21 locks, the sur¬ 
plus of which furnishes power for many in¬ 
dustries. Fuel is supplied by the coal fields 
in the neighborhood and by the natural gas 
brought down in pipes from West Virginia. 
Beds of fire clay near by furnish material 
for the making of brick and tiles, as well 
as pottery, terra cotta, and other products. 
The leading industry is the manufacture 
of rubber and elastic goods, employing over 
one-third the total number of wage-earners. 
In 1905 this industry was carried on 
in thirteen establishments, with $8,931,000 
of capital and 3,750 wage-earners (exclu¬ 
sive of salaried officials and clerks), who 
received $1,897,000 in wages, used ma¬ 
terials valued at $8,561,000, and turned out 
a product valued at $13,397,000. Printing 
and publishing, including newspapers and 
periodicals, was carried on in 12 establish¬ 
ments, with $2,479,000 of capital and 970 
wage-earners, who received $523,000 in 
wages, used materials valued at $655,000, 
and turned out a product valued at $2,835,- 
000. Pottery, terra cotta, and fire clay 
products were manufactured in 18 estab¬ 
lishments, with $2,520,000 of capital and 
1,299 wage-earners, who received $644,000 
in wages, used materials valued at $406,000, 
and turned out a product valued at $1,- 
718,000. The foundries and machine shops 



Akron 


Alabama 


numbered 20, with $2,924,000 of capital 
and 832 wage-earners, who received $488,- 
000 in wages, used materials valued at 
$1,300,000, and turned out a product valued 
at $2,308,000. Other important industries 
are Hour and grist, food preparations, car¬ 
riage and wagon materials, malt liquors, 
lumber and planing mill products, stoves 
and furnaces, electrical machinery, etc. 
I he growth of the industrial activity of 
Akron since 1890 is shown in the following: 


Year 

Number of 
Establishments 

Capital 

Wage-Earners 

Wages 

Cost nf 

Materials Used 

Value of 
Products 

1890 

1900 

350 

431 

$14,237,000 

24,199,000 

5,803 

9,030 

$2,693,000 

3,971,000 

$6,928,000 

13,474,000 

$12,551,000 

23,610,000 


The special United States Census of Manu¬ 
factures for 1905 was confined to the true 
factory industries, to the exclusion of hand 
trades and neighborhood industries. The 
figures for 1905, compared with the cor¬ 
responding figures for 1900, are as follows: 


U 

a 

o 

> 

1 Number of 
[ Establishments 

Capital 

Wage-Earners 

0D 

o> • 

to 

a 

£ 

Cost of 

Materials Used 

Value of 
Products 

1900 

178 

$23,725,000 

8,259 

$3,615,000 

$12,720,000 

$22,016,000 

1905 

C 2 

187 

29,188,000 

9,817 

4,986,000 

20,647,000 

34,004,000 

o> a 
c> o 

Sh o 

5.1 

23.0 

18.9 

37.9 

62.3 

54.5 


In 1906 there were three National banks 
with an aggregate capital of $650,000 sur¬ 
plus and profits, $426,000, and total re¬ 
sources and liabilities, $6,247,000. In the 
same year the clearing house t.n nsaetions 
aggregated $30,056,000, against $27,071,000 
in 1905. 

Administration , History , and Popula¬ 
tion .—The city is governed in accordance 
with the municipal code of Ohio. There are 
a mayor, elected for a term of two years, a 
council consisting of two members from 
each ward, boards of public service, safety, 
and education, a treasurer, solicitor, and 
auditor. The members of the board of 
public safety are appointed by the mayor, 
all the other boards and officers men¬ 
tioned being elective. The board of edu¬ 
cation has complete and independent con¬ 
trol of the public school system, including 
the power of taxation for school purposes. 
The municipal expenditure is about $1,000,- 
000 annually, about one-fifth of which goes 
to the public schools. There is a municipal 
hospital. 

The place was settled in 1818, but its 
growth dates from 1825, when the water 
10 


power of the canal locks began to be utilized 
by large Hour mills. It was incorporated 
as a village in 1836, and as a city in 1871. 
John Brown once lived here, and his house 
is still standing. Pop. (1850) 3,266; (1870) 
10,006; (1880) 16,512; (1890) 27,601; 

(1900) 42,728; Fed. est. (1906) 50,738. In 
1900 the population consisted of 21,383 
males and 21,345 females. The foreign 
born numbered 7,127, making 16.7 per cent, 
of the total, the principal elements being 
3,227 Germans, 1,517 English, Scotch, and 
Welsh, and 641 Irish. Negroes numbered 
525. Pop. (1910), 09,067. 

Akshehr (Turk. White Town), a city of 
Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of Koniah, 
Asia Minor. It is situated a few miles to 
the S. of the salt lake of the same name, at 
the foot of the Sultan-Dagh, in a fruitful 
valley, 68 miles N. W. of Koniah. It manu¬ 
factures carpets and is connected by rail¬ 
road with Koniah, Smyrna, and Constant¬ 
inople. In ancient times it was called 
Philomelion and was on the highway from 
Ephesus to the E. Pop. 15,000. 

Aksu, a town of Chinese Turkestan, 260 
miles N. E. from Yarkand, on an affluent of 
the Tarim, and at the southern base of the 
Thian-shan mountains. It was formerly 
the capital of a separate khanate; in 1867 
it became a part of the State of Eastern 
Turkestan, under Yakub Beg, but was con¬ 
quered again by China in 1877. It is cele¬ 
brated for its manufactures of cotton cloth 
and saddlery, and is much resorted to by 
caravans, as an entrepot of commerce be¬ 
tween Russia, Tartary, and China. Pop., 
20,000, besides a Chinese garrison as nu¬ 
merous. 

Akyab, a town of Burma, the chief sea¬ 
port of Aracan, is situated on the eastern 
side of the island of Akyab, at the mouth 
of the Kuladan river, 190 miles S. E. of Cal¬ 
cutta. In 1826, being then a mere fishing 
village, it was chosen for the chief station 
of the Province, and now is a great rice 
port; a well-built place, with broad and 
regular streets, good public buildings, and 
a high-school. Savage Island shelters the 
harbor. Pop. (1901) 31,687. 

Alabama, a State in the South Central 
Division of the North American Union; 
bounded by Tennessee, Georgia, Florida, Mis¬ 
sissippi, and the Gulf of Mexico; gross area, 
52,250 square miles; admitted into the 
Union, Dec. 14, 1819; seceded, Jan. 11, 1861; 
readmitted, June 25, 1868; number of coun¬ 
ties, 66; pop. (1890) 1,513,017; (1900) 

1,828,697 ; (1910), 2,138,093 ; capital, Mont¬ 
gomery. 

Topography .—The surface is highest in 
the N. E., where the Blue Ridge range of the 
Appalachian mountains enters the State. 
South of this the surface is almost level, 
and consists of plains forming a gentle de- 


































Alabama 


Alabama 


clivity toward the Gulf. The State com¬ 
prises four distinctive belts, the cereal, min¬ 
eral, cotton, and timber; the first covering 
8 counties, the second, 28, the third, 17, 
and the fourth, the remainder. Among the 
valleys, those of the Tennessee, the Warrior, 
and the Coosa, are the most important. The 
principal rivers are the Alabama, Tennes¬ 
see, Mobile, Tombigbee, Black Warrior, and 
Chattahoochee. A number of others, rising 
in Alabama, have their outlets in Florida. 
Bays comprise the Grand, Bon Secours, Per¬ 
dido, and Mobile, the last being one of the 
most important in the country. 

Geology .— All of the formations of the 
Appalachian region are found in this State, 
which has three geological divisions: (1) 
the Northern, showing sub-carboniferous 
rock masses and coal measures; (2) the 

Middle, metamorphic and calcareous rocks, 
Silurian sediments, and coal measures; and 
(3) the Southern, drift beds over cretaceous 
and tertiary rocks. 

Mineralogy .— The State has large wealth 
in its mineral resources, which include coal, 
iron, asbestos, asphalt, pottery and porcelain 
clays, marble, granite, phosphates, natural 
gas, gold, silver, and copper. The most 
valuable of these at present are coal and 
iron. In the calendar year 1899, the State 
ranked fifth in the production of coal, with 
an output of 7,593,416 short tons, valued 
at $8,256,462; and (1898) third in the pro¬ 
duction of iron ore, with an output of 2,- 
401,748 long tons, valued at $1,632,208. 
The coal was all bituminous, and the iron 
was red and brown hematite. 

Soil .— In the S. part of the State the 
soil is a light alluvial and diluvial; in the 
central, the cotton belt, limestone and chalk 
lands predominate; and in the N. part, 
which contains the Tennessee valley, are ex¬ 
ceedingly rich mineral lands. Besides the 
agricultural, mineral, and grazing lands, 
there are large tracts of valuable yellow 
pine forests. 

Agriculture .— The most valuable produc¬ 
tions are cotton and corn, the yield in the 
crop years 1899-1900 being 1,176,042 gross 
bales, and 33,015,120 bushels, respectively. 
Other crops that are grown to advantage 
are wheat, oats, rye, potatoes, and hay. Ex¬ 
cluding cotton, the value of these crops in 
1899 was $17,446,689, and the value of all 
farm animals was $21,656,211. According 
to the census of 1890, the State had 157,772 
farms, comprising 19,853,000 acres, and 
worth, with buildings and improvements, 
$111,051,390. 

Manufactures .— According to the United 
States census of 1900 there were in the 
State 5,602 manufacturing establishments, 
employing $70,370,081 capital and 55,432 
persons; paying $17,299,090 for wages and 
$46,151,026 for materials; output, $82,793,- 
804. The industries were: Iron and steel 


($17,392,483); lumber ($12,867,551); cot¬ 
ton goods ($8,153,136) ; foundry and 
machine shop products ($5,482,441); 
railroad cars ($4,172,192) ; coke $3,- 
726,433); Hour and grist ($3,310,757); 
cotton-seed oil and cake ($2,985,890) ; fer¬ 
tilizers ($2,008,162) ; cotton ginning ($1,- 
218,283). 

Banking. — In 1899, there were 27 na¬ 
tional banks in operation, having $3,205,000 
in capital, $1,309,220 in outstanding circu¬ 
lation, and $2,750,445 in reserve. There 
were also 19 state banks, with $938,200 in 
capital, $2,212,777 in deposits, and $3,794,- 
112 in resources. The exchanges at the 
United States clearing-house at Birming¬ 
ham aggregated $30,215,716 in the year end¬ 
ing Sept. 30, 1899. 

Commerce. — In the fiscal year 1899-1900, 
the imports of merchandise at the port of 
Mobile aggregated in value $2,883,934, and 
the exports, $13,206,334. There was also im¬ 
ported gold and silver coin and bullion to 
the value of $15,045. 

Education. — In 1898, the school popula¬ 
tion was estimated at 621,600, of whom 
nearly 350,000 were enrolled in the public 
schools, and over 222,000 were in daily at¬ 
tendance. There were over 7,000 public 
schools, white and colored pupils being 
taught separately; 7,500 teachers; public 
school property valued at $1,500,000; re¬ 
ceipts of the year, $800,273; and expendi¬ 
tures, the same. For higher instruction, 
there were 48 public high schools; 66 pri¬ 
vate secondary schools; 6 public and 3 pri¬ 
vate normal schools; 9 universities and col¬ 
leges for men and for both sexes; 9 colleges 
for women: and a State Agricultural and 
Mechanical College at Auburn. The prin¬ 
cipal universities and colleges are the Uni¬ 
versity of Alabama (opened 1831; non- sec¬ 
tarian) ; the Tuskegee Normal and Indus¬ 
trial Institute (1881); Blount College 
(1890; non-sectarian); Howard College 
(1841; Baptist); Southern University 
(1859; Methodist Episcopal, South); La¬ 
fayette College (1885; non-sectarian); Line- 
ville College (1890; non-sectarian); St. 
Bernard College (1892; Roman Catholic); 
Alabama Baptist Colored University (1878; 
Baptist) ; Bailey Springs University (1893; 
non-sectarian) ; Judson Female Institute 
(1839; Baptist) ; Isbell College (1849; Pres* 
byterian) ; Athens Female College (1842; 
Methodist Episcopal, South) ; and the Ala¬ 
bama Conference Female College (1855; 
Methodist Episcopal). 

Churches. — The strongest denominations 
numerically in the State are the Baptist; 
Methodist Episcopal, South; Roman Catho¬ 
lic; Methodist Episcopal; and the Protest¬ 
ant Episcopal. All denominations reported 
in 1890: Organizations, 6,383; churches 
and halls, 6,400; members, 559,171; and 
value of church property, $6,708,477. In 


















„„ . 

5 


s »,*srl v>- 

° s* o-a m wiN_s 

& 1 ° r,>l 3** 

-»5n -a =>/«.. s“r 


*™lUO 



























































































































































































































Alabama 


Alabama 


1899, there were 4,000 evangelical Sunday 
schools, with 24,750 officers and teachers 
and 215,000 scholars. 

Railroads. — The total length of railroads 
within the State, Jan. 1, 1900, was 4,047.59 
miles, of which 141.35 miles were con¬ 
structed during the previous year. Recent 
developments in the coal, iron, and manu¬ 
facturing industries have greatly stimulated 
railroad construction and extension. 

Post-offices and Periodicals. — In 1899 
there were about 2,400 post-offices of all 
grades, and 232 periodicals, of which 21 
were dailies and 187 weeklies. 

Finances. — The assessed valuation of all 
taxable property in 1899 was $258,900,487, 
and the total bonded debt, March 1, 1900, 
■was $9,357,600. 

State Government. — The governor is 
elected for a term of two years, and receives 
a salary of $3,000 per annum. Legislative 
sessions are held biennially and are lim¬ 
ited to 50 days each. The Legislature has 
33 members in the Senate and 100 in the 
House, each of whom receives $4 per day and 
mileage. There are 9 representatives in 
Congress. In politics, the State is strongly 
Democratic. 

History. — Alabama was first settled by 
Bienville, in 1702. The region N. of 31°, 
which belonged to France, was ceded to 
Great Britain in 1763, transferred to the 
United States in 1783, and attached to 
South Carolina and Georgia till 1802, when 
it was organized as the Mississippi Terri¬ 
tory. The region S. of 31°, which belonged 
to Spain, was seized and joined to Missis¬ 
sippi Territory in 1812, and with Florida 
was purchased from Spain in 1819. The 
great Creek Indian war of 1813-1814 was 
waged within the present limits of the State. 
After Alabama was admitted to the Union, 
it became one of the strongest slave-hold¬ 
ing States in the Union. It was one of the 
first of the Southern States to favor seees- 
sion, and Montgomery, its capital, became 
the first capital of the Southern Confeder¬ 
acy. During the Civil War its soil and 
waters were the scenes of memorable con¬ 
flicts, especially the Federal naval operations 
against Mobile (q. v.). Since the war, the 
State has had an era of uniform prosperity. 

Alabama, a river in the State of Ala¬ 
bama, formed by the confluence of the Coosa 
and Tallapoosa above Montgomery, and unit¬ 
ing with the Tombigbee to form the Mobile 
river; tortuous in its course; 312 miles 
long, navigable its entire length for small 
vessels, and for 60 miles of its lower course 
for vessels of 6 feet draft. 

Alabama Claims, a series of claims made 
in 1871 by the United States against the 
English Government for damages done to 
shipping during the Civil War, after a for¬ 
mal discussion between the two governments 
in 1865, and fruitless conventions for their 


settlement in 1868 and 1869. These dam¬ 
ages were inflicted chiefly by the “ Ala¬ 
bama,” an armed vessel of the Confederate 
States, which was fitted out in a British 
port and permitted to sail in violation of 
existing international law. A tribunal, cre¬ 
ated in 1871 to pass upon these claims, held 
its sessions in Geneva, Switzerland, during 
the year 1872, and awarded the United 
States the sum of $15,500,000 in gold, in 
satisfaction of all claims at issue. The 
Geneva tribunal was important as estab¬ 
lishing an example of arbitration in place 
of war in the settlement of international 
differences, which, in this case, barely 
averted a war, and in defining the attitude 
of neutrals toward nations at war. 

Alabama Polytechnic Institute, a co¬ 
educational (non-sectarian) institution in 
Auburn, Ala., organized in 1872; has 
grounds and buildings valued at over 
$330,000; scientific apparatus, $75,000; in¬ 
come, $190,000; volumes in the library, 
23,000; professors and instructors, 70; stu¬ 
dents, 730; and number of graduates since 
organization, 1,200. 

Alabama, The, a Confederate cruiser 
which devastated American shipping during 
the Civil War. She was a bark-rigged 
steamer of 1,040 tons, built under secret in¬ 
structions at Birkenhead, England. Her des¬ 
tination was suspected by the United States 
minister, but when orders for her detention 
were finally obtained, she had departed (July 
31, 1862). She made for the Azores, where 
she was equipped and manned by an Eng¬ 
lish crew, under the command of Capt. 
Raphael Semmes, of Maryland. She then 
proceeded to capture and burn vessels bear¬ 
ing the American flag, and the destruction 
wrought in less than two years amounted to 
65 vessels, and about $4,000,000 in prop¬ 
erty. In June, 1864, she put into Cher¬ 
bourg, France, for repairs. Here she was 
intercepted by the Federal corvette “ Kear- 
sarge,” Captain Winslow, and, after an hour’s 
battle, Semmes surrendered. An account of 
her history is given in “ Two Years on the 
Alabama,” by Arthur Sinclair (1895). 

Alabama, The, a sea-going battleship of 
the United States navy, launched from 
Cramp’s shipyard, at Philadelphia, Pa., May 
18, 1898. It was the first to be launched 
of the three new battleships of its type, the 
others being the “ Illinois ” and “ Wiscon¬ 
sin.” It presents marked differences from 
the first three, the “ Oregon,” “ Indiana,” 
and “ Massachusetts,” these differences in¬ 
volving both the arrangement of the bat¬ 
tery and the disposition of the armor, as 
well as a considerable increase in size and 
displacement. The main battery consists 
of four 13-inch guns in turrets and four¬ 
teen 6-inch rapid firing guns, of which ten 
are mounted on the gun deck, eight in broad- 




Alabama 


Alameda 


side between the turrets, and two firing 
straight ahead forward of the fore turret 
on the gun deck. Four are mounted in a 
small redoubt on casemate deck, two on 
each side. The broadside 6-inch guns, in¬ 
stead of being mounted in projecting spon¬ 
sors, are mounted in recess ports in order to 
secure extensive train forward and abaft 
the beam. The secondary battery consists 
of seventeen 6-pounder rapid-fire guns, six 
1-pounder rapid-fire guns, and four Gat¬ 
lings. The general dimensions of the “ Ala¬ 
bama ” are as follows: Length over all, 
374 feet; breadth, 72 feet; freeboard for¬ 
ward, 20 feet; freeboard abaft the after tur¬ 
ret, 13 feet 4 inches; draft, 23 feet 6 inches; 
displacement, 11,570 tons. The guaranteed 
speed is 16 knots, and the estimated horse¬ 
power, 10,000. The maximum thickness of 
armor on the water line is 16% inches, ta¬ 
pering to 9% inches at the bottom of the 
belt; casemate armor is 5% inches thick, 
and the superstructure armor is of the same 
thickness; armor of the 13-incli gun tur¬ 
rets is 15 inches thick, except the porthole 
plate, which is 17 inches; armor of the bar¬ 
bettes on which the turrets rest is 15 inches 
thick; thickness of the protective deck ar¬ 
mor on the flat over the citadel amidships, 
and also forward and aft, is 2% inches; and 
the thickness of the slopes forward and aft 
of the amidships citadel is 4 inches. The 
conning tower is cylindrical and 10 inches 
thick. The total weight of armor and bolts 
is 2,720 tons, and of the protective deck ar¬ 
mor, 593 tons. The contract cost was 
$2,650,000, exclusive of armament. On her 
trial trip in August, 1900, she attained a 
speed of 17 knots without forcing or mis¬ 
hap. Soon after she was placed in commis¬ 
sion. 

Alabama, University of, a co-educa- 
tional (non-sectarian) institution in Tus¬ 
caloosa, with a thoroughly equipped medical 
school in Mobile; organized in 1831; has 
grounds and buildings valued at over $500,- 
000; scientific apparatus, $50,000; income, 
$275,000; volumes in the libraries, 25,000; 
professors and instructors, 60; students, 
890 (including summer school); num¬ 
ber of graduates since organization, over 
2 , 000 . 

Alabaster (from Greek alabastros, or the 
earlier form, alabastos ), a tapering box, 
made for holding ointment; a rosebud; a 
measure of capacity, holding 10 ounces of 
wine or 9 of oil. The word is also applied 
to the mineral now called granular gypsum, 
and to any vessel made of it. Alabaster 
was named from Alabastron (near modern 
Antinoe), an Egyptian town in which there 
was a manufactory of small vessels or pots, 
made formerly, at least, from a stone oc¬ 
curring in hills near the town, though ulti¬ 
mately other substances were often used, 
not excluding even gold. 


In mineralogy, massive gypsum, either 
white or delicately shaded. A granular va¬ 
riety is found in England in Cheshire, and 
a more compact one at Ferrybridge in York- 1 
shire, in Nottinghamshire, and in Derby¬ 
shire; the latter has been made into col¬ 
umns for mansion-houses, and is extensively 
manufactured at Derby into cups, basins, 
or other vessels. Some of the alabaster oc¬ 
curring near the town just mentioned is 
white, while some has veins of a reddish- 
brown color. 

Alagoas, a maritime State of the repub¬ 
lic of Brazil, bounded on the N. and W. by 
Pernambuco. The country is mountainous 
in the N. W., and low, marshy and un¬ 
healthy on the coast. The chief productions 
are the sugar-cane, cotton plant, manioc or 
cassava, ipecacuanha, maize, rice, etc., and 
also timber and dye-woods. Pop. (census of 
1900), 649,273. The town of Alagoas, once 
the capital, has 40,000 inhabitants. The 
present capital is the port of Maceio (pop. 
33,000). 

Alajuela (al-li-wha'la), a city of the State 
of Costa Pica, Central America, 23 miles 
W. N. W. of Cartago, and a little on the 
western side of the watershed between the 
Atlantic and the Pacific. It is connected 
with Cartago by rail. Pop. 10,000. 

Alaman, Lucas (a-la-rniin'), a Mexican 
historian and statesman, born at Guana¬ 
juato, Oct. 18, 1792. He is best known by 
his “ History of the Mexican Republic ” 
(1844-1849), and “History of Mexico” 
(1849-1852). He performed important po¬ 
litical services for Mexico, among others as 
Secretary of the Interior, 1823-1825; and 
established many important public works, 
including the Mexican Museum. He died in 
Mexico, June 2, 1853. 

Alamanni, or Alemanni, Luigi (al-a- 

ma'ne), an Italian poet and diplomatist, born 
in Florence, on Oct. 25, 1495; distinguished 
for his wit and tact. In 1522 he took part 
in a conspiracy against Cardinal Giulio 
de Medici, and after its discovery, fled to 
France, where he found protection with 
Frangois I. In 1527, he reappeared in Flor¬ 
ence, endeavored to obtain the protection of 
the emperor for the republic through An¬ 
drea Doria, who was a friend of his, but 
fell under the suspicion of the ruling, party 
and was compelled to flee the city. The 
Medici, on their return in 1532, declared 
him a rebel. He went back to France, where 
he served as ambassador for Francois I. to 
Henry II. He wrote “ La Cultivazione ” 
(1533), a book about agriculture, in six 
volumes. He also wrote love songs, epi¬ 
grams, satires, comedies, translations, and 
various other things. He died April 18, 
1556. 

Alameda, co-extensive city and township 
in Alameda co., Cal.; on San Francisco 



Alamo 


Alarcon 


Bay and the Southern Pacific railway; 11 
miles E. S. E. of San Francisco. It is the 
seat of the College of Notre Dame (Roman 
Catholic) ; a popular summer resort, and 
the place of residence of many San Fran¬ 
cisco business men. It has a State bank, 
electric light and street railway plants, the 
largest borax works in the world, extensive 
potteries, oil refineries, and shipyards. Pop. 
(11)00), 10,464; (1910), 23,383. 

Alamo, The, a Franciscan mission with¬ 
in the limits of the present San Antonio, 
Tex.; built about 1722, and after 1793 oc¬ 
cupied on occasion as a fort. The building 
now known as the Alamo was the church 
of the mission, which included also a con¬ 
vent and hospital building, a small inclosed 
convent yard, and a plaza of about two 
acres and a half; the whole being sur¬ 
rounded by a strong wall about eight feet 
high and nearly three feet thick. The 
church, which has been partly restored, 
stands on the east side of the plaza, its 
carved front facing west. The Alamo is 
noted for its heroic defense in 1836, during 
the war for independence in Texas, by a 
small band of Texans under Colonel Will¬ 
iam B. Travis, against about 4,000 Mexicans 
under General Santa Anna, in which the 
entire number of the defenders was slain. 
Santa Anna invested this improvised fort 
on Feb. 23, and on the morning of March 6, 
after a breach in the wall had been made 
by his cannon, assaulted in force. The 
Mexicans were twice driven back with great 
loss, but finally scaled the parapet and en¬ 
gaged the defenders in a hand-to-hand 
struggle. The Texans, though weakened by 
privation and fatigue and overwhelmed by 
numbers, fought till but five of their num¬ 
ber remained alive. These five were killed 
by Santa Anna’s orders. One man escaped 
from the fort before the assault. Mrs. 
Dickinson, wife of an officer killed in the 
fight, her child, and two .Mexican women 
and a negro boy were the only survivors. 
Col. David Crockett and Col. James Bowie 
were conspicuous among the defenders. The 
Mexicans lost 521 killed, about three times 
the total number of defenders. “Remember 
the Alamo!” became the war-cry of the 
Texans in their subsequent battles for inde¬ 
pendence. The title to the Alamo was in 
dispute for many years between the city of 
San Antonio and the Roman Catholic 
Church. Decision was rendered in 1850 in 
favor of the Church, by which the Alamo 
church building was sold to the State in 
1883 for $20,000. Later, the convent por¬ 
tion was purchased for $75,000, the State 
appropriating part of this amount, and the 
balance being donated by the Daughters of 
the Confederacy. 

Aland Islands, a group of about 80 is¬ 
lands and islets; between the Gulf of Both¬ 
nia and the Baltic Sea, and near the mouth 


of the Gulf of Finland; area, 468 square 
miles. The principal islands are Aland, 
which is the largest, and gives name to the 
group, Lemland, Lumparland, Ekeroe, Fog- 
loe, Kumlinge, Braendoe, Vordoe, and Han- 
noc. Aland, distant about 30 miles from 
the Swedish coast, is 25 miles long and 
about 22 broad. In this island is a harbor 
capable of containing the whole Russian 
lleet. The chief towns are Aland and Cas- 
telholm. The islands are now included in 
the province of Finland. Pop. about 16,000. 

Alanus ab Insults (a-la'nus ab in'su-lis) 
or Alain de Lille (;i-lan' d6 lei), a noted 
French scholastic philosopher (1114-1203). 
Of his voluminous theological writings, the 
best known is the treatise on “The Articles 
of the Faith.” His poem, “Anti-Claudinus, 
or On the Duties of a Good and Perfect 
Man,” is one of the most celebrated poetic 
compositions of the Middle Ages. 

Alarcon, Hernando (a-lar-kon'), a Span¬ 
ish navigator of the 16th century; leader of 
an expedition to Mexico, which set sail in 
1540. He proved that California was a 
peninsula and not an island, as had been 
supposed previously. He penetrated in boats 
a considerable distance up the Colorado 
river. On his return to New Spain he made 
a valuable map of the California peninsula. 

Alarcon y Ariza, Pedro Antonio de 

(a-lar-kon' e a-re'tha), a Spanish novel¬ 
ist, poet, and politician, born in Guadix, 
March 10, 1833. His critical contributions 
to papers, political and literary, his descrip¬ 
tion of the Moroccan campaign, but espe¬ 
cially his novels and short stories, are 
among the best of their kind, and present a 
picture of modern Spanish society as true 
to life as it is variegated. His clever essay 
“The Poet’s Christmas” went through over 
100 editions. An imposing number of his 
stories appeared under the collective titles 
“Love and Friendship,” “National Tales,” 
“Improbable Stories.” Among them, “The 
Three-Cornered Hat” and “The Scandal” 
deserve special mention. He died at Valde- 
moro, near Madrid, July 19, 1891. 

Alarcon y Mendoza, Don Juan Ruiz de 

(il-lar-kon' e man-df/tha), a noted Spanish 
dramatist, born at Tasco, Mexico, about 1580 
or 1590. Little is known about his early 
life, but he went to Spain in 1600 and be¬ 
came royal attorney in Seville. From 1608 
to 1611, he was in Mexico; then he took up 
his residence in Madrid, where he was ap¬ 
pointed reporter of the royal council of the 
Indies, about 1628. The last great drama¬ 
tist of the old Spanish school, he may be con¬ 
sidered also as the creator of the so-called 
character comedy. Elevated sentiment, har¬ 
mony of verse, and correctness of language 
distinguish his works,the principal of which 
are “The Weaver of Segovia”; “Suspicious 
Truth,” the model for Corneille’s “Liar”; 
“Walls Have Ears”; “The Proof of Prom- 



Alaria 


Alaska 


ises”; “The Anti-Christ.” Complete edition 
of his works by Hartzenbusch (Madrid, 
1860). He died in Madrid, Aug. 4, 1639. 

Alaria, a genus of sea-weeds belonging to 
the order Fucaccw, or sea-wracks, and the 
tribe Luminaridcv. One species, Alaria es- 
culenta, is used for food by the poorer 
classes in Ireland, Scotland, Iceland, Den¬ 
mark, and the Faroe Isles. 

Alaric (al'ar-ik), a celebrated conqueror, 


King of 


the Visigoths. He was a com¬ 


mander of the Goths in the service of Rome, 
and in 395 revolted and invaded Greece, 
capturing Athens. He was opposed by Stil- 
icho, and retreated to Epirus; was then 
made prefect of lllyricum by the Emperor 
Arcadius, and was elected king by his own 
people. In 400 he invaded the Western Em¬ 


pire, reaching 


Milan in 403. He besieged 


the Emperor Honorius in Asto, who was re¬ 
lieved by Stilicho, and a drawn battle was 
fought at Pollentia; soon afterward he suf¬ 
fered a serious defeat at Verona. He was 
again appointed prefect of lllyricum, but 
shortly afterward demanded an excessive 
reward for his services. On the death of 
Stilicho, Honorius repudiated 



his 


obligations 


to Alaric, who 


ALARIC. 


.«\ immediately marched upon 
^ Rome and laid siege to it (408), 
but was induced to leave by 
the promise of 5,000 pounds of 
gold and 30,000 pounds of sil¬ 
ver. Enraged by further breach 
of covenant, he advanced on 
Rome a third time (410), and 
his troops pillaged the city for six days, 
Alaric, who was an Arian Christian, like 
his people, forbidding his soldiers to dis¬ 
honor women or destroy religious buildings. 
When Alaric quitted Rome, it was only to 
prosecute the conquest of Sicily; and he 
seemed likely to become master of all Italy 
when, in 410, he died at Cosenza. Legend 
tells that his remains were hidden from the 
Romans in the bed of the river Busento, and 
that the captives employed in the work 
■were killed. 


Alaric II., eighth King of the Visigoths, 
ruled, from 484 onward, Gaul S. of the 
Loire, and most of Spain. An Arian, he 
was attacked, completely routed near Poi¬ 
tiers, and slain by the orthodox Clovis, 
King of the Franks (507). 

A.aska, an unorganized Territory in the 
Western Division of the North American 
Union, comprising the extreme northwest¬ 
ern part of the American continent; bound¬ 
ed by the Arctic and Pacific oceans, Bering 
Sea, British Columbia, and the Northwest 
Territories of Canada; gross area, as far as 
determined, 581,107 square miles; pur¬ 
chased from Russia, in 1867, for $7,200,000; 
given a territorial district government in 
1884; administrative districts, 7; pop. 
(1910), 64,356; seat of government, Sitka. 


Topography .— The Territory includes 
Prince of Wales Island, the Alexander or 
King George Archipelago, and the Kadiak, 
Aleutian, Pribilofl, and St. Lawrence 
Islands. The coast line exceeds that of the 
entire Atlantic seaboard of the United 
States, and has several notable indentations, 
as Prince William's Sound, Cook Inlet, Bris¬ 
tol Bay, and Northern and Kotzebue Sounds. 
The extreme length of the mainland, from 
N. to S., is about 1,100 miles; extreme 
width, 800 miles. Among rivers, the most 
important are the Yukon, rising in British 
Columbia, and about 2,000 miles in total 
length; the Kuskokwim, which empties into 
Bering Sea; the Colville, Copper, and 
Sushitna. Here the Rocky Mountains merge 
into the Alaskan, culminating in Mount 
Wrangell, 17,500 feet high. Another range, 
near the coast, reaches its extreme height 
in Mount Logan, 19,500 feet (according to 
Harrington), and Mount Fairweather, 15,500 
feet. Mount St. Elias has been given vari¬ 
ous altitudes, Dali stating it at the high¬ 
est, 19,500 feet. The Federal Government is 
still surveying and exploring the entire re¬ 
gion. As far as is now known, the region is 
naturally divided into the Arctic District, 
the Yukon Basin, the Kuskokwim District, 
the Aleutian District, the Kadiak District, 
and the Sitka District. 

Geology .— The Arctic District is treeless, 
with ranges of hills; the Yukon Basin has 
large areas of forests; the Kuskokwim Dis¬ 
trict resembles the Yukon Basin, but has 
more mountains; the Aleutian comprises 
treeless islands; the Kadiak is still but lit¬ 
tle known; and the Sitka has valuable tim¬ 
ber lands. The glacial and volcanic periods 
still survive; beds of cretaceous and mio- 
cene lignites, dikes of plutonic rock, hot 
and boiling springs, quartz-bearing ledges, 
and auriferous gravel beds and sands are 
abundant. 

Mineralogy .— Gold was discovered on the 
Kenai peninsula in 1848, but was not sought 
further. In 1880, surface gold was found in 
the S. E., and systematic mining may be 
said to have begun then. Lignite coal, na¬ 
tive copper, cinnabar, graphite, iron ore, 
white marble, sulphur, medicinal springs, 
mica, kaolin, manganese, asphalt, and pe¬ 
troleum are found in various sections, and 
many of them jn accessible locations and 
paying quantities. At present gold mining 
is the principal mineral industry, and the 
largest fields are in the Yukon region, on 
both sides of the boundary line, and in the 
Cape Nome district, on Bering Sea, and 
wholly within the American territory, where 
gold was first discovered in 1898. Opera¬ 
tions here during 1899 bid fair to surpass 
in results those in the famous Klondike 
region. The output of gold in Alaska in 
the calendar year 1899 was estimated by 
the United States Director of the Mint at 






































































148 


144 


Pt 


c 

'alkett C. y,e 

ft® •• 


M 140 TvT 136 O 


p 


,ty 


Pt. 




j Jarvis 













-68 






R 1 S 8 S 

80UTH EASTERN PART OF 

ALASKA 

(Enlarged) 

SCALE OF MILES 
l-T -i- I I - I 

80 100 

*• 







.bert 


/F 


I kuminay 


V 







Chi ch< 7 v 
, £di* jar 


V.vP'rV 


^jC ^ 1 



Bal< e ^ 


S“ ^Quadra 



< 2 £? 


ForreL 7 .^ 





- . 
% \ & Middleton I. 
9 <P 





rW 


G 




7 L F OF 


! &C* 

'. e/ '4'>k 
5 > /t e(/ > 

: 'Qttki C. 

i > Marmot /. | 

ognaA / fftft Fishery &. Forest He*.) 

«&* , „ 

, KtlMdfc ls - 

' C.Greville 

tkfi. 

' nabas 
iak /. 

bUT 


icy Pt 


ASKA 


C« 

Chic 






f ,vA%-\ 

'S* \ 




60 


has 0 - 


*W-> W* 0 * ' - 


F 


O 


67^ eoU 't?r\ 


A 


C 




sfBr 

!• „ Ray 

\a« 9 £- 




\ 



56 


176 


r 9 n 9*l 


NEAR 1Z ’- 


Longitude Last 

BERING 


180 Longitude West 


;nd|g^ 

(yluz° n f SI* 

Entrance g pf-- 

» 



N 




KiskaJ..^ 


Stmitojiochnoi I,Tq^^'q/i Q 


u * 

Qr.Sith* n !• 




WESTERN PORTION OF 
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS 
l 2 SAME SCALE AS MAIN MAP 176 


RAT IS. 

Amchitka 




Gartlo i 1.1 



I I *^ s t^v»S 

Jv-"* c. 

\ »;?A 

\ C.X'" 

\ GTtt h 

x ^uep n , 

S! . b «m« 

cH ^',ps 
H 


TO'- 


ISO 0L„,^a*;. ANDB ^ 


v --,SO? /• 




176 



52 


K 


148 


144 


1 VI 


140 




136 


o 


132 




















































































Alaska 


Alaska 


$4,000,810 in value; in 1808, it was $2,524,- 
800, The same authority estimated the 
value of all mineral productions in 1900 at 
$ 20 , 200 , 000 . 

Fisheries. — The waters of Alaska contain 
over 100 species of food fish, but the prin¬ 
cipal fisheries are those confined to salmon, 
cod and herring. The former is the most 
valuable, yielding 974,001 cases, 20,518 bar¬ 
rels, and 4,300 half-barrels of packed and 
salted fish in 1898, valued at $3,544,128, 
and in 1899, a production estimated at 
$4,120,000. In connection with the Alaska 
coast there are at least 125,000 square miles 
of cod fishing banks, the greater part of 
which still awaits development. Whales 
and halibut also abound, but as yet they do 
not support distinct industries. 

Fur Seals. — When the United States ac¬ 
quired this region, and till gold mining set 
in, fur sealing was the only industry. Now, 
through indiscriminate slaughter, to check 
which the United States and Great Britain 
have been in negotiation for several years, 
the sea otter has almost entirely disap¬ 
peared, and the fur seals are being killed to 
an extent that will soon terminate the in¬ 
dustry if it is not placed under international 
restrictions. In the season of 1898-1899, 
the males of proper age were killed almost 
to the last one — over 14,000 on St. Paul 
island, and 2,520 on St. George Island. 

Agriculture. — So far there has been but 
little done in the line of systematic farm¬ 
ing. Congress made an appropriation in 
1897 to investigate agricultural possibili¬ 
ties. Oats, wheat, rye, barley, and buck¬ 
wheat, among cereals; potatoes, turnips, 
peas, onions, and many minor vegetables; a 
variety of fruit and excellent hay are grown 
to advantage. . 

Banking. — In 1899, the territory had one 
National bank, with $50,000 in capital, 
$11,250 in outstanding circulation, and 
$74,745 in reserve. Much of the banking is 
done in Seattle, Wash., and San Francisco, 
Cal., whither the bulk of the output of gold 
is sent. 

Commerce. — In the fiscal year 1899-1900, 
the imports of merchandise in the customs 
district of Alaska aggregated in value 
$320,632, and the exports $270,617. There 
was also imported gold to ’the value of 
$6,318,346, all from mines on the Canadian 
side. 

Education. — In 1898 there was a school 
population of nearly 10,000, for whom the 
Federal Government provided 18 schools, in 
which 1,250 pupils were enrolled. The ap¬ 
propriation for public education was 
$30,000, a sum entirely inadequate to the 
growing communities. Mission schools and 
stations were maintained by the Protestant 
Episcopal, Congregational, Roman Catholic, 
Moravian, Methodist Episcopal, Baptist 


and Presbyterian Churches, the Society of 
Friends, and the Swedish Evangelical Mis¬ 
sion Covenant, the denominational schools 
being largely for the natives. There is an 
industrial school at Sitka, with an annual 
average of 200 pupils, where both sexes are 
taught self-supporting occupations. 

Railroads. — The territory is only just en¬ 
tering on the era of railroad construction, 
the present means of communication being 
principally old trails and a number of short¬ 
cut wagon roads constructed by army en¬ 
gineers. Several important lines of rail¬ 
road have been recently projected or are 
under construction both in Alaska and the 
adjoining Canadian territories. In 1898 an 
ingenious aerial railway was completed over 
Chilkoot Pass, which shortens the time 
from tidewater to the headwaters of the 
Yukon from a month to a day. 

Post-offices and, Periodicals. — In 1899 
there were 21 United States mail routes, 46 
post-offices, and 16 periodicals of all kinds. 

Government. — The government is of a ten¬ 
tative character, under the authority of a 
governor appointed by the President for a 
term of four years, at an annual salary of 
$3,000. There are judicial, customs, and 
military officers, and, excepting where other¬ 
wise provided, the general laws are those 
established in Oregon. The Territory at 
present lias no representation in Congress. 

History. — Alaska was discovered by Ber¬ 
ing in 1741, and Russian settlements were 
made to a considerable distance southward. 
In 1772, many trading companies were es¬ 
tablished, and later Captain Cook’s accounts 
of the fur animals there caused many more 
to be organized. In 1799 the Territory was 
granted to a Russian company by the Em¬ 
peror Paul VIII., and in 1867 it passed to 
the United States by treaty with Russia. 
For several years there had been a conten¬ 
tion between the United States and Great 
Britain concerning the boundary line be¬ 
tween Alaska and the British territory in 
Canada, which became greatly accented in 
1896 in consequence of the remarkable dis¬ 
coveries of gold in the Yukon valley. Both 
governments had the disputed region sur¬ 
veyed, separately and by a joint commission, 
and the delimitation of the boundary was 
the most important matter referred to the 
Anglo-American Commission (q.v.). The 
failure of this body to decide the question 
led to a treaty between the United States 
and Great Britain in 1902 for the creation 
of the Alaskan Boundary Tribunal. This 
body met in London, Eng., under the presi¬ 
dency of Lord Chief Justice Alverstone, on 
Sept. 3, 1903, and on Oct. 17 following 
reached a decision which granted all the 
American contentions excepting some relat¬ 
ing to the Portland canal. Here Kannagh- 
unut and Sitkan islands, commanding the 
entrance to the channel, were awarded to 




Alaux 


Albania 


the United States, and Wales and Pearse 
islands to Canada. 

Alaux, Jean (al-o'), called “ Le Romain,” 
a French painter, born at Bordeaux in 178C. 
He was a pupil of Vincent and Guerin; in 
1815, took the Prix de Rome with the paint¬ 
ing of “ Briseis Finding the Body of Pat- 
roclus in the Tent of Achilles.” He exe¬ 
cuted many portraits and other works. His 
historical paintings in the Museum of Ver¬ 
sailles are famous: “ Battle of Villavi- 

ciosa,” “ Valenciennes Taken by Assault by 
Louis XIV.,” “ States-General of Paris Un¬ 
der Philippe de Valois,” “ Assembly of No¬ 
tables at Rouen Under Henry IV.,” “ States- 
General of Paris under Louis XIII.,” and 
the “ Reading of the Will of Louis XIV.” 
He spent nine years in painting the 80 pic¬ 
tures which decorate the hall of the States- 
General of Paris. lie was director of the 
Academy of France from 1847 to 1850, and 
in 1851 became a member of the Academy. 
He died in Paris, March 3, 1864. His 
brother, Jean Paul Alaux, called “ le Gen- 
til,” born in 1788, was director of the School 
of Design at Bordeaux. 

Alaux, Jules Emile, a French professor 
of philosophy, born in 1828. He wrote 
“Dramatic Art” (1855) ; “Religion in the 
19th Century” (1857) ; “Pope and King” 
(1801); “Conscious Philosophy” (1864); 
“ Progressive Religion” (1869) ; “ ^Esthetic 
Studies ” (1874) ; “ History of Philosophy ” 
(1887) ; “Moral and Political Philosophy” 
(1894); “Theory of the Human Soul” 
(1895); and other philosophical works of 
keen and independent thought. He also 
published a volume of poems. 

Alba, Duke of. See Alva. 

Alba Longa, a considerable city of La- 
tium, founded by Ascanius, son of JEneas, in 
B. c. 1152. It was the birthplace of Rom¬ 
ulus, under whose dominion it fell, in con¬ 
sequence of the victory of the Romans in 
the contest between the Horatii and the 
Curiatii. It was situated on the opposite 
side of the Lake Albano from where the 
new town of Albano stands. There was also 
a city of Alba near the Lacus Fucinus; an 
Alba Pompeia in Liguria; and an Alba 
Julia, now Weissenburg, in Transylvania. 

Albani, a powerful family of Rome, 
which has supplied the Roman Catholic- 
Church with several cardinals. Two of them 
are well known as patrons of the fine arts: 
(1) Albani, Alessandro, born in 1692; died 
in 1779; he was a great virtuoso, and pos¬ 
sessed a collection of drawings and engrav¬ 
ings which, at his death, was purchased by 
George III. for 14,000 crowns. (2) Albani, 
Giovanni Francesco, nephew of the former, 
born 1720; a great friend to the Jesuits, but 
in other respects liberal and enlightened. 
His palace was plundered by the French in 


1798, when he made his escape to Naples, 
stripped of all his possessions. Died in 1803. 

Alban?, Francesco, a famous Italian 
painter, born at Bologna, 1578; was a 
scholar of Guido. He was fond of repre¬ 
senting the fair sex, and his compositions, in 
love subjects, are held in high esteem. The 
most celebrated of the productions are: 
“The Sleeping Venus,” “Diana in the Bath,” 
“ Danae Reclining,” “ Galatliea on the Sea,” 
and “ Europa on the Bull.” He has been 
called the Anacreon of painters. It is said 
that his second wife, who was very beauti¬ 
ful, and his children, served as models for 
his Venuses and Cupids. Died in 1660. His 
brother and disciple, Giovanni Battista, 
was a distinguished historical and landscape 
painter. Died in 1668. 

Albani, Marie Emma (Lajeunesse), a 

dramatic soprano and opera singer, born in 
1852, at Chambly, near Montreal, Canada. 
After studying with Lamperti, at Milan, 
she made her debut at Messina (1870), in 
“ La Sonnambula,” under the name Albani, 
in compliment to the city of Albany, where 
her public career began. In 1878 she mar¬ 
ried Ernest Gye, of the Covent Garden The¬ 
ater. 

Albania, the name given to a region of 
West European Turkey between the Adri¬ 
atic Sea, Greece, Macedonia, and Montenegro. 
Upper or Northern Albania formed part of 
the Illyria of the Romans; Lower or South¬ 
ern Albania corresponds to ancient Epirus. 
It comprises the vilayets of Scutari and Ja- 
nina and parts of Monastir and Kossovo. It 
forms the southwestern portion of the re¬ 
maining immediate possessions of European 
Turkey, and extends along the western shore 
of the Balkan peninsula, from the river Bo- 
jana to the Gulf of Arta. To the N. it is 
bounded, since 1878-1880, by the newly-won 
Montenegrin territory, and by Bosnia; on 
the S. it is separated, since 1881, from 
Greece by the river Arta. The eastern boun¬ 
dary is a mountain range, which to the N. 
attains an altitude of 7,990 feet. West¬ 
ward of this range lie parallel chains, in¬ 
closing long, elevated valleys, sinking to 
level strips along the coast, which mostly 
consist of unhealthy swamps and lagoons. 
The highlands advance to the sea, forming 
steep, rocky coasts. One promontory, the 
Acroceraunian, projecting in Cape Linguetta 
far into the sea, rea'ches a height of 6,642 
feet. There are three lakes, Scutari, Och- 
rida and Janina. The principal rivers are 
the Boyana, Drin, Shkumbi and Artino. A 
fine climate and a favorable soil would seem 
to invite the inhabitants to agriculture, but 
in the N., little is cultivated but maize, with 
some rice and barley in the valleys; the 
mountain terraces are used as pastures for 
numerous herds of cattle and sheep. In the 
S. the slopes of the lower valleys are cov¬ 
ered with olives, fruit, and mulberry trees. 



Albano 


Albany 


intermixed with patches of vines and maize, 
while the densely wooded mountain ridges 
furnish valuable supplies of timber. The 
plateau of Janina yields abundance of grain; 
and in the valleys opening to the S. the finer 
fruits are produced, along with maize, rice, 
and wheat. The inhabitants form a peculiar 
people, the Albanians, called by the Turks 
Arnauts, and by themselves Skipetar. Ac¬ 
cording to Lord Strangford, “ the true Al¬ 
banian part of their language, after precip¬ 
itation of the foreign elements, is distinctly 
Indo-European, and is more closely con¬ 
nected with Greek than with any other Indo- 
European language existing or recorded ” 
(“Letters on Philological Subjects,” 1878). 
The Albanians are half civilized mountain¬ 
eers, frank to a friend, vindictive to an 
enemy. They are constantly under arms, 
and are more devoted to robbery than to 
cattle rearing and agriculture. They live 
in perpetual anarchy, every village being 
at war with its neighbor. Many of them 
serve as mercenaries in other countries, and 
they form the best soldiers of the Turkish 
army. At one time the Albanians were all 
Christians; but after the death of their 
last chief, the hero Skanderbeg, in 1467, 
and their subjugation by the Turks, a large 
part became Mohammedans. 

Albano (al-ba/nd), a town of Italy, 18 
miles S. S. E. of Rome, on the declivity of 
the lava walls which encompass Lake Al¬ 
bano, and opposite the site of Alba Longa. 
It is the seat of a bishop, and is surrounded 
by the mansions of wealthy Romans. There 
are numerous remains of ancient buildings, 
including an aqueduct. A valuable wine is 
made here. Pop. (1901), 8,461. 

The Alban Lake, or Lago di Castello, is 
formed in the basin of an extinct volcano, 
and has a circumference of 6 miles, with a 
depth of 530 feet. Its surface is 961 feet 
above the sea level. While the Romans were 
at war with Veii (390 B. c.), this lake 
rose to an extraordinary height in the heat 
of summer, and diviners declared that the 
conquest of Veii depended upon letting off 
the waters of the lake. Hereupon the Ro¬ 
mans opened a tunnel through the lava wall 
which bounds it. The tunnel, which still 
remains and still fulfills its ancient office, 
is a mile in length, with a height of 7 feet, 
and a width of 4 feet. On the eastern bank 
of the lake rises Monte Cavo, the ancient 
Mount Albanus, 3,000 feet high. 

Alban, St., the first Christian martyr in 
Great Britain, lived in the 3d century. Af¬ 
ter having served seven years as a soldier 
under the Emperor Diocletian, he returned 
to Britain, embraced Christianity, and suf¬ 
fered martyrdom in the great persecution 
of Diocletian. Numerous miracles are at¬ 
tributed to this saint. 

Alban’s, St., a small and ancient bor¬ 
ough of England, Hertfordshire, 20 miles 


N. N. W. of London, by the London and 
Northwestern railway. It is the ancient 
Roman Verulamium. Pop. of parish, about 
4,000. The abbey church is the most im¬ 
posing object in the place. It was built 
in 796, in honor of St. Alban, by the King 
OfTa. Of this first abbey there remains but 
a gateway. The present abbey is an object 
worthy the attention of the antiquarian and 
the student of architecture. It is built in 
the form of a cross, running 547 feet from 
east to west, and having a breadth of 206 
feet, at the intersection of the transept. Its 
tower has an elevation of 146 feet, crowned 
with battlements, and is one of the most 
perfect parts of the building. Every style 
of architecture, from the time of the Ro¬ 
mans to that of Henry VII., may be traced 
in it. The abbot of St. Alban’s was mitred, 
and as a peer of the realm had a seat in 
parliament. He took precedence of all other 
English abbots from the time of Pope 
Adrian IV. Near the town of St. Alban's, 
two battles were fought between the houses 
of York and Lancaster. In the first, May 
22, 1455, Richard, Duke of York, obtained 
a victory over Henry VI. In the second, 
Feb. 2, 1461, Margaret of Anjou defeated 
the army of the Yorkists, commanded by 
Warwick. 

Albany, Albainn, or Albino, a name 
anciently given to the Highlands of Scot¬ 
land. The title of Duke of Albany was con¬ 
ferred, in 1398, on the brother of King Rob¬ 
ert III., and subsequently on Alexander, 
second son of King James II.; on Henry, 
Lord Darnley; on Charles I. and James II., 
when infants; and on Frederick, second son 
of George III. Prince Charles Edward Stu¬ 
art assumed the appellation of Count Al¬ 
bany as an incognito title. 

Albany, city, capital of the State of New 
Y 7 ork, and county-seat of Albany County; 
on the west shore of the Hudson river, on 
the Erie and Champlain canals, and several 
important railroads; 145 miles N. of New 
York City. It has a river frontage of 

4 miles, and extends W. a distance of 

5 miles over an alluvial plain to and upon 
a tableland 150 feet high, the lower portions 
being often overflowed by the river in the 
spring. Albany has always had the ad¬ 
vantages of a central position. It lies on 
the great E. and N. railroad routes, 
200 miles W. of Boston and 297 miles E. of 
Buffalo, while its situation on the Delaware 
and Hudson and the Hudson River rail¬ 
roads, as well as on the Erie Canal, gives 
it fine commercial advantages. 

History. — Albany is one of the very old¬ 
est settlements in the United States. Ver- 
razano, the French explorer, set up a trad¬ 
ing post there in 1540, but it was not 
maintained. In 1614 the Dutch traders 
started another trading post, calling • it 



Albany 


Albany Regency 


Fort Nassau; but the real settlement of 
it dates from the arrival of Walloon fam¬ 
ilies, who, in 1624, established Fort Orange. 
After Indian troubles, in 1629 Killian Van 
Rensselaer secured a grant of the region 
and sent over Dutch settlers, who paid him 
rent as their patroon. In 1664, when the 
English came into the Dutch possessions, 
the settlement was named in honor of the 
Duke of York and Albany (afterward 
James II.). The city was chartered in 1686. 
During the French and Indian wars Albany 
was a place of refuge and of military head¬ 
quarters. In 1754 it was selected as the 
meeting-place of the Albany Congress 
(q. v.) ; in 1777 General Burgoyne aimed his 
ill-fated Saratoga campaign against it as a 
strategical point; and in 1797 it became 
the capital of New York State. Since then 
it lias continued to be a center of political 
activity; much history of a determining 
character has been made there. The Erie 
Canal in 1820 gave a new impetus to the 
growth of the city’s trade, population and 
general importance. 

Local Features .—The steep rise of ground 
westward from the river gives Albany a 
peculiar look, the inclined plane being di¬ 
vided into four ridges by transverse valleys 
that cut through it. The main streets are 
North, South, and Broadway, running paral¬ 
lel to the river, and State, which ascends 
the hill. There are 144 miles of streets, 
85 of which are paved; 30 miles of electric 
railways in the city, connecting with a num¬ 
ber of local lines reaching out to neighbor¬ 
ing towns, even as far as Lake George, 
71 miles distant. There are 2 fine rail¬ 
road bridges across the Hudson and one 
for wagons. The principal buildings are 
the State Capitol, which cost nearly 
$25,000,000; State Normal School; United 
States Government Building; State Ar¬ 
senal; City Hall; the old State House, con¬ 
taining the State Museum; High School; 
Medical College; Harmanus Bleecker Hall; 
and the old Schuyler House, now used by 
the Sisters of Charity as an orphan asylum. 
The city contains over 70 churches, the fin¬ 
est of which are the Roman Catholic Cathe¬ 
dral of the Immaculate Conception, and the 
Episcopal All Saints Cathedral. The Epis¬ 
copal St. Peter’s Church is especially fine, 
in the French Gothic style. The public 
school buildings are valued at above 
$1,000,000, and there are a number of high- 
grade institutions of learning—academies 
and colleges — as well as the Dudley Obser¬ 
vatory. The hospital and the penitentiary 
are both expensive structures. 

Manufacturing and Finance .—The man¬ 
ufactures of Albany are of standard 
grades and great variety, involving nearly 
$22,000,000 invested, with (1900) a product 
of $24,992,021. The tax valuation for 1903 
was $68,672,887, the nublic debt being 
$1,318,435. The 7 banks have resources of 


$2,885,000, and the 7 savings banks hold 
deposits of fifty-five and a half millions. 
The city is steady, substantial, and pros¬ 
perous. Pop. (1900), 94,151; (1910), 

100,253. 

Albany, a city and county-seat of Linn 
County, Oregon, on the Willamette river, 
about 25 miles S. by W. from Salem, and 
85 from Portland; on the Southern Pacific 
and the Corvallis and Eastern railroads. 
It has fine water power from the river, 
which is spanned by a steel bridge. Its in¬ 
dustries comprise foundries, machine shops, 
brick yards, wagon factories, planing and 
saw mills, flour mills, etc., and it has an 
outside trade in grain, flour, and sand¬ 
stone. It was founded about 1850, and 
incorporated in 1864. Pop. (1900) 3,149. 

Albany Congress, an assembly of rep¬ 
resentatives of the most important British 
North American colonies, which was called 
together in 1754 bv the British Government 
to consult in regard to the threatening 
French war. Two plans were proposed: 
First, a league with the Indians, which was 
carried out, and second, a proposal offered 
by Franklin for a political union. In this 
a common president was proposed and a 
great council, representing the different col¬ 
onies. This plan was rejected by the Brit¬ 
ish Crown, because it gave too much power 
to the colonies, and by the colonies because 
it gave too much power to the Crown. The 
significance of this congress lies in the fact 
that it stimulated the union of the colonies. 

Albany, Louisa, Countess of, daughter 
of Prince Stolberg of Gedern, in Germany, 
born in 1753; married, in 1772, the adven¬ 
turous Charles Edward Stuart. The Coun¬ 
tess being much younger, the match was ill- 
assorted, and she retired to a convent. Sub¬ 
sequently she went to France, but on the 
death of her husband, in 1788, she settled 
in Florence. Here she secretly allied her¬ 
self by marriage to Count Alfieri, the poet, 
taking the title of Countess of Albany, as 
the relict of the last of the Stuarts. Alfieri 
died in her house, and in 1810 she erected 
to his memory, in the Church of Santa 
Croce, a monument executed by Canova. She 
was possessed of a refined mind, loved liter¬ 
ature and the arts, and while in Florence her 
house was the resort of the most cultivated 
and distinguished persons. Died in 1824. 

Albany Regency, The, a name given in 
American political history to a powerful 
combination of eminent Democratic leaders 
of New York State, who stood together for 
purposes of solid influence in State and 
National party affairs. It was instituted in 
1822 by Martin Van Buren, who remained 
its dominating spirit for many years. It 
continued to exercise large power until 1854, 
with such men as William L. Marcy, Silas 
Wright, John A. Dix, and Horatio Seymour 




Albatross 


Albay 


identified with it. Afterward Samuel J. 
Tilden, Dean Richmond, and Daniel Man¬ 
ning preserved in a manner its traditions. 

Albatross {Diomedea), a genus of na¬ 
tatorial birds, having the following generic 
characters: a very long bill, which is su¬ 
tured, robust, thick, straight, and laterally 
compressed, terminating in a large hook, 
which is apparently articulated therewith. 
The upper mandible is laterally grooved, 
and the short, tubular nostrils are situated 
in these grooves; the lower mandible being 
truncated. The toes are very long, and 
are webbed with an entire membrane; and 
the lateral toes are externally edged by a 
narrow membrane. There is no hinder toe; 
the nails are short and blunt. The tail is 
rounded, and composed of 14 feathers. 
The wings have their second quills 
longest. The albatross most generally 
known is the Diomedea exulans of natural¬ 
ists. It is one of the largest of marine 
birds, as its wings, when extended, meas¬ 
ure from 10 to 12 feet from tip to tip. 
These long wings are very narrow; but the 
albatross being extremely strong, is able 
to fly with ease over a vast space. Except 
during high winds, when it ascends to the 
upper regions of the air, the albatross sails 
gently over the surface of the billows, ris¬ 
ing and sinking in graceful undulation, and 
seizing with avidity every luckless creature 
that approaches the surface. It is met 
with at great distances from the land, set¬ 
tling down on the waves at night to sleep. 

The albatross is exceedingly voracious. 
Whenever food is abundant it gorges to 
such a degree as to become unable either to 
fly or swim; frequently it is seen in this 
state, with a fish partly swallowed and 
partly hanging from its mouth. The gulls 
then often attack and worry it till it dis¬ 
gorges its prey, which they are ready to 
seize. Fish spawn, oceanic mollusca, and 
other small marine animals constitute its 
ordinary food. The voice of the albatross 
is a harsh, disagreeable cry, which has been 
compared to the braying of an ass. To¬ 
ward the middle of June vast numbers of 
these birds flock toward the coast of Kam¬ 
chatka, the Sea of Okhotsk, the shores of 
the Kurile Islands and Bering Straits. They 
arrive there extremely lean, preceding by a 
short time the fishes which come annually 
to spawn in the fresh water of the rivers. 
Soon after the birds become very fat from 
the abundance of food. They begin to re¬ 
tire from these coasts about the end of 
July, and by Aug. 15 the whole have disap¬ 
peared. During their sojourn the Kam- 
chadales catch large numbers of them by 
baiting hooks with fish, or by knocking 
them on the head when overgorged. They 
are not taken for their flesh, which is 
coarse, rank, and disgusting; but their 
large, hollow, wing bones furnish the na¬ 
tives with various useful implements, while 


certain parts of their intestines are inflated 
and employed as floats for fishing nets. 
About the middle of September they seek 
some lonely islet or unfrequented coast for 
the purpose of breeding; there they build 
large nests of earth, grass, etc., and lay a 
single egg, which is larger than those of 
a goose, being about 4*4 inches long, gen¬ 
erally white, except toward the larger ex¬ 
tremity, where there are some dark spots. 
These eggs are edible, and it is stated by 
those who have used them that the white 
is not rendered hard by boiling. While 
the female sits upon the nest the male is 
industriously employed in supplying her 
with food. 

The common albatross is from three to 
four feet long, of a grayish-brown or whit¬ 
ish color, with lines of black upon the back 
and wings. The inferior part of the body 
and rump are white; the end of the tail 
and a great part of the wings are black. 
The shafts of the quills are yellow. The 
feet, toes, and web membrane are of a 
reddish-brown color; the beak is blackish. 
The female is similar to the male, but the 
young differ much from the adult. The 
albatross moults twice a year without 
changing its colors. Several other species 
have been established by naturalists, among 
which we may mention D. chlororhynchos, 
the black and yellow beaked albatross, of 
the size of a domestic goose; D. spadicea, 
the dark brown or chocolate-colored alba¬ 
tross, larger than the common goose; and 
D. fuliginosa, sooty or Quaker albatross, 
smaller than the common albatross. 


Albay, a province in the S. E. part of 
Luzon, Philippine Islands, and the richest 
hemp-growing district on the island. It has 
yielded as much as 40,000 tons of hemp in 
a season. The province contains a pictur¬ 
esque volcano, Mayon, which has had sev¬ 
eral destructive eruptions, the last in 1888. 
In January, 1900, Brig.-Gen. William A. 
Kobbe, United States Volunteers, was ap¬ 
pointed military governor of the province 
and Catanduanes Island, with temporary 
authority over Samar and Leyte Islands, 
for the purpose of controlling the hemp- 
growing country and occupying and open¬ 
ing to trade the various hemp ports. He 
had several sharp lights to gain possession 
of his new command, but at the end of the 
month his expedition, with the aid of the 
navy, nad accomplished its mission. Tlu 
principal towns in the province are Albay 
(the capital), Tivi, Malinao, Tobaco, Malili- 
pot, Bagacay, Libog, Legaspi, Manito, Li- 
bon, Polangui, Ligao, Oas, Guinobatan, Cag- 
saua, and Camalig. Vicol is almost the ex¬ 
clusive language of the province. Here are 
several telegraph stations, and all of the 
important towns are connected by carriage 
roads, The industries comprise hemp¬ 
growing (annual product valued at $4,750,- 




Albemarle 


Albert I. 


217 ), shipbuilding, the manufacture of 
cloth, and gold, silver, coal, and iron min¬ 
ing. Pop. (1903), 240,326. 

Albemarle, Duke of. See Monk. 

Albemarle Sound, an inlet near the N. 
E. extremity of the State of North Carolina, 
running inland for 60 miles, with a breadth 
of from 4 to 15 miles. It has no great 
depth of water, and a narrow island at its 
mouth prevents the sound from being af¬ 
fected by the tides. Into its upper extrem¬ 
ity the Roanoke and Chowan rivers debouch. 
It is connected by channels with Chesa¬ 
peake Bay and Currituck and Pamlico 
Sounds. 

Albemarle, The, in the American Civil 
War, a Confederate iron-clad ram which did 
much damage to Union steamers in the 
spring of 1864, but was destroyed by the 
daring explosion of a torpedo by Lieut. W. 
B. Cushing, U. S. N., on Oct. 27, of that 
year. 

Albergati Capacelli, Marquis Fran= 

cesco (al-ber-gii'te kap-a-cheFle), an Italian 
senator who was not only a powerful dram¬ 
atist, but such an excellent performer as 
to merit the title of the “ Garrick of the 
Italian nobility.” His works have been pro¬ 
nounced unrivaled for wit, humor, facetious 
sallies, and knowledge of the world. Born 
at Bologna, in 1730; died in 1802. 

Alberoni, Guilo, cardinal and minister 
of the King of Spain; born in Firenzuola, 
Parma, in 1664, and educated for the 
Church. He soon gained the favor of pow¬ 
erful patrons, especially the Duke of Ven- 
dome, whom he accompanied to Paris and 
then to Spain, the duke being appointed 
generalissimo of the armies of Philip V. 
Having made himself a favorite of the 
Spanish king he rose to be prime minister, 
became a cardinal, was all-powerful in 
Spain after the year 1715, and endeavored 
to restore it to its ancient splendor. He 
reformed abuses, created a naval force, or¬ 
ganized the Spanish army on the model of 
the French, and rendered the kingdom of 
Spain more powerful that it had been since 
the time of Philip II. His favorite project 
was the restoration to Spain of the empire 
ruled by Charles V. and Philip 11.^ and he 
began with Sardinia and Sicily. Even 
when the Duke of Orleans, regent of France, 
renounced the Spanish alliance to form a 
connection with England, the proud prelate 
did not alter his system; on the contrary, 
he threw off his mask, attacked the em¬ 
peror, and took Sardinia and Sicily. After 
the Spanish fleet was destroyed by the En¬ 
glish in the Mediterranean he entertained 
the idea of stirring up a general war in Eu¬ 
rope, of forming an alliance for this pur¬ 
pose with Peter the Great and Charles 
XII., of involving Austria in a war with 
Turkey, exciting an insurrection in Hun¬ 


gary, and causing the Duke of Orleans to 
be arrested by a court faction. 

The duke, in connection with England, 
declared war against Spain, and ex¬ 
plained in a manifesto the intrigues 
of the Italian cardinal. A French 
army invaded Spain, and although Al¬ 
beroni endeavored to cripple the power 
of France by fomenting disturbances with¬ 
in that kingdom, the Spanish monarch be¬ 
came despondent, and concluded a peace 
the chief condition of which was the dismis¬ 
sal of the cardinal. He received, December, 
1720, orders to quit Madrid within 24 hours, 
and the kingdom within five days. He was 
now exposed to the vengeance of the powers 
of Europe, by all of whom he was hated, 
and saw no country where he could abide. 
He did not even dare to go to Rome, be¬ 
cause he had deceived the Pope, Clement 
XI., in order to obtain the rank of cardinal. 
While crossing the Pyrenees his carriage 
was attacked, one of his servants killed, 
and he himself obliged to continue the 
journey on foot and in disguise. He wan¬ 
dered about a long time under false names. 
He was arrested in the territory of Genoa 
at the request of the Pope and the King of 
Spain; the Genoese, however, soon dis¬ 
missed him. The death of Clement put an 
end to this persecution, and his successor, 
Innocent XIII., restored him in 1723 to all 
the rights and honors of a cardinal. In 
1740 he withdrew to Piacenza, where he 
passed the remainder of his life. He died 
in Rome in 1752. He left behind him the 
character of a bold and versatile intriguer 
rather than that of a great politician, 
though he certainly gave a powerful tem¬ 
porary impulse to the Spanish monarchy, 
and established many regulations which 
were favorable to arts, agriculture, and 
commerce. 

Albert I., Duke of Austria, and after¬ 
ward Emperor of Germany; born in 1248; 
son of Rudolph of Hapsburg, who had a 
short time before his death attempted to 
place the crown on the head of his son. 
But the electors, tired of his power, and 
emboldened by his age and infirmities, re¬ 
fused his request, and indefinitely post¬ 
poned the election of a King of the Romans 
(the title of the designated successor of 
th emperor). After the death of Rudolph, 
Albert, who inherited only the military 
qualities of his father, saw his hereditary 
possessions, Austria and Styria, rise up in 
rebellion against him. He quelled by force 
this revolt, which his avarice and severity 
had excited; but success increased his pre¬ 
sumption. He wished to succeed Rudolph 
in all his dignities, and without waiting 
for the decision of the diet seized the in¬ 
signia of the empire. This act of violence 
induced the electors to choose Adolphus of 
Nassau emperor. The disturbances which 
had broken out against him in Switzerland, 



Albert I. 


Albert I. 


and a disease which deprived him of an 
eye, made him more huumble. He delivered 
up the insignia, and took the oath of alle¬ 
giance to the new emperor. Adolphus, after 
a reign of six years, having lost the regard 
of all the princes of the empire, Albert was 
elected to succeed him. A battle ensued 
near Gellheim, in which Adolphus fell by 
the hand of his adversary. The last bar¬ 
rier had fallen between Albert and the su¬ 
preme power, but he was conscious of hav¬ 
ing now an opportunity of displaying his 
magnanimity, lie voluntarily resigned the 
crown conferred on him by the last election, 
and as he had anticipated was reelected. 
His coronation took place at Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle in August, 1298, and he held his first 
diet at Nuremberg with the utmost splendor. 

But a new storm was gathering over him. 
The Pope, Boniface, VIII., denied the right 
of tlie electors to dispose of the imperial 
dignity, declaring himself the real emperor 
and legitimate King of the Romans. He 
accordingly summoned Albert before him to 
ask .pardon and submit to such penance as 
he should dictate; lie forbade the princes to 
acknowledge him, and released them from 
their oath of allegiance. The Archbishop 
of Mainz from a friend became the enemy of 
Albert, and joined the party of the Pope. 
On the other hand, Albert formed an al¬ 
liance with Philip le Bel of France, secured 
the neutrality of Saxony and Brandenburg, 
and by a sudden irruption into the elec¬ 
torate of Mainz forced the archbishop not 
only to renounce his alliance with the Pope 
blit to form one with him for the five en¬ 
suing years. Dismayed by this rapid suc¬ 
cess Boniface entered into negotiations with 
Albert, in which the latter again showed the 
duplicity of his character. He broke his al¬ 
liance with Philip, acknowledged that the 
Western Empire was a grant from the Popes 
to the emperors, that the electors derived 
their right of choosing from the see of 
Rome, and promised to defend with arms 
the rights of the Pope, whenever he should 
demand it, against any one. As a reward 
Boniface excommunicated Philip, proclaim¬ 
ed him to have forfeited his crown, and gave 
the kingdom of France to Albert. Philip, 
however, chastised the Pope. 

Albert was engaged in unsuccessful wars 
with Holland, Zealand, Friesland, Hungary, 
Bohemia, and Thuringia. While preparing 
to revenge a defeat which he had suffered 
in Thuringia he received the news of the 
revolt of the Swiss, and saw himself obliged 
to direct nis forces thither. The revolt of 
CJnterwalden, Schwyz, and Uri had broken 
out Jan. 1, 1308. Albert had not only fore¬ 
seen this consequence of his oppression but 
desired it, in order to have a pretence for 
subjugating Switzerland entirely to himself. 
A new act of injustice, however, put an end 
to his ambition and life. Suabia was the 
inheritance of John, the son of his younger 


brother Rodolph. John had repeatedly as¬ 
serted his right to it, but in vain. When 
Albert set out for Switzerland John re¬ 
newed his demand, which was contemptuous¬ 
ly rejected by Albert. John, in revenge, 
conspired with his governor, Walter of Escli- 
enbacli, and three friends against the life of 
Albert. The conspirators took advantage 
of the moment when the emperor, on his 
way to Rlieinfelden, was separated from his 
train by the river Reuss, and assassinated 
him. Albert breathed his last, May 1, 1308, 
in the arms of a poor woman who was 
sitting on the road. He was a prince re¬ 
gardless of right and equity, tyrannical, 
avaricious, and ambitious, but possessed 
considerable abilities. 

Albert I., Margrave of Brandenburg, sur- 
named the Beak, from his heraldic emblem, 
was the son of Otto the Rich, Count of Bal- 
lenstiidt. As Marquis of Lusatia he served 
the Emperor Lothaire with credit in his 
war with Bohemia. The diet afterward 
withdrew Lusatia from him, but the emper¬ 
or for further services conferred on him in 
1134 the margravate of Brandenburg. In 
1130-1137 lie made incursions into the ter¬ 
ritory of the Wends, who disturbed his gov¬ 
ernment, and checked their disorders. In 
1138 the Emperor Conrad conferred on him 
the duchy of Saxony, of which he had de¬ 
prived Henry the Proud. This led to a war 
with Henry, in which Albert was deprived 
of Brandenburg, but was restored by an 
armistice negotiated by the ecclesiastical 
electors. On the death of Henry (1139) he 
reassumed the title of Duke of Saxony. A 
combination was then formed against him, 
which, in spite of the favor of the emperor, 
reduced him to extremities. Peace was 
concluded in 1142. Albert resigned Saxony, 
and Brandenburg was raised to an imme¬ 
diate fief of the empire. He acquired at the 
same time by inheritance from Przibislas, 
a Vandal king who had taken his name in 
baptism, the country between the Elbe and 
the Oder. He made his new possessions a 
fief of the empire, and in order the better 
to guard them removed his residence to 
Brandenburg. In 1148 he led an expedi¬ 
tion into Pomerania, and in the following 
year induced the duke of that country to 
embrace Christianity. In 1150 he was 
raised to the electoral dignity. In 1157 he 
made a third expedition against the Wends, 
conquered their country, and colonized it 
with agriculturists from Germany, Hol¬ 
land, and Zealand. In 1164 he went on 
a crusade to the Holy Land. Another war 
broke out between him and Henry, Duke of 
Saxonv, which was terminated to the ad- 
vantage of the latter in 1168 by the media¬ 
tion of the Emperor Frederick I. In 1169 
Albert remitted his estates to his son. He 
died in 1170. The origin of Berlin,. Kolln, 
Aken on the Elbe, and other towns, is at¬ 
tributed to the colonies founded by him. 



Albert 


Albert 


Albert, Margrave of Brandenburg, son 

of Casimir, Margrave of Culenbach, born 
in 1522. He entered into the confederacy 
formed by Maurice, Elector of Saxony, and 
other princes, against Charles V., and com¬ 
mitted many excesses in that war, burning 
towns and levying heavy contributions 
wherever he marched. Subsequently a 
league headed by Maurice himself was 
formed against him, and, in 1553, a great 
battle was fought at Siverhus, in w T hich 
Maurice was slain and Albert wounded. He 
was afterward put under the ban of the 
empire, and deprived of his possessions. 
Died in 1558. 

Albert II., King of Hungary and Bo¬ 
hemia and Duke of Austria, succeeded Sigis- 
mund as Emperor of Germany in 1438. He 
held a great diet at Nurmnburg, in which 
the Velnnic or secret courts were suppressed. 
He died the following year, as he was pre¬ 
paring to take the field against the Turks, 
who were ravaging Hungary. 

Albert, or Albrecht, the Pious, Archduke 
of Austria, born in 1559, was the third son 
of the Emperor Maximilian II. He was 
brought up at the Spanish court, and dedi¬ 
cated himself to the Church. In 1577 he 
was made cardinal, in 1584 Archbishop of 
Toledo, and during the years 1594-1596 
held the office of Viceroy of Portugal. He 
was next appointed Stadtholder of the 
Netherlands, where he continued, until his 
death, the representative of the Spanish 
monarchs, discharging the duties of his 
function with a moderation unwonted 
among the proud proconsuls of Spain. He 
abandoned his ecclesiastical profession, and, 
in 1598, married the Infanta Isabella. Al¬ 
bert was defeated by Maurice of Nassau in 
1599, made a 12 years’ truce with him in 
1009, and died in July, 1G21, at Brussels. 

Albert I., Duke of Prussia, son of Fred¬ 
erick, Margrave of Ansbach and Beyrout, 
and grandson of Albert Achilles, Elector of 
Brandenburg; born May 17, 1490. Being de¬ 
signed for the Church he was educated by 
the Archbishop of Cologne, and became a 
prebendary in the cathedral of that town; 
but he did not neglect knightly exercises, 
and along with his father followed the Em¬ 
peror Maximilian I. on his expedition 
against Venice, and was present at the siege 
of Pavia. In 1511 he was chosen by the 
Teutonic knights grand-master of their or¬ 
der. Being the son of Sophia, sister of 
Sigismund, King of Poland, and descended 
from one of the most powerful German 
families, the knights hoped by his means 
to be freed from the feudal superiority of 
Poland, and placed under the protection 
of the empire. Being recognized by Poland 
he proceeded to Konigsberg and assumed 
the government in 1512. He refused the 
oath of allegiance to Poland, which the pre¬ 
vious grand-master had evaded, and pre¬ 


pared for resistance. In 1520, after pro¬ 
tracted negotiations, Sigismund attempted 
to enforce submission by an invasion of the 
territories of the order, but the contest was 
without decisive result, and in the follow¬ 
ing year a truce of four years was agreed 
to at Thorn. 

The latter years of his reign were 
troubled with many intrigues, foreign and 
domestic; in 1532 he was put under the 
ban of the empire, but he succeeded in trans¬ 
mitting his succession to his son. He died 
of the plague March, 20, 15G8. His wife, 
who was attacked with the same malady, 
survived him only a day. 

Albert, Prince (Albert Francis August 
tus Charles Emmanuel), Prince of Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha, and Prince Consort of En¬ 
gland; the second son of Ernest I., Duke 
of Saxe-Coburg, and of his first wife Louise, 
only daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Gotha; 
born Aug. 26, 1819; received his early edu¬ 
cation at home under his father’s eye; and 
in 1837 was sent with his elder brother 
Ernest to the University of Bonn, where he 
devoted himself to the studies of political 
and natural science, history, philosophy, 
etc., as well as to those of music and paint¬ 
ing. In the latter pursuits, indeed, he at¬ 
tained to no mean proficiency, and several 
of his musical compositions became favor¬ 
ably known to the public. Handsome and 
accomplished, he had made a considerable 
impression on his cousin Queen Victoria 
during a visit which lie paid to England in 
183G; he was present at and stayed for some 
time after the coronation of the queen in 
1839; and on Nov. 23 of the same year the 
queen made known to the privy council her 
intention of marrying the prince. The mar¬ 
riage was celebrated on Feb. 10, 1840, and 
proved in every respect eminently happy. 
An allowance of £30,000 a year was settled 
upon the prince, who was naturalized by 
act of Parliament, received the title of 
Royal Highness by patent, was made a field- 
marshal, a Knight of the Garter, of the 
Bath, etc. Other honors were subsequently 
bestowed upon him, the clfief of which was 
the title of Prince Consort (1857), which 
gave him the rank of a prince of the United 
Kingdom. 

He always carefully abstained from party 
politics, a course, which his position ren¬ 
dered necessary, but which no doubt often 
required much tact and prudence; but he 
never ceased to take a deep and active in¬ 
terest in the welfare and social advancement 
of the people in general. His services to the 
cause of science and art were very impor¬ 
tant; and the great exhibition of 1851 owed 
much of its success to his activity, knowl¬ 
edge, and judgment. He presided and de¬ 
livered the inaugural address at the meet¬ 
ing of the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science held at Aberdeen in 



Albert Edward 


Alberta 


1850. To the sorrow of the whole nation, 
he died Dec. 14, 1861, after a short illness. 
He was buried in St. George’s Chapel, 
Windsor, whence his remains were after¬ 
ward removed to the mausoleum built by 
the Queen at Frogmore. A biography of the 
Prince by Sir Theodore Martin in five vol¬ 
umes is the official “Life” (London, 1875- 
1880). 

Albert Edward. See Edward VII. 

Alberta, a province of the Dominion of 
Canada, bounded on the N. by the district of 
Mackenzie, on the S. by the United States, 
on the E. by Saskatchewan, and on the W. 
by British Columbia. Beginning at Ion. 110° 
W., it extends westward to the crest of the 
Rocky mountains, where it meets the bound¬ 
ary of British Columbia. Starting on the 
S. at the international boundary line, it ex¬ 
tends to lat. 60° N. Area, 253,540 square 
miles, of which 2,360 square miles are under 
water. 

Physical Characteristics .—In the S. the 
land is open prairie, treeless, except along 
the foothills of the Rocky mountains and in 
the valleys of the larger rivers. Toward the 
N. the land is generally level and wooded, 
with open prairie areas, few in number and 
of small size. The middle and S. portions of 
the province slope gradually upward toward 
the base of the Rocky mountains, attaining 
an elevation of 3,000 to 4,000 feet. The N. 
portion is lower, sloping downward toward 
the N., and is drained by the Athabasca, 
Peace, and Great Slave rivers, whose waters 
are discharged through Great Slave Lake and 
the Mackenzie river into the Arctic Ocean. 

Of the great open prairie area of western 
Canada, Alberta possesses about one-third. 
The lakes are neither so large nor so numer¬ 
ous as those of Saskatchewan. The western 
half of Lake Athabasca, in the N. E., lies 
within the province; other lakes are Lesser 
Slave, Hay, Bistcha, Claire, Lac la Biche, 
Beaver, besides several smaller ones. The 
principal rivers are the Athabasca (q. v.), 
which flows northward into the lake of that 
name; the Peace, which flows northeasterly 
and joins the Great Slave river just N. of 
the western extremity of Lake Athabasca; 
the North and South branches of the Sas¬ 
katchewan; the Hay; the Red, Loon, and 
Smoky, tributaries of the Peace; the Pem¬ 
bina, * a tributary of the Athabasca; the 
Battle, a tributary of the North Saskatche¬ 
wan ; the Red Deer, a tributary of the South 
Saskatchewan; and the Bow, Belly, and St. 
Mary’s rivers, which unite to form the South 
Saskatchewan. On the W. side of the prov¬ 
ince runs the majestic range of the Rocky 
mountains, with their white peaks in view. 
The mountains and their melting snows are 
the sources of the rivers of Alberta. 

A S toil and Climate .—The soil is, generally, 
a black, alluvial loam, of great fertility; but 
in places shades off to light sandy loam. 
While the subsoil is usually clay, it is oc¬ 


casionally sandy or gravelly. Both N. and 
S. Alberta are adapted for all kinds of 
cereals and root crops; but a considerable 
belt immediately N. of the international 
boundary line needs irrigation. To the N. 
of this belt water is furnished by the Bow, 
Belly, and St. Mary’s rivers, while the arid 
belt is irrigated by large canals, carrying 
water from near the mountains 100 miles 
over the thirsty ground. The irrigation 
works of Cardston, Raymond, and other 
towns have made the arid plains highly pro¬ 
ductive. At Raymond a large beet-sugar 
factory has proved very successful, and 
around that town for miles the land is in 
summer one great beet field. The largest 
irrigation canals have been constructed by 
the Canadian Pacific railway from Calgary 
(q. v.) in various directions. Farther N., 
there flow from the wooded slopes of the 
mountains streams, such as the Red Deer, 
Rosebud, Battle, and North Saskatchewan, 
which furnish an abundant supply of water. 
Its mountains, forests, prairies, lakes, and 
rive s combine to make the landscape of Al¬ 
berta very beautiful. 

The climate is exceedingly salubrious, 
with abundance of bright sunshine. The 
cold and snows of winter are tempered by 
the Chinook wind, which pours through the 
mountain passes from British Columbia,and 
in a few days, somethnes in a few hours, 
sweeps away every vestige of snow and ice. 
The open winter favors the life of tens of 
thousands of horses, cattle, and sheep that 
roam the plains. At Edmonton, the capital, 
and the chief city of N. Alberta, the average 
winter temperature is about 11° F. At Cal¬ 
gary, 180 miles S., the average winter tem¬ 
perature is 1° F. higher, while the average 
summer temperature is 3° F. higher. 

Minerals and Mining .—According to Dr. 
G. M. Dawson, an eminent Canadian geolo¬ 
gist, several of the rivers E. of the Rockies 
yield gold in remunerative quantities. Bui fil¬ 
ing stone also occurs. Immense deposits of 
lignite, or brown coal, resembling that of 
Germany and Bohemia, are found. They are 
often near the surface and easily worked. 
Near and among the foothills of the Rocky 
mountains the coal deposits are mostly bitu¬ 
minous. Coal mining has only fairly begun, 
but promises very important results in the 
future. The Galt mine in Lethbridge has 
long sent out its great yearly yield to he 
carried 1,000 miles E.; the coal of Edmon¬ 
ton is bituminous and is found almost every¬ 
where underlying a few feet of soil. The 
anthracite of the Bow river pass, above 
Banff, is a most useful coal for the whole of 
western Canada; lighter in weight than 
Pennsylvania anthracite, it is easier to burn 
and more pleasant to use. In all parts of 
Alberta coal prevails at slight depths below 
the surface. Probably connected with the 
coal deposits is the remarkable production 
of natural gas in seemingly illimitable quan- 



Alberta 


Alberta 


tities at Medicine Hat. The gas is being 
used for lighting and fuel in this town, and 
is drawing thither manufacturing enter¬ 
prises of various kinds. It is practically 
impossible to appreciate the amount of coal 
that may be extracted from the deposits in 
Alberta. Prof. D. B. Dowling, of the Cana¬ 
dian Geological Survey, has made what he 
calls a conservative estimate of their pro¬ 
ductive capacity, as follows: 

Good lignite,.Tons 44,000,000.000 

True coal (below bituminous). “ 20,000,000,000 

Steam and anthracite. “ 60,000,000,000 

Among other minerals found* are iron, cop¬ 
per, silver, galena, and petroleum. There 
are sulphur springs at Banff. 

Forests .—The main forested area is N. of 
the North Saskatchewan river and on the 
Rocky mountain slopes and foothills. The 
chief kinds of trees are the pine, spruce, 
tamarack, poplar, and birch. 

Agriculture and Live Stock .—The fertile 
soil and abundant sunshine during the grow¬ 
ing season combine to produce cereals and 
root crops of superior quality. Except in 
certain parts, however, Alberta is not equal 
to Saskatchewan or Manitoba in wheat pro¬ 
duction. Until recently the vast stretches 
of pasture made ranching the most impor¬ 
tant industry; but the increasing conversion 
of pasture to grain-growing land, and the 
profitableness of mixed farming, have begun 
to displace the rancher in favor of the 
settler. 

The following table gives the number of 
acres devoted to wheat, oats, and barley dur¬ 
ing 1900, 1905, and 190G: 



1900 

1905 

1906 

Wheat. 

43.104 

118,025 

11,099 

147,921 

311,804 

80,900 

223,930 

489,627 

108,175 

Oats. 

Barley. 

172,228 

540,625 

821,73 


According to these figures, the increase in 
total acreage from 1900 to 1905 was 213 per 
cent., and from 1900 to 1900, 377 per cent. 
The increases in the wheat acreage of 1905 
and 1900, respectively, over that of 1900 
were 243 and 419 per cent.; of the oats 
acreage, 104 and 314 per cent.; of the barley 
acreage, 028 and 874 per cent. 

According to the Dominion census, the 
production of wheat, oats, and barley in 
1900 and 1905 was as follows: 

1900 1905 

Wheat, bushels. 797.839 3,0.35,843 

Oats, “ 3,791,259 11,728,314 

Barley, “ 287,343 2,231,878 

Thus the production of wheat increased 
280 per cent.; of oats, 209 per cent.; of bar¬ 
ley, 770 per cent. The grain production for 
1900 was estimated at a total of 33,782,503 
bushels, of which 5,871,397 bushels were 
wheat, an increase of 93 per cent, over the 
production of 1905 and of 030 per cent, over 
that of 1900; 3,878,083 bushels were barley, 


an increase of 73 per cent, over the crop of 
1905 and of 1,249 per cent, over that of 
1900; 24,032,423 bushels were oats, an in¬ 
crease of 104 per cent, over the crop of 1905 
and of 533 per cent, over that of 1900. This 
rapid growth has been due chiefly to the 
large immigration of agricultural settlers, 
many of whom came from Britain and the 
United 8tates; and especially to the facility 
with which those of Canadian and American 
birth, being already familiar with the best 
methods of cultivation, and possessing a suf¬ 
ficient capital, were able to take up land that 
could be cultivated with immediate profit. 
Besides wheat, barley, and oats, there were 
raised, in 1905, 84,982 bushels of rye, 11,623 
bushels of flax, 1,271,728 bushels of pota¬ 
toes, 107,020 bushels of other field roots, 
19,598 tons of sugar beets, 20,748 tons of 
forage crops, 50,011 tons of sown hay, and 
838,104 tons of native or prairie hay. Small 
fruits of many kinds are abundant, but ap¬ 
ples are not generally cultivated. 

Horse and cattle raising are very impor¬ 
tant industries, but ranching is giving place 
to grain growing and mixed farming in the 
southern districts. According to the Do¬ 
minion census, Alberta in 1900 possessed 
228.534 horses, as compared with 93,001 in 
1901; 101,245 milch cows, against 46,295 in 
1901; 849,387 of other horned cattle, against 
329,391 in 1901; 154,200 sheep and lambs, 
against 80,055 in 1901; and 114,623 swine, 
against 46,103 in 1901. Dairying is a large, 
and profitable industry, and there are many 
cheese factories and creameries in the prov¬ 
ince. 

Manufactures and Commerce .—Like Sas¬ 
katchewan, Alberta is an agricultural prov¬ 
ince, but the growth of cities and towns has 
created a manufacturing industry which has 
increased very rapidly during the opening 
years of the twentieth century. According 
to the Dominion census of 1900, Calgary, 
Edmonton, Lethbridge, Medicine Hat, and 
Strathcona had in 1905 a combined manu¬ 
factured output valued at $4,114,099, as 
compared with $1,050,430 in 1900, a gain of 
291 per cent. The leading articles of manu¬ 
facture are lumber, flour, oatmeal, cement 
for building, sashes and doors, furniture, 
mining supplies, foundry and machine-shop 
products, glass, harness and saddlery, 
leather, meat-packing products, etc. 

Alberta has a considerable export trade in 
grain, cattle, horses, beef, cheese, butter, 
etc., and is well supplied with means of 
transportation by rail, though these are to 
be largely increased in the near future. Tim 
Canadian Pacific railway traverses the prov 
ince in several directions: westerly, through 
Medicine Hat and Lethbridge; northwest¬ 
erly, from Medicine Hat to Calgary and 
Kicking Horse Pass; and northerly, from 
Lethbridge to Edmonton, with additional 
branches in contemplation. The Canadian 
Northern runs from Battleford, Saskatche- 
























Albert Edward Nyanza 


Albertus flagnus 


wan, to Edmonton, and is being extended in 
other directions. The Grand Trunk Pacific, 
intersecting the boundary line between Al¬ 
berta and Saskatchewan at about lat. 50° 
N., and proceeding to Edmonton, is being ex¬ 
tended northwesterly through the province. 
Branches have also been projected from 
Battleford to Calgary, and from Edmonton 
to Yellow Head Pass. It is impossible to 
describe fully the extent and directions of 
railway building in Alberta and Saskatche¬ 
wan, as they are largely determined by the 
tide of immigration, which is increasing 
yearly. The North Saskatchewan is naviga¬ 
ble for small steamers to Edmonton from 
Battleford and other towns in Saskatche¬ 
wan. 

Government and Finance .—The affairs of 
the province are administered by a lieuten¬ 
ant-governor, appointed by the governor- 
general-in-council, and a legislative assem¬ 
bly of 25 members. The lieutenant-governor 
is advised by an executive council of four 
members, responsible to the legislative as¬ 
sembly. The province is represented in the 
Dominion Senate by four members and in 
the Dominion House of Commons by five 
members. Pending legislation, the Supreme 
Court of the Northwest Territories retains 
jurisdiction over the provinces of Alberta 
and Saskatchewan. Alberta has no debt. 
The annual budget of receipts and expendi¬ 
tures is brought before the assembly and 
subjected to the methods which regulate a 
similar procedure in the other provinces. 
The Dominion government retains control of 
the public lands, and in compensation grants 
an annual subsidy to the province. 

Education and Religion .—The public 
school system is similar to that of Sas¬ 
katchewan (g. v.). It. is the result of legis¬ 
lation by the Dominion Parliament. There 
are normal, high, and other middle schools. 
The leading religious denominations are well 
represented. There has been no religious 
census since that of 1901, before the prov¬ 
inces of Alberta and Saskatchewan had been 
formed. 

History and Population .—Alberta was 
created by the Dominion Parliament out of 
the former district of Alberta, the W. half 
of the former district of Athabasca, and a 
strip of the former districts of Assiniboia 
and Saskatchewan. It was proclaimed a 
province of the Dominion of Canada in 1905. 
in 1901 the population was 73,022; on 
March 31, 1910, it was 321,802, the increase 
being due largely to British, American, and 
North European immigration. The leading 
cities and towns and their populations in 
1906 were: Calgary (11,697); Edmonton 
(11,167); Medicine Ilat (3,020); Leth¬ 
bridge (2,313); Strathcona (2.921); and 
Wetaskiwin (1,652) . Since 1906 the popu¬ 
lations of Calgary, Edmonton, and Strath¬ 
cona have increased considerably. 

Albert Edward Nyanza (Muta-Nzige), 
li 


a lake of central Africa, in the upper part 
of the Nile basin just S. of the equator, 
3,307 feet above sea level; discovered by 
Stanley in 1876, and again visited by him 
in 1889. It has a diameter of 45 miles, and 
drains the S. slopes of the Ruwenzori moun¬ 
tain through the Wami and Mpanga rivers. 

Albert, Friedrich August, King of Sax¬ 
ony, born in Dresden, April 23, 1828. He 
was educated under the direction of the 
Saxon historian Langenn. On the death of 
his father, in 1873, he became king. He 
had already distinguished himself at the 
battle of Sedan, and also at Beaumont, 
where he defeated the French under Mac- 
Mahon. He married (1853) the Princess 
Carola of Wasa. He died June 19, 1902. 

Alberti, Leone Battista (al-bart'e), an 
eminent Italian architect, philosopher, 
art critic, and poet; born in Venice, 
Feb. 18, 1404. From 1432 to 1472 he was 
papal abbreviator at Rome. Both in Flor¬ 
ence and Mantua there are buildings which 
bear witness to his skill as an architect and 
as an apostle of the classical style. He 
wrote on many subjects, his greatest work 
being “Della Famiglia” (1439-41), which 
deals with education and domestic economy, 
and portrays Italian life during the period 
of renaissance. He was an accomplished 
Latin scholar, and his imitations of classi¬ 
cal models were so skilful that his comedy 
“Philodoxius” was long held to be the work 
of an ancient author. He died in Rome, 
April, 1472. 

Albert Lea, city, county-seat of Free¬ 
born co., Minn.; 110 miles 8. of Minneapo¬ 
lis. The Albert Lea College (female, Pres¬ 
byterian, founded 1885) is located here; 
and there are a fine court house, a public 
library, and 5 banks. This is the market 
center for the dairy and farm products of 
the adjacent country, with flour mills and 
grain elevators. There are also brick yards, 
manufactories of wagons and plows, ma¬ 
chine shops, etc. Pop. (1890) 3,305; 

(1900) 4,500; (1910) 6,192. 

Albert Nyanza (Mwuta-Nzige) , a large 
lake of British East Africa, in lat. 2° N. 
and Ion. 31° E., 80 miles N. W. of the 
Victoria Nyanza, whose outlet, the Victoria 
Nile, it receives. It is 100 miles long by 
25 broad, and has an area of about 2,000 
square miles. From the N. E. end flows the 
White Nile, and into the 8. W. the Semliki, 
outlet of the Albert Edward Nyanza. The 
surface elevation of the lake is about 2,100 
feet above sea-level. The Albert Nyanza 
was discovered in 1864 by Sir 8. W. Baker, 
and in 1877 surveyed by Col. A. M. Mason, 
an American officer in the Khedival service. 

Albertus Magnus, or Albert the Great, 

Count of Bollstadt, Bishop of Ratisbon, a 
distinguished scholar of the thirteenth cen¬ 
tury; born in Lauingen, Suabia, in 1193, or, 
according to some authorities, in 1205. He 



Albi 


Albinism 


studied at Padua, and in 1222 became a 
monk of the Dominican Order, teaching in 
the schools of Hildesheim, Ratisbon, and 
Cologne, where the afterward celebrated 
Thomas Aquinas became his pupil. In 1245 
he went to Paris, obtained the degree of 
magister, and publicly expounded the doc¬ 
trines of Aristotle, notwithstanding the pro¬ 
hibition of the Church. He became rector 
of the school of Cologne in 1249; in 1254 
he was made provincial of his order in Ger¬ 
many; and in 1200 he received from Pope 
Alexander IV. the appointment of Bishop 
of Ratisbon. In 1203 he resigned his charge 
and retired to his convent at Cologne, in or¬ 
der to devote himself to literary and scien¬ 
tific pursuits, and there he composed many 
works, especially commentaries on the writ¬ 
ings of Aristotle. Among the sciences stud¬ 
ied or illustrated by him were chemistry, 
botany, mechanics, optics, geometry, and 
astronomy. He fell into dotage some time 
previous to his death, in 1280. Albertus 
was probably the most learned man of his 
age, and of course did not escape the impu¬ 
tation of using magical arts and trafficking 
with the Evil One. He was distinguished 
for originality, and deserves to be grateful¬ 
ly remembered for his praiseworthy efforts 
toward the diffusion of knowledge. His fol¬ 
lowers were called Albertists. 

Albi, or Alby, the capital of the Depart¬ 
ment of Tarn, France; the ancient Albiga; 
a stronghold of the Albigenses, to whom it 
gave their name. The Cathedral of St. 
Cecilia is chiefly of the 14th century, with 
Italian frescoes dating from about 1505. 
Pop. (1901), 22,571. 

Albigenses, a religious sect opposed to 
the Church of Rome, coming first into prom¬ 
inence in the 12th century, and taking its 
name from Albiga, the old form of Albi, 
a city of Southern France, now capital of 
the department of Tarn. What their doc¬ 
trines were has not been determined, as 
no formal statement of them was ever 

drawn up. It appears that the Al¬ 

bigenses held beliefs similar to those 
of the Cathari and Manicheans, the doc¬ 
trines of the Cathari being traced to the 
Manichean sect known as Paulicians, that 
settled in Bulgaria, whence their tenets 
spread W. to France. They taught the 
doctrine of the Manicheans, that there are 
two opposing creative principles, one good, 
the other evil; the invisible world proceed¬ 
ing from the former, the body and 

all material things from the latter. “ Their 
teachers assumed a great simplicity of man¬ 
ners, dress, and mode of life; they inveighed 
against the vices and worldliness of the 
clergy, and there was sufficient truth in 
their censures to dispose their hearers to 
believe what they advanced, and reject 
what they decried. They also re¬ 

jected the Old Testament, said that 
infant baptism was useless, and denied 


marriage to the ‘perfect,’ as they called 
their more austere members.” (Addis and 
Arnold’s “Catholic Dictionary.”) They had 
increased very much toward the close of the 
twelfth century in the S. of France, about 
Toulouse and Albi, and in Raymond, Count 
of Toulouse, they found a patron and pro¬ 
tector. As the condemnation of their doc¬ 
trines by the Church produced no effect, 
ecclesiastical officials were specially sent 
by the Pope to endeavor to extirpate the 
heresy. The assassination of the papal 
legate and inquisitor, Peter of Castelnau, in 
1208, led to the proclamation of a crusade 
against them by Pope Innocent III. 

An army was accordingly collected, large 
numbers of those composing it being mere 
mercenaries and adventurers. The chief 
leader of the papal troops was Simon de 
Montfort, father of the well-known Earl of 
Leicester. Raymond’s territories were rav¬ 
aged, and in 1209 the legates, Arnold, ab¬ 
bot of Citeaux, and Milo, took Beziers, the 
capital of his nephew Roger, by storm, and 
put 20,000 of the inhabitants, without any 
distinction of creed, to the sword. Simon 
de Montfort was equally severe toward 
other places in the territory of Raymond 
and his allies, of whom Roger died in a 
prison and Peter I., King of Aragon, in 
battle. The lands taken were presented 
by the Church, as a reward for his services, 
to Simon de Montfort, who, however, was 
killed at the siege of Toulouse in 1218. Even 
after the death of Raymond VI., in 1222, 
under excommunication, his son, Raymond 
VII., was obliged, notwithstanding his read¬ 
iness to do penance, to defend his inheri¬ 
tance against the legates and Louis VIII. 
of France, who fell in 1226 in a campaign 
against the heretics. After hundreds of 
thousands had fallen on both sides, a peace 
was made in 1229, by the terms of which 
Raymond was obliged to purchase his abso¬ 
lution with a large sum of money, to cede 
Narbonne, with several estates, to Louis 
IX., and make his son-in-law, a brother of 
Louis, heir of his other lands. The heretics 
were now delivered up to the proselytizing 
zeal of the Dominicans, and to the courts 
of the Inquisition; and the Albigenses grad¬ 
ually disappeared. 

Albinism, a 'deficiency of pigment, oc¬ 
curring in man or the animals, and af¬ 
fecting not only skin and hair, but also, in 
the true albino, the iris and choroid mem¬ 
brane of the eve. In the human albino the 
skin is pale and transparent, the hair 
light flaxen or white, and the iris pink. 
The eye is sensitive to light, the albino 
being short-sighted by day (partially blind 
in sunlight), and seeing best at dusk. Al¬ 
binism exists as an uncommon condition 
among several races, but is most frequently 
found in negroes. It is encountered in birds, 
mice, rabbits, and other animals; most con- 



Albino. 


Albumen 


spicuously in the white elephant, which in 
Siam is considered sacred. 

Albino. See Albinism. 

Albion, the oldest name by which the 
island of Great Britain was known to the 
Greeks and Romans. Great Britain and Ire¬ 
land were known by the general appellation 
of the Britannic Islands, while the former 
was designated by the particular name of 
Albion or Alwion, and the latter by that of 
Ierne, Iouernia, or Erin. Caesar does not 
use the word Albion; his name for England 
is Britannia. Pliny says (iv:16) : “The 
name of the island was Albion, the whole 
set of islands being called Britannic.” The 
word Albinn is still the only name by which 
the Gaels of Scotland designate that coun¬ 
try*, and the word signifies, in the Gaelic 
language, white or fair island. The word 
alb itself is not now in use in the Gaelic, 
but is probably the same root that we find 
in the Latin adjective alb-as, and in the 
word “Alps”; inn signifies island. 

Albion College, a co-educational institu¬ 
tion in Albion, Mich., organized under the 
auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church; 
has grounds and buildings valued at over 
$250,000; endowment, $280,000; scientific 
apparatus, $30,000; income, $55,000; vol¬ 
umes in the library, 19,000; professors and 
instructors, 20; students, 540; number of 
graduates since organization, over 950. 

Alboin, a king of Lombardy, who, after 
having slain Cunimund, King of the Gepidoe, 
married his daughter Rosamond. He was 
slain in 574, by an assassin instigated by 
his wife. He had incurred her hatred by 
sending her, during one of his fits of in¬ 
toxication, a cup, wrought from the skull 
of her father, filled with wine, and forcing 
her, according to his own words, to drink 
with her father. This incident has been 
introduced by Alfieri, in a very pathetic 
manner, in his tragedy called “ Rosmunda.” 

Alboni, Marietta (al -bo'ne), an Italian 
contralto, born in Romagna, 1823. She 
made her debut as Orsini in “ Lucrezia Bor¬ 
gia.” After singing in Europe for some 
years, she made a successful tour of the 
United States. On the death of her husband, 
Count Pepoli, in 18GG, she left the stage, 
and in 1877 she married M. Ziegir, a French 
officer. She died in France in 1894. 

Albret, Jeanne d’ (al-bra'), daughter of 
Margaret, Queen of Navarre, born in 1528. 
She married Antoine de Bourbon in 1548 ; 
gave birth in 1553 to a son, who was after¬ 
ward Henry IV. of France ; and on the death 
of her father, in 1555, became Queen of 
Navarre. She lost her husband in 1562, and 
eagerly began to establish the reformation 
in her kingdom. Being invited to the French 
court to assist at the nuptials of her son 
with Margaret of Valois, she suddenly ex¬ 


pired, not without suspicion of having been 
poisoned. Died in 1572. 

Albright, Jacob, an American minister 
of the Methodist Church, born in 1759. His 
work lay among the Germans of Pennsyl¬ 
vania. Becoming impressed with the de¬ 
cline of religious life and of the doctrines 
and morals of the surrounding churches, he 
began a work of reform in 1790. He trav¬ 
eled about the country at his own expense, 
preaching his mission, until he founded in 
1800 the Evangelical Association (q. v.). 
He died in 1808. 

Albuera fal-bo-a'rii), a village of Spain, 
in the province of Badajoz, on the Albuera 
river; 13 miles S. E. of Badajoz. Here 
(May 16, 1811) a British and Portuguese 
army of 32,500, under General Beresford, 
defeated in a sanguinary battle a French 
army of 23,000 under Marshal Soult, the 
total loss being 16,000, about equally di¬ 
vided. Soult tried to relieve Badajoz, which 
was besieged by the British, but was 
obliged to withdraw to Seville, while the 
allied British and Portuguese, of whom 
Wellington then took command, continued 
the siege. 

Albumen or Albumin. (1) In chemistry, 
the name of a class of albuminoids that are 
soluble in water, as serum and egg albumen. 
Egg albumen differs from serum by giving 
a precipitate when agitated with ether; it 
is scarcely soluble in strong nitric acid; its 
specific relation is 35.50 for yellow light. 
The white of eggs is composed of this sub¬ 
stance; it dries up into a light yellow gum¬ 
like substance, which will not putrefy. It 
is converted into coagulated albumen by 
heating the fluid albumen to 72° C. It 
contains sulphur, and blackens a silver 
spoon. It is precipitated by strong acids. 
It is an antidote in cases of poisoning by 
corrosive sublimate or copper salts. Coagu¬ 
lated albumen is obtained by heating neutral 
solutions of albumen, fibrin, etc., to boil¬ 
ing, or by the action of alcohol, also by 
heating precipitated albuminates or casein. 
It is insoluble in water, alcohol, and 
scarcely in dilute potash, but dissolves in 
acetic acid; by tlie action of caustic potash 
it is converted into albumenate. Pepsin and 
HCI (hydrochloric acid), at blood-heat, con¬ 
vert it into syntonin, and then into pep¬ 
tone. 

Derived albumens are insoluble in water, 
and in solutions of NaCl (sodium chloride), 
but soluble in dilute acids and alkalies. 
There are acid albumens and alkali albu¬ 
mens. 

Acid albumen is formed by adding a small 
quantity of dilute HCI (hydrochloric acid) 
to serum or egg albumen, and gradually rais¬ 
ing the temperature to 70°. It does not 
coagulate and the rotation to the left is 
increased to 72°. By neutralizing the liquid, 



Albuminoids 


Alcaeus 


a white flocculent precipitate is obtained, 
insoluble in water, but soluble in alkali and 
in dilute solutions of alkaline carbonates. 

Alkali albumen, or albumenate, is obtained 
by adding very dilute caustic alkali, heat¬ 
ing the liquid, and precipitating with acids. 
It closely resembles the casein of milk. 
Potassium albuminate is also called protein. 

(2) In botany, a substance interposed be¬ 
tween the embryo and the testa of many 
plants. It is sometimes soft and fleshy, and 
at other times hard. It varies greatly in 
amount in those plants in which it is pres¬ 
ent, being particularly large in some endo- 
gens, such as the cocoanut, in which it con¬ 
stitutes the eatable part of the fruit. 

(3) In photography, a process by which 
albumen is used instead of collodion to coat 
glass or paper. A method of doing this in 
the case of glass was published by M. 
Niepce de Saint Victor in the “ Technolo¬ 
gist ” for 1848. It was subsequently im¬ 
proved by M. le Gray. The foreign trans¬ 
parent stereoscopic views were at one time 
obtained by the use of albumen in the way 
new described. 

Albuminoids,in chemistry, a name given 
to certain chemical substances which occur 
in the animal and vegetable tissues. They 
are amorphous, and their chemical constitu¬ 
tion has not yet been discovered. They con¬ 
tain about 54 parts of carbon. 7 of hydrogen, 
1G of nitrogen, 21 of oxygen, and 1 to 114 of 
sulphur. They are dissolved by acetic acid 
and strong mineral acids;nitric acid converts 
them into xanthoproteic acid; caustic al¬ 
kalies decompose them, forming leucine, ty¬ 
rosine, oxalic acid, and ammonia. They are 
divided into the following classes: (1) Al¬ 
bumens, soluble in water; as serum and egg 
albumen. (2) Globulins, insoluble in water, 
soluble in very dilute acids and alkalies, 
soluble in a solution — one per cent.— of 
NaCl (sodium chloride), as myosin, glob¬ 
ulin, fibrinogen, vitellin. (3) Derived al¬ 
bumens, insoluble in water, and in solutions 
of NaCl (sodium chloride), soluble in dilute 
acids and alkalies; as acid albumen, alkali 
albumens, or albuminates, as casein. (4) 
Fibrin, insoluble in water, sparingly soluble 
in dilute acids and alkalies, and in neutral 
saline solutions; as fibrin and gluten. (5) 
Coagulated proteids, soluble in gastric 
juice; as coagulated albumen. (6) Amy¬ 
loids, or lardacein, insoluble in gastric 
juice. 

Albuminuria, a disease characterized by 
the presence of albumen in the urine. It 
may be acute or chronic. Acute albumin¬ 
uria is a form of inflammation of the kid¬ 
neys. Chronic albuminuria, the commoner 
and more formidable malady, arises from 
grave constitutional disorders. It is often 
attended by or produces dropsy. Whether 
acute or chronic, but especially when the lat¬ 
ter, it is generally called Bright’s disease, 


after Dr. Bright, who first described it with 
accuracy. 

Albuquerque (al'be-kerk), a town and 
county-seat of Bernalillo co., N. M.; on the 
Rio Grande and the Atchison, Topeka and 
Santa Fe and the Santa Fe Pacific rail¬ 
roads; 75 miles S. W. of Santa Fe. It has 
an elevation of 5,000 feet above sea-level; 
is an ancient and interesting settlement, di¬ 
vided into the Old and New towns; and is 
the seat of the University of New Mexico 
and of a Government school for Indians. 
The town has extensive railroad shops, a 
foundry and machine works, a National 
bank, and large mining, trading, and job¬ 
bing interests. Pop. (1910) 10,020. 

Albuquerque, Affonso d’ (al'bo-kark'e), 
“ the Great,” Viceroy of the Indies, was 
born in 1453, near Lisbon. In that age, the 
Portuguese people were distinguished for 
heroism and a spirit of adventure. They 
had discovered and subjugated a great part 
of the western coast of Africa, and were be¬ 
ginning to extend their dominion over the 
seas and the people of India. Albuquerque, 
being appointed Viceroy of these new pos¬ 
sessions, landed on the Malabar coast in 
1503, with a fleet and some troops; con¬ 
quered Goa, which he made the seat of the 
Portuguese Government, and the center of 
its Asiatic commerce; and afterward Cey¬ 
lon, the Sunda Isles, the Peninsula of Ma¬ 
lacca, and (in 1515) the Island of Ormuz 
at the entrance of the Persian Gulf. When 
the King of Persia sent for the tribute 
which the princes of this island had for¬ 
merly rendered to him, Albuquerque pre¬ 
sented bullets and swords to the ambas¬ 
sador, saying: “This is the coin in which 
Portugal pays her tribute.” He made the 
Portuguese name profoundly respected 
among the princes and people of the East; 
and many of them, especially the Kings of 
Siam and Pegu, sought his alliance and pro¬ 
tection. He maintained strict military dis¬ 
cipline, was active, far seeing, wise, hu¬ 
mane, and equitable, respected and feared by 
his neighbors while beloved by his subjects. 
His virtues made such an impression on 
the Indian peoples that, long after his death, 
they resorted to-his grave to implore his pro¬ 
tection against the misgovernment of his 
successors. V et he did not escape the envy 
of courtiers and the suspicions of his king, 
who appointed Soarez, a personal enemy of 
Albuquerque, to supersede him as Viceroy. 
This news reached him just as he was leav¬ 
ing Ormuz, and gave a severe shock to his 
shattered health. A few days after, he 
died at sea near Goa, Dec. 1G, i515. 

Alcaeus (al-kl'us or al-se'us), a Greek 
lyric poet; native of Mitylene; flourished in 
the 6th century b. c. Of his poems we have 
only fragments; some were hymns to the 
gods, others battle songs, still others were 



Alcala de Henares 


Alchemy 


in praise of liberty; very many were love 
songs of pronounced erotic character. ITe 
is said to have been the literary model of 
Horace. He engaged in the civil war which 
convulsed his country at the time of the ex¬ 
pulsion of the tyrants, and used both the 
lyre and the sword in the cause of liberty. 
In the beginning he took part with Pittacus, 
but subsequently against him. On account 
of his political activity he was compelled 
to leave his native country, and spent the 
latter part of his life in exile. He wrote 
in the ^Eolie dialect, and was the inventor 
of the meter which bears his name, one of 
the most beautiful and melodious of all the 
lyric meters. 

Alcala de Henares (al-ka-liP de a-niir'- 
as), a town in Spain, Cervantes’ birthplace, 
on the Henares, 21 miles E. of Madrid by 
rail. It once boasted of a university, found¬ 
ed by the famous Cardinal Ximenes in 1510, 
which enjoyed a European fame and was at¬ 
tended by thousands of students. It was 
removed to Madrid in 183G, and the town is 
now not a shadow of its former self. Here 
was printed in 1517, in six folio volumes, at 
an expense of 80,000 ducats, the great Com- 

plutensian Bible, a monument of the piety 
and learning of the great cardinal. The 
chief buildings are the Colegio de San Ilde- 
fonso, the seat of the ancient university, its 
chapel containing the founder’s tomb; the 
archbishop’s palace, the cathedral, and the 
Church of Santa Maria, in which Cervantes 
was baptized, Oct. 9, 1547. The house in 
which he was born is marked by an inscrip¬ 
tion. Pop. about 15,000. The Complutum 
of the Romans, the town owes its modern 
name to the Moors, under whom it was 
Al-Kalat, “ the castle.” 

Alcantara, a former suburb of Lisbon, 
noted for the signal victory gained there by 
the Duke of Alva over the Portuguese in 
1580. 

Alcantara, a fortified town of Spain, cap¬ 
ital of a district of the same name, Province 
of Estremadura, the Nova Caesarea of the 
Romans. The famous bridge of Trajan, 
built a. D. 105, exists to-day practically as 
the Romans left it. 

Order of Alcantara .— At the expulsion of 
the Moors in 1213, which was aided by the 
Knights of San Julian del Pereyro, the de¬ 
fense of the town was intrusted to them, and 
they thenceforward assumed the title of 
Knights of Alcantara. In 1492, Ferdinand 
the Catholic united the office of grand mas¬ 
ter with the crown. The Order has been 
since abolished. At their nominations, the 
knights might prove four generations of 
nobility. The crest of the Order was a pear 
tree. 

Alcazar (al-kii'thar), the name of many 
castles and palaces in Spain. Ciudad-Ro- 
drigo, Cordova, Segovia, Toledo and Seville 


have alcazars. The one at Seville is an im¬ 
posing relic of the Arab dominion. The Al¬ 
cazar of Segovia suffered from a fire in 
18G2, which ruined its most effective fea¬ 
tures. It has since been partially restored. 



ALCAZAR IN SEGOVIA. 


Alcazar, Baltasar de, a Spanish poet, 
born at Seville in 1530. His light poems, 
not very numerous, received flattering notice 
from Cervantes and others, He had, in his 
time, many imitators, but few equals. His 
best known poem is “ The Jovial Supper.” 
He died at Ronda, Jan. 15, 1600. 

Alcedo, the typical genus of the family 
alccdinidcc , or kingfishers. Two species oc¬ 
cur in the United States, the alcedo ispida, 
and the alcedo alcyon. 

Alceste, or Alcestis, was the daughter 
of Peleus, and wife of Admetus, King of 
Thessaly. Her husband, according to an 
oracle, would die, unless someone made a 
vow to meet death in his stead. This was 
secretly done by Alceste, who became sick, 
and Admetus recovered. After her decease, 
Hercules visited Admetus, and promised to 
bring her from the infernal regions. He 
made Pluto restore Alceste to her husband. 
Euripides has made this the subject of a 
tragedy. 

Alchemy, a study of nature with three 
special objects: (1) That of obtaining an 
alkahest or universal solvent. (2) That 
of acquiring the ability to transmute all 
metals into gold or silver, especially the 
former. (3) That of obtaining an elixir 
vitae, or universal medicine, which might 
cure all diseases and indefinitely prolong 
human life. 

The word is derived from the Arabic al- 
lcimia, compounded of the Arabic article 
and a Greek word chemia, used in Diode- 

















Alchemy 


Alchemy 


tian's decree against Egyptian works treat¬ 
ing of the chemia (transmutation) of gold 
and silver. The Greek word is now most 
usually explained to mean “ the Egyptian 
art,” and derived from the Egyptian name 
for Egypt, Khmi; but it was ultimately con¬ 
founded with the true Greek chumeia, pour¬ 
ing, infusion. The latter form, which was 
possibly, however, the real original of clie- 
mia, justifies the renaissance spellings, al- 
chvmv and chvmistrv. 

•' */ V V 

Tradition points to Egypt as the birth¬ 
place of the science. Hermes Trismegistus 
is represented as the father of it; but it 
should be remembered that the speculations 
of some of the early Greek philosophers, 
as of Empedocles, who first named the four 
elements, pointed in the direction of a rudi¬ 
mentary chemical theory. Zosimus the The¬ 
ban discovered in sulphuric acid a solvent 
of the metals, and liberated oxygen from the 
red oxide of mercury. The students of the 
“ sacred art ” at Alexandria believed in the 
transmutation of the four elements. The 
Roman Emperor Caligula is said to have 
instituted experiments for producing gold 
out of orpiment (sulphuret of arsenic) ; and 
in the time of Diocletian the passion for 
this pursuit, conjoined with magical arts, 
had become so prevalent in the empire that 
that emperor is said to have ordered all 
Egyptian works treating of the chemistry 
of gold and silver to be burned. For at that 
time multitudes of books on this art were 
appearing, written by Alexandrian monks 
and by hermits, but bearing famous names 
of antiquity, such as Democritus, Pythag¬ 
oras, and Hermes. 

At a later period, the Arabs, who had en¬ 
thusiastically adopted Aristotle from the 
Greeks, appropriated the astrology and al¬ 
chemy of the Persians and the Jews of Meso¬ 
potamia and Arabia; and to them European 
alchemv is directly traceable. The school 
of polypharmacy, as it has been called, flour¬ 
ished in Arabia during the caliphates of 
the Abbassides. The earliest work of this 
school now known is the “ Summa Perfec- 
tionis,” or “ Summit of Perfection,” com¬ 
posed by Gebir in the «Sth century; it is con¬ 
sequently the oldest book on chemistry 
proper. It contains so much of what sounds 
like jargon in our ears that Dr. Johnson 
(erroneously) ascribed the origin of the 
word “ gibberish ” to the name of the com¬ 
piler. It is a kind of text book, or collection 
of all that was then known and believed. 
It appears that these Arabian polyphar¬ 
macists had long been engaged in calcining 
and boiling, dissolving and precipitating, 
subliming and coagulating chemical sub¬ 
stances. They worked with gold and mer¬ 
cury, arsenic and sulphur, salts and acids; 
and had, in short, become familiar with a 
large range of what are now called chem¬ 
icals. Gebir discovered corrosive sublimate, 


the process of cupellation of gold and silver, 
and distillation. He taught that there are 
three elemental chemicals — mercury, sul¬ 
phur, and arsenic. These substances, es¬ 
pecially the first two, seem to have fas¬ 
cinated the thoughts of the alchemists by 
their potent and penetrating qualities. They 
saw mercury dissolve gold, the most incor¬ 
ruptible of matters, as water dissolves 
sugar; and a stick of sulphur presented to 
hot iron penetrates it like a spirit, and 
makes it run down in a shower of solid 
drops, a new and remarkable substance, pos¬ 
sessed of properties belonging neither to 
iron nor to sulphur. The Arabians held that 
the metals are compound bodies, made up of 
mercury and sulphur in different propor¬ 
tions. With these very excusable errors in 
theory, they were genuine practical chem¬ 
ists. Thev toiled away at the art of mak- 
ing “ many medicines ” (polypharmacy) out 
of the various mixtures and reactions of 
such chemicals as they knew. They had 
their pestles and mortars, their crucibles 
and furnaces, their alembics and aludels, 
their vessels for infusion, for decoction, for 
cohabitation, sublimation, fixation, lixivia- 
tion, filtration, coagulation, etc. Their 
scientific creed was transmutation, and their 
methods were mostly blind gropings; and 
yet, in this way, they found out many new 
bodies, and invented many useful processes. 
To the Arab alchemists we owe the terms 
alcohol, alkali, borax, elixir. 

From the Arabs, alchemy found its way 
through Spain into Europe generally, and 
speedily became entangled with the fantastic 
subtleties of the scholastic philosophy. In 
the Middle Ages, the monks occupied them¬ 
selves with alchemy. Pope John XXII. took 
great delight in it,but denounced the search¬ 
ers for gold “ who promise more than they 
can perform,” and the art was afterward 
forbidden by his successor. The earliest au¬ 
thentic works on European alchemy now ex¬ 
tant are those of Roger Bacon (1214—1294) 
and Albertus Magnus (1193-1280). Roger 
Bacon, who was acquainted with gunpowder, 
condemns magic, necromancy, charms, and 
all such things, but believes in the con¬ 
vertibility of the inferior metals into gold. 
Still, he does hot profess to have ever ef¬ 
fected the conversion, an idea which took 
firm possession of the imagination and, lat¬ 
terly, of the avarice of the Middle Ages. 
Their conception was that gold was the per¬ 
fect metal, and that all other metals were so 
many removes or deflections from gold, in 
consequence of arrestment, corruption, or 
other accidents. Now, though gold, being 
simply perfect, could not, if mixed with the 
imperfect, perfect the latter, but would 
rather share its imperfections; yet, were a 
substance found many times more perfect 
than gold, it might well perfect the imper¬ 
fect. Such a substance would be composed 



Alchemy 


Alchemy 


of purest mercury and sulphur, commingled 
into a solid mass, and matured by wisdom 
and artificial fire into possibly a thousand 
thousand times the perfection of the simple 
body. This was the philosopher’s stone. 
Roger Bacon followed Gebir in regarding 
potable gold — that is, gold dissolved in 
nitro-hydrochloric acid or aqua regia — as 
the elixir of life. Urging it on the atten¬ 
tion of Pope Nicholas IV., he informs his 
holiness of an old man who found some 
yellow liquor (the solution of gold is yel¬ 
low) in a golden vial, when ploughing one 
day in Sicily. Supposing it to be dew, he 
drank it off. He was thereupon transformed 
into a hale, robust, and highly accomplished 
youth. Albertus Magnus had a great mas¬ 
tery of the practical chemistry of his times; 
he was acquainted with alum, caustic alkali, 
and the purification of the royal metals by 
means of lead. In addition to the sulphur- 
and-mercury theory of the metals, drawn 
from Gebir, he regarded the element water 
as still nearer the soul of nature than either 
of these bodies. He is the first to speak of 
the affinity of bodies, a term he uses in ref¬ 
erence to the action of sulphur on metals. 
Thomas Aquinas also wrote on alchemy, and 
was the first to employ the word amalgam. 
Raymond Lully is another great name in 
the annals of alchemy. He was the first to 
introduce the use of chemical svmbols, his 
system consisting of a scheme of arbitrary 
hieroglyphics. He made much of the spirit 
of wine (the art of distilling spirits would 
seem to have been then recent), imposing 
on it the name of aqua vitce ardens. In his 
enthusiasm, he pronounced it the very elixir 
of life. He wrote more than 500 works on 
alchemy. 

Basil Valentine introduced antimony into 
medical use. He, along with some previous 
alchemists, regarded salt, sulphur, and mer¬ 
cury as the three bodies contained in the 

•/ 

metals. He inferred that the philosopher’s 
stone must be the same sort of combination 
— a compound, namely, of salt, sulphur, and 
mercury; so pure, that its projection on the 
baser metals should be able to work them 
up into greater and greater purity, bring¬ 
ing them at last to the state of silver and 
gold. His practical knowledge was great; 
he knew how to precipitate iron from solu¬ 
tion by potash, and was acquainted with 
many similar processes, so that he is ranked 
as the founder of analytical chemistry. 

But more famous than all was Paracel¬ 
sus, in whom alchemy proper may be said 
to have culminated. He held, with Basil 
Valentine, that the elements of compound 
bodies were salt, sulphur and mercury — 
representing respectively earth, air and 
water, fire being already regarded as an im¬ 
ponderable — but these substances were in 
his system purely representative. All kinds 
of matter were reducible under one or 


other of these typical forms; everything 
was either a salt, a sulphur or a mercury, 
or, like the metals, it was a mixed or com¬ 
pound. There was one element, however, 
common to the four; a fifth essence or 
quintessence of creation; an unknown and 
only true element, of which the four gen¬ 
eric principles were nothing but derivative 
forms or embodiments: in other words, he in¬ 
culcated the dogma that there is only 
one real elementary matter, nobody knows 
what. This one prime element of things 
he appears to have considered to be the uni¬ 
versal solvent of which the alchemists were 
in quest, and to express which he introduced 
the term alkahest. He seems to have had 
the notion that, if this quintessence or fifth 
element could be got at, it would prove to 
be at once the philosopher’s stone, the uni¬ 
versal medicine, and the irresistible solvent. 
An often-quoted saying of his is “ Vita ig¬ 
nis, corpus lignum .” (“Life is the fire, the 
body the fuel.”) 

After Paracelsus, the alchemists of 
Europe became divided into two classes. 
The one class was composed of men of dili¬ 
gence and sense, who devoted themselves to 
the discovery of new compounds and reac¬ 
tions — practical workers and observers of 
facts, and the legitimate ancestors of the 
positive chemists of the era of Lavoisier. 
The other class took up the visionary, fan¬ 
tastical side of the older alchemv, and car- 
ried it to a degree of extravagance before 
unknown. Instead of useful work, they 
compiled mystical trash into books, and 
fathered them on Hermes, Aristotle, Al¬ 
bertus Magnus, Paracelsus, and other really 
great men. Their language is a farrago of 
mystical metaphors, full of red bride¬ 
grooms, and lily brides, green dragons, ruby 
lions, royal baths, waters of life. The seven 
metals correspond with the seven planets, 
the seven cosmical angels, and the seven 
openings of the head — the eyes, the ears, 
the nostrils and the mouth. Silver was 
Diana, gold was Apollo, iron was Mars, tin 
was Jupiter, lead was Saturn, and so forth. 
They talk forever of the power of attrac¬ 
tion, which drew all men and women after 
the possessor; of the alkahest or universal 
solvent, and the grand elixir, which was to 
confer immortal youth upon the student 
who should prove himself fit to kiss and 
quaff the golden draft. There was the 
"reat mvsterv. the mother of the elements, 
the grandmother of the stars. There was 
the philosopher’s stone, and there was the 
philosophical stone. The philosophical 
stone was younger than the elements, yet 
at her virgin touch the grossest calx (ore) 
among them all would blush before her into 
perfect gold. The philosopher’s stone, on 
the other hand, was the first-born of na¬ 
ture, and older than the king of metals. 
Those who had attained full insight into the 



Alcibiades 


Alcibiades 


arcana of the science were styled wise, 
those who were only striving after the 
light were philosophers, while the ordinary 
practicers of the art were called adepts. 
These visionaries formed themselves into 
Bosicrucian societies and other secret as¬ 
sociations. In connection with this mock- 
alchemy, mixed up with astrology and 
magic, abounded the quackery and impos¬ 
ture depicted by Scott in the character of 
Dousterswivel in “ The Antiquary. 5 ’ It is 
interesting to observe that the doctrine of 
the transmutability of other metals into 
gold and silver, a doctrine which it was at 
one time thought that modern chemistry had 
utterly exploded, receives not a little coun¬ 
tenance from a variety of facts now coming 
to light, especially in connection with allo¬ 
tropy. 

Alcibiades, son of Clinias and Deino- 
mache, was born in Athens about 450 B. c. 
He lost his father in the battle of Coronea, 
( 447), so was brought up in the house of 
his kinsman Pericles. In youth he gave 
evidence of his future greatness, excelling 
in both mental and bodily exercises. His 
goodly nerson, his distinguished parent¬ 
age, and the high po¬ 
sition of Pericles, pro¬ 
cured him a multi¬ 
tude of friends and 
admirers. Socrates 
was one of the form¬ 
er, and gained consid¬ 
erable influence over 
him, but was unable 
to restrain his love 
of luxury and dissi- 
pation, which found 
ample means of grati¬ 
fication in the wealth 
that accrued to him 
by his union with 
Hipparete. His pub- 
ALCIBIADES. lie displays, especial¬ 
ly at the Olympic 
games, were costly beyond belief. He first 
bore arms in the expedition against Po- 
tidsea (432), where his life was saved 
by Socrates — a debt which eight years 
later he repaid at Helium, by saving, 
in his turn, the life of the philosopher. 
He seems to have taken no part in political 
matters till after the death of the dema¬ 
gogue Cleon, when Nicias brought about 
a 50 years’ treaty of peace between 
Athens and Lacedaemon. Alcibiades, jealous 
of the esteem in which Nicias was held, per¬ 
suaded the Athenians to ally themselves 
with the people of Argos, Elis and Man- 
tinea (420), and did all in his power to 
stir up afresh their ancient enmity to 
Sparta. It was at his suggestion that, in 
415 , they engaged in the Sicilian expedition, 
to the command of which he was elected, 
along with Nicias and Lamachus. But 


while preparations were making, one night 
all the statutes of Hermes in Athens were 
mutilated. Alcibiades’ enemies threw on 
him the blame of the sacrilege, but post¬ 
poned the impeachment until he had set 
sail, when they stirred up the people 
against him to such a degree that he was 
recalled in order to stand his trial. On the 
voyage home, he landed in Italy, and thence 
crossed to Lacedaemon, where, by conform¬ 
ing to the strict Spartan manners, he soon 
became a favorite. He induced the Lace¬ 
daemonians to send assistance to Syracuse, 
to form an alliance with Persia, and to sup¬ 
port the people of Chios in their effort to 
throw off the Athenian yoke. He went 
thither himself, and raised all Ionia in re¬ 
volt. But Agis, and other leading Spar¬ 
tans, jealous of Alcibiades’ success, ordered 
their generals in Asia to have him assas¬ 
sinated. Discovering the plot, he fled to 
Tissaphernes, a Persian satrap, who had 
orders to act in concert with the Spartans. 
He now resumed his old manners, adopted 
the luxurious habits of Asia, and made him¬ 
self indispensable to Tissaphernes, repre¬ 
senting to him that it was contrary to 
Persia’s interests entirely to disable the 
Athenians. He then sent word to the Athe¬ 
nian commanders at Samos that he would 
procure for them the friendship of the satrap 
if they would establish an oligarchy at 
Athens. The offer was accepted, and the su¬ 
preme power vested in a council of four 
hundred. When it appeared, however, that 
this council had no intention of recalling 
Alcibiades, the army of Samos chose him 
for a general, desiring him to lead them to 
Athens. But Alcibiades did not wish to re¬ 
turn to his native country till he had ren¬ 
dered it some service; and during the next 
four years he defeated the Lacedaemonians 
at Cynossema, Abydos and Cyzicus; recov¬ 
ered Chalcedon and Byzantium, and re¬ 
stored to the Athenians the dominion of the 
sea. He then returned home (407), on a 
formal invitation, and was received with 
general enthusiasm. His triumph, however, 
was brief. He was sent back to Asia with 
a hundred ships; but his own ill-success 
against Andros, and the defeat of his lieu¬ 
tenant at Nothim, enabled his enemies to 
get him superseded (406). He went into 
exile in the Thracian Chersonesus, and two 
years later crossed over to Phrygia, with 
the intention of repairing to the court of 
Artaxerxes. Historians differ as to why, 
and by whom the deed was done; but one 
night, in 404, his house was fired by a band 
of armed men; and, rushing out sword in 
hand, he fell pierced with a shower of ar¬ 
rows. Nature had gifted him with winning 
eloquence (though he stuttered in his 
speech, and could not articulate the letter 
r), and his in a rare degree was the power 




















Alcidse 


Akohol 


to fascinate and govern men. In all his 
actions he allowed himself to be guided 
by circumstances, because he had no fixed 
principles of conduct. But he possessed the 
boldness that arises from conscious superi¬ 
ority ; he shrank from no difficulty, because 
he was never doubtful of the means for 
attaining an end. 

Alcidae, or Alcadae, a family of birds 
(natatores), including auks, penguins, puf¬ 
fins, and guillemots. They are oceanic, and 
have the bill compressed and pointed. Their 
wings are adapted for an aquatic life. The 
legs are short and placed so far back that, 
in resting, the birds appear to stand up¬ 
right. Their food is principally fish. 

Alciphron (al'si-fron), a Greek rhetori¬ 
cian who flourished in the 2d century of 
the* Christian era, and attained celebrity 
through his series of more than a hundred 
imaginary letters purporting to be written 
by the very dregs of the Athenian popula¬ 
tion, including courtesans and petty rogues. 
Their importance in literature is due al¬ 
most wholly to the insight they afford into 
the social conditions and manners and mor¬ 
als of the day. The letters from the cour¬ 
tesans ( hctairai ) are based upon incidents 
in Menander’s lost plays, and the new Attic 
comedy was likewise drawn upon for ma¬ 
terial. 

Alcmaeon (alk-me'on), a son of Am- 
phiaraus and Eriphvle, was one of the 
heroes who took part in the successful ex¬ 
pedition of the Epigoni against Thebes, 
lie was charged by his father to put his 
mother to death, in revenge for her having 
urged her husband to take part in an expe¬ 
dition in which his foresight showed him 
he should perish. She had been gained over 
to urge this fatal course by a gift from 
Polynices of the fatal necklace of Harmonia. 
The matricide brought upon Alcnuron mad¬ 
ness and the horror of being haunted by the 
Furies, but at Psophis he was purified by 
Phegeus, whose daughter he married, giv¬ 
ing her the fatal present. But the land 
became barren in consequence of his pres¬ 
ence, and he fled to the mouth of the river 
Achelous, the god of which gave him his 
daughter OllirrhoS in marriage. Ilia new 
wife longeo for the fatal necklace, and sent 
her husband to Psophis to procure it, under 
the pretence of dedicating it at Delphi; but 
Phegeus, learning for whom it was really 
intended, caused his sons to murder the ill- 
fated Alcmaeon. 

Aleman, one of the earliest and greatest 
of Greek lyric poets, belonging to the 7th 
century b. o. He is supposed to have been 
a native of Lydia, and to have been taken 
as a slave to Sparta. Only small fragments 
of his odes remain. He used the broad, 
homely Doric dialect. Flis poems were love 
ditties, hymns, paeans, processional chants, 
etc. 


AScmene, or Alkmene (nlk-m§'ne) ; ill 

Greek mythology, the daughter of Anaxo 
and Electryon, King of Mycenae. She be¬ 
came the mother of Hercules through Zeus, 
who took the form of her husband, Am¬ 
phitryon. Finally Zeus bade Hermes 
guide her to the Islands of the Blest, where 
she was happily united with Rhadaman- 
thus. 


Alcohol, a colorless, inflammable liquid, 
of agreeable odor, and burning taste, 
termed also spirit of wine, and ethylic or 
vinic alcohol. 

In organic chemistry, alcohol is the name 
given to a class of compounds differing 
from hydrocarbons in the substitution of 
one or more hydrogen atoms by the mon¬ 
atomic radical hydroxyl (Oil)'. Alcohols 
are divided into monatomic, diatomic, Di¬ 
atomic, etc., according as they contain 1, 
2, or 3 atoms of II (hydrogen), each re¬ 
placed by (OH)'. Alcohols may also be 
regarded as water in which one atom of H 
is replaced by a hydrocarbon radical. Al¬ 
cohol can unite with certain salts, as alco¬ 


hol of crystallization. The O in yj j- 0 
(water) can be replaced by S (sulphur), 
a? H [ ^ (hydrogen sulphide) ; so in alco¬ 
hol, j- O, forming mercaptan, | S. 

Alcohol may also be compared with acids, 
as ^ | O (hypochlorous acid), | O 

(alcohol) ; the II can be replaced by K or 
Na, as -j^j- 0 (sodium hypochlorite), 


in< ^ | O (sodium ethylate), there¬ 

fore, it can be considered a weak 
acid. Also it can be compared with bases, 

a9 H | ® (potassium hydrate) with acids 

forms salts and water. As KHO-f-HCl= 
KC1 (potassium chloride) and H 2 0 (water), 
so alcohol and acids form acid ethers and 
water: 


CJL ) 
II < 


n , H (hydrochloric acid) 
u-h C i 


=H s O and C 2 II r ,.Cl (ethyl chloride). An 
alcohol is said to be primary, secondary, 
or tertiary, according as the carbon atom 
which is in combination with hydroxyl 
(OH) is likewise directly combined with 
one, two, or three carbon atoms. The 
hydrocarbon radicals can also have their 
carbon atoms linked together in different 
ways, forming isomeric alcohols. Primary 
alcohols, by the action of oxidizing agents, 
yield aldehydes, then acids; secondary al¬ 
cohols, by oxidation, yield ketones; tertiary 
alcohols, by oxidation, yield a mixture of 
acids. Alcohols derived from henzol, or its 
substitution compounds, are called aromatic 
alcohols; they contain one or more benzol 
rings. 





Alcoholism 


Alcott 


In chemistry, pure ethyl alcohol, also 
called absolute alcohol, is obtained by dis¬ 
tilling the strongest rectified spirit of wine 
with half its weight of quicklime. Pure 
alcohol is a colorless, limpid liquid, having a 
pungent, agreeable odor and a burning taste. 
Its specific gravity at 0° is 0-8095, and at 
15-5° is 0-7938, its vapor referred to air 
1-613. It is very inflammable, burning with 
a pale blue, smokeless flame. It boils at 78.4° 
when anhydrous. It becomes viscid at—100°. 
It mixes with water in all proportions, 
with evolution of heat and contraction of 
volume; and it readily absorbs moisture 
from the air, and from substances immersed 
in it. Chlorine converts alcohol into chloral, 
C 2 HC1 3 0, but in the presence of alkalies 
into chloroform, CHC1 3 . By oxidation alco¬ 
hol is converted into aldehyde, C 2 H 4 0, then 
into acetic acid, C.Ji 4 0 2 . The alkaline 
metals replace one atom of H, forming 
C 2 H v NaO (sodium ethylate). Strong H 2 S0 4 
(sulphuric acid) forms with alcohol 
(C : H s )H.S 0 4 , sulphovinic acid. HC1 (hy¬ 
drochloric acid) with alcohol yields ethyl 
chloride, C 2 H 5 .C1, and water. Alcohol can 
be formed by synthesis from the elements, 
C, H, O: thus acetylene, C 2 H 2 , can be formed 
by passing an electric current in an atmos¬ 
phere of H. between carbon points; this 
is converted by nascent H into olefiant gas, 
C._.H 4 , which is absorbed by H 2 S0 4 (sulphuric 
acid) ; by diluting with water, and distill¬ 
ing, alcohol is obtained. Alcohol is used as 
a solvent for alkaloids, resins, essential oils, 
several salts, etc. Alcohol is obtained by 
the fermentation of sugars, when a solution 
of them is mixed with yeast, My coderma 
cervisice, and kept at a temperature between 
25° and 30°, till it ceases to give off C0 2 
(carbonic acid gas). It is then distilled. 
Proof spirit contains 49.5 per cent, of 
alcohol, and has a specific gravity of 0-9198 
at 20° C. Methylated spirit contains 10 
per cent, of wood spirit in alcohol of spe¬ 
cific gravity 0.830; it is duty free, and 
can be used instead of spirits of wine for 
making chloroform, olefiant gas, varnishes, 
extracting alkaloids, and for preserving 
anatomical preparations, etc. Wines con¬ 
tain alcohol; port and sherry, 19 to 25 per 
cent.; claret and hock and strong ale, about 
10 per cent.; brandy, whiskey, gin, etc., 
about 40 to 50 per cent. These liquids owe 
their intoxicating effects to the alcohol they 
contain. 

Alcoholism, a term applied to the di¬ 
verse pathological process and attendant 
symptoms caused by the excessive indiges¬ 
tion of alcoholic beverages. These differ if 
a large quantity is consumed at one time 
or at short intervals, or if smaller quanti¬ 
ties are taken habitually; and hence they 
are subdivided into those due to (a) acute 
and (b) chronic alcoholism. To the acute 
forms of alcoholism bclonq the acute ca¬ 


tarrh of the alimentary mucous membrane, 
rapid coma, some cases of delirium tremens, 
and certain special forms of acute insanity; 
while to the chronic class are referred the 
prolonged congestions, the fatty and con¬ 
nective tissue degenerations of the various 
organs and tissues, most cases of delirium 
tremens, nervous affections of slow onset 
and course, and the cachexies which in vary¬ 
ing combinations attend a continuously im¬ 
moderate consumption of alcohol. 

Treatment .— In acute gastric catarrh,, 
copious drafts of tepid water, followed 
by a saline purge, will be of benefit. De¬ 
lirium tremens must be treated differently 
in the young and in the old. In the first 
attacks in young subjects, complete absten¬ 
tion from alcoholics, milk diet, and mod¬ 
erate purgation, with bromide at night if 
the subject is sleepless. In older cases a 
mild purge should begin the treatment; 
light but very nourishing food should be 
given at short intervals. Milk, beef-tea, 
raw eggs beaten up with milk, strong soups, 
etc., are to be given freely. Sedatives 
should be given only with great caution, 
but, if necessary, a full dose of laudanum, 
30 to 40 drops at bed-time, is of great value. 
In chronic alcoholism easily digested and 
nourishing foods should take the place of 
the stimulants. Bitter tonics, such as nux 
vomica, quinine in small doses, calumba 
gentian, with carminatives, as chloroform, 
armoracia, and capsicum, come in service. 
If the stomach is irritable, alkalies, car¬ 
bonated waters, or hydrocyanic acid will 
be found useful. In long standing cases, 
cod liver oil, arsenic, iron, and very small 
doses of opium are found of great benefit. 

Alcoholometer, an instrument devised by 
Gay Lussac for measuring the proportion of 
pure alcohol which spirituous liquors con¬ 
tain. It is placed in the liquid to be test¬ 
ed, and the depth to which it sinks shows 
the proportion of alcohol in the mixture. 

Alcohol Thermometer, a thermometer 

in which colored alcohol is used instead of 
mercury; employed for registering very 
low temperatures, as alcohol does not solidi- 
fv at the greatest known cold. 

Alcott, Amos Bronson, an American 

philosophical writer and educator, one of 
the founders of the transcendental school of 
philosophy in New England, born in Wol¬ 
cott, Conn., Nov. 29, 1799. From 1834- 
1837 his private school in Boston, con¬ 
ducted on the plan of adapting the in¬ 
struction to the individuality of each pupil, 
attracted attention. He was on terms of 
friendship with Emerson, Hawthorne, 
Channing, Thoreau, Margaret Fuller, and 
many other noted persons. After 1840 he 
lived in Concord, Mass., and was the pro¬ 
jector and dean of the Concord School of 
Philosophy. Lectures on speculative and 



Alcott 


Alden 


practical subjects occupied his later years. 
His chief works are “ Orphic Sayings,” con¬ 
tributed to the “ Dial ” (1840) ; “ Tablets ” 
(1868); “ Concord Days ” (1872); “Table- 
Talk” (1S77); “Sonnets and Canzonets” 
(1882); “Ralph Waldo Emerson, His 
Character and Genius” (1882); “New 
Connecticut” (1886). He died in Boston, 
March 4, 1888. 

Alcott, Louisa May, an American au¬ 
thor, daughter of the preceding, born in 
Germantown, Pa., Nov. 29, 1832; wrote at 
an early age; her “Flower Fables” (1855) 
and “Moods” (1865, revised edition, 1881) 
made little impression; but “Hospital 
Sketches ” (1869), “ Little Women ” (1868), 
“Little Men” (1871), “Old-Fashioned 
Girl,” “ Aunt Jo's Scrap-Bag,” “ Rose in 
Bloom,” and many others of like character 
and popularity, made her famous. She died 
in Boston, Mass., March 6, 1888. Few 
writers are more popular with children than 
Miss Alcott; she is a pleasant teacher, and 
her stories are valuable as giving insight 
into the more wholesome side of child-life 
and child-ways in the United States. 

Alcuin (alk'win), an English ecclesias¬ 
tic, born at York in 735. He was a pupil 
of Bede and of Egbert, whose librarian be 
became, and who appointed him director of 
the school of York. His reputation reached 
Charlemagne, who called him to France in 
782 to aid in his designs for education in the 
empire. Charlemagne became himself a pu¬ 
pil of Alcuin, and the lectures given at the 
court were later given in a regular school, 
probably at Aix. Alcuin’s teaching was in 
the seven liberal arts of that time, which 
included music and astronomy; and to these 
were added Biblical exegesis. L T nder his in¬ 
fluence schools were established at Lvons, 
Orleans, and Tours, in order to instruct the 
benighted priests, even in the language 
(Latin) in which the Scriptures were writ¬ 
ten. He was so much trusted as to be made 
a member of the Council of Frankfort (794), 
where Felix, Bishop of Urgel, was condemned 
for heresy. Charlemagne loaded Alcuin 
with riches, and allowed him to have more 
than 1,000 slaves. Alcuin received the rich 
Abbey of St. Martin of Tours, where he re¬ 
formed the dissolute morality of the monks 
and founded a school. He made with his 
own hand a copy of the Scriptures, which 
he presented to Charlemagne, and which be¬ 
came of great assistance to later editors. 
His importance lies not so much in his 
erudition as in the fact that he transplanted 
the wisdom of antiquity into the kingdom 
of Charlemagne, and thus into the greater 
part of Europe. Till his death here in 804, 
he still corresponded constantly with Charle¬ 
magne. His works comprise poems, works 
or grammar, rhetoric, and dialectics, theo¬ 


logical and ethical treatises, lives of sev¬ 
eral saints, and over 200 letters. 

Alcyonium, in zoology, a genus of polyps; 
the typical one of the family alcyonidce. 
The alcyonium digitatum is found on the 
British coast, and is known as “ dead men’s 
fingers,” “ dead men’s toes,” and “ cow’s 
paps.” These names are applied to the al¬ 
cyonium from its resemblance to finger- 
shaped masses, each of which masses con¬ 
sists of a colony of several hundred polyps 
united to form a composite organism. They 
are found attached to stones, mussel shells, 
and other objects. The alcyonium carneum 
abounds on the shores of America N. of 
the latitude of Cape Cod. 

Aldborough, or Aldeburgh, a small sea¬ 
port and watering-place of Suffolk, 29 miles 
N. E. of Ipswich by rail. It was disfran¬ 
chised in 1832; but in 1885 it received anew 
municipal charter. It has a quaint, half- 
timbered Moot hall; and in the church is 
a bust of the poet Crabbe, who described the 
place in his poem, “ The Borough.” It has 
a 2-mile promenade and lobster and herring 
fisheries. Pop. 2,159. 

Aldehydes, in chemistry, compounds 
formed by the oxidation of alcohols, and 
are reconverted into alcohols by the action 
of nascent hydrogen; by further oxidation 
they are converted into acids. They differ 
from alcohols in having two atoms less of 
hydrogen, which are removed from the car¬ 
bon atom containing the radical HO' (hy¬ 
droxyl ) connected to it in the alcohol; thus 
the aldehyde monatomic radical is (0=C 
—II)'. The carbon atom having two bonds 
united to an atom of oxygen, and another 
to an atom of hydrogen, the fourth is united 
to a monatomic hydrocarbon radical, or hy¬ 
drogen. From monatomic alcohols only one 
aldehyde can be formed; from a diatomic 
alcohol there may be formed a diatomic al¬ 
dehyde containing the radical (OCH)' twice, 
or an alcohol aldehyde, or acid aldehyde: 
thus, glycol alcohol could yield 

Glycol alcohol. Glyoxal. Glyoxylic acid. 

CH 3 (OH) CH,(OH) hco hco 

CHJOH) Jco HCO (HO)CO 

Many aldehydes of monatomic alcohols have 
been prepared by oxidation of the alcohols, 
or by distilling a mixture of the potassium 
salt of the corresponding acid with potas¬ 
sium formate, which yields potassium car¬ 
bonate and the aldehyde. Aldehydes form 
crystalline compounds with acid sulphites; 
they also unite with aniline. Ketones are 
aldehydes in which the atom of hydrogen 
united to the radical (CO)" is replaced by 
a hydrocarbon radical. 

Alden, Henry Mills, an American ed¬ 
itor and prose writer, born at Mount 



Alden 


Alderney 


Tabor, Vt., Nov. 11, 1830. He was gradu¬ 
ated at Williams College and Andover Theo¬ 
logical Seminary; settled in New York in 
1861, became managing editor of “ Harper’s 
Weekly” in 1804, and editor of “Harper’s 
Monthly Magazine ” in 1808, which post he 
now holds. He has published “ The Ancient 
Lady of Sorrow,” a poem (1872) ; “God in 
His World” (1890); and “A Study of 
Death” (1895). 

Alden, John, a magistrate of the Ply¬ 
mouth colony, born in 1599. His name is 
familiarized by the poem of Longfellow, 
“ The Courtship of Miles Standish.” He was 
originally a cooper of Southampton, was em¬ 
ployed in making repairs on the ship “ May¬ 
flower,” and came over in her with the 
Pilgrim Fathers. By some accounts he was 
the first to step ashore at Plymouth. In 
Longfellow’s poem he is in love with and 
eventually marries Priscilla, with whom he 
had previously pleaded the cause of Miles 
Standish. He was for over 50 years a colo¬ 
nial magistrate. He died in 1687. 


Alden, William Livingston, an Ameri¬ 
can humorous writer and journalist, born 
at Williamstown,Mass., Oct. 9, 1837. He in¬ 
troduced the sport of canoeing into the 
United States. He was for a time United 
States Consul-General at Rome. Among his 
principal writings are “ Domestic Explo¬ 
sives ” (1877); “ Shooting Stars ” (1878); 
“ The Canoe and the Flying Proa ” (1878) ; 
“Moral Pirates” (1880); “The Comic 
Liar” (1882); “Cruise of the Ghost” 
(1882); “Life of Christopher Columbus” 
(1882); “A New Robinson Crusoe” 
(1888), etc.; London correspondent “New 
York Times,” 1900. He died Jan. 14, 1908. 

Aldenhoven, a town of Prussia , Rhine 
province; 12 miles N. E. of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
Here the French, in 1793, under Dumouriez, 
were defeated by 50,000 Austrians, under 
Prince Josias of Coburg, and were prevented 

from making their 
contemplated invasion 
of Holland. In 1794 
the French under 
J ourdon, numbering 
35,000, conquered the 
Austrians under Cler- 
fayt. 

Alder, the common 
name for a genus of 
plants (alnus), of the 
order cupiliferce (oak 
family). In the East¬ 
ern United States it is 



BLACK alder. a very common shrub, 

branching freely 
from the roots, and forming dense clumps 
along the banks of streams and in other wet 
places. On the W. coast it often attains a 
height of from 40 to 00 feet in favorable lo¬ 
cations. It is found in temperate and cold 


regions. The species familiar ill England 
has a wood soft and light, but very durable 
in the water, and, therefore, well adapted 
to mill work, sluices, piles of bridges, etc. 
Its bark and shoots are used for dye, and its 
branches for the charcoal employed in mak¬ 
ing gunpowder. The names black, red and 
white alder are often popularly applied to 
plants of other orders. 

Alderman, a title pertaining to an office 
in the municipal corporations of Great Brit¬ 
ain and the United States. In early Saxon 
times the term was indefinitely applied, and 
was generally given to a person possessed of 
an office of rank or dignity. The title, Al¬ 
derman of all England, was applied to the 
first subject of the realm, corresponding to 
the latter chief justiciary. Other aldermen, 
or ealdermen, were governors of counties; 
hence the English word earl. Even kings 
were so called. In modern times the organi¬ 
zation and functions of boards of aldermen 
vary considerably in the English speaking 
countries, and also in different cities of the 
same country. In the court of the corpora¬ 
tion of London the aldermen have legislative 
and judicial authority, and are elected for 
life. In other corporations of England, 
Wales, and Ireland, they are elected for six 
years, one half going out every three years. 
The corresponding officer in Scotland is en¬ 
titled bailie. In the United States the pow¬ 
ers and duties of aldermen differ in the vari¬ 
ous States and cities. As a rule they are 
elected by popular vote and constitute the 
source of municipal legislation. 

Alderman, Edwin Anderson, an Ameri¬ 
can educator, born in Wilmington, N. C., 
May 15, 1801 ; was graduated at the Univer¬ 
sity of North Carolina in 1882; was super¬ 
intendent of the Goldboro city schools in 
1884-1887; Assistant State Superintendent of 
Public Instruction in 1889-1892; Professor 
of English in the State Normal College in 
1892; and Professor of Pedagogy in the Uni¬ 
versity of North Carolina in 1892-1896. In 
the last year he was chosen President of the 
University of North Carolina, in 1900-1905 
was President of Tulane University in New 
Orleans, then of the University of Vir¬ 
ginia; works include “Life of William 
Cooper,” “School History of North Caro¬ 
lina,” etc. 

Alderney (French, Aurigny; Latin, Ri- 
duna ), a British island in the English chan¬ 
nel, 55 miles S. by E. of Portland Bill, 15 
N. E. of Guernsey, 31 N. of Jersey, and 10 
W. of Cape la Hague. The Race of Alder¬ 
ney, or strait that separates it from the 
coast of Normandy, is very dangerous in 
stormy weather. The length of the island 
is 4miles; its extreme breadth, 1 y 2 miles; 
and its area is 1,902 acres, or three square 
miles. The highest point is 281 feet above 
sea level. To the S. the coast is bold and 
lofty; to the N. it descends, forming numer- 




Aldershot Camp 


Aldridge 


ous small bays, one of which has been 
formed into a fine, though uncompleted, har¬ 
bor, with a granite breakwater, at a cost, 
including strong fortifications, of more than 
$6,000,000. The Caskets are a small cluster 
of dangerous rocks, 6% miles to the W., on 
which are three lighthouses. The soil in 
the center of the island is highly produc¬ 
tive ; and the Alderney cattle, a small but 
handsome breed, have always been cele- 
brated. The climate is mild and healthy, 
and good water abounds. Education to 
some extent is universal. The population 
was originally French, but half the inhabit¬ 
ants now speak English, and all understand 
it. Protestantism has prevailed here since 
the Reformation. Alderney is a dependency 
of Guernsey, and subject to the British 
crown. The civil power is vested in a judge 
appointed by the crown, and six jurats 
chosen by the people. These, with 12 pop¬ 
ular representatives or douzeniers (who do 
not vote), constitute the local legislature. 
The town of St. Anne is situated in a pic¬ 
turesque valley near the center of the island. 
It has an Albert memorial in the shape of 
a Gothic arch, and a cruciform church 
(1850) in the Early English style, with a 
tower 104 feet high. Pop. about 2,000. 

Aldershot Camp, a permanent camp of 
exercise on the confines of Hampshire, Sur¬ 
rey, and Berkshire, 35 miles S. W. of Lon¬ 
don, and 18^ miles S. of Windsor. It was 
established in 1855 after the Crimean War, 
to provide for practical instruction in tac¬ 
tics, outpost duties, and other exercises re¬ 
quiring a wide tract of country and large 
bodies of troops, etc. From its situation on 
the Bagshot Sands it is extremely healthy; 
the old wooden huts have been superseded 
by brick huts and barracks. The Basing- 
stroke canal, running directly across the 
Heath, has occasioned a division into North 
Camp and South Camp. There are usually 
from 10,000 to 15,000 troops of all arms at 
the camp; and a considerable town has 
sprung up near it, with a pop. (1891) of 
25,505. 

Aldine Editions, the books printed by 
Aldus Manutius and his family, in Venice 
(1490-1597). They comprise the first edi¬ 
tions of Greek and Roman classics; others 
contain corrected texts of modern classic 
writers, as of Petrarch, Dante, or Boccaccio, 
carefully collated with the MSS. All of 
them are distinguished for the remarkable 
correctness of the typography; the Greek 
works, however, being in this respect some¬ 
what inferior to the Latin and Italian. The 
editions published by Aldo Manuzio (1450- 
1515), the father, form an epoch in the an¬ 
nals of printing, as they contributed in no 
ordinary measure to the perfecting of types, 
No one had ever before used such beautiful 
Greek types, of which he got nine different 
kinds made, and of Latin as many as 14. 


It is to him, or rather to the engraver, Fran¬ 
cesco of Bologna, that we owe the types 
called by the Italians Corsivi, and known to 
us as italics, which he used for the first time 
in the octavo edition of ancient and modern 
classics, commencing with Vergil (1501). 
Manuzio’s impressions on parchment are ex¬ 
ceedingly beautiful; he was the first printer 
who introduced the custom of taking some 
impressions on finer or stronger paper than 
the rest of the edition — the first example 
of this being afforded in the “ Epistola) 
Groecse ” (1499). From 1515 to 1533 the 
business was carried on by his father and 
brothers-in-law, Andrea Torresano of Asola, 
and his two sons — the three Asolani. 
Paolo Manuzio (1512-1574), Aldo’s son, 
possessed an enthusiasm for Latin classics 
equal to that of his father for Greek; and 
he was succeeded by his son, the younger 
Aldo (1547-1597). The printing establish¬ 
ment founded by Aldo continued in active 
operation for 100 years, and during this 
time printed 908 different works. The dis¬ 
tinguishing mark is an anchor, entwined by 
a dolphin, with the motto either of “ Festina 
lente ” or of “ Sudavit ct cilsit.” The de¬ 
mand which arose for editions from this 
office, and especially for the earlier ones, in¬ 
duced the printers of Lyons and Florence, 
about 1502, to begin the system of issuing 
counterfeit Aldines. The Aldo-mania has 
considerably diminished in later times. 
Among the Aldine works which have now 
become very rare may be mentioned the 
“ Horse Beatse Mariae Virginis,” of 1497, the 
“Vergil” of 1501, and the “ Rhetores 
Gra j ci,” not to mention all the editions, 
dated and undated, from 1490 to 1497, which 
are now extremely rare. See Renouard’s 
“ Annales de l’Imprimerie des Aides ” 
(1834), and Didot’s “Aide Manuce ” 
(1873). 

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, an American 
poet, essayist, and writer of fiction, born in 
Portsmouth, N. H., Nov. 11, 1836. He spent 
his early youth in Louisiana, but at the age 
of 17 entered a mercantile house in New 
York. Removing to Boston in 1866, he be¬ 
came editor of “ Every Saturday,” and, in 
1881, editor of the “Atlantic Monthly.” He 
has become almost equally eminent as a 
prose writer and poet. Among his prose 
works the best known are “ The Story of a 
Bad Boy” (1870); “Marjorie Daw and 
Other People” (1873); “Prudence Pal¬ 
frey” (1874) ; “The Queen of Sheba,” a 
romance of travel (1877) ; “ The Stillwater 
Tragedy” (1S80). Of his poems, most are 
included in “ Complete Poems” (1882) and 
“Household Edition” (1895). He died 
March 19, 1907. 

Aldridge, Ira, an American negro actor, 
called the African Roscius, born in 1810. 
He was educated in England for the minis- 




Ale 


Alemanni 


try, which he abandoned for the stage, and 
made his debut in London as Othello. He 
was rated as one of the best tragedians of 
his day. He played in the provinces till 
1852; then on the continent won a high rep¬ 
utation, which London refused to endorse 
(1857); and finally died at Lodz, in Po¬ 
land, in 1867. 

Ale, the current name in England for 
malt liquor in general before the introduc¬ 
tion of “ the wicked weed called hops ” from 
the Netherlands, about the year 1524. The 
two names, ale and beer, are both Teutonic, 
and seem originally to have been synony¬ 
mous. According to the “ Alvismal,” a di¬ 
dactic Scandinavian poem of the 10th cen¬ 
tury, it is called ale among men, and among 
the gods, beer. The word ale is still the 
name for malt liquor in the Scandinavian 
tongues (Swedish, Danish, and Icelandic, 
67). The hopped liquor came to be called 
beer, and now this is the generic name in the 
trade for all malt liquors. The popular ap¬ 
plication of the two words varies in differ¬ 
ent localities. In the eastern counties of 
England, and over the greater portion of 
the country, ale means strong, and beer, 
small, malt liquor; while in the W. 
country, beer is the strong liquor, and ale 
the small. As now used, ale is distin¬ 
guished from beer chiefly by its strength and 
the quantity of sugar remaining undecom¬ 
posed. Strong ale is made from the best 
pale malt; and the fermentation is allowed 
to proceed slowly, and the ferment to be ex¬ 
hausted and separated. This, together with 
the large quantity of sugar still left unde¬ 
composed, enables the liquor to keep long 
without requiring a large amount of hops. 
The Scotch ales are distinguished for the 
smallness of the quantity of hops they con¬ 
tain, and for their vinous flavor. They are 
fermented at an unusually low temperature. 
The ales of Edinburgh, Wrexham, and Alloa 
have a high reputation. Burton ale is the 
strongest made, containing as much as 8 per 
cent, of alcohol; while the best brown stout 
has about 6 per cent., and table-beer only 
1 or 2 per cent. India pale ale differs 
chiefly in having a larger quantity of hops. 

Aleardi, Aleardo, Count (a-la-ar'de), an 
Italian poet and patriot, born near Verona, 
Nov. 4, 1812; studied first philosophy and 
natural science, and then jurisprudence. 
His political principles, as revealed in his 
poem “Arnaldo” (1842), brought him 
under suspicion, and public office under the 
(Austrian) government was denied him. 
Others of his works are “ Primal Histories ” 
(1857), a poem on the intellectual, ethical 
and social evolution of man; “ An Hour in 
My Youth,” a piece inspired at once with 
tenderest love of nature and intense devo¬ 
tion to Italian independence; “Letters to 
Mary,” “ Raphael and the Fornarina,” “ The 


Maritime Cities of Italy,” and “ A Political 
Ode,” directed against Pope Pius IX. 
(1862). He died in Verona, July 17, 1878. 

Alectryomancy, imagined divination by 
means of a cock. A circle being described 
upon the ground, and divided into 24 equal 
parts, each with a letter of the alphabet 
traced in it, a grain of wheat was laid 
on the top of a letter and a cock was turned 
loose into the area, careful note being taken 
as to what grains of wheat he ate. The 
letters under the eaten grains were then 
made into a word or words, and were 
taken as a prophecy or divination. The 
practice is said to have existed during the 
declining period of the Roman empire. The 
Emperor Valens, when he learned that the 
cock answered the question as to his suc¬ 
cessor by picking out the Greek letters 
0E0A caused many whose names began 
with Theod to be put to death. Neverthe¬ 
less, his successor was Theodosius the Great. 

Aleman, Matteo (a-la-miin'), a Spanish 
novelist, born in Seville about 1550. For 
some time an official in the royal treasury, 
he resigned or was dismissed in consequence 
of an annoying lawsuit, and about 1608 
went to Mexico. His fame rests on the sa¬ 
tirical romance, “ The Life and Deeds of the 
Picaroon Guzman de Alfarache,” which, like 
its forerunner and model, the “ Lazarillo de 
Tonnes,” by Mendoza, is one of the most 
famous representatives of the “ picaresque ” 
novel. Tts first part, under the title of 
“ Watch-Tower of Human Life,” appeared 
in 1599 in three editions, and up to 1605 at¬ 
tained to 26 more editions, of over 50,000 
copies. This immense success induced a lit¬ 
erary freebooter to publish a spurious sec¬ 
ond part in 1603, which was followed by the 
genuine in 1605. The work was translated 
into every European language, and, in 1623, 
even into Latin. The best edition of the 
original is in volume three of Aribau’s “ Li¬ 
brary of Spanish Authors” (Madrid, 1846). 
He died in Mexico after 1609. 

Alemanni , or Alamanni, a confederacy 
of several German tribes which, at the com¬ 
mencement of the 3d century after Christ, 
lived near the Roman territory, and came 
then and subsequently into conflict with the 
imperial troops. Caracalla first fought with 
them in 213, but did not conquer them; 
Severus was likewise unsuccessful. About 
250 they began to cross the Rhine west¬ 
ward, and in 255 they overran Gaul along 
with the Franks. In 259 a body of them 
was defeated in Italy at Milan, and in the 
following year they were driven out of Gaul 
by Postumus. In the 4th century they 
crossed the Rhine and ravaged Gaul, but 
were severly defeated by the Emperor Julian 
and driven back. Subsequently they occu¬ 
pied a considerable territory on both sides 
of the Rhine; but at last Clovis broke their 



Alembert 


Alembert 


power in 496 and deprived them of a large 
portion of their possessions. Part of their 
territory was latterly formed into a duchy 
called Alemannia or Suabia, this name be¬ 
ing derived from Suevi or Suabians, the 
name which they gave themselves. It is 
from the Alemanni that the French have de¬ 
rived their names for Germans and Germany 
in general, namely, Allemands and Alle- 
magne, though strictly speaking only the 
modern Suabians and Northern Swiss are 
the proper descendants of that ancient race 

Alembert, Jean le Rond d’, one of the 

most distinguished mathematicians and lit¬ 
erary characters of the 18th century; born 
in Paris, Nov. 16, 1717; was the natural son 
of Madame de Tencin and a M. Destouches, 
a commissary of artillerv. The infant was 
exposed on the steps of the Church of St. 
Jean le Rond soon after its birth, and ap¬ 
peared so weak that the police ollicer who 
found it, instead of carrying it to the 
foundling hospital, committed it to the care 
of the wife of a poor glazier. By her he 
was brought up, and with her he lived for 
more than 30 years, leaving the humble 
abode only when compelled by the state of 
his health and the strict injunctions of 
several physicians. His parents never pub¬ 
licly acknowledged him, but his father set¬ 
tled upon him an income of 1,200 livres, a 
sum which was then amply sufficient to 
procure the necessaries of life. He showed 
much facility in learning, and at the age 
of four years was sent to a boarding school. 
He was but 10 years old when the principal, 
a man of merit, declared that he could teach 
him no more. He entered the College Maz- 
arin at the age of 12. His talents surprised 
his instructors, who thought they had found 
in him a second Pascal to support the cause 
of the Jansenists, with whom they were 
closely connected. He wrote, in the first 
years of his philosophical studies, a com¬ 
mentary on the Epistle of Paul to the Ro¬ 
mans. But when lie began to study mathe¬ 
matics this science captivated him so much 
that he renounced all theological questions. 
He left college, studied law, became an ad¬ 
vocate, but did not cease to occupy himself 
with mathematics. A pamphlet on the 
motion of solid bodies in a fluid, and an¬ 
other on the integral calculus, which he laid 
before the Academy of Sciences in 1739 and 
1740, showed him in so favorable a light 
that the Academy received him in 1741 into 
the number of its members. He soon after 
published his famous work on dynamics, 
“ Traite de Dynamique ” (1743), which 
may be said to have formed an epoch in the 
science; and that on fluids, “Traite des 
Fluides.” In 1746 his “ Memoire sur la 
Cause generale des Vents ” obtained the 
prize offered by the Academy of Berlin, of 
which he was chosen a member. Among his 
communications to this academy two are 


highly distinguished — one on pure analysis, 
and another which treats of the vibrations 
of strings. He also took a part in the in¬ 
vestigations which completed the discoveries 
of Newton respecting the motion of the 
heavenly bodies. While Euler and Clairaut 
were engaged in these he delivered in 1747, 
to the Academy of Sciences, a solution of the 
problem proposed to determine what disturb¬ 
ances are occasioned by the mutual attrac¬ 
tion of the planets in their elliptical revo¬ 
lutions round the sun, and what their 
motion would be if they were acted on only 
by the attractive power of the sun. He con¬ 
tinued these labors for several years, and 
published at intervals various important 
astronomical treatises, including one on the 
precession of the equinoxes; also his experi¬ 
ments on the resistance of fluid bodies, and 
a number of dissertations on other subjects 
— works of the value of which there is but 
one opinion among scholars, but which pro¬ 
duced a coldness on the part of Euler and 
others. In the first fervor of his fondness 
for mathematics he had for a time become 
indifferent to literature, but his early love 
of it was revived after his most important 
discoveries, when mathematical investiga¬ 
tions ceased to afford him so rich a harvest 
of new truths, or he felt the necessity of 
relaxation. He entered on this new career 
with his “ Discours Preliminaire to the En- 
cyclopedie,” which will always be a pattern 
of style in treating of scientific subjects, 
uniting as it does elegance and precision. 
D’Alembert comprised in his “ Discours ” 
the essence of all his knowledge of mathe¬ 
matics, philosophy, and literature, acquired 
in a study of 20 years, and this was all that 
was known at that time in France on these 
subjects. He undertook to prepare the math¬ 
ematical part of the “ Encyclopedic,” and 
wrote a great number of excellent articles. 
Plis name being prefixed to this work he 
shared its fate, and exposed himself to 
numberless quarrels. D’Alembert soon after 
entered the French Academy, and continued 
to cultivate literature together with mathe¬ 
matics. His literary works are distinguished 
by purity of language, clearness of style, 
and force of thought. Although he exper¬ 
ienced much persecution, on account of his 
connection with the “ Encyclopedie,” and 
was neglected by the government of his 
country, he would not accept the invitations 
of Frederick II. to settle in Berlin, nor the 
offers of the Russian empress, Catherine II., 
who desired him to take charge ot the educa¬ 
tion of her son, with a pension of 100,000 
livres. Though his income was always mod¬ 
erate his beneficence was great. His long 
attachment to Mdlle. de l’Espinasse shows 
that he was not destitute of deep and last¬ 
ing affection. He died Oct. 29, 1783. Fred¬ 
erick II., who had in 1763 become personal¬ 
ly acquainted with D’Alembert, maintained 
a correspondence with him, which was pub- 



Alembic 


Aleppo 


lished after the death of both, and is very 
interesting. 

Alembic, a simple apparatus sometimes 
used by chemists for distillation. The cu¬ 
curbit, or body, contains the substance to be 
distilled, and is usually somewhat like a 
bottle, bulging below and narrowing toward 
the top; the head, of a globular form, with 
a flat under-ring, fits on to the neck of the 
cucurbit, condenses the vapor from the 
heated liquid, and receives the distilled li¬ 
quid on the ring inclosing the neck of the 
lower vessel, and thus causes it to find 
egress by a discharging pipe into the third 
section, called the receiver. 

Alemtejo, a province of Portugal. Its 
surface is undulating, being broken only by 
low hills. In the S. and W., where the cli¬ 
mate is hot and dry, grazing is carried on, 
many sheep and goats being raised. In the 
E. the hills are covered with fine forests, 
and in the fertile valleys grapes, olives, 
lemons, figs, and other fruits are culti¬ 
vated. The principal rivers, which rise in 
Spain, are the Guadiana in the S. and the 
Tagus in the N. The capital is Evora. 
Area of province 9,417 square miles. Pop. 
(1890) 393,000. 

Alencar, Jose Martiniao de (a-lan-kar'), 
a Brazilian novelist, born at Fortaleza, May 
1, 1829. A lawyer by profession, he was 
also active as a conservative politician, and 
in 18G8-18G9 was Minister of Justice. His 
novels, in the style of Cooper, treat subjects 
from Brazilian history, a/id city and country 
life, chiefly based on Indian traditions, and 
contain masterly descriptions of tropical na¬ 
ture. He died in Rio de Janeiro, Dec. 12, 
1877. 

Alencon (al-an-son'), an ancient count- 
ship of France; united to the crown in 1212 
by Philip Augustus. Later it became a 
duchy, dependent on the house of Valois. 
Jean IV., born in 1409, in 1417 lost the 
duchy to the King of England. He distin¬ 
guished himself in the wars against Eng¬ 
land and, when they were driven out, re¬ 
ceived his duchy back. Twice he was con¬ 
demned to death on account of supposed in¬ 
trigues in favor of England against Charles 
VIII. and Louis XI., but was pardoned, and 
died in 1476. Rene, son of Jean IV., 
aroused suspicion, and Louis XI., in 1481, 
had him confined three months in an 
iron cage. After the death of Louis XI. he 
received his freedom, title, and estates back 
from Charles VIII., and died Nov. 1, 1892. 
The son of Rene, Duke Charles IV., born in 
1489, married Marguerite de Valois, sis¬ 
ter of Francis I. At the battle of Pavia, he 
was commander of the left wing. At a de¬ 
cisive moment he and his troops took to 
flight and caused the misfortune of the day, 
-the capture of King Francis I. He died 
April 11, 1525, and with him perished the 
house of Alencon. His wife, Marguerite, re¬ 


mained in possession of the duchy until her 
death in 1549. From 1549 to 1566, Cather¬ 
ine de Medici was Duchesse d’ Alencon, and 
Charles IX. presented it to his younger 
brother, Francis of Anjou. After his death 
it was reunited to the crown. Henry IV. 
transferred the duchy in 1595 to the Duke 
of Wiirtemburg, who willed it in 1688 to 
his son, from whom, in 1612, Marie de Me¬ 
dici purchased it back for the crown. Since 
that time the title has been several times 
used by the princes of the royal house. It 
is now borne by the second son of the Duke 
Philippe de Nemours. 

Alencon, a city of France, and capital of 
the Department of Orne, on the Sarthe, 65 
miles by rail W. S. W. of Paris. Its Cathe¬ 
dral of Notre Dame, built between 1553 and 
1617, is in the Gothic style. The entrance 
has a handsome tower and porch flanked by 
graceful turrets. The most noticeable fea¬ 
tures of this cathedral are the fine vaults, 
stained glass windows, renaissance organ 
loft, canopied altar and pulpit. The Hotel 
de Ville was built in 1783 on the site 
of the ancient castle of the Dukes 
of Alencon, two of the towers of 
which are still preserved and used as 
prisons. The new palace of justice is a 
beautiful building. The town has a lyceum, 
a small but elegant museum and a library 
of 15,000 volumes. It has manufactories of 
muslin, linen, leather, and a lace called 
point d’Alencon. It has also a lively trade 
in horses, and every January a horse market 
is held there. During the Franco-Prussian 
War the city was captured by the Grand 
Duke of Mecklenburg. Pop. (1901 ), 17,270. 

Aleppo, a city of Turkey in Asia, in 
Northern Syria, and capital of the vilayet 
of Aleppo; on the Koeik river, 71 miles E. 
of the Mediterranean. The foundation of 
Aleppo dates back to about 2,000 years 
B. c. Its first name was Khaleb, which the 
Greeks called Clilybon. After the fall of 
Palmyra, it became of great importance. 
Seleucos Nikator beautified the city and 
called it Beroyia, which name it bore till its 
conquest by the Arabs; then the name was 
Haleb, which the Italians called Aleppo. It 
was conquered by the Saracens in 636; was 
the seat of a Seljuk sultanate in the 11th 
and 12th centuries; was plundered by Timur 
in 1402; in the 15th century became the 
great emporium of trade between Europe 
and Asia; was taken by the Turks in 1517; 
and was nearly destroyed by an earthquake 
in 1822, when it lost two-thirds of its 
250,000 inhabitants. The present inhabit¬ 
ants are Turks, Greeks, Armenians, and 
Jews. It consists of two parts, the middle 
city or Medine, and several suburbs, three 
of which are inhabited by Christians. 
The streets are well paved, although they 
have an Oriental appearance. There are 



Aiesla 


Alexander 


many quaint arches and most of the houses 
are of one story, built out of square blocks. 
In the middle of the city there is a hill 
about 05 meters high or 200 feet, perhaps 
of artificial origin, which contains an an¬ 
cient castle with high towers. The water is 
provided for the city by an ancient aqueduct. 
In the Middle Ages it had a very important 
trade with the Italians. In spite of the 
earthquakes and insurrections which deves- 
tated the city, there is now a great trade 
there in the hands of the Greeks and Mo¬ 
hammedans. Their chief exports are ap¬ 
ples, dye stuffs, cotton, tobacco, wheat, nuts, 
oil, etc. Pop. about 127,000. 

Alesia, a town in the E. of ancient Gaul, 
the siege and capture of which formed one 
of Caesar’s greatest exploits. Vercingetorix, 
after several defeats, had shut himself up 
with 80,000 Gauls in Alesia, which was sit¬ 
uated on a lofty hill. Caesar, with his army 
of 00,000 men, completely surrounded the 
place; and in spite of the desperate efforts 
of the besieged, the town was obliged to sur¬ 
render. Alesia was destroyed by the Nor¬ 
mans in 8G4. Near the site stands the mod¬ 
ern village of Alise-Sainte-Reine, in Cote 
d’Or, W. of Dijon. On the hill Napoleon 
III. erected, in 1864, a colossal statue of 
Vercingetorix. 

Alessandria, city and capital of the Prov¬ 
ince of Alessandria, Italy; on the river Ta- 
naro. It was built in 1108 for protection 
against Emperor Frederick I. Its original 
name, Caesarea, was changed to Alessandria 
in honor of Pope Alexander III. It was 
taken by Sforza, Duke of Milan, in 1522, by 
Prince Eugene in 1707, and ceded to Savoy 
in 1713 by the Peace of Utrecht. By the 
armistice of Alessandria, after the battle of 
Marengo (1800), all of North Italy as far 
as the Mincio was ceded to France. It was 
taken by the Austrians in 1821, and became 
the headquarters of the Piedmontese in the 
insurrection of 1848—1849. At present its 
fortress is one of the strongest in Europe. 
The city contains, exclusive of the garrison, 
about 35,000 inhabitants. The richly deco¬ 
rated cathedral was rebuilt in 1823. Two 
great fairs are held here annually. The city 
is the meeting point of several railway lines. 
The Province has an area of 1,980 square 
miles, and pop. (1900) 835,213. It is a 
fertile plain on the E. and the W. is hilly, 
with rich wooding. The city (pop. 71,298) 
has a considerable trade in linen, silk, and 
woolen stuffs, and artificial flowers. 

Alessandria, Armistice of, an armistice 
concluded between Napoleon and the Aus¬ 
trians, after the defeat of the latter at Ma¬ 
rengo. By it all of Italy N. of the Mincio 
was ceded to France. 

Aletes (a-le'tez), in Greek legendary his¬ 
tory, a son of Hippotes and descendant of 
Hercules; captured Corinth and expelled the 
12 


Sisypliids. His name, meaning the wan¬ 
derer, may have been gained from the exile 
of his father for the murder of Carnus. 
The stories connected with his taking of 
Corinth are among the most interesting of 
Greek legends. 

Aleutian (a-lu'shi-an) Islands, or Cath= 
erine Archipelago, a group of about 150 
islands, extending W. from Alaska penim 
sula for a distance of 1,050 miles; belong? 
to Alaska Territory. The islands are mourn 
tainous, with several volcanic peaks. The 
principal islands are Umnak and Una- 
laska. The inhabitants are nearly all 
Aleuts, a people allied to the Eskimos. 
These islands were discovered by Bering ir 
1728. Pop. about 3,000. 

Alewife, a North American fish ( clupea ■ 
pseudoharengus) belonging to the same fam¬ 
ily as the herring and the shad, and closely 
allied to them. It is caught in seines with 
the shad, in large quantities, at many places; 
along the Atlantic coast from North Caro¬ 
lina to Nova Scotia, notably in Chesapeake 
Bay and the harbor of St. John, N. B. In 
the spring it ascends rivers as far as the 
head of the tidewater, to spawn, and re¬ 
turns in midsummer. When fully grown 
it is about 12 inches long. The name is 
given also to other related species of clupea, 
and to fish of other families, as the round 
pompano of the Bermudas and the allice- 
shad of England. 

Alexander, a name of various ancient 
writers, philosophers, etc. (1) Alexander 
of yEgse; a peripatetic philosopher of the 
1st century a.d. ; tutor of Nero. (2) Alex¬ 
ander the iEtolian ; a Greek poet who lived 
at Alexandria about 285-247 b. c., reck¬ 
oned as one of the seven poets constituting 
the tragic pleiad. (3) Alexander of Aphro- 
disias, surnamed Exegetes; lived about 200 
a. d. ; a learned commentator on thq 
works of Aristotle. i f 4) Alexander Corne¬ 
lius, surnamed Polyhistor, of the 1st cen¬ 
tury n. c. He was made prisoner during 
the war of Sulla in Greece and sold as a 
slave to Cornelius Lentulus, who took him 
to Pome, made him the teacher of his chil¬ 
dren and restored him to freedom. The sur¬ 
name Polyhistor was given him on account 
of his prodigious learning. The most im¬ 
portant of his voluminous works was one in 
42 books, containing historical and geo¬ 
graphical accounts of nearly all the coun¬ 
tries in the ancient world. (5) A Greek 
rhetorician and poet, surnamed Lychnus; 
lived about 30 B. c., wrote astronomical 
and geographical poems. (6) Alexander 
Numenius; a Greek rhetorician and teacher 
of elocution, of the 2d century a. d., two of 
whose works are historically known. (7) 
Alexander the Paphlagonian; a celebrated 
impostor who lived about the beginning of 
the 2d century a. d., obtained a great in- 



Alexander 


Alexander 


fluence with the people as an oracle; pre¬ 
tended to be HCsculapius reappeared. Lu¬ 
cian chiefly has made him known to us. 

(8) A Greek rhetorician of the 2d century 
a. d., surnamed Peloplaton, who vanquished 
Herodes Atticus in a rhetorical contest. 

(9) Alexander Philaletiies ; a physician, of 

the 1st century b. c., who succeeded Zeuxis 
as president of the famous Herophilean 
school of medicine. (10) Saint Alexander 
(died 32G a. d.) ; the Patriarch of Alex¬ 
andria from 312 A. d. ; an opponent of 
Arius; member of the Council of Nice (325 
a. d.) ; commemorated in the calendar Feb. 
2G. (11) Alexander of Tralles; an emi¬ 

nent physician of Lydia, of the Gth century 
a. d.; author of two extant Greek works. 

Alexander, the name of eight Popes. 
(1) Alexander I., a bishop of Rome about 
109 A. d., not then having the title of Pope, 
but now reckoned in the list. He is sup¬ 
posed to have died a martyr’s death. 

2. Alexander II., Anselmo Baggio, a 
native of Milan; he lived for some time 
at the court of Henry III., and in 
105G or 1057 became Bishop of Lucca. 
In 1059 he became papal legate at Milan, 
and, on Oct. 1, 10G1, through the zeal 
of Hildebrand, he was raised to the 
papal throne, consequently the imperial 
party elected Bishop Cadalus of Palmer, a 
rival Pope, as Honorius II. Alexander 
fought with him in 10G2 in the vicinity of 
Rome and then withdrew to Lucca and. on 
the decision of the contest by Bishop Bur- 
chard of Halberstadt, he was sent by the 
German court to Italy and recognized as 
Pope. At the Council of Mantua in 1G04, 
with the assistance of Ano of Cologne, he 
got possession of Rome against his rival. 
His reign, under the influence of Hildebrand, 
carried out the reform of the churches and 
their emancipation from secular control. 
When Henry IV. wished a divorce from his 
wife Bertha, Alexander, through his legate, 
Cardinal Pietros Damiana, decided against 
him and summoned the king to Rome to an¬ 
swer for his crimes, but shortly after he 
died, April 21, 1073. 

3. Alexander III. (died in 1181), Rolando 
Ranuci; Pope 1159-1181. His career is his¬ 
torically important because of his vigorous 
prosecution, in opposition to Frederick Bar- 
barossa, of the policies begun by Hildebrand. 
Three anti-Popes, Victor IV., Pascal III. 
and Calixtus III., had been confirmed in 
succession by the emperor. Alexander suc¬ 
ceeded, and after the decisive victory at 
Legnano compelled Frederick’s submission. 
The papal struggle was carried on in Eng¬ 
land by Thomas a Becket, ending in a vic¬ 
tory for Alexander. William the Lion, of 
Scotland, was excommunicated for opposing 
Alexander. Important changes were made 
by Alexander III., increasing ecclesiastical 
powers and privileges. 


4. Alexander IV., Pope 1254-1261; 
of weak character. His administration 
is signalized by attempts to unite the 
Greek and Roman Churches, and the es¬ 
tablishment of the Inquisition in France 
(1255). He was the nephew of Gregory 
IX. In his battle with Manfred of Sicily, 
he suffered bitter humiliations and, de¬ 
serted by his bishops, was obliged to escape 
from Rome. He died in Viterbo, in 1261. 

5. Alexander V., Pietro Philargi, of Can- 
dia. He was for some time professor in 
Paris, and in 1402 was made Archbishop of 
Milan, and in 1404 cardinal. In 1409, after 
the deposition of the rival Popes, Gregory 
XII. and Benedict XIII., he was elected Pope 
by the Council of Pisa, but was recognized 
by only a part of Christendom. He forbade 
the teaching of Wyclif in Bohemia, and 
vainly summoned Huss to be tried for his 
heresies. He died at the age of 70, and it 
was supposed by his contemporaries that ho 
was poisoned by his successor, Balthasar 
Cossa (Pope John XXIII). 

6. Alexander VI., Rodrigo Lenzuoli Bor¬ 

gia, a Spaniard, of Valencia, son of Isabelle 
Borgia, whose family name he took, born 
Jan. 1, 1431. At first he studied law, and 
then was appointed by his uncle. Pope Ca¬ 
lixtus III., a cardinal before he was 25 
years old. In 1458 he was made Archbishop 
of Valencia, and as such he led a dissipated 
life. The beautiful Vanozza de Cataneis 
bore him four sons and a daughter. After 
the death of Innocent VIII. he was crowned 
Aug 26, 1492, with 

great pomp and solem¬ 
nity. To his son John, 

Duke of Gandia, he 
presented the duchy of 
Benevento, in 1497, 
which was separated 
from the estates of the 
Church. His daughter, 

Lucretia Borgia, was 
married to Giovanni 
Sforza, Lord of Pesaro, pope Alexander vt. 
afterward to Alfonso di 

Biseglia, then thirdly to Alfonso d’Este, 
Prince of Ferrara. His son, Caesar, who af¬ 
terward got complete control of him, was 
made Archbishop of Valencia, and, in 1493, 
was appointed cardinal. Afterward, in or¬ 
der to create for him a secular principality, 
he made an alliance with Louis XII. of 
France. Caesar Borgia, therefore, left the 
Church and became Duke of Valentinois. 
In 1501 he became Duke of the Romagna. 
On May 4, 1493, Alexander issued a bull 
dividing the New World between Spain and 
Portugal; on May 23, 1498, the execution 
of Savonarola took place by his order; and 
in 1501 he instituted the censorship cf 
books. Alexander died Aug. 18, 1503, from 
poison said to have been intended for 
Cardinal Corneto. 




Alexander I. 


Alexander III 


7. Alexander VII., Fabio Chigi, of Siena, 
was, during the treaties of peace at Munster 
and Osnabriick, papal nuncio in Germany. 
He was chosen Pope April 7, 1665, through 
the influence of France. In 1161, in spite 
of the protests of the Jansenists, he con¬ 
firmed the condemnation of the five Jansen- 
ist dogmas which had been indorsed by his 
predecessor, Innocent X. Later, he fell 
into controversy with Louis XIV. During 
his rule Rome was beautified in many direc¬ 
tions, especially through the colonnade be¬ 
fore St. Peters. He was himself a poet and 
friend of the arts and sciences. A collection 
of his poems appeared in 1656. Through 
the purchase of the library of Queen Chris¬ 
tine of Sweden he enriched the Vatican 
with precious manuscripts. 

8. Alexander VIII. (1610-1691), Pietro 
Ottoboni, of Venice; Pope 1689-1691; as¬ 
sisted Italy in wars against the Turks; 
was a notable nepotist. 

Alexander I., Emperor of Russia, son of 
Paul I. and Maria, daughter of Prince Eu¬ 
gene, of Wiirtemberg; born Dec. 23, 1777. 
On the assassination of his father, March 
24, 1801, Alexander ascended the throne, 
and soon after a ukase was published for 
diminishing the taxes, liberating debtors, 
etc. One of the first acts of his reign was 
to conclude peace with Great Britain, 
against which his predecessor had declared 
war. In 1803 he offered his services as medi¬ 
ator between England and France, and two 
years later a convention was entered into 
between Russia, England, Austria, and 
Sweden for the purpose of resisting the en¬ 
croachments of France on the territories of 
independent States. He was present at the 
battle of Austerlitz (Dec. 2, 1805), when the 
combined armies of Russia and Austria were 
defeated by Napoleon. Alexander was com¬ 
pelled to retreat to his dominions at the 
head of the remains of his army. In the 
succeeding campaign the Russians were 
again beaten at Eylau (Feb. 8, 1807), and 
Friedland (June 14), the result of which 
was an interview, a few days after the bat¬ 
tle, on a raft anchored in the Niemcn, be¬ 
tween Alexander and Napoleon, which led to 
the treaty signed at Tilsit, July 7. The 
Russian emperor now for a time identified 
himself with the Napoleonic schemes. The 
seizure of the Danish fleet by the British 
brought about a declaration of war by Rus¬ 
sia against Great Britain and Sweden, and 
Alexander invaded Finland and conquered 
that long- oveted duchy, which was secured 
to him by the peace of Friedrichshamn 
(1809). In 1809-1812 war was carried on 
against Turkey. The French alliance, how¬ 
ever, he found to be too oppressive, and his 
having separated himself from Napoleon led 
to the French invasion of 1812. In 1813 
he published the famous manifesto which 
served as the basis of the coalition of the 
other European powers against France. After 


the battle of Waterloo, Alexander, accom¬ 
panied by the Emperor of Austria and the 
King of Prussia, made his second entrance 
into Paris, where they concluded (Sept. 26, 
1815), the treaty known as the Holy Al¬ 
liance. The remaining part of his reign was 
chiefly taken up in measures of internal re¬ 
form, including the gradual abolition of serf¬ 
dom, and the promotion of education, agri¬ 
culture, commerce, and manufactures. He 
died in the Crimea, Dec. 1, 1825. 

Alexander II., Emperor of Russia; born 
April 29, 1818; succeeded his father Nicho¬ 
las in 1855, before the end of the Crimean 
War. After peace was concluded the new 
emperor set about effecting reforms in the 
empire, among the first being the putting 
of the finances in order. The greatest of all 
the reforms carried out by him was the 
emancipation of the serfs by a decree of 
March 2, 1861. The czar also did much to 
improve education in the empire, and intro¬ 
duced a reorganization of the judicial 
system. During his reign the Russian do¬ 
minions in Central Asia were considerably 
extended, while to the European portion 
of the monarchy was added a piece of terri¬ 
tory, S. of the Caucasus, formely belonging 
to Turkey in Asia. A part of Bessarabia, be¬ 
longing since the Crimean War to Turkey in 
Europe, but previously to Russia, was also 
restored to the latter power. The latter 
additions resulted from the Russo-Turkish 
War of 1877-1878, in which the Turks were 
completely defeated, the Russian troops ad¬ 
vancing almost to the gates of Constanti¬ 
nople. Toward the end of the czar’s life 
several attempts at his assassination were 
made by Nihilists, and at last he was killed 
by an explosive missile flung at him in a 
street in St. Petersburg, March 13, 1881. 
He was succeeded by his son, Alexander III. 

Alexander III., of Russia, son of Alex¬ 
ander II. was born March 10, 1845, and 
married the daughter of the King of Den¬ 
mark in 1866. After his father’s death, 
through fear of assassination, he shut him¬ 
self up in his palace at Gatschina. His coro¬ 
nation was postponed till 1883, and was 
celebrated with extraordinary magnificence, 
and with national festivities lasting several 
days. Through the fall of Merv, the subjuga¬ 
tion of the Turkomans in Central Asia was 
completed. In 1885 hostilities with England 
with regard to the defining of the frontier 
between the Russian territories and Afghan¬ 
istan, for a time seemed imminent. In 
European affairs he broke away from the 
triple alliance between Russia, Germany, 
and Austria, and looked rather to France. 
He was aggrieved by the new Bulgarian 
spirit. His home policy was reactionary, 
though strong efforts were made to prevent 
malversation by officials, and stern econo¬ 
mics were practiced. The liberties of the 
Baltic Provinces and of Finland were cur¬ 
tailed, the Jews were oppressed, and old 




Alexander 


Alexander 


Russian orthodoxy was favored. Several 
Nihilist attempts were made on his life, 
and he kept himself practically a prisoner 
in his palace. He died at Livadia, Nov. 1, 
1894. 

Alexander I., King of Scotland, the 
fourth son of Malcolm Canmore, was born 
about 1078, and in 1107 succeeded his 
brother, Edgar, only, however, to that part 
of the kingdom N. of the Firths of Forth 
and Clyde. He married Sibylla, a natural 
daughter of Henry I. of England, and his 
reign was comparatively untroubled, though 
about 1115 he had to quell an insurrection 
of the Northern clans. He founded the 
abbeys of Scone and Inchcolm, and initiated 
a diocesan episcopate; while his determined 
resistance to the claims of York and Canter¬ 
bury to supremacy over the see of St. An¬ 
drews, did much to secure the independence, 
not only of the Scottish Church, but of 
Scotland itself. He died at Stirling in 
1124. 

Alexander II., born at Haddington in 
1198, succeeded his father, William the 
Lion, in 1214. He early displayed that 
wisdom and strength of character in virtue 
of which he holds so high a place in his¬ 
tory among Scottish kings. His entering 
into a league with the English barons 
against King John drew down upon him and 
his kingdom the papal excommunication; but 
two years later the ban was removed, and 
the liberties of the Scottish Church were 
even confirmed. On Henry III.’s accession 
to the English throne, Alexander brought 
the feuds of the two nations to a temporary 
close by a treaty of peace (1217), in ac¬ 
cordance with which he married Henry’s 
eldest sister, the Princess Joan (1221). 
The alliance thus established was broken 
after her death without issue (1238), and 
the second marriage of Alexander with the 
daughter of a noble of France. In 1244 
Henry marched against Scotland, to compel 
Alexander’s homage; but a peace was con¬ 
cluded without an appeal to arms. In 1249, 
while engaged in an expedition to wrest 
the Hebrides from Norway, Alexander died 
of fever on Kerrera, near Oban. 

Alexander III., King of Scotland, born in 
1241, in 1249 succeeded his father, Alexan¬ 
der II., and in 1251 married the Princess 
Margaret (1240-1275), eldest daughter of 
Henry III. of England. Very shortly after he 
had come of age, his energies were summoned 
to defend his kingdom against the formidable 
invasion of Haco, King of Norway (12G3), 
whose utter rout at Largs secured to Alex¬ 
ander the allegiance both of the Hebrides 
and of the Isle of Man. The alliance be¬ 
tween Scotland and Norway was strength¬ 
ened in 1282 by King Eric’s marriage to 
Alexander’s only daughter, Margaret 
(1261-1283); the untimely death of their 


infant daughter, Margaret, commonly des¬ 
ignated the Maid of Norway, on her way to 
take possession of her throne, was the 
occasion of many calamities to Scotland. 
During the concluding years of Alexander’s 
reign the kingdom enjoyed a peace and 
prosperity which it did not taste again for 
many generations. His only surviving son 
died without issue in 1284; and next year 
Alexander contracted a second marriage 
with Joleta, daughter of the Count de 
Dreux. The hopes of the nation were soon 
after clouded by his untimely death. Rid¬ 
ing on a dark night between Burntisland 
and Kinghorn, he fell with his horse, and 
was killed on the spot, March 12, 1286. A 
monument (1887) marks the scene of his 
death. 

Alexander I., King of Servia, born Aug. 
14, 1876; son of King Milan I. In 1889 
Milan abdicated and proclaimed Alexander 
king, under a regency till he should attain 
his majority (18 years). On April 13, 
1893, when in his 17th year, Alexander sud¬ 
denly took the royal authority into his own 
hands, and summarily dismissed the re¬ 
gent. On Aug. 5, 1900, he married Mme. 
Draga Maschin. In a revolt of the mili¬ 
tary, June 10, 1903, the king, queen, and 
eight others, were assassinated. 

Alexander, Archibald, an American 

clergyman, of Scottish descent, was born in 
Virginia, April 17, 1772, and died at 

Princeton, N. J., Oct. 22, 1851 He studied 
theology, and performed itinerant mission¬ 
ary work in various parts of Virginia; be¬ 
came president of Hampton-Sidney College 
in 1796, and pastor of a Presbyterian 
church in Philadelphia in 1807. On the 
establishment of Princeton Theological 
Seminary in 1812, he was appointed its 
first professor, a position which he held 
till his death. Among other works, he 
published “ Outlines of the Evidences of 
Christianity,” “ Treatise on the Canon of 
the Scriptures” (1826); “History of the 
Patriarchs” (1833); and “History of the 
Tsraelitisli Nation” (1852); his “Moral 
Science ” was posthumous. His eldest son, 
James Waddell Alexander (1804-1850), 
was a Presbyterian minister in Virginia, New 
Jersey, and at New York; and afterward 
professor in Princeton Theological Semin¬ 
ary. He contributed to the “ Princeton 
Review,” wrote more than 30 children’s 
books, a life of his father, and miscellaneous 
works, Joseph Addison Alexander, third 
son (1809-1860), graduated at Princeton 
in 1826, lectured there on Biblical Criticism 
and Ecclesiastical History, and for the last 

ei"ht vears of his life filled the chair of 

~ «/ 

Biblical and Ecclesiastical History. He was 
engaged at the time of his death, along 
with Dr. Hodge, on a commentary of the 
New Testament. He is best known by his 



Alexander Archipelago 


Alexander Severus 


commentaries and “ Prophecies of Isaiah ” 
(1846-1847; revised edition, 1864), and 
the “ Psalms Translated and Explained ” 
(3 volumes, 1850) , both of which have had 
a large circulation, and have been re¬ 
printed in England. 

Alexander Archipelago, or Alexander 

Islands, a group of islands on the W. coast 
of North America, extending from 54° 40' 
N. to 58° 25' N.; belong to Alaska Terri¬ 
tory. The principal islands are BaranofF 
and Prince of Wales. 

Alexander, Mrs. Cecil Frances (Hum¬ 
phrey), an Irish poet, born in County 
Wicklow in 1818. She was very active in 
religious and charitable works. She is 
best known as a writer of hymns and re¬ 
ligious poems. Among the most noted are 
the hymns, “ Roseate ITue of Early Pawn ” 
and “ All Things Bright and Beautiful.” 
Her most famous poem is “ The Burial of 
Moses.” She died in Londonderry, Oct. 12, 
1805. 

Alexander, Sir James Edward, a Brit¬ 
ish soldier and explorer, born in Scotland 
in 1803; served in the principal wars of his 
day, particularly distinguishing himself in 
the Crimean; conducted an exploring expe¬ 
dition into Central Africa, and published 
several narratives of travel. lie died April 2, 
1885. 

Alexander Jarostowitz Nevski, St., 

Grand Duke of Vladimir and Prince of 
Novgorod, born in 1219; gained a brilliant 
victory over the Swedes, Danes, and Li¬ 
vonian knights (1240, 1241, 1242); a Rus¬ 
sian national hero and patron saint of 
St. Petersburg, where Peter the Great 
founded in his honor the magnificent monas¬ 
tery and the religious order that bear his 
name. He died in 1263. In the calendar of 
the Russian Church his day is Nov. 23. 

Alexander, John W., an American por¬ 
trait painter, born in Pittsburg, Pa., Oct. 7, 
1856; studied at Munich, Paris, and in 
Italy; became a societaire of the Beaux 
Arts in Paris; was appointed one of the 
American jurors on paintings for the Paris 
Exposition in 1900. 

Alexander, Mrs., pseudonym of Annie 
Hector, an Irish novelist, born in Dublin in 
1825. She began to write at an early age, 
and is a prolific and popular novelist. Her 
books include “The Wooing O’t ” (1873); 
“Ralph Wilton’s Weird” (1875) ; “Her Dear¬ 
est Foe” (1870) ; “The Freres” (1882) ; “A 
Golden Autumn” (1897): and “A Winning 
Hazard” (1897). She died July 10, 1902. 

Alexander of Hales, a noted English 
philosopher and theologian, born at Hales, 
Gloucestershire. One of the greatest of the 
schoolmen, he was among the first to study 
Aristotle from the point of view of the 
Arabic commentators. His chief work was 
“The Sum of Theology” (1475). He was 


called “ The Irrefutable Doctor,” “ The 
Doctor of Doctors,” “ The Fountain of 
Life.” He died in Paris, 1245. 

Alexander of Rumania- was born March 
20, 1820. Through his marriage with a 
daughter of the Boyar Rosetti, he became 
allied to the Sturdzas and with the whole 
upper nobility of the country. In 1848 he 
joined the Patriotic party. During the dis¬ 
cussion over the constitution he became the 
representative of the Union party. In 1859 
he was chosen Hospodar of Rumania and 
was proclaimed ruling prince of the united 
principalities as Alexander Johann I. His 
endeavors for absolute centralization caused 
dissension, although by his abolition of 
serfage and division of the lands he con¬ 
ferred great benefits upon the peasantry. 
The financial difficulties and discontent in¬ 
creased and his prorogation of the Parlia¬ 
ment had no effect. All parties agreed that 
the only hope lay in the fall of Alexander. 
On the evening of Feb. 22, 1866, many of 
the principal leaders forced their way into 
the prince’s bed-chamber and compelled 
him to abdicate. He died in 1873. 

Alexander Severus (in full, Marcus 
Aurelius Alexander Severus), a Roman 
emperor; born in Ace (the modern Acre), 
Phoenicia, in a. d. 205; was the son of Gen- 
esius Marcianus and of Julia Mammaea, 
niece to the Emperor Severus. He was ad¬ 
mirably educated by his mother, and was 
adopted and made Caesar by his cousin 
Ileliogabalus, then but a few years older 
than himself, at the prudent instigation of 
their common grandmother, Msesa. That 
contemptible emperor, however, soon grew 
jealous of his cousin, and would have de¬ 
stroyed him but for the interference of the 
praetorian guards, who soon after put Helio- 
gabalus himself to death, and raised Alex¬ 
ander to the imperial dignity in his 17th 
year, March 11, 222. Alexander adopted the 
noble model of Trajan and the Antonines; 
and the mode in which he administered the 
affairs of the empire, and otherwise occupied 
himself in poetry, philosophy, and litera¬ 
ture, is eloquently described bv Gibbon. On 
the whole, lie governed ably both in peace 
and war; but whatever he might owe to the 
good education given him by his mother, he 
allowed her a degree of influence in the gov¬ 
ernment which threw a cloud over the lat¬ 
ter part of his reign. He himself finally be¬ 
came convinced that in this matter he had 
allowed his filial reverence to mislead him, 
and is said to have reproached his mother 
with his dying breath as the cause of the 
disaster which had befallen them both. Alex¬ 
ander behaved with great magnanimity in 
one of the frequent insurrections of the prae¬ 
torian guards; but, either from fear or 
necessity, he allowed many of their sedi¬ 
tious mutinies to pass unpunished, though 
in one of them they murdered tlieir prefect, 




Alexander the Great 


Alexander the Great 


the learned lawyer Ulpian, and in another 
compelled Dion Cassius the historian, then 
consul, to retire into Bithynia. At length, 
after having defeated, in 232, the Persians 
under Artaxerxes, who wished to drive the 
Homans from Asia, and undertaking an ex¬ 
pedition into Gaul to repress an incursion of 
the Germans, he was murdered with his 
mother in an insurrection of his Gallic 
troops, headed by the brutal and gigantic 
Thracian, Maxim in, who took advantage of 
their discontent at the emperor’s attempts to 
restore discipline. This event happened in 
235, after a reign of 13 years. Alexander 
was favorable to Christianity, following the 
predilections of his mother, Julia Mammsea, 
and he is said to have placed the statue of 
Jesus Christ in his private temple, in com¬ 
pany with those of Orpheus and Apollonius 
of Tyana. 

Alexander the Great, the 3d King of 

Macedon bearing the name which he made so 
famous; born in Pella, 35G, b. c. His mother 
was Olympias, an Epirote princess, who 
traced her descent from Achilles. There 
is little reason to doubt that his father was 
Philip of Macedon, though the latter was 
not confident about his paternity, and 
though there is no evidence of any feelings 
between the two such as are expected to 
subsist between father and son. On the con¬ 
trary, Philip seems to have resented the im¬ 
perial qualities of his son, which he was 
clever enough to see and appreciate; and 
Alexander showed a precocious envy of his 
father’s neglected opportunities of conquest, 
a feeling which the sagacious biographer 
Plutarch has noted and dwelt on. No open 
rupture took place till Philip repudiated 
Olympias to wed a Macedonian lady (Cleo¬ 
patra according to Plutarch and others, but 
Eurydice according to Arrian). During 
the nuptial feasting Philip made at Alexan¬ 
der with his sword, while the son jeered 
at his father’s drunken fury and unsteady 
gait. In the assassination of Philip in 336 
the repudiated and banished Olympias cer¬ 
tainly had a hand, and we cannot be sure 
that Alexander was not an accomplice. 

The memorable year in which Alexander 
first appeared on the stage of universal his¬ 
tory was 339 b. c. At the age of 16 the re¬ 
gency of Greece was intrusted to him by 
Philip when he set out on an expedition 
against Byzantium; and in that capacity it 
fell to his lot to lead his first army against 
an Illyrian rising, to found his first Alex¬ 
andria in the upper valley of the Strymon, 
and to receive a deputation of envoys from 
the King of Persia — a fit beginning for the 
miracle of precocity, who was afterward 
to destroy Thebes at 21, to conquer Babylon 
at 25, and to die master of the world at 33. 
In the year after his appointment to the re¬ 
gency Alexander showed eminent military 
capacity at the battle of Chseronea (338), 


and, on the murder of Philip, ascended the 
throne in 336, before he had reached his 
20th year. 

The brilliant natural gifts of Alexan¬ 
der had been developed under the tutelage of 
Aristotle. His personal beauty, with its 
ardent expressiveness and flashing eyes, was 
very remarkable, and he was preeminent in 
horsemanship and all athletic accomplish¬ 
ments. A habit (or perhaps some peculiar 
muscular conformation of the neck) which 
gave his head a tilt towards the left shoul¬ 
der imparted to him an air of hauteur, 
which gave a note of eminent distinction to 
manners of charming grace and affability. 
He was of an extremely trusting disposition. 
His position in ascending the throne was a 
difficult one. He had enemies on every side. 
The Illyrians and Thracians were always 
watching an opportunity to attack Macedon, 
and indeed most of the Grecian States were 
ready, if possible, to throw off the Mace¬ 
donian yoke. Persia regarded the growth 
of Macedon with suspicion; and, finally, his 
own Macedonian subjects were far from be¬ 
ing united in approval of the career of con¬ 
quest on which Philip and Alexander had 
both resolved to embark. 

His reign began with an act of cruelty, 
such as was destined subsequently to become 
almost a matter of course on every change 
of rulers; his uncle and his half-brother 
were put to death, and the little daughter 
of Cleopatra, Philip’s widow, was butchered 
in the arms of her mother. In the autumn 
of 336 Alexander marched into Greece, and 
was confirmed in the chief command against 
Persia by the Amphictyones at Ther¬ 
mopylae. In 335 he advanced to the Htemus 
range (the Balkans), and showed great abil¬ 
ity in his campaign against the Thracians, 
crossing the Danube — apparently out of 
mere bravado — in the face of the enemy 
without losing a single man. He had no 
real friends among the Greek States. The 
Thebans, hearing a false report of his death, 
became overt enemies, proclaimed their inde¬ 
pendence, and slew some Macedonian officers. 
Alexander appeared in Bceotia with amazing 
dispatch, and took Thebes by storm on the 
third day of the siege. This was the occa¬ 
sion on which, in the words of Milton, 

The great Emathian conqueror bade spare 

The house of Pindar. 

Leaving Antipater to govern in Europe, he 
crossed over into Asia in the spring of 334 
with 30,000 foot and 5,000 horse. The Per¬ 
sian empire, the conquest of which he under¬ 
took, was at least 50 times as large as his 
own and numbered about 20 times as many 
inhabitants. It extended from the Helles¬ 
pont to the Punjab, from Lake Aral to the 
cataracts of the Nile. But it was a vast 
congeries of subject provinces having no in¬ 
ternal bond, and no principle of cohesion 
but the will of the king. For 80 years it 



Alexander the Great 


Alexander the Great 


had been tending to dissolution in its W. 
provinces, which were the most exposed 
to danger. As stages in this process may 
be mentioned the revolt of Egypt under 
Amyrtaeus in 410, and that of the Cypriote 
Evagoras, which was not put down till 383; 
the numerous revolts of satraps, of Greek 
cities, and of semi-Greek tyrants during the 
first half of the 5th century; and the at¬ 
tack on Persia made by Tachos, King of 
Egypt, in 301. It has been well remarked 
by Adolf Holm that the position of the Per¬ 
sian empire when attacked by Alexander 
had some resemblance to that of the Roman 
empire when overrun by the Germans. Both 
empires held together merely by the law of 
inertia; in both their strength lay not in 
their native elements, but in mercenaries 
taken from the very peoples, the Germans, 
and the Greeks, who threatened respectively 
the safety of the two empires. Alexander 
proposed to himself nothing short of com¬ 
plete dispossession of Darius in favor of 
himself as Captain-General of Hellas, and 
the establishment of his own Panhellenic 
empire in the room of the Persian. He was 
not led from point to point by this or that 
strategical reason. His business was not to 
leave Asia till every satrapy in the Persian 
empire acknowledged his sway. Even the 
burning of the Persian capital Persepolis 
was probably no act of drunken folly, as 
which it has often been described, but rather 
a signal and emphatic assertion of mastery 
and ownership, as of one who should say, 
“ the Persian empire is mine, to throw it 
into the fire if I please.” Alexander had 
no intention of remaining king of Macedon. 
His design was to be the Greek emperor of 
Europe and Asia; and this position in effect 
he assumed on the death of Darius. With 
tliis view throughout his whole career in 
Asia he sought as much as possible to fuse 
and commingle his Asiatic and European 
subjects, very much as England did in In¬ 
dia. This was the project to which he was 
giving all his efforts at the time of his 
death. 

The first hostile army he encountered was 
on the Granicus river (an affluent of the Sea 
of Marmora). He crossed the Granicus, 
just as he afterward crossed the Pinarus. at 
Issus, in full view of the enemy, hurled him¬ 
self with all his force on their center, and 
completely broke it up. It was not his way 
to refrain from the pass in quart till he 
has first hit in tierce. His victories some¬ 
times remind us of the oft-quoted G’est mag- 
nifique mais ce n’est pas la guerre. He 
won by an impetuous dash a victory which 
a subtler strategy might have failed to 
achieve, just as his sword-cut at Gordium 
made away with the knot which his fingers 
could not undo. The victory at Granicus 
was attended with unprecedented results. 
Sardes, Miletus, Ephesus, Halicarnassus 
submitted one after another, and he estab¬ 


lished in them democracies of the Greek 
type. In November, 333, Darius, eager to 
meet the invader, hastened to the sea-coast 
near Issus (at the head of the Gulf of Is- 
kanderoon). The tactics pursued at the 
Granicus had here again a successful issue. 
Darius fled, leaving his family and his 
treasures in the hands of the conqueror. 
The mother, wife, two daughters, and son 
of Darius were treated with a clemency 
which foreshadowed the ages of chivalry. An 
Asiatic conqueror would have put the males 
to death, probably with torture, and would 
have sent the females to his harem. Captive 
Greek generals he also spared and liberated. 
He took possession of Damascus, a city 
which even then could boast of a hoary an¬ 
tiquity, and secured all the towns along the 
Mediterranean Sea. His plan now was to 
occupy Egypt, and this was made easy by 
the capture of Tyre on Aug. 20, 332, after a 
siege of seven months. During the siege a 
message came from Darius offering Alexan¬ 
der 10,000 talents, the hand of his daughter 
in marriage, and Asia as far as the Eu¬ 
phrates, if he would make peace. “ I would 
accept it if I were Alexander,” said his gen¬ 
eral, Parmenio; “so would I,” replied Alex¬ 
ander, “ if I were Parmenio.” Gaza fell in 
November, 332, and Alexander, taking pos¬ 
session of Egypt, sacrificed to Apis and the 
Egyptian gods in Memphis, and held musical 
and athletic competitions after the Greek 
fashion in Tyre. Thus he conciliated the af¬ 
fections of his subjects. Politically he or¬ 
ganized Egypt as a province in a way which, 
as Arrian remarks, foreshadowed the Roman 
system, giving the civil administration first 
to two, and then to a single governor, while 
the troops were placed under several sepa¬ 
rate commanders. It was now that Alexan¬ 
der founded the celebrated Alexandria — 
destined in two generations to be the first 
city in the Levant — and marched through 
the Libyan desert to consult the oracle of 
Jupiter Ammon, whose son he claimed to 
be. 

Meantime Darius was collecting an army 
in Assyria; but before the decisive battle 
of Arbela he made overtures of peace to 
Alexander, whose answer was, “ I, Alexan¬ 
der, hold all thy treasure and all thy land 
to be mine ”— a verbal cutting of the Gor¬ 
dian knot. The Persian force encountered 
by the Greeks at Gaugamela, near the an¬ 
cient Nineveh, and about 50 miles from Ar¬ 
bela (which strangely has given its name to 
the battle ever since), is said to have num¬ 
bered 1,000.000 infantry, 40,000 cavalry, 200 
scythed chariots, and 15 elephants. Alexan¬ 
der had only 40,000 foot and 7,000 horse, 
but he won a decisive victory on Oct. 1, 331. 
The Macedonians aimed at the faces of their 
adversaries, as the Caesarians afterward 
did at Pharsalus. Babylon and Susa opened 
their gates to the conqueror, who then en¬ 
tered Persepolis, the capital of the province 



Alexander the Great 


Alexander the Great 


of Persia, seized its immense treasures, and 
burned its palace and citadel to the ground. 

In the spring of 330 Alexander proceeded 
to Media in pursuit of Darius. That weak 
monarch was being carried about by Bessus, 
satrap of Bactria, who, on hearing of the 
approach of Alexander, inflicted a mortal 
wound on Darius and fled, leaving him to 
die. Darius died before Alexander came up 
with him (.July, 330). The conqueror sent 
his body to Persepolis to be interred with 
royal honors. After taking possession of 
Hyrcania and Bactriana he was meditating 
still more gigantic plans, when he learned 
In the autumn of 330 that Philotas, the son 
of Pannenio. though cognizant of a conspir¬ 
acy against his life, had not reported it. 
He put both Philotas and Pannenio to death. 
The execution of the former has been con¬ 
demned, but is on the whole defensible; the 
murder of the latter is an inexcusable act of 
brutal tyranny. About the end of 330 or 
the beginning of 329 he crossed the great 
range of the Caucasus (not the modern 
Caucasus, but the Hindu Kush) by a pass 
at an altitude of 13,200 feet — a march com¬ 
parable with that of Hannibal over the Alps. 
He reached the city of Bactra (Balkh), and 
made his way N. as far as the Jaxartes or 
Tanais, where he founded a city, probably 
the modern Khojend. 

He remained in these regions till the sum¬ 
mer of 327, spending the winter in Nautaca, 
on the right bank of the Oxus. Here oc¬ 
curred the murder of Clitus and Alexander’s 
marriage with Boxana, daughter of Oxyar- 
tes, a satrap of Sogdiana. She had a son 
named after his father in 323. After the 
death of Alexander she compassed the de¬ 
struction of his other wife, the daughter of 
Darius, and was killed with her son in 311 
by Cassander. The murder of Clitus has 
been regarded as a great blot on the career 
of Alexander. But the circumstances in 
which he was placed greatly extenuate the 
act. The East belieA 7 ed in the divinity of 
Alexander, and such a belief was almost an 
essential condition of the permanence of his 
empire. When one of his own officers open¬ 
ly denied and ridiculed the emperor’s preten¬ 
sions at a State banquet he seriously im¬ 
periled the Hellenic raj. The empire of 
Alexander was never subject to a second 
single emperor. The destinies of the West 
awaited the struggle between Rome and 
Carthage. But his vast empire nowhere 
save in India reverted to the pre-Alexan- 
drine type. 

Alexander now formed the idea of con¬ 
quering India. He passed the Indus in 327, 
and formed an alliance with Taxiles, under 
whose guidance he reached the Hydaspes 
(modern Jhelum). This river he crossed 
after 9 severe struggle with Porus, in whom 
he met an opponent very superior to the 
Persian satraps who had hitherto confront¬ 
ed him or rather retreated before him. He 


then moved farther E. and crossed the Ace- 
sines (Chenab) and the Hyraotes (Ravi), 
and reached the Hyphasis (Beas), which 
now joins the last river of the Punjab, the 
Sutlej, but which then flowed in a different 
channel. He never reached the Sutlej itself. 
The murmurs of his army compelled him to 
return. The fine instrument, which he had 
fashioned so dexterously, broke in his hand. 
He recrossed the Acesines to the Hydaspes, 
where he completed the cities of Nicaea and 
Bucephala (named after his famous horse 
Bucephalus), which he had already begun. 
He had only seen the fringe of India — the 
Punjab. The wondrous country of Brahma 
and Buddha never felt the sway of Secun- 
dar. It was the only land which, on his de¬ 
parture, reverted to its condition before his 
arrival. He was obliged to content himself 
with writing his name large across the his¬ 
tories of Hellenic, Semitic, Egyptian, and 
Iranian civilization. Alexander’s name does 
not appear in Sanskrit literature. 

When he had reached the Hydaspes he 
built a fleet, in which he sent part of his 
army down the river, while the rest pro¬ 
ceeded along the banks. The city of the 
Malli, where Alexander was wounded, is 
probably Multan; Puttala is perhaps Hai- 
darabad. The march of 500 miles through 
the hideous desert of Gedrosia (Baluchis¬ 
tan), and the voyage of Nearchus, have 
given much material to romancers and rhet¬ 
oricians. At Carmania he was joined by 
Craterus, who had marched through the Bo- 
lan Pass to Kandahar, and by Nearchus, 
whose voyage, then thought so marvelous 
a feat, is no more than the short steam 
run from Karachi to Bunder Abbas. From 
Carmania he went to Pasargadse, and thence 
to Susa, where he devoted himself with 
great energy to the task of uniting as far as 
possible the Macedonian and Persian na¬ 
tions. He himself married two Persian 
princesses, and he gave rewards to those of 
his staff who followed his example in con¬ 
tracting Persian alliances. He sent home 
to Macedonia, with a present of a talent 
each, about 10,000 Macedonians who by age 
or wounds were incapacitated for service. 
These veterans were led by Craterus, who 
was sent to succeed Antipater as governor 
of Europe. Antipater seems to have fallen 
into disfavor, though in 330 he had done 
service in defeating Agis, the Spartan king 
who threatened Megalopolis. It was of 
this exploit that Alexander contemptuously 
observed, “ So there has been a battle of 
the mice in Arcadia, while we have been 
conquering Asia.” 

In 323 Alexander arrived at Babylon, 
where he found numberless envoys from 
nations near and far, come to pay their 
homage to the young conqueror. He was 
engaged in very extensive plans for the 
future, including the conquest of Arabia and 
the reorganization of the army, when he fell 



Alexandria 


Alexandria 


ill of a fever, shortly after the death of his 
beloved Hephaestion, which had deeply affect- 
ed him. He died in 323, after a reign of 12 
years and eight months. The day before a 
rumor had gone abroad that the great gen¬ 
eral was dead, and that his friends were 
concealing the truth. The dying king caused 
his army to defile past liis bed, and feebly 
waved them a last farewell. Alexander was 
a great administrator, a second Pericles in 
his devotion to work, an Alcibiades in his 
distinguished presence, a Phocion in his sim¬ 
plicity of character. 

Alexandria, a city of Egypt, founded by 
Alexander the Great in 331 n. c. It was 
situated originally on the low tract of land 
Which separates the Lake Mareotis from the 
Mediterranean, about 14 miles W. of the 
Canopic mouth of the Nile. Before the 
city, in the Mediterranean, lay an island, 
up on the N. E. point of which stood the 
famous lighthouse, the Pharos, built in the 
time of Ptolemy I., in the 3d century b. c. 
and said to have been 400 feet high. The 
island was connected with the mainland by 
a mole, called the Heptastadium, thus form¬ 
ing the two harbors. The plan of Alexandria 
was designed by the architect Deinocrates, 
and its original extent is said to have been 
about 4 miles in length, with a circum¬ 
ference of 15 miles. It was intersected by 
two straight main streets, crossing each 
other at right angles in a large square, and 
adorned with handsome houses, temples and 
public buildings. The most magnificent 
quarter of the city was that called the Bru- 
eheion, which ran from the center to the 
eastern harbor. This quarter of the city 
contained the palaces of the Ptolemies, the 
Museum, for centuries the focus of the in¬ 
tellectual life of the world, and the famous 
library; the mausoleum of Alexander the 
Great and of the Ptolemies, the temple of 
Poseidon, and the great theater. To the 
S. was the beautiful gymnasium. The Sera- 
peum, or temple of Serapis, stood in the 
western division of the citv, which formed 
the Egyptian quarter, and was called Rha- 
cotis; a small town of that name had oc¬ 
cupied the site before the foundation of Al¬ 
exandria. To the W. of the city lay the 
great Necropolis, and to the E. the race¬ 
course and suburbs of Nicopolis. Much of 
the space under the houses was occupied by 
vaulted subterranean cisterns, which were 
capable of containing a sufficient quantity 
of water to supply the whole population of 
the city for a year. From the time of its 
foundation, Alexandria was the Greek capi¬ 
tal of Egypt. Its population, in the time of 
its prosperity, is said by Diodorus to have 
amounted to about 300,000 free citizens, 
and probably a larger number of slaves. 
This population consisted mostly of Greeks, 
Jews and Egyptians, together with settlers 
from all nations of the known world. After 


the death of Alexander the Great, Alex* 
andria became the residence of the Ptole¬ 
mies. They made it, next to Rome and An¬ 
tioch, the most magnificent city of an- 
tiquity, as well as the chief seat of Greek 
learning and literature, which spread hence 
over the greater part of the ancient world. 
The situation of the city, at the point of 
junction between the East and West, ren¬ 
dered it the center of the commerce of the 
world, and raised it to the highest degree of 
prosperity. 

Alexandria had reached its greatest 
splendor when, on the death of Cleopatra, 
the last of the Ptolemies, in 30 b. c., it 
came into the possession of the Romans. 
Its glory was long unaffected, and it was 
the emporium of the world’s commerce, es¬ 
pecially for corn. In the reign of Cara- 
calla, however, it suffered severely; and the 
rise of Constantinople promoted the decay 
of Alexandria. Christianity was intro¬ 
duced, according to tradition, by St. Mark. 
In the 2d century its adherents were very 
numerous; among its teachers were Clem¬ 
ens Alexandrinus and Origen. The strife 
between Christianity and heathenism — 
powerfully described in Kingsley’s “ Hypa¬ 
tia ”— gave rise to bloody contests in Alex¬ 
andria. The Serapeum, the last seat of 
heathen theology and learning, was stormed 
by the Christians in 380 a. d., and con¬ 
verted into a Christian church. Alexandria 
was a chief seat of Christian theology till 
it was taken by the Arabs, under Amru, in 
041, at which time it was much injured. 
The choice of Cairo as capital of the Egyp¬ 
tian caliphs hastened the now rapid decay 
of the city; the discovery of America, and 
of the passage to India bv the Cape of 
Good Hope, very much diminished its trade; 
and when, in 1317, the Turks took the place, 
the remains of its former splendor wholly 
vanished, walls and buildings being reduced 
to ruins. In 1778, Alexandria contained no 
more than 0,000 inhabitants. Under Me- 
hemet Ali, however, the tide turned, and the 
city recovered rapidly. It is now again one 
of the most important commercial places 
on the Mediterranean. The Suez canal di¬ 
verted part of its trade as the center of 
steam communication with India; but this 
was more than compensated by the general 
impetus given by the canal to Egyptian 
prosperity. In 1882, during the rising of 
Arabi Pasha, serious damage was done to 
the city. The Europeans were maltreated; 
.*nd as Arabi would not desist from 
strengthening the fortifications, an English 
fleet, in the interests of the Khedive, bom¬ 
barded the forts of Alexandria for over 10 
hours, July 11. On the two following days 
the town was sacked and plundered by the 
soldiers and populace, and great part of it 
destroyed by fire. A British force oc¬ 
cupied it on the 14th, 




Alexandria 


Alexandrian Philosophy 


The present city (called Skanderieh by 
the Arabs) is not situated exactly on the 
site of the old one, but is chiefly built on 
the mole, which has been increased by al¬ 
luvial deposits till it has become a broad 
neck of land between the two harbors. The 
city is a strange mixture of East and West, 
old and new, not gracefully harmonized. The 
native town, unpaved and, in wet weather, 
hardly passable, contains poor houses and 
wretched huts. The ever increasing Frank¬ 
ish quarters have quite a European appear¬ 
ance, and swarm with caf$s, shops, theaters, 
and the like, lighted with gas. The castle 
stands near the old Pharos, and the hand¬ 
some new lighthouse has a revolving light, 
visible at a distance of 20 miles. Recent 
improvements, undertaken at a cost of 
$10,000,000, are expected to make the west¬ 
ern or the old harbor by far one of the 
best and most spacious on the Mediterra¬ 
nean. There is railway communication with 
Cairo and Suez; the Mahmoudieh canal, 
made by Mehemet Ali, connects Alexandria 
with the Nile. 

Of the few remaining objects of antiquity 
the most prominent is Pompey’s Pillar, as 
it is erroneously called. Of the so-called 
Cleopatra’s Needles — two obelisks of the 
IGth century b. c., which long stood there 
— one was taken to England and erected 
on the Thames Embankment in 1878; and 
the other, presented by the Khedive, was 
set up in Central Park, New York, in 1881. 
Pop. (1907 ) 332,246. 

Alexandria, city, port of entry, and 
county-seat of Alexandria co., Va.; on 
the Potomac river, the Pennsylvania and 
Southern railroads and trolley line connect¬ 
ing with Washington, D. C., and Mt. Ver¬ 
non; 6 miles S. of Washington. The river 
here expands to the width of a mile, and 
gives the city an excellent harbor that will 
accommodate the largest ships. The city 
is an important trade center ; has manufac¬ 
tures aggregating $20,000,000 in value, an¬ 
nually; and is noted for its educational in¬ 
stitutions, which include Washington High 
School, Potomac, Mt. Vernon and St. Mary’s 
Academies, and, near by, the Theological 
Seminary and High School of the Diocese of 
Virginia (Protestant Episcopal). There are 
two National banks, public school property 
valued at $35,000, and daily and weekly 
periodicals. General Braddock made his 
headquarters here in 1775, and Colonel Ells¬ 
worth was shot in the Marshall House, 
while removing a Confederate flag, in 1861. 
Pop. (1900) 14,528; (1910) 15,329. 

Alexandrian Codex, an important manu¬ 
script of the sacred Scriptures in Greek, 
now in the British Museum. It is written 
on parchment, in finely formed uncial let¬ 
ters, and is without accents, marks of as¬ 
piration, or spaces between the words. Its 


probable date is the middle of the 5th cen¬ 
tury. With the exception of a few gaps, it 
contains the whole Bible in Greek (the Old 
Testament being in the translation of the 
Septuagint), along with the epistles of 
Clemens Romanus, of whose genuine epistle 
to the Corinthians it is the only manu¬ 
script extant. For purposes of Biblical criti¬ 
cism, the text of the Epistles of the New 
Testament is the most valuable part. This 
celebrated manuscript belonged, as early as 
1098, to the library of the Patriarch of Al¬ 
exandria. In 1628 it was sent as a present 
to Charles I. of England, by Cyrillus Lu- 
caris, Patriarch of Constantinople, who de¬ 
clared that he had got it from Alexandria, 
where he had held the same office; and that 
it was written there appears from internal 
and external evidence. 

Alexandrian Library, a remarkable col¬ 
lection of books, the largest of the ancient 
world, was founded by the first Ptolemy, 
and fostered by his son. It quickly grew, 
and, already in the time of the first Ptolemy, 
Demetrius Phalereus had 50,000 volumes or 
rolls under his care. During its most flour¬ 
ishing period, under the direction of Zeno- 
dotus, Aristarchus of Byzantium, Calli¬ 
machus, Apollonius Rhodius, and others, it 
is said to have contained 490,000, or, ac¬ 
cording to another authority, including all 
duplicates, as many as 700,000 volumes. 
The greater part of this Library, which em¬ 
braced the collected literature of Rome, 
Greece, India, and Egypt, was contained in 
the famous Museum, in the quarter of Alex¬ 
andria called the Bruclieion. During the 
siege of Alexandria by Julius Csesar, this 
part of the Library was destroyed by fire; 
but it was afterward replaced by the collec¬ 
tion of Pergamos, which was presented to 
Cleopatra by Mark Antony. The other part 
of the Library was kept in the Serapeum, 
the temple of Jupiter Serapis, where it re¬ 
mained till the time of Theodosius the Great. 
When this emperor permitted all the 
heathen temples in the Roman empire to be 
destroyed, the magnificent temple of Jupiter 
Serapis was not spared. A mob of fanatic 
Christians, led on by the Archbishop The- 
ophilus, stormed and destroyed the temple, 
together, it is most likely, with the greater 
part of its literary treasures, in 391 a. d. 
It was at this time that the destruction of 
the Library was begun, and not at the tak¬ 
ing of Alexandria by the Arabs, under the 
Caliph Omar, in 641, when its destruction 
was merely completed. 

Alexandrian Philosophy, a school of phil¬ 
osophy which flourished in Alexandria as 
the central point of union between the 
Orient and Occident, and which was distin¬ 
guished by the union of Grecian and Oriental 
views of the universe. It appeared in the 
last century before Christ and those im- 



Alexandrian School 


Alfonso 


mediately following Christ; first, as a Ju¬ 
dean-Alexandrian school, formed from the 
combination of the philosophy of Plato, the 
Stoics, and the Hebrews; the second, as a 
Neo-Pythagorean, from the union of the 
philosophy of Pythagoras and the wisdom 
of the Orient; and the third as a Neo-Pla¬ 
tonic, formed by the union of Platonic and 
Oriental doctrines of emanation. 

Alexandrian School, the common desig¬ 
nation of a series of scientific endeavors 
which were founded and encouraged through 
the generosity of the Ptolemies, and which 
had their seat in Alexandria and continued 
for more than 700 years, from 300 n. c. to 
500 a. d. The basis of these schools was the 
Museion (museum), a splendid institution 
in the part of the city called Brucheion, 
where the scientists lived and taught as 
pensioners at the public cost. For the use 
of these learned men two libraries were 
founded by the Ptolemies. See Alexan¬ 
drian Library. 

Alexandropol (formerly Gumri), an im¬ 
portant fortress and the largest town in the 
Erivan district of Russian Armenia. It lies 
on a treeless plateau on the road from 
Erivan to Kars, and has accommodation for 
a garrison of 10,000 men. The stronghold 
gives the Russians complete command of 
the headwaters of the Euphrates. The silk 
trade is actively carried on in the town. 
Pop. (1897) 32,018. 

Alexis, Wilibald. See Haring, Georg 
Wilhelm Heinrich. 

Alexius Comnenus,one of the ablest rul¬ 
ers of the Byzantine Empire, born at 
Constantinople in 1048. He was the nephew 
of the Emperor Isaac Comnenus, on whose 
abdication, in 1059, his own father refused 
the purple; and Alexius, having in youth 
given brilliant promise of military genius, 
was at length, in 1081, after four brief 
anarchic reigns, elevated by his soldiers to 
the throne. Gibbon graphically paints his 
position and achievements. He reigned for 
thirty-seven years; and had it been possible 
to preserve the weak and corrupt Byzantine 
Empire in its integrity, a ruler like Alexius 
might have achieved the task. He could 
only delay the inevitable doom. Historians 
differ as to the sincerity of his conduct to¬ 
ward the crusaders. His daughter, Anna 
Comnena ( q. v .), who wrote his life, de¬ 
fends his “policy” with filial piety. He 
died in 1118. 

Alfa, a variety of esparto ( q . v.), grown 
in northern Africa. Its fiber is utilized in 
the manufacture of paper. 

Alfalfa, an herbaceous plant (Medicago 
saliva) belonging to the natural order 
Leguminosa■ {g. v.) ; also called lucerne. 

The plant is a native of Asia, but has been 
cultivated in Europe for more than 2,000 


years. It was introduced into Mexico and 
South America by the Spaniards, but did 
not reach North America until 1854, when 
it was brought to California from Chile. 
Since that time it has become the most 
extensively cultivated forage crop in the 
United States, easily adapting itself to 
varying conditions of soil and climate, and 
has yielded successful results in opposite 
sections of the country from sea-level to 
heights of 7,000 feet. It flourishes best on 
rich, sandy, well-drained loams of calcare¬ 
ous nature. It will not grow on swampy 
land, and is more readily affected than are 
ordinary crops by cold and wet together. 
The plant is an upright, branching peren¬ 
nial, one to three feet high, with small pur¬ 
ple flowers growing in dangling clusters. 
It is cut when coming into bloom, and 
yields from three to ten tons of hay per 
acre. Like other leguminous plants, it takes 
nitrogen from the air, while its deep-grow¬ 
ing roots draw from the subsoil quantities 
of lime, phosphoric acid, potash, and other 
mineral matter which make it particularly 
valuable as a green manure. Alfalfa, 
whether green or cured as hay, is relished 
by all farm animals. Best nutritive re¬ 
sults, however, are obtained by mixing it 
with root-crops and grain. Alfalfa is sub¬ 
ject to two fungus diseases known as leaf- 
spot and root-rot, which must be guarded 
against or the crop will shortly suffer ruin. 
Consult: Coburn, “Alfalfa” (1901). 

Alfieri (alf-ya're), Vittorio, Count, an 

Italian dramatist, born at Asti in Pied¬ 
mont, Jan. 17, 1749. He came into his vast 
paternal inheritance at the age of fourteen, 
and two or three years afterward began a 
series of travels which extended over nearly 
all the European countries. His trage¬ 
dies, “Cleopatra,” “Polinice,” “Antigone,” 
“Agide,” “Bruto,” and several others, are 
founded on classic themes, and formed on 
the Hellenic model. “Saul,” founded on 
Hebrew sacred history, but elaborated ac¬ 
cording to the canons of Grecian drama¬ 
turgy, was by far the most popular of Al- 
fieri’s dramas. The “Filippo” presents, in 
lineaments that could be drawn only by the 
hand of a master, the somber character of 
Philip II. of Spain. He wrote in all twenty- 
one tragedies and six comedies, and com¬ 
posed many sonnets; among his odes are 
five on American independence. His prose 
works comprise an essay on “Tyranny,” a 
volume of “Essays on Literature and Gov¬ 
ernment,” and an “Autobiography.” He 
died at Florence, Oct. 8, 1803. His style 
founded a new school in Italian drama. His 
works were first collected and published by 
the Countess of Albany (35 vols., Pisa, 
1805-15), and thirteen of these volumes 
contain his posthumous writings. 

Alfonso, or Alphonso, I. (El Conquis¬ 
tador, “The Conqueror”), earliest King of 




Alfonso 


Alfonso 


Portugal, was the son of Henry of Bur¬ 
gundy, conqueror and first Count of Por¬ 
tugal. Born in 1110, he was but two years 
of age at his father’s death, so that the 
management of affairs fell into the hands 
of his ambitious and dissolute mother, The¬ 
resa of Castile. Wresting the power from 
her in 1128, he turned his sword against 
Castile and the "Moors, and defeated the lat¬ 
ter, after a bloody struggle, at Ourique, 
July 25, 1139, proclaiming himself King of 
Portugal on the field of battle. The title 
was confirmed by the Pope three years later. 
After settling the succession, the privileges 
of the nobility, and the administration of 
justice at the Cortes of Lamego, with the 
help of some casual English crusaders he 
took Lisbon (1147), and, later, the whole 
of Galicia, Estremadura, and Elvas. He 
died at Coimbra, Dec. 6, 1185. 

Alfonso III., surnamed The Great, King 
of Leon, Asturias, and Galicia, succeeded his 
father, Ordoho, in 86G. After reducing to 
obedience his jealous and factious nobles, 
he turned his arms against other enemies, 
fought through more than 30 campaigns 
and gained numerous victories over the 
Moors, occupied Coimbra, and extended his 
territory as far as Portugal and Old Cas¬ 
tile. But these constant wars entailed great 
expense and misery on his subjects, and re¬ 
sulted, in 888, in a popular rising, at the 
head of which was Alfonso’s own son Gar¬ 
cias. But the active king quickly crushed 
the rebels, and threw his son into prison. 
A second conspiracy, instigated by the 
queen, was more successful, and Alfonso was 
obliged to abdicate the throne, and divide 
his territory among his three sons. But 
once again the old hero was called upon to 
save his country, and lead its armies against 
the invading Moors. After returning in tri¬ 
umph, he died at Zamora, 910. 

Alfonso V., King of Aragon and Navarre, 
but Alfonso I. of Naples and Sicily (“the 
Magnanimous”), succeeded his father in 1410, 
when but 15 years old. Summoned to her 
help by Queen Joanna II. of Naples, he de¬ 
feated her foes, Sforza and Louis of Anjou, 
but lost her favor by throwing into prison 
her minion Caraccioli. The fickle queen 
now declared his rival Louis her successor. 
At her death in 1435, Alfonso resolved to 
claim the kingdom, but found himself op¬ 
posed by Duke Rend of Lorraine, whom 
Joanna had appointed her successor after 
the death of Louis. Rome and Genoa sided 
with Rene, and the Genoese fleet attacked 
and defeated that of Alfonso, the monarch 
himself being taken prisoner. He was sent 
to Duke Philip of Milan, who, charmed by 
his manner and talents, soon set him at 
liberty, and even formed an alliance with 
him. After a five years’ warfare, Alfonso 
was successful, and entering Naples in 
triumph, was recognized as its king by 


the Pope. He patronized letters and the 
arts, and governed with prudence and jus¬ 
tice. He died at Naples in 1458, leaving his 
hereditarv dominions to his brother John, 
and Naples to his own son Ferdinand, who 
was legitimized by the Pope. 

Alfonso VI., King of Portugal, succeeded 
his father, John IV., in 1656, when but 13 
years of age. For some years the govern¬ 
ment was in the hands of his mother, Louise 
de Guzman, a woman of great wisdom and 
prudence : but in 1662 the sickly and disso¬ 
lute prince dismissed his mother from her 
office, only to fall as completely into the 
hands of his minister, Count Castel-Melhor. 
Yet Portugal was victorious in the war 
against Spain, spite of the incapacity of 
king and minister, although for this she 
had to thank her English and French al¬ 
lies. In 1666 Alfonso married a princess of 
Savoy, but the Oueen was soon disgusted 
with her unworthy husband, and conspired 
with his brother Pedro against him. He 
was forced to surrender to the latter his 
crown, and to dissolve on his behalf what 
was a marriage merelv in name. Alfonso 

O k 

died 12 years later (1683), a State prisoner 
at Cintra. 

Alfonso X., surnamed “ the Astronomer,” 
“the Philosopher,” or “the Wise” (El 
Sabio), King of Leon and Castile, born in 
1226; succeeded his father, Ferdinand III., 
in 1252. Elected as their king by part of 
the German princes in 1257, he had to be 
content with the empty honor, nor was he 
more successful in his hereditary claim to 
Suabia through his mother Beatrix, daugh¬ 
ter of Philip of Suabia. He was more suc¬ 
cessful in his wars with the Moors, and his 
victories over them enabled him to unite 
Murcia with Castile. In 1271 he was able 
to crush an insurrection headed by his son 
Philip; but a second and successful rising, 
under another son, Sancho, in 1282, deprived 
him of his throne. Two years later, he 
died a fugitive at Seville. Alfonso was the 
founder of a Castilian national literature. 
He caused the first general history of Spain 
to be composed in the Castilian tongue by 
his historians, as well as a translation of 
the Old Testament to be made into the 
vernacular by Toledo Jews. He completed 
the well-known code of laws, “ Leves de las 
Partidas,” which in 1501 became the uni¬ 
versal law of the land; and he wrote several 
long poems, besides a work on chemistry, 
and another on philosophy. He sought to 
improve the Ptolemaic planetary tables, 
whose anomalies had struck observers even 
at that early time. For this purpose, he as¬ 
sembled at Toledo upward of 50 of the most 
celebrated astronomers of that age. His im¬ 
proved planetary tables, still known as the 
“ Alfonsine Tables,” were completed in 1252 
at the cost of 40,000 ducats. The “ Opus- 



Alfonso 


Alfred the Great 


culos Legales ” of Alfonso were published 
by the Royal Academy of Madrid in 1836. 

Alfonso XII., King of Spain, the only son 
of Queen Isabella II. and her cousin, King 
Francis of Assisi, was born Nov. 28, 1857. 
He left Spain with his mother when she was 
driven from the throne by the revolution of 



ALFONSO xir. 

1868, and till 1874 resided partly in France, 
partly in Austria. He studied for a time 
at the English military college, Sandhurst, 
being then known as Prince of the Asturias. 
His mother had given up her claims to the 
throne in 1870 in his favor, and in 1874 
Alfonso came forward himself as claimant, 
and in the end of the year was proclaimed 
by Gen. Martinez Campos as king. He was 
enthusiastically received, most of the Span¬ 
iards being by this time tired of the Repub¬ 
lican Government, which had failed to put 
down the Carlist party. Alfonso was suc¬ 
cessful in bringing the Carlist struggle to 
an end (1876), and henceforth he reigned 
with little disturbance until his death in 
1885. He married first his cousin Maria de 
las Mercedes, daughter of the Duke de Mont- 
pensier; second, Maria Christina, Archduch¬ 
ess of Austria. 

Alfonso XIII., King of Spain, son of the 
late Alphonso XII. and Maria Christina, 
daughter of the late Karl Ferdinand, Arch- 
Duke of Austria, born after his father’s 
death, May 17, 1886, succeeding by his birth, 
being a male, his eldest sister. His mother 
was made Queen Regent during his min¬ 
ority. On May 17, 1902, the young king 
formally acceded to the throne and took 
the oath prescribed by the constitution, the 
queen regent having taken official leave of 
the ministry on the 12th. The United States 
was represented at the ceremony by Dr. 
Jabez L. M. Curry, special envoy and former 
minister to Spain. President Roosevelt sent 
the king a cordial message. 

Alford, Henry, an English poet and mis¬ 
cellaneous writer, philologist, critic, artist, 


and preacher, born in London, Oct. 7, 1810. 
He became Dean of Canterbury in 1856. An 
accomplished man, his literary work at¬ 
tracted attention in several departments. 
Besides sermons and university lectures, he 
wrote “ The School of the Heart, and Other 
Poems” (1835), his most popular volume 
of verse, “The Queen’s English” (1866). 
He was best known by his celebrated edition 
of the Greek New Testament (1844- 
1852), which, incorporating the results of 
German Biblical scholarship, formed a land¬ 
mark in New Testament study in England 
and America. He was the first editor of the 
“ Contemporary Review.” He died at Can¬ 
terbury, Jan. 12, 1871. 

Alfred the Great, King of England, and 
one of the most illustrious rulers on record; 
born in Wantage, in Berkshire, a. d. 849. 
Ho was the son of Ethelwolf, King of the 
West Saxons, and his wife Osburga or 
Osburli; and though the youngest of five 
sons, lie succeeded to the crown on the 
death of his brother Ethelred, in 871, at a 
time when the Danes, or Northmen, who 
were formidable to the Saxons as early as 
787, had extended their conquests and de¬ 
vastations very widely over the country. 
Fie took part in the victory of Ashdown, 
gained over them before his accession, and 
soon after that event he was the English 
leader in the battle of Wilton, which, though 
indecisive in result, led to a short period 
of peace. 

Though still quite a young man he 
had already given decisive proofs of his 
generalship and courage, which were soon 
again to be called into requisition. The 
Danish encroachments were renewed in 876 
and 877, and though the enemy twice made 
peace with Alfred and promised to leave his 
dominions, they returned in greater force in 
878, and overran a great portion of the king¬ 
dom of the West Saxons, rendering for a 
short time all resistance vain. It is to this 
period that the well-known (but quite un- 
authentic) story belongs of Alfred hiding 
in the neatherd’s hut, and allowing the cakes 
to burn. 

When the people again began to arm 
against the enemy, Alfred fortified himself 
on an elevation or island (since called 
Athelney, or “isle of the nobles”) formed 
by the confluence of the Parret and Tone 
rivers amid the marshes of Somerset, to 
which he summoned his faithful adherents, 
and in a few weeks was again able to take 
the field. It was during his abode here that 
he went, according to the story, disguised 
as a harper, into the camp of King Guthrum 
(or Guthorm), and, having ascertained that 
the Danes felt themselves secure, hastened 
back to his troops, led them against the 
enemy, and gained such a decided victory 
that 14 days afterward the Danes begged 
for peace. This battle took place in May, 






Aifred the Great 


Alfred University 


879, near Edington, in Wiltshire; the peace 
was made at Wedmore, near Athelney. Al¬ 
fred allowed the IXtnes who were already 
in the country to remain there, on condition 
that they gave hostages, took a solemn oath 
to quit Wessex, and embraced Christianity. 
Their king, Guthrum, was baptized, with 30 
of his followers, and ever afterward remain¬ 
ed faithful to Alfred The Danes were al¬ 
lotted that portion of the E. of England 
which is now occupied by the modern coun¬ 
ties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, and 
Lincoln. 

Alfred’s success against the Danes led 
to an immediate enlargement of his own 
hereditary dominions, and to the spread 
of his influence over the adjoining terri¬ 
tories, so that in the course of a few years he 
made himself virtual ruler of all England, 
though never formally recognized as such. 
The short period of tranquillity which fol¬ 
lowed was employed by him in rebuilding 
the towns and forts that had suffered most 
during the war, the city of London in par¬ 
ticular being occupied and fortified (in 
886) ; in erecting new fortresses, and train¬ 
ing his people in arms and agriculture; in 
improving the navy; in systematizing the 
laws and internal administration; and in 
literary labors. 

He is also said to have divided the 
kingdom into counties, hundreds, and 
tithings, and to have made these tithings, 
etc., responsible, as far as possible, for all 
offenses committed within their bounds. 
But this system was in existence before, so 
that it is more probable that he only carried 
out a new survey of existing boundaries, 
and introduced certain alterations. He is 
also said, but upon evidence scarcely satis¬ 
factory, to have introduced the system of 
trial by jury. He protected the rights of the 
clergy, and founded monasteries at Shaftes¬ 
bury and Athelney, where he induced 
learned men to gather. 

In this age of ignorance and barbarism 
Alfred occupied himself with great zeal in 
literary pursuits and in the advancement 
of learning. As there was then in England 
scarcely one man capable of translating a 
word of Latin, he invited and encouraged 
learned foreigners to come to his court; 
and although it is a mere legend, if not a 
deliberate invention, that he founded the 
University of Oxford, he probably did some¬ 
thing for the improvement of the monastic 
school which had previously existed in that 
place. He caused many manuscripts to be 
translated from Latin, and himself trans¬ 
lated several works into Anglo-Saxon, such 
as Pope Gregory’s “ Pastoral Care,” Boe¬ 
thius on the “ Consolation of Philosophy,” 
the “ History of Orosius ” (in both omitting 
and adding passages as he pleased), Bede’s 
“ Ecclesiastical History,” and other works. 
He also compiled several original works in 
Anglo-Saxon, of which we may mention 


" Laws of the West Saxons.” He laid the 
foundation of the British navy by causing 
galleys of 60 oars to be built, which were 
as strong as any ships at that time in use. 
Under his auspices discoveries were made in 
the N., and in his “ Orosius ” he extends 
that author’s geographical outline by a 
chart of Germany, an account of the Baltic, 
and of the icy regions toward the N., which 
are remarkable for their accuracy, when we 
take into consideration the means then 
available for acquiring a knowledge of these 
places. 

These peaceful labors were interrupted, 
about 894, by the last invasion of the North¬ 
men in his reign, under the Viking Hast¬ 
ing, and after a struggle which lasted dur¬ 
ing three years, and which was rendered 
more desperate by the secession to the enemy 
of the Northumbrians and East Anglians, 
they were beaten in almost every engage¬ 
ment with the English, and in 897 their 
army being defeated part of them returned 
to the Continent. The rest were scattered 
throughout Northumbria and East Anglia 
where for some time they caused consid¬ 
erable disturbance by their piratical at¬ 
tacks on Alfred’s territories. After a final 
desperate battle with the Danes on the S. 
coast, however, Alfred succeeded in perma¬ 
nently driving the invaders from his king¬ 
dom. 

Having acquired and merited the love, 
gratitude, and veneration of his subjects, 
this illustrious prince died, Oct. 28, 901, in 
the 30th year of his reign. His history, 
considering the times in which he lived, pre¬ 
sents one of the most perfect examples on 
record of the able and patriotic monarch 
united with the virtuous man. His disposi¬ 
tion was gentle and amiable, and his bear¬ 
ing frank and affable toward all. To his 
enemies he was merciful and forgiving; and 
notwithstanding the incessant pains with 
which his body was racked, he never suffered 
his labors for the civilization and true glory 
of his country to be interrupted. Alfred 
had married, in 868, Alswith or Eallis- 
with, the daughter of a Mercian nobleman; 
she died in 902 or 905. He left two sons: 
Edward, called the Elder, who succeeded 
him; and Ethelwerd, who died in 922; his 
daughters were Etlielfleda, married to 
Ethel red of Mercia, and famous for her cam¬ 
paign against the Danish five boroughs; 
Ethelgiva, abbess of Shaftesbury; and Elfth- 
ryth, married to Baldwin, Count of 
Flanders. 

Alfred University, a co-educational (non¬ 
sectarian) institution in Alfred, N. Y.; or¬ 
ganized in 1836; has grounds and buildings 
valued at over $90,000 ; scientific apparatus, 
$45,000; income, $30,000; volumes in the 
library, 23,000; professors and instructors, 
25; students, 250; number of graduates 
since organization, over 910. 



A !g® 


Alger 


Algae, the general name for the sea¬ 
weeds and similar plants, mostly growing 
in salt and fresh water. They vary greatly 
in she pe, structure, and size. Sometimes 
they adhere to rocks, also to the bottom of 



ALGiE. 


the sea and of lakes, and sometimes they 
float on the surface. Vast masses of gulf- 
weed float in the Atlantic Ocean over an 
area called the Sargasso Sea. Some kinds 
are used for food, while others are used for 
making iodine and soda. They belong to 
the lower class of cryptogamia. 

Algebra, that department of mathematics 
which enables one, by the aid of certain 
symbols, to generalize, and, therefore, to ab¬ 
breviate, the methods of solving questions 
relating to numbers. It is now regarded as 
the most extensive department of mathemat¬ 
ics. It was called by Isaac Newton uni¬ 
versal arithmetic, employing letters of the 
alphabet as symbols of known or unknown 
quantities and signs (+, —, V — , etc.), to 
indicate addition, subtraction, and similar 
arithmetical processes. Of the letters, those 
near the beginning of the alphabet (a, b, c, 
d, etc.) usually stand for known quan¬ 
tities, and those toward its end for unknown 
ones. The difference between algebra and 
arithmetic consists in the universality of 
the former, it conclusions being true for 
any number of specific cases, while the re¬ 
sults of an arithmetical process can be ap¬ 
plied to a single case only. It has been 
discovered that the number of solutions to 
an equation is equal to that of the highest 
power of x involved, which defines the de¬ 
gree of equation. Only in equations up to 
the fourth degree, inclusive, is it possible to 
obtain a solution, that is, only in the cases 
of the quadratic, cubic, and biquadratic 
equations can values of x be found in terms 
of the known quantities, a, b, c, etc. For 
equations of higher degree, it has been dem¬ 
onstrated that no finite value of x can be 
obtained in terms of the known quantities. 
In spite of this barrier, the theory of alge¬ 
braic equations has developed enormously, 
especially in the latter half of the 19th cen¬ 
tury, the advance being made from the point 
of view of transformation of the variable, 
and the use of homogeneous expressions, 
which have led to the modern theory of in¬ 
variants, covariants, etc. In the case of 
more than one variable, algebra to a consid¬ 


erable extent coincides with modern geom¬ 
etry, the cases where two and three vari¬ 
ables are employed corresponding to the 
geometry of plane curves and of surfaces, 
respectively. Another important branch of 
modern algebra is the theory of determin¬ 
ants. The earliest extant treatise on 
algebra is that of Diophantus (4th cen¬ 
tury a. d. ). The Hindus transmitted the 
science to the Arabs, whose writings on the 
subject were brought to Italy by Leonardo 
Fibonacci (1202 a. d. ) of Pisa. Consider¬ 
able progress was made by the Italians, and 
in 1505 the equation of the third degree was 
successfully solved by Scipione del Ferro 
(Scipio Ferreus) of Bologna, though the 
solution is generally known as Cardan’s. 
About the middle of the 6th century, al¬ 
gebra was brought into England, France 
and Germany. Vi&te (1540-1603), a French¬ 
man, introduced many improvements, one 
of which was the employment of letters to 
indicate known, as well as unknown, quan¬ 
tities. Among later investigators are Des¬ 
cartes, Cauchy, Galois, Fourier, Jacobi, 
Clebsch, Cayley, Hermite, and Sylvester. In 
recent years algebra has assumed such wide 
development and importance that to treat of 
it in all of its branches is impossible in a 
single article. William E. Story. 

AJgeciras, or Algeziras (al-he-the-ras), 

a seaport on Gibraltar Bay, Province of 
Cadiz, Spain; anciently known as Portus 
Albus. It was the first landing place of 
the Moors, who held it from 713 till 1344, 
when Alfonso XI. of Castile obtained pos¬ 
session of it after 20 months’ siege. The 
city was entirely destroyed, remaining in 
ruins till 1760. In 1801 two engagements 
took place near Algeciras, between the Eng¬ 
lish and the allied French and Spanish 
fleets. In the first, the English were re¬ 
pulsed, while in the second the allies were 
routed. Algeciras has a curious and beauti¬ 
ful aqueduct constructed by the Moors. 

Alger, Cyrus, an American inventor, 
born in West Bridgewater, Mass., Nov. 11, 
1781. He learned the iron foundry business, 
and in 1809 established himself in South 
Boston, where he soon made himself widely 
known by the excellence of the ordnance he 
manufactured. He supplied the United 
States Government with a large quantity 
of cannon-balls during the war of 1812; 
produced the first gun ever rifled in Amer¬ 
ica, as well as the first perfect bronze can¬ 
non ; and supervised the casting of a mor¬ 
tar which was the largest gun of cast-iron 
that had then been made in the United 
States. Subsequently he made improve¬ 
ments in the construction of time fuses for 
bomb-shells and grenades; patented a 
method of making cast-iron chilled rolls; 
and was the original designer of the cylin¬ 
der stove. He died in Boston, Mass., Feb. 
4, 1856. 






Alger 


Algeria 


Alger, Horatio, an American writer of 
juvenile books, born at Revere, Mass., Jan. 
13, 1834; graduated from Harvard in 1852, 
settled in New York in 1866, and became 
interested in the condition of self-support¬ 
ing boys, described in his series of more 
than 50 books, including “ Ragged Dick,” 
“ Tattered Tom,” “ Luck and Pluck,” which 
became very popular. Other works: “ Noth¬ 
ing to Do: A Tilt at Our Best Society,” a 
poem (1857) ; “ Helen Ford,” a novel (1860); 
a series of juvenile biographies of Webster, 
Lincoln, Garfield, etc.; and “ The Young 
Salesman” (1896). He died in Natick, 
Mass., July 18, 1899. 

Alger, Russell Alexander, an Amer¬ 
ican merchant, capitalist, and politician, 
born in Lafayette, O., Feb. 27, 1836. He 
served in the Civil War, rising from a 
captaincy to the rank of brevet Major- 
General of Volunteers. He acquired a large 
fortune in Western enterprises, particu¬ 
larly the lumber business. He was Gov¬ 
ernor of Michigan from 1885 to 1887; a 
candidate for the Republican presidential 
nomination in 1888; Commander-in-Chief of 
the Grand Army of the Republic (1889- 
1890); and became Secretary of War in Presi¬ 
dent McKinley’s cabinet in 1897. Almost 
from the beginning of the American-Spanish 
War of 1898 he was the object of so much 
public censure for alleged shortcomings in 
his Department, that he resigned in 1899. 
in 1901 he published “The Spanish-Ameri- 
can War”; in 1903 was elected United 
States senator. He died Jan. 24, 1907. 

Alger, William Rounseville, an Ameri¬ 
can Unitarian clergyman and writer, born 
at Freetown, Mass., Dec. 30, 1822. His chief 
works, are “ History of the Doctrine of a 
Future Life” (1863); “Genius of Soli¬ 
tude ” and “ Friendships of Women.” He 
occupied pulpits in New York, Denver, Bos¬ 
ton, and San Francisco. He died Feb. 7, 1905. 

Algeria, a French colony in the N. of 
Africa; bounded on the N. by the Mediter¬ 
ranean, on the E. by Tunis, on the W. by 
Morocco, and on the S. by the desert of 
Sahara. The boundaries are not well de¬ 
fined, and many of the nominally dependent 
tribes in the more thinly peopled districts 
continue in a state of semi-independence. 
The country is divided into three provinces 
— Algiers, Oron and Constantine, of which 
the area and population are given as fol¬ 
lows in ollicial returns of March 4, 1906: 

Sq. miles. Pop. 1900 


Algiers, . 65,929 1,596,333 

Oran, . 44,616 1,099,597 

Constantine, . 73,92 9 2,025,044 


184,474 4,720,974 

The coast-line is about 550 miles in length; 
it is steep and rocky, and though the in¬ 
dentions are numerous the harbors are 
much exposed to the N. wind. The country 


is traversed by the Atlas mountains, two 
chains of which — the Great Atlas border¬ 
ing on the Sahara, and the Little or Mari¬ 
time Atlas, between it and the sea — run 
parallel to the coast. The former attains a 
height of about 7,000 feet. The intervals are 
filled with lower ranges, and numerous 
transverse ranges connect the principal ones 
and run from them to the coast, forming 
elevated table-lands and inclosed valleys. 
The Shelif, which flows into the Mediterra¬ 
nean near Mostaganem, is by much the larg¬ 
est river; the Kibir, the Isser, the Seibus, 
etc., are also considerable. There are also, 
both on the coast and in the interior, exten¬ 
sive salt lakes or marshes, which dry up to 
a great extent in summer. The principal of 
these are Melrir, Shergi, and Gharbi. The 
country bordering on the coast, called the 
Tell, is generally hilly, though in some 
places a flat and fertile plain extends be¬ 
tween the hills and the sea, and the hills 
are everywhere intersected by fruitful val¬ 
leys. The principal maritime plains are the 
Matidjah, behind Algiers, the plain of Oran, 
and that of the Shelif. In the E. of Algeria, 
S. of that part of the Little Atlas which 
bears the name of Mount Aures, there is an 
extensive hot plain which sinks in the Shott 
Melrir below the sea-level. The principal 
oases of the Sahara region are El Wad, Tug- 
gurt, and Wargla. 

About 9,000,000 acres in all are now un¬ 
der cultivation in Algeria, and produce good 
wheat, barley, oats, and pulse. After the 
various kinds of grain the olive is the most 
important object of cultivation in the coun¬ 
try, while there are now over 290,000 acres 
laid down in vines. The cultivation of fine 
sorts of vegetables occupies a great deal of 
the attention of the colonists in the vicinity 
of the town of Algiers. The growth of cot¬ 
ton is declining. Tobacco, on the other hand, 
is becoming every year a more important 
agricultural product. Wine is annually pro¬ 
duced to the amount of about 70,000,000 
gallons. The production of raw silk is on the 
increase, but the quantity is still unimpor¬ 
tant. The cultivation of the date palm is 
being extended very rapidly by artificial ir¬ 
rigation. A fiber called alfa (Macrocliloa 
arenaria), ? variety of esparto, has recently 
acquired great industrial importance, fur¬ 
nishing an excellent material for paper- 
making. It grows wild on the high plateaux 
over an area of more than 15,000 square 
miles. Agriculture in Algeria often suf¬ 
fers much from the ravages of locusts. In 
some years more than half of the crops is 
said to be destroyed by this insect. An¬ 
other great enemy that settlers on fresh 
land have to deal with is the small fan 
palm (Cliamccrops humilis ), which is found 
almost everywhere in Algeria, and is diffi¬ 
cult and costly to extirpate. The forests 
of Algeria form one of the principal 
sources of wealth of the colony, and en- 








Algeria 


Algeria 


gage the constant attention of the govern¬ 
ment. They are estimated to cover an area 
of about 8,700 square miles, but from time 
immemorial have been diminishing in ex¬ 
tent every year, partly owing to the devas¬ 
tations of the natives, who used to burn 
down large tracts before the rainy season, 
in order to make the grass grow more 
abundantly and to render it more easily ac¬ 
cessible to their flocks. Stringent meas¬ 
ures have been taken with the view of re¬ 
pressing this practice, and are said to have 
had the best results. Among the trees that 
grow in the forests of Algiers are various 
sorts of pines, the Atlas cedar, oaks (in¬ 
cluding the sweet-acorn oak (Quercus bal- 
lota) and the cork oak), the ash, myrtle, 
pistachio nut, mastic, carob, and wild olive. 

Among the domestic quadrupeds of Al¬ 
geria the horse occupies the first place. The 
Algerian horse is slender, light, and sin¬ 
ewy, and hence best adapted for racing and 
for military purposes. The mule, which the 
dry and hot climate suits well, is the ani 
mal largely used as a beast of burden. 
Horned cattle are reared everywhere and 
are remarkably abundant, but owing to the 
absence of rich pasture grass and good win¬ 
ter fodder are ill fleshed and yield hardly 
any milk. Sheep are numerous, and form 
almost the sole wealth of the most south¬ 
erly tribes. Many are exported to France. 
Pigs were unknown in Algeria till after its 
conquest by the French. 

The mineral wealth of Algeria is known 
to be very considerable, though hitherto it 
has not been utilized to any great extent. 
Iron and copper are found in great abund¬ 
ance in the Algerian mountains. As to the 
working of the mines, a commencement has 
been made with those of iron, lead, and 
copper. Valuable deposits of phosphate of 
lime exist and are now being exploited. 
Sulphur and antimony are not entirely neg¬ 
lected, and excellent lithographic stone is 
found. There are several mineral springs, 
and the ruins of baths prove that they were 
used by the ar.cient Romans. 

The trade of Algeria has greatly in¬ 
creased under French rule, and more es¬ 
pecially since its products were admitted 
into France duty free, which they were for 
the first time in 1851. France, Spain, and 
England are the countries with which the 
trade is principally carried on, and three- 
fourths of the whole trade is with France. 
The exports from this last country to Al¬ 
geria are chiefly woven fabrics and manu¬ 
factured goods of all sorts, grain, flour, 
wines, spirits, sugar, and articles of dress. 
The imports which it receives from Algeria 
are grain, sheep, cattle, wool, olive oil, raw 
hides, etc. England furnishes coal, cottons, 
iron, and metal wares, and receives barley, 
alfa, iron ore, lead ore, etc. The special 
commerce in 1000 was, imports, $62,666,- 
000; exports, $45,872,800. Besides Algiers 
13 


the principal ports are Bona, Philippeville, 
Bougie, Oran, Shershel, Tenes, Mostaganem, 
and Nemours. The manufacturing indus¬ 
tries of Algeria are naturally unimportant. 
They are chiefly confined to the making of 
morocco leather and the weaving of car¬ 
pets, muslins, and silks. French money, 
weights, and measures are generally used. 
There is a daily service of steamers to 
France, and about 2,000 miles of railway, 
the principal lines being from Algiers to } 
Oran and from Philippeville to Constan¬ 
tine. There is also a considerable network 
of telegraph lines, with more than 16,500 
miles of wire. 

Peoples .— The two principal native races 
inhabiting Algeria are Arabs and Ber¬ 
bers. The former, who inhabit chiefly 
the S. parts, are mostly true nomads, dwell¬ 
ing in tents and wandering from place to 
place. A large number of them, however, 
are settled in the Tell, where they carry on 
agriculture and have formed numerous vil¬ 
lages. The Berber race, here called Kabyles, 
are the original inhabitants of the territory 
and still form a considerable part of the 
population. They are mainly distributed 
over the mountainous parts of the province 
of Constantine, but are not wanting in the 
plains and in the other provinces. They 
preserve the ancient Berber language, but 
use Arabic characters in writing. Part of 
them have already become mixed with Arab 
tribes, and this amalgamation is still going 
on. Among the less numerous races that 
inhabited the land before the French occupa¬ 
tion, and still found there, are the Moors, a 
mixed race, partly descended from Arabic an¬ 
cestors and partly from the ancient Maure¬ 
tanians. They live in the towns and vil¬ 
lages on or near the coast, and earn a scanty 
livelihood as petty tradesmen or mechanics. 
The Jews form a small but influential part 
of the population (about 45,000). Former¬ 
ly they were subject to much oppression, but 
since their emancipation under French rule 
many of them have become wealthy and 
are increasing. Others to be mentioned are 
the Biskirh, an Arab race from the oasis of 
Biskarah; the Mozabites, an African (Ber¬ 
ber) race belonging to the oasis bordering 
on the desert; and the Kolongis, who are 
the descendants of Turkish janizaries and 
native women, and are pretty numerous In 
Algiers and other towns. There are now 
hardly any pure Turks in Algeria. Except 
the Jews all the native races of Algeria are 
Mohammedans. 

Since 1871 Algeria has been governed by 
a civil governor-general, who has supreme 
military authority and legislative powers, 
which he shares with a council appointed by 
the French government. The Sahara terri¬ 
tory, inhabited by nomad tribes, is still 
under military rule. The three provinces 
are divided into 12 departments, each of 
which is under a prefect and sub-prefects. 

A council consisting of the prefects, the 



Algeria 


Algeria 


archbishops, the military governor, and oth¬ 
er members appointed by the French gov¬ 
ernment, meets at Algiers under the presi¬ 
dency of the civil governor every October to 
deliberate on the affairs of the colony. Four 
kinds of taxes are levied on the natives: 
the achour, a tithe on cereals; the hockor, 
the rent of the land (not levied gener¬ 
ally) ; the zekkat , an impost upon cattle; 
and the lezma, a sort of tax upon capital, 
levied only on the nomad tribes of Sahara. 
All the taxes are levied in money. The 
revenue and expenditure of the colony are 
about $11,000,000 each annually. The mili¬ 
tary expenditure and the expenditure for 
the administration of justice and public 
worship are included in the general budget 
of France. Algeria is represented both in 
the senate and chamber of deputies of the 
mother country. 

History .— The country now called Al¬ 
geria was known to the Romans as Nu- 
midia. The two most powerful tribes were 
the Massyli to the E., and the Massiesyli to 
the W. Masinissa, prince of the former, 
took part with the Romans in their war 
with the Carthaginians, and was rewarded 
with the title of King of Numidia and the 
greater part of the territories of his rival 
Syphax, Prince of the Masssesyli, who had 
sided with the Carthaginians (202 b. c.). 
About 150 years later Juba, one of the suc¬ 
cessors of Masinissa, sided with Pompey 
against Caesar, and his kingdom was an¬ 
nexed to the Roman province of Africa (46 
b. c.). Algeria was valuable to the Romans 
for its supplies of grain. It flourished 
under their rule, and early received the 
Christian religion. Algeria was conquered 
by the Vandals in A. d. 430-431, and re¬ 
covered by Belisarius for the Byzantine 
empire in 533-534. About the middle of 
the 7th century it was overrun by the Sara¬ 
cens, and after this time divided into nu¬ 
merous petty states, most of which re¬ 
lapsed into barbarism. The town of Algiers 
was founded about 935 by Yussef Ibn Zeiri, 
and the country successively fell under the 
Moorish dynasties of the Zeirides, Almora- 
vides, and Almohades. After the overthrow 
of the empire of the Almohades by the 
Merinides, about 1269, Algeria broke up in¬ 
to a number of small independent terri¬ 
tories. A separate kingdom grew up under 
a Merinide dynasty at Tlemcen in the W. 
of Oran, and the towns of Algiers, Oran, 
Bougie, and Tenes acknowledged at first no 
external authority, although they were ulti¬ 
mately rendered tributary by the kingdom 
of Tlemcen. The Moors and Jews who were 
driven out of Spain by Ferdinand and Isa¬ 
bella at the end of the 15th century settled 
in large numbers in Algeria, and revenged 
themselves on their persecutors by the prac¬ 
tice of piracy. On this account various ex¬ 
peditions were made by Spain against Al¬ 
geria, and by 1510 the greater part of the 


country was made tributary. A few years 
later the Algerians, who disliked the Span¬ 
ish yoke, invited to their assistance the 
Turkish pirate Horush (or Haruj) Barba • 
rossa, who became Sultan of Algiers in 1516, 
and organized there a system of piracy which 
was long the terror of European commerce, 
and was never wholly suppressed till the 
French occupation. His brother and succes¬ 
sor Hayraddin (Khair-ed-din) put Algiers 
under the protection of Turkey (about 1520). 
He fortified the town and made a strong 
mole to protect his ships. In this work he 
is said to have employed 30,000 Christian 
slaves for three years. The Algerian jani¬ 
zaries were regularly recruited in Turkey. 
About 1600 they obtained from the porte 
the right to choose among themselves a 
dey, who was to share the power with the 
pasha deputed by the sultan. From this 
time frequent disputes arose between the 
deys and pashas, till in 1710 the pasha 
was expelled and the dey became supreme 
ruler with a nominal dependence on the 
porte. 

From this time the internal history of 
Algiers presents little remarkable beyond 
the frequent bloody revolutions of the serag¬ 
lio accomplished by the janizaries, who al¬ 
lowed few deys to die a natural death. The 
depredations of the Algerian pirates were 
a continual source of irritation to the Chris¬ 
tian powers, who sent a long series of ex¬ 
peditions against them. In 1815 a United 
States fleet defeated an Algerian one off 
Cartagena, and forced the dey to agree 
to a peace in which he recognized the Amer¬ 
ican flag as inviolable. In 1816 Lord 
Exmoutli led an expedition against the Al¬ 
gerians, which bombarded Algiers (Aug. 27- 
28), exacted a treaty according to which 
all the Christian slaves were at once re¬ 
leased, the sums paid as ransom for Italian 
captives were restored, and the dey under¬ 
took for the future to treat all his prison¬ 
ers of war as the European law of nations 
demanded. The piratical practices of the 
Algerians were nevertheless soon renewed, 
and went on till the French fitted out the 
final expedition of conquest in 1830. They 
gave a pledge to the British government 
that their occupation of the country was not 
to be final, but this was afterward with¬ 
drawn, and Great Britain acquiesced in its 
withdrawal on condition that Tunis and Mo¬ 
rocco should not be disturbed. Algiers was 
occupied on July 5, and measures were soon 
after taken to subdue the interior. The dey 
(Hussein) had retired, and the country was 
without a government, but resistance was 
organized by Abd-el-Kader, an Arab chief 
whom the emergency had raised up. He be¬ 
gan his warfare with the French by an at¬ 
tack on Oran in 1832, and after an obsti¬ 
nate struggle the French, in February, 1834, 
consented to a peace with him, in which 
they acknowledged him as ruling over all 





Algeria 


Algin 


the Arab tribes W. of the Shelif by the title 
of Emir of Maskara. This peace was, how¬ 
ever, soon broken. In June, 1835, the 
French general Trezel, then commanding in 
Oran, headed an expedition against Abd-el- 
Kader, which terminated in the complete 
defeat of the French on the Makta (June 
28). Drouet d’Erlon, the first governor- 
general, to whose weakness the advances of 
Abd-ed-Kader were attributed, was now re¬ 
called, and was succeeded by Marshal Clau- 
zel. Clauzel was successful in capturing 
Maskara, the center of Abd-el-Kader’s pow¬ 
er; but the failure of an expedition to the 
Tafna and the defeat of General d’Arlenges 
on this river in April, 1830, raised the in¬ 
fluence of the emir to the highest pitch, 
and occasioned the outbreak of a petty war¬ 
fare in other parts of the land. While this 
was happening in the W. Clauzel undertook 
an expedition against Constantine, which 
completely miscarried, and in consequence 
of this the marshal was recalled in Febru¬ 
ary, 1837. General Damremont, his suc¬ 
cessor, resolved first of all to ell'ect at any 
cost the capture of Constantine, and in or¬ 
der to have his hands free made peace with 
Abd-el-Kader (May, 1837), leaving to him 
the whole of Western Algeria except some 
coast towns. On Oct. 13, Constantine was 
taken by storm. Damremont, however, had 
been killed the previous day. The subjuga¬ 
tion of the province of Constantine fol¬ 
lowed. 

Meanwhile, Abd-el-Kader was gradually 
strengthening himself and preparing for 
another conflict with the French, and in 
November, 1838, he suddenly broke into 
French territory with a superior force. 
The French governor, Marshal Valee, found 
it expedient to confine himself to defensive 
operations, and for a time the supremacy of 
the French was endangered. In the autumn 
of 1841 Saida, the last fortress of Abd-el- 
Kader, fell into Bugeaud’s hands, after 
which the only region that held out against 
the French w T as that bordering on Morocco. 
Early in the following year this also was 
conquered, and Abd-el-Kader found himself 
compelled to seek refuge in the adjoining 
empire. From JVlorocco Abd-el-Kader twice 
made a descent upon Algeria, on the second 
occasion defeating the French in two bat¬ 
tles; and in 1844 he even succeeded in rais¬ 
ing an army in Morocco to withstand tho 
French. Bugeaud, however, crossed the 
frontier, and in August inflicted a severe 
defeat on this army at Isly, while the 
French fleet, under the Prince de Joinville, 
bombarded the towns on the coast. 4 he 
Emperor of Morocco was at length com¬ 
pelled to agree to a treaty, in which he not 
only promised to refuse Abd-el-Kader his 
assistance, but even engaged to lend his 
assistance against him. 

Deduced to extremities Abd-el-Kader sur¬ 
rendered on Dec. 27, 1847. Contrary to 


the conditions of surrender ho was at first 
taken to France and treated as a prisoner, 
but was afterward released on his personal 
engagement not to return to Algeria by 
Prince Louis Napoleon, when President of 
the French liepublic. In 1848 Algeria ob¬ 
tained the right to send deputies to the 
French National Assembly. The country 
was yet far from subdued; the Kabyles in 
particular, and the Arabs in the S. made 
protracted resistance, and rose again and 
again in insurrection against the yoke 
which was attempted to be imposed on 
them. Algeria thus became a school for 
French generals. Pelissier and Canrobert 
repressed the rebellious Kabyles in 1849. 
In 1851 St. Arnaud subdued Little Kabylia. 
In 1852 Macmahon succeeded against East¬ 
ern Kabylia, and in 1850 Great Kabylia was 
subdued by General Kandon. An Arab rebel¬ 
lion occured in 1859. In 1804 Macmahon, 
who succeeded Pelissier as governor-general, 
put down another insurrection of the Arabs, 
and in 1S05 a partial insurrection occurred 
in Oran. At this time the emperor, who 
had visited the colony, introduced consid¬ 
erable modifications into the government. 
Fresh disturbances broke out in the S. near¬ 
ly every year till 1871, when, during the 
Franco-German War, a great effort was 
made to throw off the French yoke. It 
was, however, completely suppressed, and 
a civil government w r as in the same year 
established, instead of the obnoxious mili¬ 
tary government in the N. parts of the 
colony. 

Algiers, city and capital of Algeria. It 
consists of a lower European town and an 
upper Moorish town. The first has a ca¬ 
thedral and an exchange. The latter con¬ 
tains several mosques and the Kasbah, the 
ancient fortress of the deys. It is strongly 
fortified, has two dry-docks, and a harbor 
inclosed by two moles. There are two islands 
opposite, from which it takes its name. The 
town is a favorite winter health resort. It 
has considerable trade; exports wine, wheat, 
coral, and olive oil. It was for a long time 
the chief rendezvous of the Algerian pirates; 
was bombarded by the British under Lord 
Exmouth, in 1816, and was taken by the 
French in 1830. Pop. (190G) 138,240. 

ABvin, a jelly-like substance found in 
marine algae. It was discovered in 1881 by 
E. C. C. Stanford, of Glasgow. If the leaf¬ 
like tlialli of a laminaria are immersed in 
water containing a little carbonate of soda, 
the whole cellular fabric of the plant be¬ 
comes broken up in the course of 24 hours, 
forming a thick gelatinous mass containing 
about 2 per cent, of algin. This mass, af¬ 
ter being cautiously heated, is filtered 
through coarse linen, and the cellulose left 
behind amounts, when dry, to from 10 to 15 
per cent, of the air-dried plant. The solu¬ 
tion which passes through the filter contains, 






Algoa Bay 


Alhambra 


in addition to the algin in the form of al¬ 
ginate of soda, some mucilage and dextrine. 
When sulphuric or hydrochloric acid is 
added, the algin, or, more correctly speaking, 
the alginic acid, separates in flocks, and is 
easily washed and pressed into a compact 
cake not unlike new cheese. Chemically, it 
it a nitrogenous organic acid, and is the in¬ 
soluble form of algin. When required for 
use in a soluble state, it is redissolved to 
saturation in solution of carbonate of soda, 
when alginate of soda is again formed. The 
properties of algin in the soluble form are 
those of a very viscous gum, drying up to 
a transparent elastic film. As a size or 
dressing for textile fabrics, algin goes fur¬ 
ther and does more work than starch or any 
of the ordinary gums, and has the advan¬ 
tage of being easily rendered insoluble in 
water. Algin makes an excellent thicken¬ 
ing for soups, and, with the addition of a 
little gelatine or isinglass, is serviceable for 
jellies. The insoluble form of algin, in the 
dry state, resembles horn, and can be turned 
and polished. It is a by-product of the 
manufacture of iodine and is used in the 
preparation of photographic paper. 

Algoa Bay, a bay on the S. E. coast of 
Cape Colony, Africa; about 420 miles E. of 
the Cape of Good Hope. At its entrance, 
formed by Cape Woody on the N. E. and 
Cape Recife on the S. W., it has a width of 
33 miles. Its shelter is very valuable, as 
there is no other refuge for ships during 
the N. W. gales. The usual anchorage is 
off Port Elizabeth, at the mouth of the 
Baakens, where there is now a large and 
increasing trade. 

Algol, a fixed star in Medusa’s head, in 
the constellation Perseus. Technically of 
2*4 magnitude, it really varies from the 
2d to the 4th magnitude in 3 V 2 hours, 
remaining thus for about 20 minutes. In 
314 hours more it is again of the 2d mag¬ 
nitude, at which it continues for 2 days and 
13 hours, after which the same series of 
changes takes place again. This variation 
is explained by the supposition that some 
invisible body revolves about Algol, par¬ 
tially eclipsing it. A study of the times of 
these eclipses has led to the supposition that 
Algol and its satellite may revolve every 
150 years around some third body also as 
yet invisible and undiscovered, and that 
they are at a distance from each other of 
over 3,000,000 miles. W. H. Pickering. 

Algonkian, or Algonquian, an Indian 
linguistic stock, originally the most ex¬ 
tensive in North America. It extended 
southward from Labrador to Pamlico Sound, 
N. C., and westward from Newfoundland to 
the Rocky Mountains, comprising about 40 
tribes, each with a separate language and 
numerous dialects. Some of these tribes 
banded together into confederacies, the most 
important being the Abnaki or Illinois, Pow¬ 


hatan, and Seksika or Blackfoot. The re¬ 
maining tribes are the Micmac, Malecite, 
Massachuset, Wampanoag, Narraganset, 
Nipmuc, Pennacook, Pequot, Mohegan, Mo¬ 
hican, Metoac, and Wappinger, on the North 
Atlantic coast; Munsi, Leni-Lenape or Dela¬ 
ware, Shawano, Nanticoke, Conoy, Matta- 
muskeet, on the South Atlantic coast; Nas- 
capi, Montagnais, Algonkian, Ottawa, Mus¬ 
kegon, Cree, Ojibwa, Misisaga, Miami, 
Piankishaw, Illinois, Sac, Fox, Kickapoo, 
Pottawotomi, Menomini, in the interior, and 
Atsina, Arapaho, and Cheyenne in the W. 
Tradition places the original home of all 
these tribes on the North Atlantic coast. 

Constant wars with the English, French, 
and Dutch colonists depleted their numbers. 
Filled at first with the idea of freeing the 
soil from the whites, they afterward degen¬ 
erated into mere mercenaries, fighting on 
either side for revenge or gain. After the 
War of 1812, in which they took the side 
of the British, the United States Government 
resolved to send them as far W. as possible. 
After 1840, few of them remained E. of the 
Mississippi. In Canada, they were not re¬ 
moved from their homes, but were limited as 
to territory. War and disease have thinned 
their number, until only 37,000 remain in 
the United States, and" 03,000 in Canada. 
The chief occupations of the Algonkians 
were hunting, fishing, and corn raising. In 
character they were brave, strong, and in¬ 
telligent, but lacking in steadfastness. They 
were not so united a3 the Iroquois, owing 
to the multiplicity of their languages. 

Alhama, a town of Spain, on the Motril; 
25 miles S. W. of the town of Granada. 
This place is celebrated for its warm me¬ 
dicinal (sulphur) baths and drinking wa¬ 
ters, and also for its romantic situation be¬ 
tween craggy mountains. The principal 
bath was a Moorish edifice, the smaller 
was circular in form and probably a Ro¬ 
man erection. The town was thrown com¬ 
pletely into ruins by an earthquake shock 
in 1884. Washington Irving, in his “ Chron¬ 
icle of Granada,” gives a spirited account 
of the taking of Alhama, “ the key of 
Granada,” from the Moors, by Rodrigo 
Ponce de Leon, Marquis of Cadiz, in Febru¬ 
ary, 1482. 

Alhambra, v tlie famous palace of the 
Moorish kings of Granada, situated on a 
hill N. of the town of Granada. It is in¬ 
closed in a walled area of 35 acres. The 
chief entrance to the inclosure is by a 
horseshoe arch, called the Gate of Judg¬ 
ment, 28 feet high, surmounted by a square 
tower. From this a narrow passage leads 
to the Plaza de los Algibes, where, on the 
left, is the ruined Alcazaba, the fortress of 
the Alhambra, and on the right is an unfin¬ 
ished palace of Charles V. Behind the lat¬ 
ter is the Alhambra. Outside, the palace is 
cold and plain looking, but within, in the 



All 


Alien 


most ornate style of the East, are many 
halls, porticoes, courts, chambers, gardens, 
and mosaic pavements in red, blue, and yel¬ 
low colors. The stone lacework is co”ered 
with inscriptions from the Koran and Arabic 
poetry. The Court of the Myrtles contains 
a large fish pond, and the famous Alhambra 
vase, discovered in the 16th century and 
dating from 1320. It is nearly 5 feet high, 
and is enameled in white, blue, and gold. 

The Hall of the Ambassadors, the largest 
in the Alhambra, is contained within the 
tower of Comares, on the N. wall. The 
Court of the Lions is one of the most no¬ 
table of the courts, having a length of 116 
and a breadth of 66 feet. It is surrounded 
by a gallery supported by white marble pil¬ 
lars. Its pavements and walls are covered 
with colored tiles; and in its center is the 
Fountain of the Lions, an alabaster basin 
supported by 12 lions of white marble, out 
of whose mouths spouted the water from the 
basin. The Hall of the Abencerrages, the 
most beautiful one in the palace, is sur¬ 
rounded by an arcade with marble arches. 
This hall was the scene about 1480 of the 
massacre of the family of the Abencerrages, 
by King Boabdil. Opposite is the Hall of 
the Two Sisters, which takes its name from 
two large slabs of marble, each 15 feet 
long, which are embedded in the floor. The 
ceiling is made of about 5,000 stalactites, 
giving a curious and beautiful effect. The 
palace wae begun by Ibn-l-Ahmar in 1248, 
and was completed by Mohammed III. in 
1314. It was taken by the Spaniards in 
1401, and was entered by Ferdinand and 
Isabella in 1402. It suffered at the hands 
of Charles V., and the French blew up sev¬ 
eral of its towers. It was partially restored 
by Queen Isabella in 1802, and in 1800 was 
damaged by fire. In spite of its neglected 
condition, the Alhambra is the most remark¬ 
able and most perfect specimen of Moorish 
art to be found in Europe. 

Ali, the fourth Mohammedan caliph 
(050-001), surnamed “the Lion of God,” a 
cousin of Mohammed, and the husband of 
the Prophet’s daughter, Fatima. He sup¬ 
pressed a rebellion instigated by Ayesha, 
Mohammed’s widow, but was outwitted in 
an arbitration with Moawiya, governor of 
Syria, who wrested.the caliphate from him. 
Ali lost Egypt, Syria and Persia, and while 
raising a military force to regain his rights, 
was assassinated by one of the Karigite 
sect, formerly his supporters. His follow¬ 
ers considered him a martyr, and upon the 
question of his claim to the caliphate the 
whole Moslem world was divided into two 
great religious parties, the Shiahs, who as¬ 
serted his right, and the Sunnites, who dis¬ 
allowed it. 

Ali, an adventurer, known as Ali Bey; 
originally an Abkhasian slave; born in 


1728; rose to be a bey of the Mamelukes. 
He made himself independent of the Porte 
and was proclaimed Sultan of Egypt (1768). 
He conquered Syria and part of Arabia, but 
was defeated, in 1773, by a revolting army 
led by his son-in-law, and died a few days 
after of wounds or of poison. 

Alias, in law, a term used to indicate the 
various names under which a person who 
attempts to conceal his true name and pass 
under a fictitious one is ascertained to have 
passed during the successive stages of his 
career. 

Alibi, in law, a plea that the person ac¬ 
cused of having committed a crime was 
elsewhere at the time when the breach of the 
law occurred. If he substantiate this, he is 
said to prove an alibi. In Scotland the de¬ 
fendant must give notice of a special de¬ 
fense of alibi, stating where he was when 
the crime was committed. In England and 
the United States this notice is not re¬ 
quired. 

Alicante, a seaport of Spain; capital of 
the Province of Alicante; the ancient Lu- 
centum. It is situated at the foot of a 
cliff 850 feet high, which is crowned by the 
Fort of Santa Barbara. It has one of the 
best harbors on the Mediterranean, and car¬ 
ries on a considerable trade, exporting wine, 
fruit, esparto grass, etc. It was bom¬ 
barded in 1873 by two vessels sent out by 
Cartagena insurgents. Pop. (1900) 50,142. 

Alien, any person not legally within the 
jurisdiction of a country as one of its citi¬ 
zens. By the laws of the United States, the 
children of male citizens, whether born 
within the country or abroad, are held to 
be citizens; but all other foreign born in¬ 
dividuals are aliens until made citizens by 
naturalization. In the United States aliens 
are nominally prohibited from acquiring 
title to real estate, but in practice they may 
own lands subject to proceedings by the 
State to determine the fact of alienage; and, 
moreover, in nearly all the States there are 
special provisions removing such restric¬ 
tions from resident aliens who are in the 
course of naturalization. The rights of 
aliens to hold personal property and carry 
on trade are the same as those of citizens. 
In time of war, however, aliens belonging 
to the country of the enemy cannot make 
contracts with citizens or resort to the 
courts except as accorded such privileges by 
special treaties. Naturalized aliens are 
subject to political disabilities as follows: 
They are permanently disqualified for elec¬ 
tion as President or Vice-President, and they 
cannot become members of the National Sen¬ 
ate or House of Representatives until they 
have been citizens for nine or seven years 
respectively. In Great Britain there is no 
discrimination whatever between aliens and 



AH Ferrough Bey 


Aliment 


subjects as far as property rights are con¬ 
cerned. It is held by British law that the 
children of aliens born in Britain are na¬ 
tural born subjects. In all Christian coun¬ 
tries the tendency of legislation concerning 
aliens shows increasing liberality, although 
it is still the policy of the Latin nations, 
in their colonies, to limit materially the 
trade advantages of foreigners. 

Ali Ferrough Bey (al'e-fer-rog'), a Turk¬ 
ish diplomatist and author, born in Con¬ 
stantinople in 18G5; was educated at the 
National University in Paris; became sec¬ 
retary of the embassies in London, Paris and 
Bucharest, counselor of the embassy in St. 
Petersburg, and, in 1895, minister to the 
United States. Among his publications are 
a “ History of Turkey,” and a “ History of 
Arabia.” 

Alighieri. See Dante. 

Aliment, a term which includes every¬ 
thing serving as nutriment for organized 
beings. Generally, however, the word ali¬ 
ment is used for what serves as nutriment 
to animal life. In the present article we 
shall coniine ourselves chielly to the ali¬ 
ment of mankind. Man, it is well known, 
derives nourishment both from animal and 
vegetable substances. He eats fruits, both 
ripe and unripe, roots, leaves, flowers, and 
even the pith and bark of different plants, 
many different parts of animals, and the 
whole of some. Climate, custom, religion, 
the different degrees of want and civiliza¬ 
tion, give rise to an innumerable diversity 
of food and drink, from the repast of the 
cannibal savage to that of the Parisian 
epicure. Some nations abhor what others 
relish, and great want often renders ac¬ 
ceptable what, under other circumstances, 
would have excited the greatest disgust. 
The flesh of dogs is commonly eaten in 
China. Locusts are eaten both in Asia and 
Africa; the negroes on the coast of Guinea 
relish lizards, mice, rats, snakes, caterpil¬ 
lars, and other reptiles and worms; and 
there are several classes of people who eat 
with a relish certain kinds of clay. 

All kinds of aliment must contain nutri¬ 
tious substance, which, being extracted by 
the act of digestion, enters the blood, and 
effects by assimilation the repair of the 
body. Alimentary matter, therefore, must be 
similar to animal substance, or transmuta- 
able into such. In this respect alimentary 
substances differ from medicines, because 
the latter retain their peculiar qualities in 
spite of the organs of digestion, and will 
not assimilate with the animal substance, 
but act as foreign substances, serving to 
excite the activity of particular organs or 
systems of the body. All alimentary sub¬ 
stances must, therefore, be composed in a 
greater or less degree of soluble parts, 
which easily lose their peculiar qualities in 
the process of digestion, and correspond to 


the elements of the body. The aliments of 
animals are for the most part substances 
containing little oxygen and exhibiting a 
high degree of chemical combination, in 
which respects they differ from most sub¬ 
stances that serve as sustenance for plants, 
which are generally highly oxidized and ex¬ 
hibit little chemical combination. Accord¬ 
ing to the nature of their constituents most 
of the aliments of animals are divided into 
nitrogenous (consisting of carbon, hydro¬ 
gen, and oxygen along with nitrogen, and 
also of sulphur and phosphorus), and ani- 
trogenous (consisting of carbon, hydrogen, 
and oxygen without nitrogen). Water and 
salts are usually considered as forming a 
third group, and, in the widest sense of 
the word aliment, oxygen alone, which en¬ 
ters the blood in the lungs, forms a fourth. 
The articles used as food by man do not 
consist entirely of nutritious substances, 
but with few exceptions are compounds of 
various nutritious with indigestible and ac¬ 
cordingly innutritious substances. The only 
nitrogenous aliments are albuminous sub¬ 
stances, and these are contained chiefly in 
animal food (flesh, eggs, milk, cheese). 
The principal anitrogenous substance ob¬ 
tained as food from animals is fat. Sugar 
is so obtained in smaller quantities (in 
milk and eggs). Very few vegetable sub¬ 
stances contain much albumen, while they 
are generally rich in starch. Among veg¬ 
etable substances the richest in albumen 
are the legumes and wheat flour, which con¬ 
tain a good deal of gluten. Fats, sugar, 
water, and salts may pass without any 
change into the circulatory system; but 
albuminous substances cannot do so without 
being first rendered soluble and capable of 
absorption (in the stomach and intestines), 
and starch must be converted into sugar 
(by the action of the saliva and pancreatic 
juice). One of the objects of cooking is to 
make our food more susceptible of the oper¬ 
ation of the masticatory and digestive 
fluids. 

The relative importance of the various 
nutritious substances that are taken into 
the system and enter the blood depends 
on their chemical constitution. The al¬ 
buminous substances are the most indispen¬ 
sable, inasmuch as they form the material 
by which the constant waste of the body is 
repaired, whence they are called by Liebig 
the substance-formers. But a part of the 
operation of albuminous nutriment may bo 
performed equally well, and at less cost, by 
anitrogenous substances, that part being 
the maintenance of the temperature of the 
body. As is well known, the temperature 
of warm-blooded animals is considerably 
higher than the ordinary temperature of 
the surrounding air, in man about 98° F., 
and the uniformity of this temperature ia 
maintained by the heat which is set free 
by the chemical processes (of oxidation) 




Aliment 


Alin 


which go on within the body. Now these 
processes take place as well with anitrog- 
enous as with nitrogenous substances. The 
former are even preferable to the latter for 
the keeping up of these processes, inas¬ 
much as they do not require to be digested 
before fulfilling that function, and they 
are hence called the heat-givers. The best 
heat-giver is fat. Albuminous matters are 
not only the substance-formers of the body; 
they also supply the vehicle for the oxygen, 
inasmuch as it is of such matters that the 
blood corpuscles are formed. The more red 
blood corpuscles an animal possesses, the 
more oxygen can it take into its system, and 
the more easily and rapidly can it carry on 
the process of oxidation and develop heat. 
Now only a part of the heat so developed 
passes away into the environment of the 
animal; another part is transformed within 
the body (in the muscles) into mechanical 
work. Hence it follows that the anitrogen- 
ous articles of food produce not merely heat 
but also work, but only with the assistance 
of albuminous matters, which, on the one 
hand, compose the working machine, and on 
the other hand, convey the oxygen neces¬ 
sary for oxidation. 

Organs of digestion in a healthy state 
dissolve alimentary substances more easily, 
and take up the nutritious portions more 
abundantly, than those of which the 
strength has been impaired, so that they 
cannot resist the tendency of each sub¬ 
stance to its peculiar chemical decomposi¬ 
tion. The wholesome or unwholesome char¬ 
acter of any aliment depends, therefore, in 
a great measure, on the state of the digest¬ 
ive organs in any given case. Sometimes 
a particular kind of food is called whole¬ 
some because it produces a beneficial effect 
of a particular character on the system of 
an individual. In this case, however, it is 
to be considered as a medicine, and can be 
called wholesome only for those whose sys¬ 
tems are in the same condition. Very often 
a simple aliment is made indigestible by 
artificial cookery. The addition of too 
much spice makes many an innocent aliment 
injurious, because spices resist ‘die action 
of the digestive organs, and produce an irri¬ 
tation of particular parts of the system. 
They were introduced as artificial stimu¬ 
lants of appetite. In any given case the 
digestive power of the individual is to be 
considered in order to determine whether 
a particular aliment is wholesome or not. 
In general, therefore, we can only say that 
that aliment is healthy which is easily solu¬ 
ble, and is suited to the power of diges¬ 
tion of the individual; and in order to ren¬ 
der the aliment perfect, the nutritious parts 
must be mixed up with a certain quantity of 
innocent substance affording no nourish¬ 
ment, to fill the stomach, because there is 
no doubt that many people injure their 
health by taking too much nutritious food. 


In this case the nutritious parts which can¬ 
not be dissolved act precisely like food 
which is in itself indigestible. Man is fitted 
to derive nourishment both from animal 
and vegetable aliment, but can live exclu¬ 
sively on either. Animal food most readily 
augments the solid parts of the blood, the 
fibrin, and therefore the strength of the 
muscular system, but disposes the body at 
the same time to inflammatory, putrid, 
and scorbutic diseases. On the contrary, 
vegetable food renders the blood lighter and 
more liquid, but forms weak fibers, and 
disposes the system to the diseases which 
spring from feebleness. The nations of tho 
North incline generally more to animal ali¬ 
ments ; those of the South and the Orientals, 
more to vegetable. 

Alimentary Canal, the alimentary tube; 
the great tube or duct by which food is 
conveyed into the stomach, and from which 
the waste and undigested food is excreted. 
It consists of the mouth, the pharynx 
(throat), the oesophagus (gullet), the 
stomach, the small intestine (including the 
duodenum, jejunum and ileum), the large 
intestine (caecum and colon), and the rec¬ 
tum, and is about 25 feet long. Into it open 
the duets from the liver and from the pan¬ 
creas, carrying respectively bile and pan¬ 
creatic fluid. 

Alimony, in law, the allowance, awarded 
out of her husband’s estate, to which a wife 
is entitled on separation or divorce. Juris¬ 
diction in this matter in England rested 
with the ecclesiastical court until 1857, 
when it was conferred upon a court of di¬ 
vorce. In the United States it is vested in 
the courts of equity. Alimony may be 
granted by the court during litigation, in 
which case it is known as pendente lite 
(during the suit) ; or at the conclusion of 
the suit, when it is called permanent. The 
former enables the wife to pursue the litiga¬ 
tion, whether proceedings have been brought 
by or against her. The amount granted lies 
within the discretion of the court. Perma¬ 
nent alimony is a periodical allowance, 
awarded to the wife if the termination of 
the suit is favorable to her. By a writ of ne 
exeat (let him not depart), the court can 
prevent the husband from leaving the State 
without leaving sufficient security for pay¬ 
ment. If the husband should remove to an¬ 
other State the wife can enforce her claim 
in the Federal courts. 

Alin, Oscar Josef, a Swedish historian, 
born in 1846; professor in the University at 
Upsala. He instructed the Princess Vic¬ 
toria of Baden, afterward Crown Princess 
of Sweden, in Swedish history and litera¬ 
ture. In 1888 he became a member of the 
Upper Chamber of the Parliament. He has 
written many monographs on the history of 
Sweden. 





Ali Pasha 


Alison 


Ali Pasha, a famous pasha of the vilayet 
of Janina; immortalized by Byron in the 
second canto of “ Childe Harold.” As the 
outcome of a half century’s incessant war¬ 
ring against hostile tribes a considerable 
tract of territory was added to his domin- 
ion; but at length, the Ottoman court be¬ 
coming jealous, he was assassinated at its 
command. 

Alis, Hippolyte Percher, a French nov¬ 
elist and journalist, born at Couleuvre, Oct. 
7, 1857. He has contributed to various 
Paris journals, and is the author of several 
naturalistic novels, among which are 
“ Hara-Kari ” (1882) ; “ A Daughter of the 
Soil” (1885); “Some Foolish People” 
(1889). 

Alishan, Leon M.,an Armenian poet and 
historian, born in Constantinople, July 30, 
1820. He studied in Venice, where he took 
orders in 1840, and was appointed professor 
in the College Raphael, of which he became 
director in 1848. Having taken charge of 
the Armenian College in Paris, in 1858, he 
returned to Venice in 1805 as director of 
St. Lazare. He is regarded by his country¬ 
men as their leading poet. Among his nu¬ 
merous writings are “ Poems Complete ” 
(1857-1867); “Popular Songs of the Ar¬ 
menians” (1807); “Historical Monographs ” 
(1870); “History and Geography of Ar¬ 
menia” (1885), which was seized and sup¬ 
pressed by the Turkish authorities. 

Alison, Archibald, a Scottish writer, 
born in Edinburgh, Nov. 13, 1757. The 
charm of his pulpit oratory drew general 
attention to his published sermons; and by 
his “ Essay on the Nature and Principles of 
Taste ” and kindred themes, he won an ac¬ 
knowledged but inconspicuous position in 
literature. He died in Edinburgh, May 17, 
1839. 



SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON. 


Alison, Sir Archibald, a Scottish histo¬ 
rian, son of the above, born at Kenley, 

Shropshire. Dec. 29, 1792. His father hav¬ 
ing in 1800 accepted the pastorate of the 


Oowgate Episcopal Church, Alison became 
a student of the University of Edinburgh, 
and carried oil' the highest honors in Greek 
and mathematics. In 1814 he was admit¬ 
ted to the Scottish bar, but spent the next 
eight years in continental travel, and was 
an eye-witness of many of the exciting 
events which he has described. On his re¬ 
turn he was appointed advocate-depute, 
which post he held till 1830. During this 
period he was constantly amassing and ar¬ 
ranging the materials for his “ Principles 
of the Criminal Law of Scotland,” which 
appeared at Edinburgh in 1832, and is a 
standard authority both at home and 
abroad. In 1833 he issued a supplement to 
this work, “ The Practice of the Criminal 
Law.” He was appointed sheriff of Lanark¬ 
shire in 1834; in 1845 he was elected lord- 
rector of Marischal College, Aberdeen; and 
in 1851 a like honor was conferred on him 
by the students of the University of Glas¬ 
gow. The Derby administration conferred 
a baronetcy on him in 1852, and in the fol¬ 
lowing year he received the title of D. C. L. 
from Oxford. His magnum opus — “ The 
History of Europe from 1789 to 1815 ” was 
first issued in 10 volumes in 1833-1842. He 
subsequently brought down the narrative to 
1852, the date of the birth of the second 
French empire. This work displays great 
industry and research, is generally candid 
and accurate, but is open to the charge at 
once of prolixity and dryness. Its popu¬ 
larity, however, has been immense, as it 
filled a void in our historical literature, 
and edition after edition has been called 
for both in Great Britain and America; and 
it has been translated into French, German, 
Arabic, Hindustani, etc. Along with this 
work must be mentioned an “ Atlas to Ali¬ 
son’s History of Europe,” illustrating in a 
series of 100 maps and plans the cam¬ 
paigns, battles, and sieges during the period 
embraced by the history (London, 1847- 
1848). Among Sir Archibald Alison’s other 
productions are: “Principles of Population 
in Relation to Welfare of Humanity”; 
“ Free Trade and Protection ”; “ England in 
1815 and 1845”; “Life of the Duke of 
Marlborough”; and shortly before his last 
illness he was engaged upon a “ Life of 
Lord Castlereagli.” He died in Glasgow, 
May 23, 1807. 

Alison, Sir Archibald, a British sol* 
dier; born in Edinburgh, Jan. 21, 1826. He 
served in the Crimean War, being present 
at the siege of Sebastopol; was in India 
during the mutiny, and commanded the 
European brigade in the Ashantee expedi¬ 
tion of 1873-1874. In 1882 after the bom¬ 
bardment of Alexandria, he was in com¬ 
mand of that place till the arrival of Lord 
Wolseley, by whom he was succeeded. He 
commanded the Highland brigade at Tel- 
el-Kebir, and was commander-in-chief in 
Egypt in 1882-1883. He wrote a treatise 








Alivval 


Alkaloid 


which was entitled “ On Army Organiza¬ 
tion ” (1809). He died Feb. 5, 1997. 

Aliwal, a village in India near the S. 
bank of the Sutlej. Here on Jan. 28, 1840, 
the British under Sir Harry Smith defeated 
a Sikh force with great slaughter after a 
severe engagement. 

Alwar, a semi-independent State of In¬ 
dia; its area is about 3,000 square miles, 
and it lias a pop. of about 800,000. The 
capital is Alwar. Pop. 52,500. 

A1 izarin, the coloring matter used in the 
dyeing of Turkey red, exists in the madder 
root as a glucoside, which, when boiled with 
acids or alkalies, gives glucose and alizarin. 
But in 1809 Grsebe and Liebermann discov¬ 
ered a method of manufacturing it from the 
coal-tar product anthracene; this synthe¬ 
sis being the first instance o/ the artificial 
production of a natural coloring matter. 
The manufacture of alizarin is now one of 
the most important branches of the coal-tar 
coloring industry, and threatens to put an 
end to the growing of madder root. The 
formula is, C 14 H N 0 4 =C 12 IL(C0.0H) 2 . 

Alkahest, or Alcahest, the universal 
Bolvent of the alchemists. See Alchemy. 

Alkali, a strong base, capable of neutral¬ 
izing acids, so that the salts formed are 
either completely neutral, or, if the acid is 
weak, give alkaline reactions. It was form¬ 
erly restricted to the hydrates of potas¬ 
sium. sodium, lithium and ammonium, but 
now includes the hydrates of alkaline earths 
(baryta, strontia and lime) and many or¬ 
ganic substances. Alkalies are more or less 
soluble in water. They precipitate the 
heavy metals from most of their acid solu¬ 
tions. They turn reddened litmus blue, tur¬ 
meric paper brown, and most vegetable pur¬ 
ples green; they have a soapy taste, and 
form soaps with fats. The volatile alkalies 
are ammonia and the amines of organic 
chemistry: their salts are volatilized at a 
moderate heat. The term alkali usually 
means, in commerce, caustic soda or potash, 
impure, NaHO or KHO; both are used in 
the arts for the manufacture of glass and 
soap, and for many other purposes. Caus¬ 
tic potash is used in surgery as a cautery. 

Alkalimetry, the process of determining 
the purity of alkalies. Commercial potash 
and soda* contain foreign substances, such 
as sulphate of potash, common salt, sili¬ 
cates, oxide of iron, water, etc., which di¬ 
minish the percentage of real alkali. The 
alkalimeter furnishes a simple and ready 
means of determining the proportion of 
pure carbonate of potash or soda contained 
in any sample. It consists of a graduated 
glass tube, filled with diluted sulphuric 
acid, and containing as much absolute sul¬ 
phuric acid as would neutralize a given 
weight, say 100 grains, of carbonate of pot¬ 


ash. One hundred grains of the article to 
be judged of is then dissolved in water, and 
as much acid is gradually added to it from 
the tube as to neutralize the solution, that 
is, take up all the alkali. The purer the 
article, the more of the acid will be re¬ 
quired ; and if the tube, which is divided 
into 100 degrees, has been emptied to the 
80°, the impure article contains 80 per 
cent, of pure carbonate of potash. The 
point at which neutralization is complete is 
determined by means of colored tests. 
Formerly, the two vegetable colors, litmus 
and turmeric, were alone U3ed for this pur¬ 
pose, addition of an alkali rendering litmus 
blue and turmeric reddish brown; while un¬ 
der the influence of acids the former changes 
to a red, the latter to a yellow (red in the 
case of boracic acid). It is not, however, 
always easy to recognize the neutral point, 
and other indicators (as these coloring mat¬ 
ters are called) have come into use. The 
chief of these are methyl-orange and phe- 
nolphthalein. A mixture of the alcoholic 
solutions of these substances imparts a 
pale yellow color to strictly neutral liquids, 
which is changed to deep red by the least 
trace of alkali, and to pink by a trace of 
acid. 

This method of determining the strength 
of alkalies is called the alkalimetric proc¬ 
ess; but the alkalimeter is not confined in 
its use to the estimation of the strength of 
alkaline substances. It is likewise employed 
in the determination of the strength of 
acids, such as sulphuric acid, hydrochloric 
acid, nitric acid, and acetic acid or vinegar. 
For this end, the graduated instrument is 
charged with a solution of an alkali of 
known strength, such as a given weight of 
crystallized carbonate of soda (washing 
soda), dissolved in water, and according 
to the number of divisions of the liquid 
poured from the alkalimeter, the strength 
of the acid into which the alkaline liquid 
has been decanted is calculated. The latter 
application of this instrument is called aci- 
dimetrv. Again, the same graduated glass 
tube has been recently employed in many 
other ways, such as the determination of 
the strength of a solution of silver, by 
charging the instrument with a known or 
standard solution of common salt. This 
mode of analysis is every day becoming of 
more and more importance, and, in fact, has 
given rise to a new department of analytical 
chemistry, which has been designated volu¬ 
metric analysis. 

Alkaloid, a substance resembling an al¬ 
kali in properties. Alkaloids are natural 
organic bases containing nitrogen, and hav¬ 
ing high molecular weights. They occur in 
many plants, and some in animal tissues; 
they hnve not, except conine, been formed 
by synthesis. They are substitution com- 




Alkoran 


Allegheny 


pounds of ammonia; most are tertiary am¬ 
ines. They form salts with acids, and 
double salts with platinic chloride. They 
are generally crystalline bodies, soluble in 
hot alcohol, sparingly soluble in water. 
They have mostly a bitter taste, act power¬ 
fully on the animal system, and are used in 
medicine as quinine, morphine, and strych¬ 
nine; they are often violent poisons. The 
names of most of the alkaloids end in ine, 
as, theine, which occurs in tea and coffee. 

Alkoran. See Koran. 

Allah ( compounded of the article al and 
ildh — i. e., “ the god,” a word cognate with 
the Hebrew Eloah ), the Arabic name of the 
supreme god among the heathen Arabs, 
adopted by Mohammed for the one true God. 
See Mohammed and Mohammedanism. 

Allahabad. (1) A division of British In¬ 
dia; has an area of 17,264 square miles, 
is one of the most fertile and populous por¬ 
tions of India. Fop. (1901) 5,535,803. 

(2) A district of the above division, lying 
around the junction of the Jumna and 
Ganges. Area 2,852 square miles. Pop. 
(1901) 1,487,904. (3) The capital of the 

division of Allahabad; at the confluence of 
the Ganges and Jumna; seat of government 
of the Northwestern Provinces; 72 miles W. 
of Benares. It is an important railway 
center, and carries on a large trade, espe¬ 
cially in sugar, cotton, indigo,gold and silver 
ornaments, and furniture. It is a resort 
of Hindu pilgrims and the seat of an annual 
fair, called magh meld, usually attended by 
about 250,000 persons. The native town is 
mostly mean and ill-built, but the European 
quarter is well laid out. Among the prin¬ 
cipal buildings are the fort founded by 
Akbar Khan in 1575, the Juma Masjid 
mosque, Sultan Khusru’s caravansary, and 
the Muir Central College (1874). The town 
was taken by the British in 1765, and as¬ 
signed by them to the titular Emperor of 
Delhi, but transferred to the Nawab of Oudh 
in 1771, who restored it to the British in 
1801. It suffered severely during the mu¬ 
tiny of 1857. Pop. (1901) 172,032. 

Allain=Targe, Francois Henri Rene (al- 
an-tar-zha'), a French politician, lawyer 
and journalist, born in 1832. He was ad¬ 
mitted to the bar in 1853, and from 1861 
to 1864 held the post of procureur-generale 
at Angers. In 1868 he became editor of the 
“ Avenir National,” making a specialty of 
financial questions. He was elected in 1870 
prefect of Maine and Loire; in 1871 and 
1874 member of the Paris Municipal Coun¬ 
cil; Minister of Finance under Gambetta 
(1881), and Minister of the Interior under 
Brisson (1885). He decided in 1889 to 
abandon political life. 

Allan, David, an eminent painter known 
as “ the Scotch Hogarth,” born in 1744. 
He studied art for 16 years in Rome, gain¬ 


ing a gold medal for historical composition 
in 1773. In 1777 he began to paint por¬ 
traits in London, and in 1786 became the 
head of an academy of art at Edinburgh. 
Among his most celebrated pictures are 
“ The Origin of Portraiture ” and the il¬ 
lustrations for Allan Ramsay’s “ Gentle 
Shepherd.” He died in 1796. 

Alleghanies, a word used as synonymous 
with the Appalachian Mountains (q. v.), 
sometimes applied only to that portion of 
the system which extends from Pennsyl¬ 
vania to North Carolina, and which forms 
the watershed between the Atlantic and the 
Mississippi. It is also used in a still more 
restricted sense. The ridges, 2,000 to 2,400 
feet high, are remarkable for their paral¬ 
lelism and regularity, all the main valleys 
being longitudinal. Composed of stratified 
rocks of the Silurian, Devonian and Carbon¬ 
iferous ages, they are rich in coal, iron and 
limestone, and their forests supply valuable 
timber. 

Allegheny, a former city in Allegheny 
co., Pa.; at the confluence of the Allegheny 
and Monongahela rivers; opposite the city 
of Pittsburg, with which it was consolidated 
in 1907. The union of the two cities, as the 
Greater Pittsburg, was so recent that, to 
preserve the distinctive interests of each, 
they are treated in this work as separate 
communities. See Pittsburg. Allegheny 
has a total river frontage of over 33,000 
feet; covers an area of nearly 5,000 acres; 
and has an undulating surface rising to a 
height of nearly 700 feet above low water 
mark. 

Business Interests .— Allegheny is a dis¬ 
tinctively manufacturing city, the principal 
plants being iron and steel rolling mills, 
cotton and woolen mills, foundries, machine 
shops, locomotive works, tanneries, air-brake 
and glass works, and flour mills. In 1900 
there were reported 893 manufacturing es¬ 
tablishments, employing $50,122,503 capital 
and 21,844 persons, paying $12,450,623 for 
wages and $29,478,781 for materials; and 
having a combined output valued at $54,- 
136,967. There are 8 National banks, 
with an aggregate capital of $1,000,000, and 
many private banking houses. The assessed 
property valuation in 1900 exceeded $80,- 
000 , 000 ! 

Public Interests .— In 1899 the city had 
162 miles of streets, of which 83 miles were 
paved; 79 miles of sewers; 135 miles of 
water mains; and electric lighting and water 
plants, both owned by the city. The note¬ 
worthy buildings include the Anderson and 
Carnegie Public Libraries, Western Uni¬ 
versity of Pennsylvania, Allegheny Observ¬ 
atory, Western Penitentiary, Presbyterian, 
United Presbyterian, and St. John’s Hos¬ 
pitals; Presbyterian, Reformed Presbyter¬ 
ian, and United Presbyterian Theological 
Seminaries: Allegheny Orphan Asyium; 



Allegheny College 


Allen 


Home of the Friendless, United States Ar¬ 
senal, Humboldt, Washington, Armstrong, 
Union Soldiers’, and Hampton Battery mon¬ 
uments; City Hall; the Davis Island movable 
dam, for the improvement of navigation; 
and, among more than 80 churches, St. 
Peter’s (Roman Catholic), Trinity (Evan¬ 
gelical Lutheran), North Avenue (Metho¬ 
dist Episcopal), Second (United Presby¬ 
terian), and Sandusky Street (Baptist). 
Public school property exceeds $2,000,000 in 
value, and over 33,000 pupils are enrolled. 

History .— Allegheny was laid out as a 
town in 1738; created a borough in 1828, 
and chartered as a second class city in 1840. 
Pop. (1890) 105,287; (1900) 129,896. 

James G. Wyman. 

Allegheny College, a co-edueational 
(Methodist Episcopal) institution in Mead- 
ville, Pa.; organized in 1815; has grounds 
and buildings valued at over $500,000; 
scientific apparatus, $35,000; volumes in 
the library, 25,000; productive funds, $565,- 
000; income, $55,000; professors and in¬ 
structors, 25; students, 425; number of 
graduates since organization, over 1,580. 

Allegheny River, a river of Pennsyl¬ 
vania and New York; a headstream of the 
Ohio. It rises in Potter county, Pa., and 
joins the Monongahela at Pittsburg. Among 
its tributaries are French creek, Clarion, 
and Conemaugh rivers. Its length is about 
400 miles, and it is navigable for about 150 
miles above Pittsburg. 

Allegiance, the duty owing from a citi¬ 
zen to the State or community which af¬ 
fords him protection. Natural or implied 
allegiance is the obedience which every na¬ 
tive or naturalized citizen owes to the State 
or community in which he lives. B} r enjoy¬ 
ing the benefits of a society he comes under 
an implied obligation to defend it. Express 
allegiance is the obligation arising from a 
promise or an oath. Local or temporary al¬ 
legiance is the obedience which a foreigner 
owes to the laws of the country in which he 
lives. In the United States, allegiance is 
due first and principally to the Federal Con¬ 
stitution and Government, 'and second, to 
the State Constitution and government in 
and under which a citizen resides. When 
children of citizens of the United States are 
born in a foreign land, they still owe alle¬ 
giance to the United States. 

Allegory, a figurative presentation of a 
subject, which carries with it another mean¬ 
ing besides the literal one. It is as often 
used in painting, sculpture, and other imi¬ 
tative arts as in language, although it is 
usually considered rhetorical. Like the fable 
and the parable, it has an underlying moral, 
but is more fully carried out. It is meta¬ 
phor extended to the minutest details, as in 
“ Pilgrim’s Progress.” In all countries and 
ages, allegory has been found by the poets 


a means of vividly setting before their read¬ 
ers the abstract virtues and vices that might 
otherwise be unintelligible. Personification 
of an idea has proved a sure way of making 
it understood. It is held by some that the 
whole of ancient mythology is formed on 
this plan. An excellent example of allegory 
is the comparison of Israel to the vine, in 
the 80th Psalm. The scholarly apostle, Paul, 
did not disregard the allegoric method. 
Modern writers have made abundant use of 
allegorical pictures as the simplest avail¬ 
able means of rendering their thoughts alive 
to their readers. 

Allegri, Gregorio (ill-a'gre), an Italian 
composer, celebrated for a “ Miserere,” sung 
annually at the Sistine Chapel. He was 
born in 1587, and died in 1640. His “Mis¬ 
erere ” was forbidden to be copied on pain 
of excommunication, but the composer Mo¬ 
zart wrote it out from memory after having 
heard it once. 

Allegro, as adjective cv adverb: (1) In 
ordinary language ~ gay, marry, cheerful. 
(Milton's “Allegro and Penseroso.”) (2) 
In music = gay, joyful, mirthful, sprightly, 
and, by implication, quick in time. It is 
the fourth of the five grades of musical pace 
and character, largo, adagio, andante, al¬ 
legro, presto. 

Allen, Charles Herbert, an American 
diplomatist, born in Lowell, Mass., April 15, 
1848; was graduated at Amherst College in 
1869; became associated with his father in 
the lumber business in Lowell; served in 
both branches of the State Legislature, and 
in Congress in 1885-1889; was defeated as 
the Republican candidate for governor of 
Massachusetts in 1891; and succeeded Theo¬ 
dore Roosevelt as Assistant Secretary of the 
Navy, in May, 1898. On the passage by 
Congress of the Porto Rico Tariff and Civil 
Government bill, in April, 1900, the Presi¬ 
dent appointed him the first civil governor 
of Porto Rico, an office which he resigned 
in July, 1901. 

Allen, Edward P., an American_ clergy¬ 
man, born in Lowell, Mass., March 17, 1853; 
worked in the Lowell mills as a boy, ac¬ 
quiring his early education at an evening 
school and from local priests; was gradu¬ 
ated at Mount St. Mary’s College, Emmits- 
burg, Md., in 1878; took a course in theol¬ 
ogy; ordained a Roman Catholic priest in 
1881; was president of Mount St. Mary’s 
College in 1884-1897; and on May 16, of 
the last year, was consecrated fifth Bishop 
of Mobile, Ala. 

Allen, Elizabeth Akers, an American 
poet, born (Elizabeth Chase) at Strong, 
Me., Oct. 9. 1832. She was married in 1860 
to Paul Akers, the sculptor, who died in 
1861, and in 1865 to E. M. Allen, of New 
York. Her first volume, '* Forest Buds,” 
appeared und( r the pen name of “ Florence 




Allen 


Allee 


Percy” (1855). Other works: “ The Silver 
Bridge and Other Poems” (1806); a vol¬ 
ume of “Poems” (1860), which contains 
“Pock Me to Sleep, Mother” (her author¬ 
ship of this popular ballad, once disputed, 
is proved in the New York “ Times,” May 
27, 1867); “The High Top Sweeting and 
Other Poems ” (1891). 


Allen, Ethan, an American Revolutionary 
hero, born at Litchfield, Conn., Jan. 10, 
1737. His services in the War of Independ¬ 
ence, as Colonel of the “ Green Mountain 

Boys,” capturing 
Fort Ticonderoga 
“ in the name of 
the GreatJehovah 
and the Continen¬ 
tal Congress,” his 
attack on Montre¬ 
al, sufferings as 
a prisoner in 
England, skillful 
diplomacy in be¬ 
half of Vermont, 
etc., are well 
known. He wrote 
an account of his 
captivity (1799), 
“A Vindication of 
(1784), and “ Allen’s Theology, or 



ETHAN ALLEN 


Vermont 


the Oracles of Reason” (1784), in which 
he declared reason to be the only oracle of 
man. He died near Burlington, Vt., Feb. 
12, 1789. 

Allen, George William, a Canadian 

statesman, born in Toronto, in 1822; called 
to the bar in 1846; became Senator in 1867. 
For many years he was chairman of the 
Committee on Banking and Commerce. In 
1891 he was made a member of the Queen’s 
Privy Council for Canada. He presented 
the city of Toronto with the ground on 
which is built the Canadian Institute. He 
was for a long time Chancellor of the Uni¬ 
versity of Toronto. 

Allen, Grant (Charles Grant Blair- 
findie Allen ), an English naturalist, es¬ 
sayist, and novelist, born in Kingston, Can¬ 
ada, Feb. 24, 1848. He graduated from Ox¬ 
ford, and was professor at Queen’s College, 
Jamaica, until he settled in England. He 
early became a follower of Charles Darwin 
and Herbert Spencer, and was author of 
scientific essays in a light, picturesque, and 
attractive style. After 1883 he produced a 
large number of novels, many of which are 
based on a psychological theme. Probably 
the best among them are “ Babylon ” (1885), 
and “ The Devil’s Die ” (1888). His latest 
is “Under Sealed Orders” (1896). He 
died Oct. 25, 1899. 


Allen, James Lane, an American novel¬ 
ist, born near Lexington, Ky., in 1850. He 
graduated at Transylvania University, 
taught there for a time, and became sub¬ 


sequently Professor of Latin and English in 
Bethany College. His fame rests mainly 
upon his powerful and popular novels of 
manners and people in the “ blue grass ” 
region and elsewhere, the best known being 
“ Summer in Arcadv ” (1896) ; “ The Choir 
Invisible” (1897); “A Kentucky Cardinal,” 
and “ Aftermath.” 

Allen, Joel Asaph, an American mam- 

malogist, born in Springfield, Mass., July 
19, 1838. He went with Agassiz on his 
expedition to Brazil in 1865; became assist¬ 
ant in ornithology at the Cambridge Mu¬ 
seum of Comparative Zoology in 1870, and 
was appointed curator of the department 
of vertebrate zoology in the American Mu¬ 
seum of Natural History, New York, in 1885. 

Allen, Joseph Henry, an American Uni¬ 
tarian minister, educator, historian, and 
essayist, born at Nortliboro, Mass., Aug. 21, 
1820. His chief publications were: “Ten 
Discourses on Orthodoxy” (second edition, 
1889) ; “Hebrew Men and Times” (second 
edition, 1879); “Outline of Christian His¬ 
tory” (1884): “Our Liberal Movement in 
Theology” (1889) ; “Positive Religion, Es¬ 
says, Fragments, and Hints” (1891). He 
was editor of the “Allen and Greenough 
Series ” of Latin classics, of the “Unitarian 
Review,” and the “ History of Unitarian- 
ism.” He died March 20, 1898. 

Allen, Thomas, an American landscape 
and animal painter, born at St. Louis, 
Mo., Oct. 19, 1849. After an education in 
St, Louis, he graduated from the Royal 
Academy at Dusscldorf, Germany. He stud¬ 
ied in France; exhibited his first picture at 
the Academy of Design in New York, and 
at the salons at Paris; finally became mem¬ 
ber of the Paint and Clay Club of Boston; 
vice-president of the Boston Art Students* 
Association; member of the committee of 
the School of Drawing and Painting of the 
Boston Museum of Fine Arts. 

Allen, William, an American preacher 
and miscellaneous writer, born at Pittsfield, 
Mass., Jan. 2, 1784; died at Northampton, 
Mass., July 16, 1868. He became president 
of Dartmouth .College in 1817, was presi¬ 
dent of Bowdoin College, 1820-1839. Of nu¬ 
merous works, both in prose and verse, the 
best known is “ American Biographical and 
Historical Dictionarv.” 

Allen, William Henry, an American 

naval officer, born at Providence, R. I., in 
1784. He entered the navy in 1800, and was 
in some of the greatest naval battles in 
American history. For bravery displayed 
on the “ Chesapeake ” and “ United States,” 
he was made commander of the brig “ Ar¬ 
gus,” in June, 1813. Having taken the 
American Minister to France, he went to the 
Irish Channel, where he did great damage 
to English commerce, capturing in a month 
27 ships, one of which had a cargo Avorth 
$500,000. In a few days the “ Argus ” was 





Allen 


Alligator 


taken by the English brig “Pelican” In 
the battle Allen was shot, and died soon 
after (1813) ; was buried with military 
honors in Plymouth, England. 

Allen, William Henry, an American 
educator, born March 27, 1808; educated 
at Bowdoin College; served several colleges 
a^s Professor of Latin, Greek, Chemistry, 
Natural Philosophy, and English Litera¬ 
ture; President of Girard College, Philadel¬ 
phia (1850-1802, and 1807-1882); and 
President of the American Bible Society 
from 1872 till his death, Aug 29, 1882. 

Allen, William Vincent, an American 
politician, born in 1847; leader in the Peo¬ 
ple's or Populist Party; became Senator 
from Nebraska in 1893. At the memorable 
special session of 1893, he took a prominent 
part in opposing the repeal of the Silver- 
Purchase Act, holding the lloor of the Sen¬ 
ate on one occasion for 15 consecutive hours. 
He was chairman of the Populist National 
Convention of 1896, and was instrumental 
in obtaining the indorsement of William 
Jennings Bryan by that body for President. 

Allen, Willis Boyd, an American writer, 
born in Maine in 1855. Besides a collection 
of verse, entitled “ In the Morning,” he has 
written a large number of works for young 
people, among which are “ The Red Moun¬ 
tain of Alaska,” “Pine Cones” (1885); 
“Silver Rags” (1886); “Kelp” (1888), 
and “ The Mammoth Hunters.” 

Allenstein (al'en-stln), a city in the dis¬ 
trict of Allenstein, Province of East Prus¬ 
sia, on the river Alle; founded in 1353; has 
iron foundries, machine works, match fac¬ 
tory, breweries, trade and agricultural 
schools, cattle, and horse markets, and an 
insane asylum; trade in linen, hops, and 
wood. On Feb. 4, 1807, Soult defeated the 
rear guard of the Russian and Prussian 
army near the bridge over the Alle, between 
Allenstein and Gutstadt. Pop. (1891) 
18,800. 

Allentown, city and county-seat of Le¬ 
high co., Pa.; on the Lehigh river and 
canal and several railroads; 60 miles N. of 
Philadelphia. It is built on high ground 
and is surrounded by a beautiful and fertile 
country. The city is noted for its manufac¬ 
tories, which include blast furnaces, iron 
and steel rolling mills, wire works, hosiery 
and thread factories, silk works, and fur¬ 
niture and shoe factories. Allentown is the 
seat of Muhlenberg College (Lutheran): 
It has gas and electric light plants, 2 Na¬ 
tional banks, an assessed property valua¬ 
tion of over $20,000,000, ami several periodi¬ 
cals. Pop. (1900) 35,410; (1910) 51,916. 

All Fool’s Day. See April. 

AlFHallows’ Eve, the 31st of October, 
the evening before All-Hallows. Till re¬ 
cently it was kept up (especially in Scot¬ 
land) with ceremonies which have appar¬ 


ently come down from Druidical times 
Though connected with All-Saints’ Hay (1st 
of .November), yet it seems to have been for¬ 
merly a merry making to celebrate the end 
of autumn, and help to fortify the mind 
against the advent of winter. 

Alliance, a city in Stark co., O.; on 
the Mahoning river and the Alliance and 
Northern and the Pennsylvania Co.’s rail¬ 
roads; 56 miles S. E. of Cleveland. It is in 
an agricultural region; is the seat of Mount 
Union College (Methodist Episcopal) ; and 
has a National bank, manufactories of drop 
forgings, steam hammers, boilers, white lead, 
terra cotta ware, and agricultural imple¬ 
ments, and daily, weekly, and monthly peri¬ 
odicals. Pop. (1910) 15,083. 

Allibone, Samuel Austin, an American 
bibliographer, born at Philadelphia, April 
17, 1816. He was at one time librarian of 
the Lenox Library, New York. He was the 
author of a “ Dictionary of English Liter¬ 
ature, and British and American Authors ” 
(3 vols., 1854-1871; supplement by Dr. 
John Foster, 2 vols., 1891); “Poetical 
Quotations,” “ Prose Quotations,” etc. It 
took 20 years to write the Dictionary, 
which is familiar in libraries the world 
over wherever English is spoken. He died 
at Lucerne, Switzerland, Sept. 2, 1889. 

Alligator, the name of a large reptile be¬ 
longing to the order Crocodilia derived from 
a corruption of the Spanish el lagarto, that 
is the lizard, from the Latin lacertus, a liz¬ 
ard. These reptiles are confined to the riv¬ 
ers of the New World, in which they typ¬ 
ically represent the crocodiles of the Eastern 
Hemisphere. The best-known species are 
the Alligator lucius, or alligator of the 
Southern States of North America; the 
cayman of Surinam and Guiana (A. palpe- 
brosus), and the spectacled alligator (A. 
sclerops), found in Brazil. The alligators 
have the hind legs rounded, and the feet 
only partially webbed. Owen defines this 
genus as that in which the fourth tooth of 
the lower jaw is larger than the others, 
and forms a canine, while this tooth is re¬ 
ceived into a pit in the palatal surface of 
the upper jaw, and is thus entirely con¬ 
cealed when the mouth is shut. In the 
water the full-grown alligator is a formida¬ 
ble animal, on account of its great size and 
strength. It grows to the length of 15 or 
20 feet, is covered above by a dense armor 
of horny scales, impenetrable to a musket 
ball, except about the head and shoulders, 
and has a huge mouth, armed with a row 
of strong, unequal, conical teeth. These 
reptiles swim or dart along through the 
water with wonderful celerity, impelled by 
their long, laterally-compressed, and pow¬ 
erful tails, which serve as very efficient oars. 
On land their motions are proportionally 
slow and embarrassed, because of the length 




Alligator 


Allingham 


and umvieldiness of their bodies, the short¬ 
ness of their limbs, and the small, false 
ribs, which reach from joint to joint of their 
necks, and render lateral motion very diffi¬ 
cult. In addition to the usual number of 
ribs and false ribs, they are furnislied with 
others, for the protection of the belly, which 
do not rise up to the spine. The lower jaw 
extends farther back than the skull, so that 
the neck must be somewhat bent when it is 
opened; the appearance thus produced has 
led to the very universal error of believing 
that the alligator moves its upper jaw, 
which is incapable of motion, except with 
the rest of the body. 

Under the throat of this animal are two 
openings or pores, the excretory ducts from 
glands which pour out a strong, musky 
liuid, giving the alligator its peculiarly un¬ 
pleasant smell. In the spring of the year, 
when the males are under the excitement 
of the sexual propensity, they frequently 
utter a loud roar, which, from its harsh¬ 
ness and reverberation, resembles distant 
thunder, especially where numbers are at 
the same time engaged. At this period fre¬ 
quent and terrible battles take place be¬ 
tween the males, which terminate in the 
discomfiture and retreat of one of the par¬ 
ties. At this season, also, an old cham¬ 
pion is seen to dart forth on the surface of 
the water, in a straight line, at first as 
swiftly as lightning, gradually moving more 
slowly as he reaches the center of a lake; 
there he stops, inflates himself by inhaling 
air and water, which makes a loud rattling 
in his throat for a moment, till he ejects 
it with vast force from his mouth and nos¬ 
trils, making a loud noise, and vibrating his 
tail vigorously in the air. Sometimes after 
thus inflating himself, with head and tail 
raised above the water, he whirls round 
till the waves are worked to foam and at 
length retires, leaving to others an oppor¬ 
tunity of repeating similar exploits, which 
have been compared to an Indian warrior 
rehearsing his acts of bravery, and exhibit¬ 
ing his strength by gesticulation. 

The females make their nests in a curious 
manner, on the banks of rivers, or lagoons, 
generally in the marshes, along which, at a 
short distance from the water, the nests are 
arranged somewhat like an encampment. 
They are obtuse cones four feet high, and 
about four feet in diameter at the base, 
built of mud and grass. A floor of such 
mortar is first spread upon the ground, on 
which a layer of eggs, having hard shells, 
and larger than those of a common hen, 
are deposited. Upon these another layer of 
mortar, seven or eight inches in thickness, 
is spread, and then another bed of eggs; 
and this is repeated nearly to the top. 
From 100 to 200 eggs may be found in one 
nest. It is not ascertained whether each 
female watches her own nest exclusively, or 
attends to more than her own brood. It is 


unquestionable, however, that the females 
keep near the nests, and take the young 
under tlieir vigilant care as soon as they are 
hatched, defending them with great perse¬ 
verance and courage. The young may be 
seen following the mother through the 
water like a brood of chickens following a 
hen. When basking in the sun on shore, 
the young are heard whining and yelping 
about the mother, not unlike young puppies, 
In situations where alligators are not ex¬ 
posed to much disturbance the sites of the 
nests appear to be very much frequented, 
as t lie grass and reeds are beaten down for 
several acres around. The young, when 
first hatched, are very feeble and helpless, 
and are devoured by birds of prey, soft- 
shelled turtles, etc., as well as by the male 
alligators, until they grow old enough to 
defend themselves. As the eggs are also 
eagerly sought by vultures and other ani¬ 
mals, the race would become speedily ex¬ 
tinct, but for the great fecundity of the 
females. 

The alligator is generally considered as 
disposed to retire from man, but this is 
only to be understood of alligators fre¬ 
quenting rivers or waters wlieie they are 
frequently disturbed, or have learned to 
dread the injuries which man inflicts. In 
situations where they are seldom or never 
interrupted, they have shown a ferocity and 
perseverance in attacking individuals in 
boats, of the most alarming character; en¬ 
deavoring to overturn them, or rearing their 
heads from the water, and snapping their 
jaws in a threatening manner. Bartram, 
who had made many interesting and valu¬ 
able observations on the alligators, gives 
numerous instances of their daring and 
ferocious disposition, and himself very 
narrowly escaped with his life on several 
occasions. At present, alligators, though 
still numerous in Florida and Louisiana, 
are no longer regarded as very dangerous. 
Their numbers annually decrease as their 
haunts are intruded on by man, and at no 
distant period they must be nearly, if not 
quite, exterminated. In the winter the alli¬ 
gators spend a great part of their time in 
deep holes, which they make in the marshy 
banks of rivers, etc. They feed on fishes, 
reptiles, small quadrupeds (dogs if they 
can get them), or carrion, and, though very 
voracious, they are capable of existing a 
long time without food. 

The cayman of South America is distin¬ 
guished by the bony rings which surround 
its eyes, and by the absence of a membrane 
between its toes. It is smaller and not so 
fierce as others of the same species. 

Alligator Swamp, an extensive marsh 
in North Carolina, occupying the greater 
part of the peninsula between Pamlico and 
Albemarle Sounds. 

AUingham, William, an Irish poet, born 
at Baliyshannon, March 10, 1S28. Having 



Allison 


Alloway 


for some years been an officer in the cus¬ 
toms, he became assistant editor of “ Fra¬ 
ser’s Magazine,” in 1871, and succeeded 
Froude as editor in 1874, when he also mar¬ 
ried Helen Paterson, the illustrator and 
water color artist. His graceful poems ex¬ 
cel in descriptions of Irish scenery and life; 
some of them were illustrated by Rossetti, 
Kate Greenaway, and other distinguished 
artists. Prominent among his works is 
“Lawrence Bloomfield in Ireland” (18G4), 
a narrative poem on contemporary Irish life. 
He died near London, Nov. 18, 1889. 

Allison, William Boyd, an American 
legislator, born in Perry, O., March 2, 1829; 
was brought up on a farm ; and subsequently 
educated at Allegheny College, Pa., and 
Western Reserve College, O. He practiced 
law in his native State till 1857, when he 
removed to Dubuque, la. In the early part 
of the Civil War he served on the governor’s 
staff, and was actively engaged in raising 
troops for the Union army. In 1863-1871 
he was a representative in Congress; and on 
March 4, 1873, entered the United States 
Senate as a Republican, to which he was re¬ 
elected, 1878, 1884, 1890, 1896, and 1903. He 
was a delegate to the Republican National 
Convention in Chicago, in 1860; and several 
times was a conspicuous candidate for the 
presidential nomination of his party. In 
the session of the Senate, beginning Dec. 4, 
1899, he was Chairman of the Committee on 
Appropriations. See Bland Silver Bill. 
He died Aug. 8, 1908. 

Alliteration, the succession or frequent 
occurrence of words beginning with the same 
letter. In the older Scandinavian, German, 
and Anglo-Saxon poetry it served instead 
of rhyme. It is found in early English 
poetry with the same function. It had as 
thus used a certain regularity of accent and 
emphasis. Tn “ Piers Plowman,” the line is 
constructed with two hemistichs, the former 
with two words beginning with the alliter¬ 
ative letter, and the latter with one, thus: 

'* Her robe was full rich with red scarlet 
engreyned.” 

The poetry of widely separated nations 
exhibits this device, it being found in India 
and in Finland. It still remains in the 
Icelandic poetry. Early in the 17th cen¬ 
tury, English writers ran to great extrava¬ 
gance in the use of alliteration, both in prose 
and poetry. It is said that preachers from 
their pulpits addressed their hearers as 
“ chickens of the church,” and “ sweet swal¬ 
lows of salvation.” No other device of com¬ 
position so easily lends itself to fanciful 
conceits or ingenious trifling. The ease with 
which devices may be marshaled would 
hardly tend to make the ordinary reader 
appreciative of Churchill’s description of 
himself as one 

“Who often, but without success, had prayed 
For apt alliteration’s urtful aid.” 


Apart from a certain music or petty 
rhythm, alliteration as a device of composi¬ 
tion is hardly superior to paronomasia, 
though to be found at times in the works of 
all the great poets. 

Allobroges, in ancient history, a warlike 
people of Gaul, who inhabited the territory 
between the Rhone and the Isar, extending 
to Lake Geneva. They appear in the annals 
of Hannibal’s expedition to Gaul (218 b. 
c.), and, although subjugated and made 
tributary to Rome by Quintus Fabius Max¬ 
imus, were always ready for revolt. 

Allodium, or Allodial Tenure, the abso¬ 
lute ownership of landed property unbur¬ 
dened by any rent or service due a superior. 
In most European countries where feudal 
tenure arose, it grew up by individual sur¬ 
render of allodial tenure; consequently al¬ 
lodial tenure continued in some measure to 
exist along with the other. In England the 
feudal tenure was established by one uni¬ 
versal national act, at the Council of Sarum; 
hence arose the legal fiction that all land 
belongs to the crown. Allodial tenure, how¬ 
ever, is said to exist in the Orkney and Shet¬ 
land Islands, which once belonged to Den¬ 
mark. In the United States and in the 
British colonies the land tenure is allodial. 

Allopathy, a system of medicine — that 
ordinarily practiced — the object of which 
is to produce in the bodily frame another 
condition of things than that in or from 
which the disease has originated. If this 
can be done the disease, it is inferred, will 
cease. Allopathy is opposed to homoeopathy, 
which aims at curing diseases by producing 
in antagonism to them symptoms similar to 
those which they produce; the homoeopathic 
doctrine being that “ like is cured by like.” 

Allophylian, in ethnology, a term intro¬ 
duced by Prichard to characterize the na¬ 
tions or races of Europe and Asia not be¬ 
longing to the Indo-European, the Syro- 
Arabian, or the Egyptian races. It has all 
but fallen into disuse, having been super¬ 
seded by Turanian. 

ASSotropic, pertaining to allotropy; exist¬ 
ing in diverse states, as the diamond in the 
form of the hardest of minerals, and also 
of charcoal. 

Allotropy, or Allatropy, the name given 
by Berzelius to the variation of properties 
which is observed in many substances. For 
instance, there are some minerals which 
crystallize in two distinct and unallied forms 
of crystals. This dimorphism is a case of 
allotropy. So, also, there is a variety of 
sulphur which is soluble, and another which 
is insoluble: and a common, and again an 
amorphous, phosphorus dilfering in their 
qualities. 

Alloway, Burns’ birthplace, and the scene 
of his “ Tam o’ Shanter,” lies on the right 
bank of the “ bonny Doon ” 2 miles S. of tha 




Alloway 


Alloy 


V)wn of Ayr. The “ auld clay biggin,” in 
which the poet was born on Jan. 25, 1759, 
was in 1880 converted into a Burns Museum. 
The “ haunted kirk ” still stands, a roofless 
ruin, near the “ auld brig;” and close by 
is the Burns monument (1820). 

Alloway, Thomas Jefferson, a Canadian 
surgeon, born in Ireland in 1847; was grad¬ 
uated at the Medical Department of McGill 
University in 1809; spent a year in advance 
study in London; served three years in the 
British navy; and in 1894, became Gynsecolo- 
gist-in-Chief to the Montreal General Hos¬ 
pital and Assistant Professor of Gynaecology 
in McGill University. Dr. Alloway has made 
a world-wide reputation in his special line 
and has written much about it. 

Alloy, a compound or mixture of two or 
more metals. When mercury is mixed with 
another metal, the compound is termed 
an amalgam. All alloys retain the es¬ 
sential properties of metals. They possess 
metallic luster and conduct heat and elec¬ 
tricity well. Alloys are divided into three 
groups: (1) Those formed by the metals 

lead, tin, zinc, and cadmium, which impart 
to their alloys their own physical properties 
in the proportions in which they themselves 
are contained in the alloy. (2) Those formed 
by almost all other metals. (3) Those which 
contain metals found in both these groups of 
alloys. 

In every alloy the specific heat and 
the coefficient of expansion are always the 
means of those of its component metals. 
But in other physical properties a variation 
takes place. This is the case with specific 
gravity, which, in alloys of the first group, 
is the mean of their constituent metals; but, 
in those of the second group, it is always 
greater or less than the mean specific grav¬ 
ity of their constituents. The increase in 
density indicates that the metals have con¬ 
tracted ; in other words, that the metallic 
molecules have approached one another more 
closely; while the decrease in density de¬ 
notes a separation of the molecules to 
greater distances from one another. Again, 
in alloys of the first group, the conducting 
power for electricity is exactly proportional 
to the relative volumes of the component 
metals; while in alloys of the second group 
the case is different. If lead, tin, zinc, or 
cadmium be mixed with any of the metals 
from which alloys in the second group are 
formed, this alloy has its coefficient of elas¬ 
ticity much increased. Thus coils of copper 
or silver wire are made straight by weights 
by which a coil of brass or gun-metal wire 
will scarcely be altered in shape. 

In some instances, when two melted met¬ 
als are mixed together to form an alloy, an 
evolution of heat occurs which is believed 
to indicate that a chemical compound has 
been formed. This is the case with copper 
and zinc, copper and aluminum, platinum 


and tin, etc. Platinum by it°elf is insoluble 
in nitric acid, but if it be alloyed with silver 
the compound is completely dissolved. Silver 
readily dissolves in nitric acid, but will not 
do so when mixed with a large quantity of 
gold. The strength or cohesion of an alloy 
is generally greater than that of the mean 
cohesion of the metals contained therein or 
even of that of the most cohesive of its con¬ 
stituents. Thus, the breaking weight of a 
bar of copper or tin is very much lower than 
the breaking weight of a bar of the same 
size composed of certain alloys of tin and 
copper. 

Ths most useful alloy in the arts is brass. 
This compound metal is next to iron in im¬ 
portance. Several kinds are made, varying 
in composition from equal parts of copper 
and zinc to five parts of copper with one 
of zinc. According to the proportions of 
these metals in the alloy it is called sheet 
brass, Pinchbeck brass, Dutch brass or 
Dutch metal, ordinary yellow brass, Muntz’s 
metal or ship-sheathing brass, and by sev¬ 
eral and other names. 

There are some important alloys of cop¬ 
per and tin, among them, bronze, gun 
metal, bell metal and speculum metal. In 
these the proportions vary from equal parts 
of copper and tin to 10 parts of copper 
with 1 of tin. The most cohesive, that 
is, the strongest of them, is a bronze con¬ 
sisting of 6 parts of copper to 1 of tin. 
Phosphor bronze is an invention of recent 
years. The addition of from 0.25 to 2.5 
per cent, of phosphorus to a bronze contain¬ 
ing from 7 to 8 per cent, of tin, gives it 
greater hardness, elasticity and toughness. 
This alloy is now much used for parts of 
machinery. Britannia metal generally con¬ 
sists of about 92 parts of tin, 8 of anti¬ 
mony, and 2 of copper. This is a softer 
metal than German silver, but both are 
largely manufactured into such objects as 
teapots, jugs, spoons, and the like, many of 
them being plated with silver. Nickel-cop¬ 
per alloys are used in the United States, 
Belgium and Germany, for coins. 

Pewter is a tin alloy which was more 
used formerly than now. Its composition 
varies. Commonly it consists of 4 parts 
of tin to 1 of .lead, but sometimes it is tin 
with a little copper. Type metal is a com¬ 
pound of 50 parts of lead, 25 of antimony, 
and 25 of tin, but it varies slightly. Fusi¬ 
ble metal melts at low temperatures; one 
kind is composed of 3 parts of tin, 5 of 
lead, and 8 of bismuth, and melts in hot 
water. This alloy is now a good deal em¬ 
ployed in stereotyping, and in obtaining 
copies of woodcuts. Albion metal, which 
is largely used in some minor Birmingham 
manufactures, is an example of two metals 
combined by pressure, and, therefore, is 
not, strictly speaking, an alloy. It consists 
of tin laid on lead, the two metals being 



Alloy 


Allspice 


made to cohere by passing them between 
rollers. White, or anti-friction, metal, re¬ 
cently much employed for certain kinds of 
machinery bearings, has, in one variety, a 
composition of 85 parts of tin, 10 of anti¬ 
mony, and 5 of copper. 

Aluminum bronze, very closely resembling 
gold in appearance, is much used for pencil- 
cases, chains, and some larger objects. A 
compound of silver and aluminum is some¬ 
times used for watch springs, and for spoons 
and forks. Dentists use a very ductile al¬ 
loy composed of 2 parts by weight of silver 
and 1 of platinum. A metal formed of 9 
parts of platinum and 1 part of iridium 
has recently been employed for the stand¬ 
ard meter measures by the Parisian com¬ 
mission for the international metrical sys¬ 
tem. An alloy of osmium and iridium, 
which is not attacked by acids, is employed 
for tipping gold pens, and sometimes also 
for the bearings of the mariner’s compass. 
Pure silver is too soft to be used for any¬ 
thing which is to be much handled. A lit¬ 
tle copper imparts to it greater hardness 
and toughness, and makes it more easily 
fusible. 

When gold is to be used for coins, jew¬ 
elry, or plate, it requires to be alloyed with 
copper or silver or with both, in order to 
harden it. Like silver, it is too soft when 
pure. There are five legal standards for 
articles made of gold — i. e., alloyed gold 
apart from coin. These are called 22, 18, 
15, 12 and 9 carat gold. That is to say, 
these figures represent the number of parts 
of pure gold in every 24 parts of the alloy 
used by the goldsmith or jeweler. Eng¬ 
lish sovereigns are made of a mixture of 22 
parts of gold to 2 of copper, and this is 
called 22-carat or standard gold. In Ger¬ 
many, Italy and the United States, standard 
gold for the coinage is 21.0 carats. Gold 
jewelry usually contains both copper and 
silver, and, according to the proportion of 
the constituents, the objects have different 
shades of yellow. 

In the United States, it is declared by law 
that the standard for both gold and silver 
coins shall be such, that of 1,000 parts, 
bv weight, 900 shall be of pure metal and 
100 of alloy. Until lately, it was provided 
that the alloy of gold coins might be of 
either copper or silver; but by a recent 
regulation, onlv copper is used in the al¬ 
loy either of silver or gold coins. 

A statement of the average proportions 
in which the metals enter the best known 
alloys, the composition of which is gener¬ 
ally very variable, is given in the following 
table: 

~ (Gold, 90 

Coinage of gold. Copper . 10 . 

~ . i ■, J Gold, 75to 92. 

Gold jewelry and plate.j r9pp ’ er 25 to 8. 

Silver coinage.j Copper JO. 

Silver vessels. { Copper!'5. 

14 


Silver jewelry. 

Aluminum bronze. 

Bronze coins, medals...... 

Bronze cannon. 

Bronze bells. 

Bronze cymbals. 

Specula of telescopes. 

Pinchbeck . 

Brass . 

German silver. 

Type metal. 

English metal. 

Pewter. 

Liquid measures. 

Plumbers’ solder. 


J Silver, 80. 
j Copper, 20. 

J Copper, 90 to 95. 
j Aluminum,10 to 
J Tin, 4 to 6. 
j Zinc, 1 to 5. 

J Copper, 90. ^ 

1 Tin, 10. 

J Copper, 78. 

I Tin, 22 
J Copper, 80. 

1 Tin, 20. 
j Copper, 67. 

I Tin, 33. 

J Copper, 90. 

| Zinc, 10. 
j Copper, 67 to 72. 
| Zinc, 33 to 28. 

( Copper, 50. 

Zinc, 25. 

Nickel, 25. 

Lead, 80. 
Antimony, 20. 
Tin, 100. 
Antimony, 8. 
Bismuth, 1. 
Copper, 4. 

Tin, 92. 

Lead, 8. 

Tin, 82. 

Lead, 18. 

Tin, 67. 

Lead, 33. 


5. 


All=Saints’ Bay, in the State of Bahia, 
on the coast of Brazil, forms a superb na¬ 
tural harbor, in which the navies of the 
whole world might ride at anchor. Its 
length from N. to S. is 37 miles; its breadth 
from E. to W., 27. The town of Bahia lies 
just within it. 

All=Saints’ Day, a festival instituted by 
Pope Boniface IV., early in the 7th cen¬ 
tury, on the occasion of his transforming 
the Roman heathen Pantheon into a Chris¬ 
tian temple or church, and consecrating it 
to the Virgin Mary and all the martyrs. 
It did not take root for two centuries later, 
but once having done so, it soon spread 
through the Western Church. It is kept by 
the Churches of England, Rome, etc., on the 
1st of November. It is designed, as its 
name implies, to honor all saints, or at 
least those no longer living on earth. It 
was formerly called All-hallows. In many 
American Churches a custom hasgrown up 
of making the Sunday nearest the 1st of 
November the occasion of a service in mem¬ 
ory of those who have died during the year. 

AlUSouls’ Day, the day on which the 
Church of Rome commemorates all the 
faithful deceased. It was first enjoined in 
the 11th century by Oidlon, Abbot of Cluny, 
on the monastic order of which he was the 
head, and soon afterward came to be 
adopted by the Church generally. It is 
held on the 2d of November. 

Allspice, a kind of pepper, consisting of 
the dried berries of pimenta officinalis 
(myrtus pimenta of Linnaeus, eugenia 
pimenta of De Candolle), a tree belonging 
to the order myrtaccce (myrtle blooms). It 
is imported almost entirely from Jamaica, 
and is hence called Jamaica pepper. It is 























Allstou 


Alma College 


termed also pimento, from Spanish pimienta 
— pepper; its berries in shape and flavor 
resembling peppercorns. The trees are cul¬ 
tivated in Jamaica in plantations called pi¬ 
mento walks. Their unripe fruits, and, to a 
lesser extent, all parts of them, abound in 
an essential oil, which has the same composi¬ 
tion as oil of cloves; of this the berries 
yield from 3 to 5 per cent. It is a power¬ 
ful irritant, and is often used to allay tooth¬ 
ache. The bruised berries are carminative; 
they stimulate the stomach, promote diges¬ 
tion, and relieve flatulency. The allspice 
imported into this country is derived from 
pimenta officinalis, and not from pimenta 
acris. The latter affords a product some¬ 
what similar, which is occasionally used as 
a substitute for the other. Hence the all- 
spice-tree, properly so called, is the pimenta 
officinalis. 

The word is also the English name of 
the genus cnlycanthus, and especially of C. 
floridus, which has a scent like the pimento- 
tree, grows in Carolina, and is often called 
the Carolina allspice. Lindley, in his 
“ Natural System of Botany,” termed the 
order calycanthacece the Carolina allspice 
tribe; but in his “Vegetable Kingdom” he 
altered the designation to calycanths. 
Japan allspice is the English name of the 
genus chimonanthus, which belongs to the 
calycanthacece; wild allspice is benzoin 
odoriferum, a species of the laurel order. 

Allston, Washington, an eminent Ameri¬ 
can painter, poet, and romancer, born at 
Waccamaw, S. C., Nov. 5, 1779; graduated 
at Harvard in 1800; studied at the Royal 
Academy, London, and in Rome, and re¬ 
turned to Boston in 1809. He is the au¬ 
thor of “ The Sylph of the Seasons, and 
Other Poems” (1813); “ Monaldi,” a ro¬ 
mance (1841), and “Lectures on Art and 
Poems ” (1850). See his “ Life ” by Flagg. 
He died in Cambridge, Mass., July 9, 1843. 

Alluvium, the act or process of washing 
away soil, gravel, rocks, etc., and deposit¬ 
ing the debris in other places; also, the ma¬ 
terials thus deposited. 

In geology the form of the word is al¬ 
luvium, or, rarely, alluvion. 

Formerly the word applied to the gravel, 
mud, sand, etc., deposited by water subse¬ 
quently to the Noachian deluge. It was op¬ 
posed to diluvium, supposed to be laid down 
by the deluge itself, or, in the opinion of 
others, by some great wave or series of 
waves originated by the sudden upheaval of 
large tracts of land or some other potent 
cause, different from the comparatively 
tranquil action of water which goes on day 
by day. 

Now alluvium is especially employed to 
designate the transported matter laid down 
by fresh water during the Pleistocene and 
recent periods. Thus it indicates partly a 
process of mechanical operation, and partly 


a date or period. It should not be forgot¬ 
ten that the former has gone on through all 
bygone geological ages, and has not been 
confined to any one time. Many of the 
hardest and most compact rocks were once 
loosely-cohering debris laid down by water. 
The most typical example of alluvium may 
be seen in the deltas of the Nile, Ganges, 
Mississippi, and many other rivers. Some 
rivers have alluviums of different ages on 
the slopes down into their valleys. The 
more modern of these belong to the recent 
period, as do the organic or other remains 
which they contain, while the older (as 
those of the Somme, Thames, Ouse, etc.), 
which are of Pleistocene age, inclose more 
or less rudely chipped flint implements, 
with the remains of mammals either locally 
or everywhere extinct. Though in many 
cases it is possible clearly to separate al¬ 
luviums of different ages, yet the tendency 
of each new one is to tear up, redistribute, 
and confound all its predecessors. 

Volcanic alluvium is sand, ashes, etc., 
which, after being emitted from a volcano, 
come under the action of water, and are by 
it redeposited, as was the case with the ma¬ 
terials which entered and filled the interior 
of houses at Pompeii. 

Marine alluvium is alluvium produced 
by inundations of the sea, such as those 
which have from time to time overflowed 
the eastern coast of India. 

In English law, the form of the word gen¬ 
erally used is alluvion, and in Scotch law 
alluvio. In both of these the enactment 
is, that if an “ eyott,” or little island, arise 
in a river midwav between the two banks, 
it belongs in common to the proprietors on 
the opposite banks; but if it arise nearer 
one side, then it belongs to the proprietor 
whose lands it there adjoins. If a sudden 
inundation cut off part of a proprietor’s 
land, or transfer the materials to that of 
another, he shall be recompensed by obtain¬ 
ing what the river has deposited in another 
place; but if the process be a gradual one, 
there is no redress. 

Alma, a river in the Crimea, rising at 
the foot of the Tchadir Dagh, and flowing 
westward into the Bay of Kalamita, about 
half way between Eupatoria and Sebastopol. 
On the steep banks of the stream, through 
the channel of which the British troops 
waded amid a shower of bullets, a bril¬ 
liant victory was won on Sept. 20, 1854, by 
the allied armies of England and France, 
under Lord Raglan and Marshal St. Ar- 
naud, over the Russian army commanded 
by Prince Menschikoff. It was the first 
battle of the Crimean War. 

Alma College, a co-educational institu¬ 
tion in Alma, Mich., organized under the 
auspices of the Presbyterian Church in 
1887; has grounds and buildings valued at 



Almaden 


Almanac 


over $150,000; endowment, $300,000: in¬ 
come, $48,000; volumes in the library,22,000; 
professors and instructors, 25; students, 
300; graduates since organization, over 
300. 

Almaden (al-mil-dan'), a town in Spain, 
50 miles S. W. of Ciudad Real, situated in 
the chain of the Sierra Morena. Pop. 7,755. 
It is famous for its 12 rich quicksilver 
mines, employing about 4,000 miners, and 
yielding an annual output of 2,500,000 
pounds. The present mines, which have been 
carried to a depth of 1,170 feet, date from 
the 17th century; but quicksilver was 
largely worked here by the Romans in the 
time of Pliny. Crown property, they were 
rented by the Fuggers of Augsburg (1525- 
1G45), and by the firm of Rothschild (1836- 
1803), but are now again carried on by 
the government. 

Almagest, a name of honor conferred on 
a book treating of geometry and astronomy, 
published by the celebrated Alexandrian 
geographer and astronomer Ptolemy. 

“That saith this proverbe in his Almagest; 

Of alle men his wisdom is highest.” 

Chaucer’s “ Canterbury Tales,” v, 907, 908. 

“On cross, and character, and talisman, 

And almagest, and altar, nothing bright.” 

Scott’s “ The Lay of the Last Minstrel,” vi, 17. 

Almagro, Diego d’ (al-mii'-gro), a Span¬ 
ish conquistador, was born in 1404 or 1475, 
and was a foundling who derived his name 
from the town near which he was found. 
After serving in the army, he sailed to seek 
his fortune in the New World, where he 
amassed considerable wealth by plunder, 
and became one of the leading members of 
the young colony of Darien. In 1522 he 
formed, with Pizarro, the design of con¬ 
quering Peru — an undertaking crowned 10 
years afterward with marvellous success. 
Receiving permission from the Spanish 
court to conquer for himself a special prov¬ 
ince S. of Pizarro’s territory, lie marched 
on Chile in 1530, penetrated as far as the 
Coquimbo, and returned in 1537, just when 
the Peruvians had flown to arms and shut 
up the Spaniards in Cuzco and Lima. As 
these towns lay S. of Pizarro’s district, they 
were claimed by Almagro. He dispersed the 
Peruvian army before Cuzco, and advanced 
against Lima, hoping to make himself sole 
master of the country. But on April 0, 
1538, he was defeated in a desperate en¬ 
gagement with the Spaniards under Pizarro 
near Cuzco; and on the 26th he was stran¬ 
gled in prison, and his corpse beheaded in 
the market place of Cuzco. His half-caste 
son, Diego, collecting some hundreds of his 
father’s followers, stormed Pizarro’s palace, 
and slew him (1541); then proclaimed 
himself captain-general of Peru; but, de¬ 


feated in the bloody battle of Cliupas Sept. 
10, 1542, he was executed along with 40 
of his companions. 

Almamoun, Almamun, Almamown, or 
Abdallah, Caliph of Bagdad, son of Haroun- 
al-Raschid, born in 780, succeeded his 
brother Al-Amin 814, and died in 833. He 
reigned with great wisdom and ability, but 
his liberal religious views nearly cost him 
his throne, through a revolt of the stricter 
Mussulmans. On the restoration of peace 
lie devoted all his energies to the fostering 
of learning. Bagdad became a meeting 
place for world-renowned scholars, who 
were allowed to teach in the famous college 
of Khorassan, without regard to creed. Al- 
mamoun was proficient in mathematics and 
astronomy. Wars with the Greek Emperor 
Theophilus seriously disturbed his later 
years; and revolts in Spain and Africa 
foreshadowed the breaking up of the caliph¬ 
ate. lie wrote, among other works, “In¬ 
quiries into the Koran,” “Signs of Proph¬ 
ecy,” and “Rhetoric of the Priests and 
Panegyrists of the Caliph.” 

Almanac, an annual compilation, based 
on the calendar, embracing information 
pertinent to the various days of the year, 
the seasons, etc., with astronomical calcu¬ 
lations and miscellaneous intelligence more 
or less detailed, according to the special 
purpose for which it is prepared. Before 
the invention of printing there was no 
satisfactory method of distributing to the 
public systematically arranged information 
about the calendar for the year and the 
forthcoming astronomical phenomena; but 
different ingenious devices were employed 
by the people. One of the most celebrated 
of these was the so-called clog almanac, a 
four-sided stick of wood, upon which the 
Sundays and other fixed days were notched, 
and the characters were inscribed to dis¬ 
tinguish them. It is supposed to have orig¬ 
inated with the Danes and was still in use 
in rural households of the N. of England 
at the end of the 17th century. 

The oldest printed almanac is attributed 
to George von Purbach, of Vienna, in the 
middle of the 15th century, and entitled 
“Pro Annis Pluribus.” King Matthias 
Corvinus employed Johann Regiomontanus, 
in 1474, to compile an almanac, which was 
printed in Latin and in German. Alma¬ 
nacs were issued by a printer named Engel, 
beginning with the year 1401. Stiiller, 
Tubingen, published almanacs at irregular 
intervals. Yearly almanacs were printed 
somewhere in the course of the 10th cen¬ 
tury. In the 17th century all sorts of as¬ 
trological and meteorological information 
and other kinds of news were published in 
the almanacs and took the place, in a meas¬ 
ure, of the newspaper of to-day. The “Al- 
manach Royal,” which began to be published 
in 1079 in Paris, contained notices in re- 



Almanac 


Almansur 


gard to posts, court festivals, masses, mar¬ 
kets, etc. In 1699 the genealogy of the 
royal house and enumeration of the higher 
clergy were added. This form of almanac 
was imitated in Prussia in 1700, in Saxony 
in 1728, and, under the title of “ Royal Al¬ 
manac,” in England in 1730. Shortly af¬ 
terward almanacs prepared for the people 
began to appear, containing, instead of of¬ 
ficial information, short stories, anecdotes, 
poems, and all sorts of information. 

In England, King James 1. gave the 
monopoly of almanac printing to the Uni¬ 
versities and the Stationers’ Company, but 
the former were no more than sleeping 
partners in the concern, and were, there¬ 
fore, only partially disgraced by the extent 
to which astrological predictions were is¬ 
sued in their works. For 200 vears after 
the granting of the monopoly, formal as¬ 
trological prophecies were a principal fea¬ 
ture of the British almanacs. The most 
successful was Francis Moore’s, stvled by 
its author “Vox Stellarum ” (“Voice of 
the Stars”), which was begun in 1698 and 
is said to have attained a circulation of 
500,000. “ Poor Robin’s Almanac,” first 

published in 1663 and continued until 1828, 
was compiled for readers who were accus¬ 
tomed to scoff at the common prophetic 
annuals of the times, and was characterized 
by coarse witticisms and rather lugubrious 
attempts at humor. The poet Herrick is 
credited with having a hand in its early 
numbers. Another famous publication was 
the almanac issued by John Partridge, 
“ cobbler, starmonger, and quack,” whoso 
pretensions provoked Swift’s satire, “ Pre¬ 
dictions for the Year 1708, etc.” 

The first American almanac was that of 
William Pierce, of Cambridge, published in 
1639. The most famous of American al¬ 
manacs was “ Poor Richard’s,” published in 
Philadelphia by Benjamin Franklin under 
the pseudonym of Richard Saunders. This 
almanac was probably imitated from that 
of Thomas of Dedham, Mass., which was 
kept for a good many years and contains 
many pleasant and witty verses, jests and 
sayings. The information printed in these 
almanacs seems to have been the only 
means of carrying news to the more dis¬ 
tant parts of the country. 

Some of the almanacs that are regularly 
published every year are extremely useful, 
and are indeed almost indispensable to men 
engaged in official, mercantile, literary, or 
professional business. Such in Great Brit¬ 
ain are Thom’s “ Official Directory of the 
United Kingdom,” the “ British Almanac ” 
with its “ Companion,” Oliver & Boyd’s 
“ Edinburgh Almanac.” and Whitaker’s 
“Almanac.” In the United States “The 
American Almanac ” appeared between 
1830-1861, and a second publication under 
the same name was edited for several years 


by Ainsworth R. Spofford. Several of the 
largest newspapers in the United States 
now issue almanacs which are marvels of 
condensed information. 

The “ Almanach de Gotha,” which has 
appeared at Gotha since 1764, contains in 
small bulk a wonderful quantity of informa¬ 
tion regarding the reigning families and 
governments, the finances, commerce, popu¬ 
lations, etc., of the different States through¬ 
out the world. It is published both in a 
French and in a German edition. “The 
Nautical Almanac ” is an important work 
published annually by the British Govern¬ 
ment, two or three years in advance, in 
which is contained much useful astronomi¬ 
cal matter, more especially the distances of 
the moon from the sun, and from certain 
fixed stars, for every three hours of appar¬ 
ent time, adapted to the meridian of the 
Royal Observatory, Greenwich. By com¬ 
paring these with the distances carefully 
observed at sea the mariner may, with com> 
parative ease, infer his longitude to a de¬ 
gree of accuracy unattainable in any other 
way, and sufficient for most nautical pur¬ 
poses. This almanac was commenced in 
1767 by Dr. Maskelyne, astronomer royal. 
The French “ Connaissance des Temps ” is 
published with the same views as the Eng¬ 
lish “ Nautical Almanac,” and nearly on 
the same plan. It commenced in 1679. Of 
a similar character is the “ Astronomisches 
Jahrbuch,” published at Berlin. The “Amer¬ 
ican Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac’' 
is issued annually since 1855 by the Bureau 
of Navigation of the United States. 

Almansur, or Almanzor, Abu=Moham« 

med (al-man-sor'), a famous Arab comman¬ 
der, born in Andalusia, a. d., 939. En¬ 
gaged in over 50 expeditions against the 
Spaniards, he was defeated but once. The 
Kings of Leon and Navarre and the Count 
of Castile overthrew him at the noted bat¬ 
tle of Calatanazor, 998. He died in 1002. 

Almansur (“the Victorious”), the title 
assumed by Abu-Jafar, the second caliph 
of the house of the Abbassides, who suc¬ 
ceeded his brother in 754. Warfare, treach¬ 
ery, murder were his steps to the throne, 
and his whole rule was as cruel as its be¬ 
ginning. He especially persecuted the 
Christians in Syria and Egypt. In war 
against external foes he had but little suc¬ 
cess, Spain and Africa falling away from 
the Eastern caliphate. He removed the seat 
of government from Kufa to Bagdad, which 
he built (764) at immense cost, raising the 
money by oppressive taxation. He intro¬ 
duced the pernicious custom of making his 
freed slaves, mostly foreigners, rulers of 
provinces. The best feature in his charac¬ 
ter was his patronage of learning. He 
caused the “ Elements ” of Euclid to be 
translated from the Syriac, and the famous 
fables of Bidpai from the Persian. Alman- 


i 



Alma=Tadema 


Almond 


sur died in 775 during a pilgrimage to 
Mecca, at the age of almost 70. 

Alma=Tadema, Sir Lawrence, a distin¬ 
guished figure painter, born in Friesland, 
Jan. 8, 1830; educated principally at the 
Antwerp Academy; elected to the Royal 
Academy, London, in 1879; officer of the 
Legion of Honor, 1878; and member of the 
leading academies of Europe; studio in Lon¬ 
don. His paintings show a fondness for 
Greek and Roman subjects, and have won 
many honors for him. Among the best 
known are “Roman Dance;” “Bacchante;” 
“In the Tepidarium;” “Antony and Cleo¬ 
patra;” and “An Audience at Agrippa’s.” 
lie was knighted in 1899. 

Almeh, Alme, or Almai (Arabic alim, 
wise, learned), a class of Egyptian singing 
girls in attendance at festivals, entertain¬ 
ments, or funerals. 

Almeida (al-ma'e-da), one of the strong¬ 
est fortified places in Portugal, is situated 
on the river Coa, on the Spanish frontier, 
in the province of Beira. In 1702 it was 
captured by the Spaniards, but soon re¬ 
stored. In 1810 it was defended against 
Marshal Massena by an English officer until 
the explosion of a powder magazine com¬ 
pelled him to capitulate. Pop. 1,680. 

Almeida, Don Francesco d’, first Portu¬ 
guese Viceroy of the Indies, was born in 
14—. When Albuquerque appeared to su¬ 
persede Almeida as Viceroy, the latter re¬ 
fused to surrender the office. He impris¬ 
oned Albuquerque for some months, but fi¬ 
nally resigned his office to his successor, 
and set out on his voyage home, but he 
was slain in a fight with savages in the 
South of Africa, in 1510. 

Almeida=Garrett, Joao B&ptista de 
Silva Leitao de, a distinguished Portuguese 
poet, dramatist, and politician, born in 
Oporto, Feb. 4, 1799; studied law at Coim¬ 
bra, and, joining the democratic movement 
in 1820, became Minister of Public Instruc¬ 
tion when scarcely 21, but, on the restoration 
in 1823, was banished and went to England. 
He subsequently returned, and experienced 
many vicissitudes owing to his political ac¬ 
tivity. As a man of letters he endeavored 
to free Portuguese poetry from the shackles 
of pseudo-classicism and to inspire it with 
new life by basing it on national forms and 
traditions. His efforts were also directed 
toward the creation of a purely national 
drama. His principal works are “ Catao,” 
a tragedy (1820), among the best in Portu¬ 
guese literature; “ Camoes,”a romantic epic 
(1825), glorifying the life and death of 
Portugal’s greatest poet; “ Dona Branca,” a 
satirical epic (182G), scoring monasticism; 
“ Adozinda,” a lyrical epic (1828); “Bernal 
Francez.” a cycle of romances (1829); 
“Auto de Gil Vicente” (1838), pronounced 
the first purely Portuguese drama; “ O Arco 


de Sant’ Anna,” a historical novel (1846); 
“ Romancerio,” a collection of Portuguese 
ballads (3 vols., 1851-1853). He died in 
Lisbon, Dec. 10, 1854. 

Almeria (al-ma-re'a), a fortified seaport 
of Southern Spain, capital of the Province 
of Almeria, near the mouth of a river and 
on the gulf of same name, with no building 
of consequence except a Gothic cathedral, 
but with an important trade, exporting lead, 
esparto, barilla, etc. The Province, which 
has an area of 3,300 square miles, is moun¬ 
tainous, and rich in minerals. Pop. town 
(1900) 47,320; Province 359,013. 

Almohades (al-mo-ha'daz), the name of 
a Moslem dynasty that ruled in Africa and 
Spain during the 12th and 13th centuries. 
The word is Arabic, signifying “ worship¬ 
pers of the one true God,” and was assumed 
as a term of distinction. This sect, which 
at first was religious rather than political, 
was founded among the Atlas Mountains by 
Ibn Tomrul Abdallah, and, in 1140, under 
the leadership of Abd-ul-Mumen, put an end 
by the conquest of Morocco to the empire 
of the Almoravides in Africa, and next ex¬ 
tended its career of conquest to Spain. 
Under Jakub Almansor they won, in 1195, 
at Alarcos, a great victory over the Castil¬ 
ians. In 1210 Mohammed, the successor of 
Jakub, went with a great army to Spain, 
but was overthrown in 1212 by the united 
kings of Castile, Aragon, and Navarre, in 
the famous battle of Navas de Tolosa, in 
which it is said that 100,000 Moors were 
left upon the field. This great defeat was 
the beginning of the downfall of Moorish 
power in Spain; its most immediate result 
was the disappearance of the Almohades 
from the peninsula. The empire of the Al¬ 
mohades in Africa was brought to an end 
in 1269, through revolts of the nomadic 
tribes. 

Almond, the fruit of the almond tree, 
the Amygdalus communis, a tree which 
grows usually to the height of 12 or 14 
feet. Its pink flowers, composed of five 
petals, grow in pairs, and appear very early 
in spring. The leaves are oval, pointed, 
and delicately serrated at the edges. Its 
flowers are remarkably beautiful, and form 
a great ornament of English shrubberies. 
The common or sweet almond is a soft and 
pleasantly-flavored kernel, contained in a 
nut, which is of flatfish shape, and has a 
tender shell, with numerous small holes on 
the outside. Though known to the ancients 
from the most remote period of antiquity, 
the almond tree has been cultivated in En¬ 
gland only since 1502, and this almost whol¬ 
ly on account of the beautiful appearance of 
its flowers, since the climate of Great Brit¬ 
ain is not sufficiently warm for the fruit 
to be perfected. The almonds which are 
consumed in that country and the United 
States are imported, sometimes in the shell. 



AImond=Oil 


Alms 


and often without, from .France, Spain, 
Italy, and the Levant. The Jordan almonds, 
which come from Malaga, are the best sweet 
almonds imported. 

Some preparations of almonds are used in 
medicine, particularly that called milk of 
almonds, which is formed of pounded al¬ 
monds, loaf sugar, and water, well mixed 
together. Bitter almonds resemble in all 
respects the sweet almonds, both in the ap¬ 
pearance of the kernels themselves and of 
the trees which produce them, excepting a 
slight difference in the size of the flowers 
and fruit. Like the sweet almonds, they 
yield a large portion of oil. This has no 
bitterness, but the substance that remains 
after the pressure is intensely bitter. If 
these almonds be eaten freely, they oc¬ 
casion sickness and vomiting. By confec¬ 
tioners they are much used to give flavor to 
biscuits and other articles. The substance 
which gives their peculiar flavor to bitter 
almonds, and to the kernels of peaches, 
apricots, etc., is prussic acid. This acid 
does not exist ready formed in the almond, 
but when that fruit is subjected to the ac¬ 
tion of saliva a chemical reaction is set up 
between two of the constitutents of the al¬ 
mond — namely, amygdalin and emulsin — 
whereby prussic acid is produced. 

Almond=Oil, Bitter Almond=Oil,or Ben¬ 
zoic Aldehyde, in chemistry, an oil ob¬ 
tained by pressing almonds. The oil of bit¬ 
ter almonds, at least when impure, is very 
poisonous. It has, however, been used as 
a cure in intermittent fever. It produces 
urticaria. It also relieves intoxication. 

Almoner, a person whose office it is to 
distribute alms. It was first given to such 
a functionary in a religious house, there be¬ 
ing an ancient canon which especially en¬ 
joined each monastery to spend a tenth part 
of its income in alms to the poor. By an 
ancient canon, also, all bishops were required 
to keep almoners. Kings, queens, princes 
and other people of rank had similar func¬ 
tionaries. 

Almonte, Juan Nepomuceno (al-mon'te), 
a Mexican general, believed to be the son of 
the priest Morelo, born in 1804. As a boy 
he took part in the war for independence. 
In 1824, he went to London as attache to 
the Mexican embassy, and, after his re¬ 
turn. became a member of Congress. In 
1832 he was appointed charge d’ affaires at 
London, then in Peru. He entered the army 
and served under Santa Ana in Texas in 
1836. After that he became Minister of War 
under Bustamente, and, in 1841, was sent 
to Washington. When, at the end of 1845, 
Paredes was at the head of Mexican affairs, 
Almonte again became Minister of War, and 
was a second time sent as minister to 
the United States, soon afterward. He 
took part in the battles of Buena Vista and 


Cerro Gordo in 1847. In 1853 he was again 
sent to Washington, and, in 1857, to Paris. 
In 18G1, when Juarez attained power, he 
deposed Almonte, who, led by party hatred 
and ambition, invited the French expedition 
to Mexico. In the beginning of 1862 he 
joined the French troops of occupation at 
Vera Cruz; but, as the Mexicans saw in 
him only a tool of the French plans, they 
renounced the idea of making him French 
dictator, supported by French bayonets. 
The French general, himself, deprived him 
of power, but when, on the 10th of June, 
1863, he reached the City of Mexico with 
the French, he was placed by the conquerors 
at the head of the Regency of the Mexican 
Empire. The Emperor Maximilian ap¬ 
pointed him field-marshal, but, after Maxi¬ 
milian’s death, he fled to Europe, and died 
in Paris, March 22, 1869. 

Almquist, Karl Jo^ns Ludvig (alm / - 
kvist), a notable Swedish poet, novelist and 
miscellaneous writer, born in Stockholm, 
Nov. 28, 1793. A writer of great versa¬ 
tility, author of a series of educational 
works, treatises on the mental, moral, and 
political sciences, on philology, religion, 
mathefnatics, philosophy, and national econ¬ 
omy, etc., of novels and tales, dramas, 
poems, lyric and epical. “ The Book of the 
Rose,” a collection of dramatic and lyric 
pieces, is his best known work. “ It’s All 
Right ” and “ The Palace,” novels, “ Ara- 
minta May” and “ Skallnora’s Will,” tales, 
are also popular. He died in Bremen, Sept. 
26, 1866. 

Alms, pity, mercy; charity, from eleeo, to 
have pity; eleos, pity. Thus, alms in Eng¬ 
lish, when traced to its origin, is really the 
Greek word eleemosyne corrupted; and the 
fact that so long a Greek word should have 
been worn away into so short an English 
one is fitted to suggest that during the Mid¬ 
dle Ages it can scarcely ever have been out 
of people’s lips. The continental nations 
have not yet succeeded in reducing the six 
Greek syllables into less than three or two; 
we have cut it away into a monosyllable, 
not susceptible of much further reduction. 

In ordinary language, money, food, cloth¬ 
ing, or anything else given as a gratuity to 
relieve the poor. 

In law, reasonable alms are a certain por¬ 
tion of the estates of intestate persons al¬ 
lotted to the poor. 

A tenure by free alms, or frank almoyne, 
is a tenure of property which is liable to no 
rent or service. The term is especially ap¬ 
plied to lands or other property left to 
churches or religious houses on condition of 
praying for the soul of the donor. Many of 
the old monasteries and religious houses in 
England obtained lands in this way, which 
were free from all rent or service. In the 
United States churches, schools and chari¬ 
table institutions are free from taxation. 



Almucantar 


Aloes Wood 


Almucantar, Almucanter, Almacanter, 
or Almocantar, a circle drawn parallel to 
the horizon; generally used in the plural 
for a series of parallel circles drawn through 
the several degrees of the meridian. They 
are the same as what are now called paral¬ 
lels of altitude. 

Almucantar’s Staff, an instrument com¬ 
monly made of pear tree or box, with an 
arc of 15° a used to take observations of the 
sun about the time of its rising and set¬ 
ting, in order to find the amplitude, 
and, consequently, the variation of the com¬ 
pass. 

Alnus, a genus of plants belonging to the 
order betulaccce (birch-worts). The flow¬ 
ers are monceceous and amentaceous. In 
the barren ones the scale of the catkin is 
three-lobed, with three flowers; the perianth 
is four partite; the stamina, four. In those 
which are fertile the scale of the catkin is 
subtrifid with three flowers, and there is no 
perianth. The ovary is two-celled, two- 
ovuled, but only one ovule reaches perfec¬ 
tion. 

Aloadin, Prince of the Assassins, or 
Arsacides; commonly called the “ Old Man 
of the Mountain.” He was the Sheik of a 
Syrian tribe, professing Mohammedanism, 
but blindly devoted to the will of their 
chief. The word “ assassin ” is derived from 
the followers of Aloadin, of whom many 
fabulous stories are narrated. 

Aloe, any species of the genus described 
under botany (below), or even of one, such 
as agave, with a close analogy to it. The 
American aloe is the agave americana, an 
amaryllid. The aloe of Scripture is prob¬ 
ably the agallochum. Royle believes that 
the reason why the aloe proper and the agal- 
lochum became confounded was that alloeh, 
alloet, or allieh, the Arabic name of the lat¬ 
ter, closely resembled elica, the appellation 
given to the former in various Hindu 
tongues. 

In botany, a genus of plants belonging to 
the order liliacece, or lily-worts, and consti¬ 
tuting the typical genus of the section called 
aloincB. The species are succulent herbs, 
shrubs, or even trees, with erect spikes or 
clusters of flowers. They are used in the 
West Indies for hedges; the juice is purga¬ 
tive, and the fibers are made into cordage 
or coarse cloth. 

Aloes, the inspissated juice of the aloe. 
The cut leaves of the plant are put into a 
tub, the juice collected from them, and 
either boiled to a proper consistence or ex¬ 
posed to the sun till the fluid part evapo¬ 
rates. There are four principal kinds, two 
officinal. (1) Barbadoes aloes ( aloe barba- 
densis ), formed from the juice of the cut- 
leaf of aloe vulgaris. It is imported in 
gourds, and has a dull yellowish brown 


Aloes Wood (sometimes called also eagle 
wood, calambac, paradise wood, or agallo¬ 
chum), the heart wood of aquilaria ovata 
and aloes agallochum, trees of the order 
aquilariacece, natives of the tropical parts of 
Asia, and supposed to be the aloes or lign- 
aloes of the Bible. They are large, spread¬ 
ing trees. Aloes wood contains a dark 
colored, fragrant, resinous substance, and is 
much prized in the East as a medicine, and 
for the pleasant odor which it diffuses in 
burning. The resinous substance is found 
only in the inner part of the trunk and 
branches; the younger wood is white, and 
almost scentless; hence the pure aloes wood 
is sometimes obtained by burying the stems, 
when the sap wood decays away, leaving the 
resinous core intact. A similar substance, 
still more esteemed, is obtained in the south¬ 
eastern parts of Asia and the adjacent 
islands, from the central part of the trunk 
of aloexylon agallochum, of the natural or¬ 
der leguminosce, sub-order ccesalpinew. 
This tree is found in Cochin-China and the 



opaque color, breaks with a dull conchoidal 
fracture, shows crystals under the micro¬ 
scope, has a nauseous odor, and is soluble in 
proof spirit. (2) Socotrine aloes ( aloe 
socotrina), the produce of several species of 
aloes; it occurs in reddish brown masses, 
and breaks with a vitreous fracture. Its 
powder is a bright orange color. It has a 
fruity smell. It comes from Bombay. (3) 
Hepatic aloes, or East India aloes, non-offici- 
nal, is liver colored; its powder is yellow. 
(4) Cape aloes, the produce of aloe spicata 
and other nun-officinal species, is a greenish 
brown color; this is given to horses. An in¬ 
ferior variety is called caballine aloes. 
Aloes acts as 
a purgative, 
affecting chief¬ 
ly the lower 
part of the in¬ 
testinal canal. 

It increases 
the flow of the 
bile; it often 
produces grip¬ 
ing when given 
alone, and 
s o m e t i m e s 
causes haemor¬ 
rhoids. The 
watery ex- 
tract of aloes 
is free from 
these objec¬ 
tionable prop- 
ties. Cape 
aloes is less 
purgative. 

I lie . use of aloe socotrina. 

aloes is not fol¬ 
lowed by constipation 
bitter taste. 


Aloes has a very 




A Iordans 


Alpes, Hautes 


Moluccas, where a character of sacredness 
is attached to it. Its fragrant wood is not 
only much prized in the East as a perfume, 
but many medicinal virtues are ascribed to 
it. The ancients ascribed to it similar vir¬ 
tues, and so valued it for these and its frag¬ 
rance that Herodotus says it once sold for 
more than its weight in gold. As it admits 
of a high polish, and exhibits a beautiful 
graining, precious gems were set in it; and 
it was cut into fantastic forms and worn in 
head-dresses, etc. It was early used to per¬ 
fume apartments, and Napoleon I. used it 
as a perfume in his palaces. The fragrance 
continues undiminished for years. Lign 
aloes is a corruption of lignum aloes (aloes 
wood). 

Alogians, in Church history, a sect which 
arose toward the end of the 2d century; 
they denied that Christ was the Logos, re¬ 
jected John’s Gospel and the Apocalypse, 
and considered that the miraculous gifts 
mentioned in the New Testament had ceased 
to exist in the Church. 

Alopecia, a variety of baldness in which 
the hair falls off from the beard and eye¬ 
brows, as well as the scalp. 

Alosa, a genus of fishes, of the family 
clupcidce. It contains two British species, 
the A. finta, or Twaite shad, and the 
A. communis , or allice shad. The shads 
resemble herrings in their form and struc¬ 
ture, but are so much larger than the well 
known species that they have been popularly 
called the mother of herrings. The Twaite 
shad enters the Thames and other rivers in 
May, and spawns there in July. The allice 
shad is rare in the Thames. The American 
species, culpea sapidissima, is abundant on 
the Atlantic coast, and ascends the larger 
rivers in the spring to spawn. 

Alpaca, the name given to a species of 
llama, which has for a long time back been 
domesticated in Peru. It was first found by 
Pizarro, and was afterward scientifically de¬ 
scribed in 1590 by Acosta. Its modern 
zoological name is auchenia paco. It has 
a long, fine fleece, valuable in the woolen 
manufacture. There is a second species of 
llama in Peru, but its fleece is short, and, 
therefore, much less valuable. Also a 
cloth woven from the wool of the alpaca. 
It is finer and stronger than cotton, and 
less costly than most silks. 

Alpes, Basses (biis-alp), a Department 
in the S. E. of France, one of the four 
formed out of the old Provence; divided into 
five arrondissements, Barcelonnette, Castel- 
lane, Digne, Forcalquier, and Sisteron; cap¬ 
ital, Digne. It is a mountainous region, 
the E. portion belonging to the crystal¬ 
line Alps, with summits rising to upward 
of 11,000 feet; the W. portion to the 
limestone Alps. This latter portion is one 
of the most arid and desolate in France, 


and, indeed, in Europe; its valleys filled 
with tumbled rocks rent from the mountain¬ 
sides, the slopes of which have to a large 
extent been deprived of their soil and vege¬ 
tation by torrential waters. West of the 
Durance, the principal river of the Depart¬ 
ment, a chain of the limestone Alps runs 
westward under the name of the Montagne 
de Lure. The Durance partly bounds the 
Department on the N. Its principal trib¬ 
utaries, all on the left bank, are the Ubaye 
in the N., leading up to the Col d’Ar- 
gentiere, the Bleonne, the Asse, and the 
Verdon, which partly separates Basses Alpes 
from Var. None of these rivers is navi¬ 
gable. The principal wealth of the higher 
parts of the Department consists in its 
mountain pastures, to which every spring 
large numbers of sheep from the lower 
Rhone are led. Cattle, horses, mules, and 
asses are also reared. Cereals are grown in 
manj' - places, and in the southern districts 
olives and great quantities of almonds are 
produced, and the silkworm is reared. 
Area 2,085 square miles. Pop. (190G) 113,- 
120 . 

Alpes, Hautes (hot-alp), a Department 
in the S. E. of France, adjoining the 
Italian frontier, formed alrqost entirely 
from the Dauphin6, but including a small 
part of the old Provence in the S.; di¬ 
vided into three arrondissements , Gap, 
Briangon, and Embrun; capital, Gap. In 
physical features it corresponds closely with 
Basses Alpes. Here also the mountain 
slopes of the limestone Alps have been dev¬ 
astated by torrents, but reafforestation is 
being slowly but successfully carried out. 
In the N., on the borders of the Depart¬ 
ment of Isere, the granitic mass of Pel- 
voux rises to the height of 13,460 feet, out 
of the limestone Alps. At its northern 
base runs the road from Grenoble by the 
Col du Lautaret (6,800 feet) to Briangon 
and the Col de Genevre. The principal 
river is the Durance, which partly separates 
it from Basses Alpes, and, among its tribu¬ 
taries are the Buech, which flows from N. 
to S. in the W., its valley being 
traversed by the railway from Grenoble to 
Sisteron; and the Guil, a small left bank 
tributary, in the extreme E., which leads 
up to the Col de la Traversette. About the 
middle of the Department a line of valleys 
belonging to different river basins runs from 
N. to S., and is traversed by a road 
leading from Grenoble to Sisteron by 
Gap. From the N. part of this line of 
valleys the beautiful valley of Valgodemar 
leads E. to the southern base of Pel- 
voux, and on the E. side of a dividing 
ridge is continued by the Vellouise. The 
Department is the poorest in France in nat¬ 
ural resources. Its principal wealth con¬ 
sists in its mountain pastures, on which 
fine merino sheep are reared. Marble of all 



Alpes Maritimes 


Alphabet 


shades is abundant, and there is a consider¬ 
able extent of anthracite near Brian^on. 
Area 2,158 square miles. Pop (190G) 
107,498. 

Alpes Maritimes (alp mar-e-tem'), a 
Department in the extreme S. E. of France 
formed mainly from the Province of 
Nice, ceded by Italy in 18G0, but containing 
also the arrondissement of Grasse, detached 
from Var; divided into three arrondisse- 
ments, Nice, Grasse, and Puget-Theniers; 
capital, Nice. The physical features are 
similar to those of Basses and Hautes Alpes. 
The limestone region in the S. W. is 
specially remarkable for its magnificent 
scenery, its deep and dark defiles or clus, 
and its numerous swallow-holes, in which 
streams disappear to reappear in fine 
springs. The mildness of the climate lias 
caused several places on the coast to be¬ 
come favorable health resorts, especially 
Cannes, Antibes, Nice, and Mentone. The 
Department surrounds on the land side the 
principality of Monaco. Among the prod¬ 
ucts are vines, mulberries, olives, oranges 
and citrons. Flowers are cultivated on a 
large scale for the making of perfumes, 
which forms the principal industry of the 
Department. Area, 1.482 square miles. 
Pop. (190G) 334,007. For the whole moun¬ 
tain range, see Alps. 

Alpha and Omega, the first and last let¬ 
ters of the Greek alphabet, sometimes used 
to signify the beginning and the end, or the 
first and the last of anything; also as a 
symbol of the Divine Being. They were also 
formerly the symbol of Christianity, and 
engraved accordingly on the tombs of the 
ancient Christians. 

Alphabet, so called from alpha and beta, 
the first two Greek letters, is the name given 
to a set of graphic signs, called letters, de¬ 
noting elementary sounds, by the combina¬ 
tion of which words can be visibly repre¬ 
sented. Nearly 200 alphabets, ancient and 
modern, are known, of which about 50 are 
now in use. Most of them are develop¬ 
ments from the primitive Phoenician alpha¬ 
bet, which was itself ultimately derived 
from the Egyptian hieroglyphic picture¬ 
writing. 

All writing was in its origin pictorial. It 
began with ideograms, which developed into 
phonograms. Ideograms are pictures or 
symbols intended to represent either things 
or abstract ideas. Phonograms are the 
graphic symbols of sounds. They are either 
verbal, standing for entire words; or sylla¬ 
bic, denoting the articulations of which 
words are composed; or alphabetic, repre¬ 
senting the elementary sounds into which 
syllables can be resolved. 

Five independent systems of ideographic 
writing have been invented: (1) The Cunei¬ 
form, which arose in the valley of the 


Euphrates, and developed into the Achse- 
menian syllabaries. (2) The Chinese, out 
of which the Japanese syllabaries have 
arisen. (3) The Hittite, which was the 
probable source of the Cypriote syllabary. 
(4) The Mexican picture writing. (5) The 
Egyptian hieroglyphics, from which the 
Phoenician alphabet was derived. 

The Egyptian hieroglyphic picture writ¬ 
ing may be traced back, by means of in¬ 
scriptions, for more than 6,000 years, to the 
time of the second Egyptian dynasty, when 
it already appears in great perfection, argu¬ 
ing a long period of antecedent development. 
Of the 400 Egyptian phonograms, about 45 
attained an alphabetic character — that is, 
they either denoted vowels, or could be as¬ 
sociated with more than one vowel sound. 
Out of these alphabetic signs our own letters 
have grown. The transition to a pure al¬ 
phabetic writing was made when the Phoe¬ 
nicians rejected the unnecessary portions of 
the complicated Egyptian system, the ideo¬ 
grams, the verbal phonograms, and the syl¬ 
labic signs, and selected from the 45 variant 
symbols of elementary sounds a single sign, 
for each of the 22 consonants found in Se¬ 
mitic speech. In 1859 De Rouge pointed 
out that the prototypes of the Phoenician 
letters must be sought, not in the hiero¬ 
glyphics of the monuments, but in certain 
cursive “ hieratic ” or priestly characters, 
so extremely ancient that they had already 
fallen into disuse at the time of the Hebrew 
exodus. This form of hieratic writing is 
known to us almost exclusively from a sin¬ 
gle manuscript, the Papyrus Priss£, as it 
is called, which was found in a tomb belong¬ 
ing to the 11th dynasty, and is, therefore, 
much older than the shepherd kings. 

A knowledge of alphabetical writing must 
have been obtained by the Greeks from the 
Phoenician trading settlements in the 
^Egean as early as the 10th century b. c. 
At the date of the oldest Greek inscriptions 
which were extant, three vowels, alpha, 
epilson, and omicron, had already been 
evolved out of the Phoenician breaths, aleph, 
he, and ( ayin, and two, iota and upsilon, 
from the semi-consonants yod and van. 
The forms of the letters had undergone 
hardly any change, and the direction of the 
writing is still retrograde, from right to 
left, as in the Semitic scripts. Before the 
close of the 7th century, the more conven¬ 
ient plan of writing all the lines from left 
to right was adopted. 

By the middle of the 6th century, the 
Greek alphabet had in all essential respects 
attained its final development. About the 
3d century B. c., the lapidary characters, 
corresponding to the capitals in Greek 
printed books, began to be replaced by more 
rounded forms, called uncials, while cursive 
forms were used for correspondence. Fi¬ 
nally, between the 7th and 9th centuries 



Alphabet 


Alphabet 


ALPHABETS* 



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p 

2 

18 


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r 

r 

M 



r 



3 

19 

A 

A 

? 

? 

9 



9 

Q 


P 

20 

<=> 


i 

A 

p 

F 

9 e 

F 

R 

p r 

"1 

21 


* 

w 

* 

* 

c 

c cr 

5 

S 

J{s 


22 

A 


+ 

T 

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i 

II 

hi 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VII! 

IX 

X 

XI 





























































Alphabet 


Alpine Plants 


4. D., tlie minuscules, which are the small 
letters of our printed Greek books, were 
evolved from a combination of uncials and 
cursives. 

The Greek alphabet was the source, not 
only of the Latin, but of the other national 
alphabets of Europe. The Runes, which 
formed the alphabet of the Scandinavian 
nations, were based on early forms of the 
Greek letters, which, as Dr. Isaac Taylor 
has shown, were obtained about the 6 th cen¬ 
tury b. c. from Greek colonies on the Black 
Sea, by Gothic tribes who then inhabited 
the region. In our own alphabet, the order 
of the letters does not differ very greatly 
from the Phoenician arrangement, but the 
few changes are historically instructive. 
The last Phoenician letter was t, which in 
our alphabet is followed by six letters, u, v, 
w, x , y, z. Of these, u dates from the 9th 
century b. c., having been differentiated by 
the Greeks out of F, and placed after t, the 
last of the old letters. Originally, u and v 
were only the medial and initial forms of 
the same letter. In the 1 Oth century A. d. 
the first came to be used for the vowel, and 
the second for the consonant, because in 
Latin words the consonant usually occurs 
at the beginning, and the vowel in the mid¬ 
dle of words, and the two forms were re¬ 
garded as separate letters, and placed side 
by side in the alphabet. In the time of 
Cicero, the Romans borrowed Y from the 
Greek alphabet, to denote the the sound of 
upsilon, and placed it at the end of the al¬ 
phabet after X. Soon afterward, Z was 
also borrowed from the Greek alphabet and 
placed after Y. It was introduced into the 
English alphabet from the French in the 
15th century, being only used in English, as 
in Latin, to spell words of foreign origin. 
The letters I and -/, like U and V, were the 
medial and initial forms of the same letter; 
but since the consonantal sound usually oc¬ 
curs at the beginning of words, and the 
vowel sound in the middle, J was conven¬ 
iently appropriated in the 15th century for 
the consonant, and I for the vowel. The dot 
of j, which is needless, is a mere survival, 
showing that the two forms were differen¬ 
tiated after the practice of dotting the i had 
come into vogue. In the 11th century, the 
letter was accented, i, for convenience, when 
it came next to u, m, or n; in the 14th, the 
accent was changed to a dot; and it was 
only in the 15th that the dot became uni¬ 
versal. In the Latin and English alphabets, 
the seventh letter is q; while in the Phoe¬ 
nician, as well as in the Greek, the seventh 
letter is z. 

Our letters are named on the same princi¬ 
ple as in the Latin alphabet. The vowels 
are called by their sounds; the consonants, 
by the sound of the letter combined with 
the easiest vowel, which, for convenience of 
utterance, precedes the continuants and fol¬ 
lows the explosives. 


Origin of the Alphabet. 

I. Egyptian Hieroglyphics, facing to the left. 

II. Egyptian Hieratic characters, facing to the 
right. 

III. The oldest Phoenician letters, mostly from 

the Baal Lebanon inscription. 

IV. The oldest Greek letters, from inscriptions 

at Thera and Athens, reading from right 
to left. 

V. The lapidary Greek alphabet at the time of 

the Persian war, reading from left to right. 

VI. Greek uncials, from the Codex Alexan- 

drinus, about 400 A. D. 

VII. Greek minuscules. 

VIII. The old alphabet of Italy. 

IX. Lapidary Latin alphabet at the time of 
Cicero. 

X. Latin uncials and minuscules. 

XI. Modern square Hebrew, derived from the 
Phcenican letters. 

Alpheus (al-fe'us), the principal river of 
Peloponnesus (Morea), rising in the S. E. 
of Arcadia, and flowing past the famous 
Olympia westward into the Ionic Sea. In 
its passage through Arcadia, a country con¬ 
sisting of cavernous limestone, it repeatedly 
disappears underground and rises again. 
With this fact was connected a remarkable 
myth. The river god Alpheus was said to 
have become enamored of the nymph Are- 
thusa while bathing in his stream. To es¬ 
cape him, she prayed to Artemis, who 
changed her into a fountain, and opened up 
an underground passage for her to Ortygia, 
a small Sicilian island in the harbor of 
Syracuse. The river still pursued the 
nymph, passing from Greece to Sicily be¬ 
low the sea, without mingling his waters 
with it, and appearing in the spring that 
bubbles up by the shore, close by the foun¬ 
tain of Arethusa. 

Alphonsin, an instrument invented by 
Alphonso Ferri, a Neapolitan physician, 
who lived in the lfith century, for extracting 
bullets from gunshot wounds. It consists 
of three branches, closed by a ring. When 
inserted into a wound, the ring is drawn 
back, to allow the branches to separate and 
grasp the ball. 

Alphonsine Tables. See Alfonso X. 
Alphonso. See Alfonso. 

Alpine Plants, the name given to those 
plants whose habitat is in the neighborhood 
of the snow, on mountains partly covered 
with it all the year round. As the height 
of the snow-line varies according to the lati¬ 
tude and local conditions, so also does the 
height at which these plants grow. The 
mean height for the alpine plants of Central 
Europe is about 0,000 feet; but it rises in 
parts of the Alps and in the Pyrenees to 
9.000, or even more. The high grounds 
clear of snow among these mountains pre¬ 
sent a very well marked flora, the general 
characters of the plants being a Ioav, dAvarf- 
ish habit, a tendency to form thick turfs, 
stems partly or Avholly woody, and large, 



Alps 


brilliantly colored and often very sweet¬ 
smelling flowers. They are also often closely 
covered with woolly hairs. In the Alps of 
Middle Europe the eye is at once attracted 
by gentians, saxifrages, rhododendrons, 
primroses of different kinds, etc. Ferns 
and mosses of many kinds also characterize 
these regions. Some Alpine plants are found 
only in one locality. 

* Alps, the highest and most extensive sys¬ 
tem of mountains in Europe, included be¬ 
tween lat. 44° and 48° N., and long. 

5° and 18° E., covering the greater part of 
Northern Italy, several departments of 
France, nearly the whole of Switzerland, 
and a large part of Austria, while its 
extensive ramifications connect it with 
nearly all the mountain systems of 
Europe. The culminating peak is Mont 
Blanc, 15,781 feet high, though the true 
center is the St. Gotliard, or the mountain 
mass where it belongs, from the slopes of 
which flow, either directly or by affluents, 
the great rivers of Central Europe, the Dan¬ 
ube, Rhine, Rhone, and Po. 

The Alps in their various great divisions 
receive different names. The Maritime 
Alps, so called from their proximity to the 
Mediterranean, extend westward from their 
junction with the Apennines for a distance 
of about 100 miles; culminating points, 
Aiguille de Chambeyron, 11,155 feet, and 
Grand Rioburent, 11,142 feet; principal 
pass, the Col di Tende, 6,158 feet, which 
was made practicable for carriages by Na¬ 
poleon I. Proceeding northward the next 
group consists of the Cottian Alps, length 
about 60 miles; principal peaks: Monte 
Viso, 12,605 feet; Pic des Ecrins, 13,462; 
Pelvoux, 12,973. Next come the Graian 
Alps, 50 miles long, with extensive ramifi¬ 
cations in Savoy and Piedmont; principal 
peaks: Aiguille de la Sassiere, 12,326 feet; 
Grand Paradis, 13,300; Grande Casse, 
12,780. To this group belongs Mont Cenis, 
6,765 feet, over which a carriage road 
was constructed by Napoleon I.; a railway 
now passes through the mountain by a tun¬ 
nel nearly 8 miles long. The Pennine Alps 
form the loftiest portion of the whole sys¬ 
tem, having Mont Blanc (in France) at one 
extremity, and Mont Rosa at the other (60 
miles), and including the Alps of Savoy and 
the Valais. In the E. the valley of the 
Upper Rhone separates the Pennine Alps 
from the great chasm of the Bernese Alps, 
running nearly parallel, the great peaks of 
the two ranges being about 20 miles apart. 
The principal heights of the Pennine Alps 
are Mont Blanc, 15,781 feet; Monte Rosa, 
15,217; Mischabelhorner (Dom.), 14,935; 
Weisshorn, 14,804; Matterhorn, 14,780. In 
the Bernese Alps, the Finsteraarhorn, 
14,026; Aletschhorn, 13,803; Jungfrau, 
13,671. The pass of Great St. Bernard is 
celebrated for its hospice. The eastern¬ 
most pass is the Simplon, 6,595 feet, with 


Alps 

a carriage road made by Napoleon I. Fur¬ 
ther E. are the Lepontine Alps, divided 
into several groups. The principal pass is 
the St. Gothard (6,936 feet), over which 
passes a carriage road to Italy, while 
through this mountain mass a railway tun¬ 
nel more than 9 miles long has been opened. 
Highest peaks: Todi, 11,887 feet; Monte 
Leone, 11,696. The Rhsetian Alps, extending 
E. to about lat. 12° 30' N., are the most 
easterly of the central Alps; principal 
peaks: Piz Bernina, 13,294 feet; Ortler- 

spitze, 12,814; Monte Adamello, 11,832. 
The Brenner Pass, 4,588 feet, from Verona 
to Innsbruck, and between the central and 
the eastern Alps, is crossed by a railway. 
On the railway from Innsbruck to the Lake 
of Constance is the Arlberg tunnel, over 6 
miles long. The Eastern Alps form the 
broadest and lowest portion of the system, 
and embrace the Noric Alps, the Carnic 
Alps, the Julian Alps, etc.; highest peak, 
the Gross Glockner, 12,405 feet. 

The Alps are very rich in lakes and 
streams. Among the chief of the former 
are Geneva, Constance, Zurich, Thun, Brienz, 
on the N. side; on the S. Maggiore 
Como, Lugano, Garda, etc. The drainage 
is carried to the North Sea by the Rhine, 
to the Mediterranean by the Rhone, to the 
Adriatic by the Po, to the Black Sea by 
the Danube. In the lower valleys the mean 
temperature ranges from 50° to 60°. Half 
way up the Alps it averages about 32°—a 
height which, in the snowy regions, it never 
reaches. In respect to vegetation the Alps 
have been divided into six zones: The first 
is the olive; the second, the vine; the third 
the mountainous; the fourth the sub- 
Alpine or coniferous; the fifth, the pasture; 
and the sixth, the region of perpetual snow. 

The geological structure of the Alps is 
highly involved, and is far, as yet, from 
being thoroughly investigated or under¬ 
stood. In general three zones can be dis¬ 
tinguished, a central, in which crystalline 
rocks prevail, and two exterior zones, in 
which sedimentary rocks predominate. The 
rocks of the central zone consist of granite 
gneiss, hornblende, mica slate, and other 
slates and schists. In the western Alps 
(in the central zone) there are also con¬ 
siderable elevations which belong to the 
Jurassic (Oolite) and Cretaceous forma¬ 
tions. Among the minerals that are ob¬ 
tained are iron and lead, gold, silver, cop¬ 
per, zinc, alum, and coal. 

Many of the Alpine summits are now 
ascended by railway. The Rigi is one of 
these. There is an inn at the top, 5,905 
feet above the level of the sea, and 4,468 
above the Lake of Lucerne. A favorite view 
from hence is to watch the sun rise over 
the Bernese Alps. The Becca di Nona 
(8,415 feet), S. of Aosta, gives, accord¬ 
ing to some authorities, the finest pano¬ 
ramic view to be obtained from any sum- 


*For Map, see Switzerland. 




AIsace=Lorraine 


Altai Mountains 


mit of the Alps. Among the most impres¬ 
sive phenomena are the avalanche and the 
glacier. The most accessible glaciers are 
those of Aletsch, Chamonix, and Zermatt. 

Alsace=Lorraine (al-sas-ld-ran') (Ger¬ 
man, Elsass-Lothringcn ), since its cession 
by France, in 1871, a State or “ imperial ter¬ 
ritory” (Reichsland) of the German em¬ 
pire. A naturallly rich and historically 
interesting region, with fertile soil and ac¬ 
tive industries, it occupies the extreme 
S. W. corner of Germany, and is bounded 
W. by France, E. by Baden, and S. by 
Switzerland. Its utmost length from N. 
to S. is 123 miles; its breadth varies 
between 22 and 105 miles; and its area is 
5,580 square miles, of which 1,353 belong 
to Upper Alsace (in the S.), 1,844 to 
Lower Alsace (N. E.), and 2,383 to 

Lorraine (N. W.). Pop. (1905) 1,814,5G4, 
of whom 76 per cent, were Catholics, 
and more than 80 per cent, spoke Ger¬ 
man— mainly the vernacular Alsatian, a 
dialect of Allemannian. The most populous 
districts in their order are Lower Alsace, 
Lorraine, and Upper Alsace. The French 
speaking population is mainly in the larger 
towns and in Lorraine. The Rhine flows 
115 miles north-bv-eastward along all the 
eastern boundry, and receives, below Stras- 
burg, the Ill from Alsace, 127 miles long. 
Other rivers are the Moselle, flowing 
through Lorraine past Metz, and its af¬ 
fluent, the Saar. Along the Rhine is a strip 
of level country, 9 to 17 miles broad, and 
declining from 800 to 450 feet above sea 
level. Westward of this rise the Vosges 
Mountains, culminating at a height of 4,677 
feet; while Lorraine, rather hilly than 
mountainous, rarely attains 1,300 feet. 
About 48.5 per cent, of the entire area is 
arable, 11.6 meadow and pasture, and 30.8 
under wood. Alsace-Lorraine produces 
much wine, grain, and tobacco; it is rich 
in mines, iron and coal; and manufactures 
iron, cotton, wool, silks, chemicals, glass, 
and paper. It contains the important cities 
of Strasburg (pop. 1905, 1(57,6 7 8), Miihl- 
hausen (pop. 94,498), Metz (pop. 60,419), 
and Colmar. As a French province, Alsace 
was divided into the departments of Haut- 
Rhin and Bas-Rhin. Lorraine fell into the 
Departments of Meuse, Moselle, Meurthe, 
and Vosges (parts of all which still remain 
French). The lieutenant-governor (Rtatt- 
hnltcr ), representing the Imperial Govern¬ 
ment, resides at Strasburg, and is assisted 
by a Ministry of five departments, and a 
Council of State. 

In Caesar’s time Alsace-Lorraine was oc¬ 
cupied bv Celtic tribes, and formed part of 
ancient Gaul; but during the decline of the 
empire the Alemanni and other tribes from 
beyond the Rhine occupied and largely Ger¬ 
manized it. From the 10th century it 
formed part of the German empire, under 


various sovereign dukes and princes, lat¬ 
terly of the house of Hapsburg; till a part 
of it was ceded to France at the Peace of 
Westphalia (1648), and the rest fell a prey 
to the aggressions of Louis XIV., who seized 
Strasburg (1681) by surprise in time of 
peace. By the Peace of Ryswick ( 1697), 
the cession of the whole was ratified. Thus 
— as the Germans used to complain — 
was this fine land, with one of the noblest 
branches of the race, alienated from the 
German people, and the command of the 
German Rhine disgracefully surrendered to 
the enemy in the time of misfortune. Ger¬ 
man never ceased to be the chief language 
of the people, and all newspapers were, dur¬ 
ing the whole period of the French posses¬ 
sion, printed in both languages. In 1814— 
1815 Russia would not hear of the restitu¬ 
tion of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany; and 
not till 1871, after the Franco-Prussian war, 
wore Alsace and German Lorraine, by the 
treaty of Frankfort, incorporated in the new 
German Empire. The great mass of the 
population were strongly against the 
change, and 160,000 elected to be French, 
though only 50,000 went into actual exile, 
refusing to become German subjects. For, 
at least since the era of the Revolution, 
Alsace in sentiment was wholly French. To 
France she gave the bravest of her sons — 
Kellerman, Kleber, and many another hero. 
Strasburg first heard the “Marseillaise;” 
and MM. Erckmann-Chatrian, Lorrainers 
both, have faithfully represented their 
countrymen’s love of La Pa trie in the days 
of the second as of the first Napoleon. 
France, too, is always thinking of her loss, 
eager some day to repair it; and the im¬ 
perial territory, for ages the borderland and 
battlefield of two great powers, remains a 
perpetual cause of strained relations be¬ 
tween France and Germany. Of late it is 
claimed by the Germans that, through the 
emigration of the irreeoneilables and the 
immigration of German settlers, the ten¬ 
dency of the older natives to accept the 
inevitable, and the rising up of a new gen¬ 
eration, to whom the French connection is a 
tradition, the situation has slowly but stead¬ 
ily changed in favor of Germany and the 
existing firm but fair administration. The 
irritating passport system, a special griev¬ 
ance not in force elsewhere in Germany, 
was withdrawn in 1873. On May 9, 1902, 
Emperor William directed that a bill be 
laid before the Federal Council abolishing 
paragraph 10 in the imperial constitu¬ 
tion, which imposed practically a dictator¬ 
ship on the reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine. 
This imperial action was wholly unexpected. 

Altai Mountains (al'ti), an important 

Asiatic system on the borders of Siberia and 
Mongolia, partly in Russian and partly in 
Chinese territory, lying between lat. 46° 
and 53° N., long. 83°‘and 91° E., but having 



Altamirano 


Altar 


great eastern extensions. The Russian por¬ 
tion is comprised in the governments of 
Tomsk and Semipalatinsk, the Chinese in 
Dsungaria. The rivers of this region are 
mostly head waters of the Obi and Irtish. 
The mountain scenery is generally grand 
and interesting. The highest summit is 
Byeluka, height 11,000 feet. The area cov¬ 
ered by perpetual snow is very considerable, 
and glaciers occupy a wide extent. In the 
high lands the winter is very severe; but 
on the whole the climate is comparatively 
mild and is also healthy. The vegetation 
is varied and abundant. The mountain 
forests are composed of birch, alder, aspen, 
fir, larch, stone pine, etc. The wild sheep 
has here its native home, and several kinds 
of deer occur. The Altai are exceedingly 
rich in minerals, including gold, silver, 
copper, and iron. The name Altai means 
“ gold mountain.” The inhabitants are 
chiefly Russians and Kalmuks. The chief 
town is Barnaul. 

Altamirano, Ignacio Manuel (al-ta-me- 
ra'no), a Mexican poet, orator, and jour¬ 
nalist, born in Guerrero, about 1835; wrote 
“ Clemencia; ” “ Julia,” etc. He held politi¬ 
cal office, rose to the rank of Colonel in the 
army during the French invasion, and was 
of pure Indian blood, said to have been de¬ 
scended from the ancient Aztec monarchs. 
He died in Italy, February, 1893. 

Altar, an erection made for the offering 
of sacrifices for memorial purposes, or for 
some other object. An altar designed for 
sacrifice is mentioned in Scripture as early 
as the time of Noah (Genesis viii: 20). 
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob built several 
altars in places where for a brief or more 
lengthened period they sojourned. Most of 
these appear to have been for sacrificial 
purposes, and one or two seem to have been 
for memorial ends; but the most unequivo¬ 
cal case of the memorial altar was subse¬ 
quently. (Josh, xxii: 10-34; Gen. xii: 7, 
8; xiii: 4, 18; xxii: 9; xxvi: 25; xxxiii: 
20; xxxv: 1, 7.) 

At Sinai directions were given that al¬ 
tars should be of earth or of stone unhewn, 
and that the ascent to them should not be 
by steps (Exod. xx: 24—20). When the 
tabernacle worship was established, there 
was an altar of wood covered with brass, 
designed for sacrifice, and one overlaid with 
gold, on which incense was burned (Exod. 
xxvii: 1-8; xxxi: 1-10). Both had pro¬ 
jections at the four corners of the upper 
surface. To those of the brazen altar vic¬ 
tims were bound, and a fugitive from death 
seizing hold of one of these could not legally 
be dragged away to meet his doom. Strictly 
speaking, all sacrifices were to be confined 
to the one sacrificial altar, but the in junction 
was observed only to a partial extent. (I 
Sam. vii: 17; II Sam. xxiv: 25; I Kings, 
xviii: 32.) 



In the early Christian centuries altars 
were generally of wood. During the 6th 
century stone was employed in the con¬ 
struction, and this 
continued to the 
time of the Refor¬ 
mation. 

In the Church of 
Rome an altar is es¬ 
sential, it being be¬ 
lieved that in the 
mass an actual 
though bloodless 
sacrifice is offered 
for sin. Formerly, 
also, there was an 
upper altar (super- 
altare), which was 
a small portable one 
for the consecration 
of the communion 
elements, when the 
priest had not the 
opportunity of us¬ 
ing the altar in a altar — old Greek. 
church or chapel. 

The stone altars, which were in the 
churches of the Church of England when 
the Reformation began, were removed about 
1550, and tables substituted for them. 
Queen Mary restored the altars, which were, 
however, again removed on the accession of 



ALTAR — GOTHIC STYLE. 

(In the Elizabeth Church, Marbury.) 


Queen Elizabeth. What is sometimes called 
“ the altar ” is everywhere in the prayer 
book called “ the holy table.” 

Many of the old ethnic nations built al¬ 
tars for idolatrous worship on the tops of 
hills or in groves. The Greeks and Romans 
built high altars to the heavenly gods, and 
some of lower elevation to the demigods and 





















































Alten 


Altorf 


heroes, while they worshipped the infernal 
gods in trenches scooped out of the ground. 
Many nations have had, and yet possess, 
altars of turf, stone, wood, or, in rare cases, 
even of horn; but they are wholly absent 
among the Mohammedans. 

Alten, Karl August, Count von, a Han¬ 
overian soldier, born Oct. 20, 1704; entered 
the army in 1781; but in 1803 left Hanover 
for England, where he was appointed com¬ 
mander of the “ German Legion ” in the 
British service. In almost all the engage¬ 
ments of the Spanish War of Liberation he 
took a prominent part; and he fought with 
distinction at Quatre-Bras and Waterloo. 
He died April 20, 1840. 

Altenburg (-borg), the capital of the 
Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, situated on the 
Pleisse, in a fertile country, 30 miles S. 
of Leipsic. Standing on an almost perpen¬ 
dicular rock of porphyry, the old castle of 
Altenburg forms a striking feature in thq 
landscape. Its foundations are probably 
as old as the 11th century; and, since the 
two fires of 1805 and 1808, it has been 
finely restored. It is memorable as the 
place whence, in 1455, a neighboring knight, 
Kunz von Kaufungen, carried off the young 
Saxon princes, Ernest and Albert. Before 
he could reach the Bohemian frontier, he 
was apprehended by a charcoal burner, and 
handed over to the executioner. The epi¬ 
sode is known in history as the “ Prinzen- 
raub.” Brushes, woolen goods, gloves, and 
cigars are among the manufactures. Pop. 
(1905) 38,818. 

Alterative, a kind of medicine which, 
when given, appears for a time to have 
little or no effect, but which ultimately 
changes, or tends to change, a morbid state 
into one of health. Garrod divides altera¬ 
tives into seven groups: (1) Mercurial 
alteratives. (2) iodine alteratives, (3) 
chlorine alteratives, (4) arsenical altera¬ 
tives, (5) antimonial alteratives, (0) sul¬ 
phur alteratives, and (7) alteratives of 
undetermined action. 

AItgeld, John Peter, author, lawyer, and 
judge, born in Germany, in December, 1847. 
When but a few months old he was 
taken to Mansfield, Ohio. He was Judge of 
the Supreme Court at Chicago, in 188G- 
1891, and Governor of Illinois in 1893. His 
pardon of the Anarchists caused much con¬ 
troversy. He wrote “ Our Penal Machinery 
and Its Victims,” “ Live Questions,” and 
other books. He died March 12, 1902. 

Altiscope, an instrument consisting of 
an arrangement of mirrors in a vertical 
framework, by means of which a person is 
enabled to overlook an object (a parapet, 
for instance) intervening between himself 
and whatever he desires to see, the picture 
of the latter being reflected from a higher 
to a lower mirror, where it is seen by the 
observer. 


Altitude, in mathematics the perpendicu- 
lar height of the vertex or apex of a piano 
figure or solid above the base. In astron¬ 
omy it is the vertical height of any point 
or body above the horizon. It is measured 
or estimated by the angle subtended between 
the object and the plane of the horizon, and 
may be either true or apparent. The ap¬ 
parent altitude is that which is obtained 
immediately from observation; the true 
altitude, that which results from correcting 
the apparent altitude, by making allow¬ 
ance for parallax, refraction. 

Alto, in music, the highest singing voice 
of a male adult, the lowest of a boy or a 
woman, being in the latter almost the same 
as contralto. The alto, or counter-tenor, is 
not a natural voice, but a development of 
the falsetto. It is almost confined to Eng¬ 
lish singers, and the only music written for 
it is by English composers. It is especially 
used in cathedral compositions and glees. 

Alton, a city in Madison co., Ill., on 
the Mississippi river, 5 miles above the 
mouth of the Missouri, and on several trunk 
line railroads; 21 miles N. of St. Louis, Mo. 
It is built on a high limestone bluff, and 
has very picturesque surroundings. The 
Mississippi is here spanned by a costly rail¬ 
road bridge, and the city is connected with 
upper Alton, 2 miles distant, by a trolley 
line. Alton has important manufactures, 
and a large river trade. Here are the 
Cathedral of Sts. Peter and Paul, St. Jo¬ 
seph’s Hospital, Ursuline Convent (all Ro¬ 
man Catholic), Hayner Memorial Public 
Library, Monticello Seminary, Old Wo¬ 
men’s Home, 2 National banks, and several 
daily and weekly newspapers. Upper Al¬ 
ton is the seat of Shurtleff College (Bap¬ 
tist), and Wyman Institute. Elijah P. 
Lovejoy, the abolitionist, was murdered at 
Alton by a mob in 1837. A monument to 
his memorv was erected in 1897. Pop. 
(1900) 14,210; (1910) 17,528. 

Altoona, a city in Blair co., Pa.; on 
the Pennsylvania and the Altoona, Clear¬ 
field and Northern railroads; 117 miles E. 
of Pittsburg. It is at the E. base of the Al¬ 
leghany Mountains, at an elevation of 1,180 
feet above sea level, where the railroad be¬ 
gins to ascend the mountains at a grade of 
90 feet to the mile. The city contains ex¬ 
tensive machine shops of the Pennsylvania 
railroad, large individual car works, rolling 
and planing mills, a hospital, two convents, 
a public library, general offices of the 
Pennsylvania railroad, and 2 National 
banks* Altoona is a mining, manufactur¬ 
ing, lumbering, and farming trade center 
for Central Pennsylvania, and has had a 
rapid development. Pop. (1890) 30,337; 

(1900) 38,973; (1910) 52,127. 

Altorf, or Altdorf, a town of Switzer¬ 
land, in the canton of Uri, near Lake Lu¬ 
cerne. A tower marks the spot where Wil- 



AIto=Rilievo 


Aluminum 


liam Tell is said to have shot the apple from 
his son’s head. The adjacent village of 
Burglen is Tell’s traditional birthplace. 
Pop. about 2,500. 

Alto=Rilievo,or Alto=Relievo, sculptured 
work of which the figures project more than 
half their true proportions. When they 
project just one-half, the term used is 
mezzo-relievo; and when less than half, 
basso-relievo, or in English, bas-relief. 

Altranstadt (illt' riin-stedt), an import¬ 
ant village in the Prussian Province of Sax¬ 
ony, near Lutzen. It is famous for its 
castle, where, on Sept. 24, 1700, Charles XII. 
of Sweden signed the peace with August II., 
King of Poland. By this treaty, August 
II. agreed to vacate the Polish throne, not 
to enter any alliances against Sweden, es¬ 
pecially any with the Czar, and to give up 
the Livlander Patkul, to grant the Swedish 
winter quarters in Saxony, and pledge him¬ 
self not to persecute the Evangelical Church. 
This treaty did not go into effect until 
Nov. 26, because August felt that, by rea¬ 
son of a previous peace, he was obliged to 
support the Russians in their attack upon 
the Swedish General Mardefeld. After the 
defeat of Charles XII. at Poltava, August 
II., on Aug. 8, 1700, declared the Peace of 
Altranstadt to be void under the pretext 
that his representatives had exceeded their 
authority. Through the Treaty of Altran¬ 
stadt of Aug. 30, 1707, Charles XII. ob¬ 
tained from the Emperor Johann Joseph I. 
religious liberty and toleration for the Prot¬ 
estants of Silesia. 

Altruism, a term used in psychology and 
ethics to denote disposition and conduct di¬ 
rected toward the well-being of others. It 
is contrasted with egoism, or self-seeking 
disposition and conduct. It is essential to 
altruism, as well as to egoism, that the 
good of others, or of self, should be con¬ 
sciously and intentionally pursued. Ac¬ 
tions and dispositions which are instructive, 
such as maternal instinct, are not, properly 
speaking, altruistic, nor are the opposite 
egoistic. It is only when the consciousness 
of self is sufficiently developed in the child 
to give rise to a contrast between self and 
the “other” (alter), that the conscious 
pursuit of the interest of one of them is 
possible. This is covered by psychologists 
by saying that real altruism and egoism are 
always “ reflective.” Altruism is also ap¬ 
plied to the type of ethical theory which 
bases morality upon generous or altruistic 
disposition or conduct (in the sense defined 
above). 

Alum, the name given to double salts of 
sulphate of aluminum with sulphates of 
potassium, sodium, ammonium, or of other 
monatomic metals, as silver, thallium, cae¬ 
sium, rubidium. They crystallize in octo- 
hedra. Potash alum, A1 2 K 2 (S0 4 ) 4 +24II 2 0, 


is prepared by the decomposition of a shale 
containing iron pyrites, FeS 2 , which is 
gently burned and exposed to the air in a 
moist state; it oxidizes and forms sulphates, 
and, on the addition of a potash salt to the 
solution obtained by water, alum crystal¬ 
lizes out. Alum has a sweet astringent 
taste, reddens litmus paper, and dissolves 
in its own weight of boiling water. Sodium 
alum is very soluble. Ammonium alum is 
often prepared by adding the ammonia li¬ 
quor of gas-works instead of potash. Alum 
is used in dyeing and in preparing skins, 
etc. Alums can be also formed in which 
ferric or chromic sulphates replace alumi¬ 
nium sulphate, as potassio-ferric sulphate, 
Fe 2 K 2 (S0 4 ) 4 -f-241I 2 0, and ammonio-chromic 
sulphate, Cr 2 (NH 4 ) 2 (S0 4 ) 4 +24H 2 0. These 
crystallize in the same form, and cannot be 
separated from each other by crystallization. 
Alum is used in medicine as an astringent 
in doses of 10 to 20 grains. Burned alum is 
alum deprived of its water of crystalliza¬ 
tion by heat; it is used externally as a 
slight escharotic. 

In mineralogy, Dana makes alum the type 
of a group of minerals, classed under his 
“ Oxygen Compounds—Hydrous Sulphates,” 
and places under it tschermigite and ka- 
linite. Ammonia alum, a mineral, called 
also tschermigite. Feather alum, a mineral, 
called also halotrichite. Iron alum, a min¬ 
eral, called also halotrichite. Magnesia 
alum, a mineral, called also pickeringite. 
Manganese alum, a mineral, called also 
apjohnite. Native alum, a mineral, called 
also kalinite. Soda alum, a mineral, 
called also mendozite. Saccharine alum, 
a composition made of common alum, with 
rose-water and the white of eggs boiled to¬ 
gether to the consistence of a paste, and 
thus capable of being molded at pleasure. 
As it cools it grows as hard as an ordinary 
stone. 

Alumbagh, a palace and connected build¬ 
ings in Hindustan, about 4 miles S. of 
Lucknow. On the outbreak of the Indian 
mutiny it was occupied by the revolted Se¬ 
poys, and converted into a fort. On Sept. 
23, 1857, it was captured by the British, and 
during the following winter a British gar¬ 
rison, under Sir James Outram, held out 
here, though repeatedly attacked by over¬ 
whelming numbers of the rebels, till in 
March, 1858, it was finally relieved. Sir 
Henry Havelock was buried within the 
grounds. 

Aluminum, a metal discovered by Wohler 
in 1827, as a gray powder, but in 1847 in 
the form of small, glittering metallic glo¬ 
bules. In 1854, H. St. Clair Deville iso¬ 
lated aluminum into a state of almost 
perfect purity and determined its proper¬ 
ties. He found that aluminum could be 
prepared in a compact form at a compara¬ 
tively small expense. It is a white metal, 



Aluminum 


Aluminum 


somewhat resembling silver, but possessing 
a bluish hue, which reminds one of zinc. 
This bluish color can be whitened by hydro¬ 
fluoric and phosphoric acids, and also by 
a heated solution of potash. It is very 
malleable and ductile, in tenacity it ap¬ 
proaches iron, and it takes a high polish. 
It fuses at about 1292° F. (700° C.), and 
can then be cast in molds into ingots. 
Exposed to dry or moist air, it is unal¬ 
terable, and does not oxidize or tarnish 
like most common metals. Salt water 
affects it less than it does silver, tin, or 
copper. Neither cold nor hot water has 
any action upon it. Sulphuretted hydro¬ 
gen, the gas which so readily tarnishes the 
silver in households, does not act on alu¬ 
minum, which is found to preserve its ap¬ 
pearance under all ordinary circumstances 
as perfectly as gold does. When cast into 
molds, it is a soft metal like pure silver, 
and has a density of 2.56; but when ham¬ 
mered or rolled, it becomes as hard as iron, 
and its density increases to 2.67. It is, 
therefore, a very light metal, being lighter 
than glass, and only one-fourth as heavy as 
silver. 

Aluminum is very sonorous, a bar of it, 
when struck, giving out a very sweet, clear, 
ringing sound. It is a good conductor of 
heat and electricity. Since about 1850, such 
articles as coins, medals, statuettes, per¬ 
sonal ornaments, keys, helmets, sabre- 
sheaths, mounts for furniture, and culinary 
vessels of aluminum have been tried, and 
failed to take the market. Not being acted 
upon by organic secretions, it is used for op¬ 
tical, surgical, and chemical instruments 
and apparatus. Aluminum leaf and wire 
may be employed with great advantage in 
place of silver leaf for decoration, or silver 
wire for embroidery. Of late it has come 
to be used in shipbuilding, especially for 
torpedo-boats, and boats meant to be sent 
in pieces to African lakes, etc., its hardness 
and lightness and non-corrosiveness being 
in its favor. Bicycles have also been made 
of it. And as it is especially suitable for 
cooking-vessels, efforts to cast it for pots 
and pans have often been made, but unsuc¬ 
cessfully till 1895, when aluminum (at Is. 
6d. = 31 cents, per pound), was weight for 
weight, three times the price of copper, but 
bulk for bulk, the cheaper metal. In 1855 
Napoleon III. paid the expense for making 
industrial use of aluminum at Javel. Many 
other manufactories of aluminum were also 
started about that same time in France. In 
1856, Alfred Mounier produced aluminum at 
Camden. In 1857, the price of aluminum 
was from $28 to $32 a pound. Between 
1862 and 1877 it ranged from $12 upward. 
In 1886 such improvements were made in 
its manufacture that its price was very 
much lowered, and when in 1888 electrical 
methods of production were used, the price 
of aluminum was reduced to less than $1 
15 


a pound. In 1884, William Frishmuth, of 
Philadelphia, produced the aluminum cap 
for the Washington monument. In 1885 
aluminum was produced for the most part 
in scientific laboratories as a curiosity for 
which little use was apparent. It sold for 
$12 a pound. To-day it sells for 31 cents. 
In 1885 three books had been written about 
it. Now nearly a score are in circulation 
and several trade newspapers represent it. 
In its manufacture, millions are employed 
and millions more are invested in its col¬ 
lateral interests. The dreams of Deville, 
the originator of the aluminum indus- 
try, and of the Russian Chernuishevsky, 
have been brought to pass, for it is truly 
a metal of everyday life. In 1888 a process 
for the production of the pure metal was 
established at Pittsburg, and since then the 
spread in the production of the metal has 
been extremely rapid. 

The metals most used for the production 
of aluminum are bauxite, a metal first 
found near Baux, but since then found in 
Styria in Austria, in Ireland and in many 
places in the United States; and cryolite, 
found on the W. coast of Greenland. 
There is no other useful metal iron not ex-, 
cepted, which is widely scattered over the> 
earth and which occurs in such abundance. 
The Smithsonian Institution has calculated 
the percentage of aluminum in the earth's 
crust at 7.81, while that of iron is 5.46. 
Aluminum is not found in a metallic state. 
It is a combination which exists in almost 
any clay bank and which enters into scores 
of minerals and also numerous precious 
stones, notably the ruby, sapphire, garnet, 
cyanite, turquoise, topaz, and lazulite. Cop¬ 
per has a specific gravity of 8.93 and a ten¬ 
sile strength of 16,500 pounds per square 
inch when pure. Aluminum has a specific 
gravity of 2.68, a tensile strength of 26,000 
pounds in pure soft wire, and 40,000 pounds 
per square inch in hard drawn wire. The 
conductivity of the two metals is 28.5 per 
cent, in favor of copper. Recently alu¬ 
minum has been substituted for copper as 
an electric conductor on certain rapid tran¬ 
sit lines, it being much cheaper than cop¬ 
per. For occurrence and production in the 
United States, see Bauxite. 

Aluminum Alloys .—The aluminum bronzes, 
now becoming so generally introduced, are 
the alloys of aluminum and copper, in which 
the amount of copper considerably exceeds 
that of aluminum. Aluminum containing 
small quantities of copper is not designated 
as aluminum bronze, while copper contain¬ 
ing from 13 to 90 per cent, of aluminum is 
brittle, having no use in the arts. The use¬ 
ful bronzes are those containing from 1 to 
12 parts of aluminum. The value of these 
aluminum bronzes consists in their non-cor¬ 
rosive properties and in their strength. In 
respect to the former, they nearly rival the 
nobler metals, and in respect to the Latter 




Alva 


Alvary 


they surpass iron and compare favorably 
with steel. The non-corrosive property is 
not confined to any particular mixture, but 
is characteristic of all the alloys, and is un¬ 
doubtedly due to the minute film of oxide 
of aluminum which is formed on the sur¬ 
face of the metal when exposed to the air — 
this film, though imperceptible, doubtless 
protecting from corrosion. 

A1 va, or Alba, Ferdinand Alvarez de 
Toledo, Duke of, prime minister and gen¬ 
eral of the Spanish armies under Charles 
V. and Philip II., was born in 1508, of one 
of the most illustrious families of Spain. 
He entered the army a mere youth, and 
fought in the wars of Charles V. in France, 
Italy, Africa, Hungary, and Germany. He 
is more especially remembered for his bloody 
and tyrannical government of the Nether¬ 
lands (1507-1573), which had revolted, and 
which he was commissioned by Philip II. 
xo reduce to entire subjection to Spain. 
Among his first proceedings was to estab¬ 
lish the “ Council of Blood,” a tribunal 
which condemned, without discrimination, 
all whose opinions were suspected, and 
whose riches were coveted. The present and 
absent, the living and the dead, were sub¬ 
jected to trial and their property confis¬ 
cated. Many merchants and mechanics emi- 



DUKE OF ALVA. 


grated to England; people by hundreds of 
thousands abandoned their country. The 
most oppressive taxes were imposed, and 
trade was brought completely to a stand¬ 
still. As a reward for his services to the 
faith, the Pope presented him with a con¬ 
secrated hat and sword, a distinction pre¬ 
viously conferred only on princes. Resist¬ 
ance was only quelled for a time, and soon 
the provinces of Holland and Zealand re¬ 
volted against his tyranny. A fleet which 
was fitted out at his command, was anni¬ 
hilated, and he was everywhere met with 
insuperable courage. Hopeless of finally 


subduing the country, he asked to be re¬ 
called, and, accordingly, in December, 1573, 
Alva left the country, in which, as he him¬ 
self boasted, he had executed 18,000 men. 
He was received with distinction in Madrid, 
but did not long enjoy his former credit. 
He had the honor, however, before his death 
of reducing all Portugal to subjection to his 
sovereign. It is said of him that during 60 
years of warfare, he never lost a battle and 
was never taken by surprise. He died Jan. 
12, 1582. 

Alvarado, Pedro de (al-va-ra'do), a fa¬ 
mous comrade of Cortes, was born at Ba- 
dajoz, toward the close of the 15th century. 
In 1518 he sailed for the New World, and 
accompanied Grijalva in his exploring voy¬ 
age along the shores of the American con¬ 
tinent. It was now that the Spaniards 
heard for the first time of the riches of 
Montezuma, and of his vast empire. Al¬ 
varado was soon sent back to Cuba to in¬ 
form the Governor, Velasquez, of the result 
of the expedition. In February, 1519, he 
sailed with Cortes and his little band of 
heroes from Havana, and took an active 
part in all the incidents of the conquest of 
Mexico. He died in 1541. 

Alvarez, Don Jose (al-va'rath), the great¬ 
est of modern Spanish sculptors, was born 
in 1768, in the Province of Cordova. Dur¬ 
ing youth he labored with his father, a stone¬ 
mason ; and when 20 years old, began to 
study drawing and sculpture in the acad¬ 
emy at Granada. He secured the patronage 
of the Bishop of Cordova, and in 1794 was 
received into the Academy of San Fernando, 
where, in 1799, he gained the first prize and 
a grant to enable him to study at Paris and 
Rome. In Rome, where he lived on terms 
of friendship with Canova and Thorvaldsen, 
he executed a famous group, now in the 
Royal Museum of Madrid, representing a 
scene in the defense of Saragossa. At Rome 
till 1826, he died at Madrid in 1827. 

Alvarez do Oriente, Fernan (al'va-reth 

do o-re-en-te), a Portuguese poet (1540- 
1599), of the school of Camoens. His life- 
work, “ Lusitania Transformed,” is a pas¬ 
toral romance in the manner of Sannazaro’s 
“ Arcadia,” composed of prose and poetry 
and containing elegies, sonnets, and idyls 
of such beauty as to have caused some of 
them to be ascribed to Camoens. 

Alvary, Max, a German tenor, son of the 
painter, Andreas Achenbach, whose name, 
however, he never used, born at Dusseldorf, 
May 1, 1858. He was first a merchant; 
then an architect in Cologne; studied sing¬ 
ing with Lamperti in Milan, and with Stock¬ 
hausen inFrankfort-on-the-Main; and joined 
the court opera in Weimar. In 1884 he 
went to New York, where for five years he 
distinguished himself as “ Tannhiiuser.” 
“Siegfried,” “Tristan,” “ Loge,” “Walter 
Stolzing,” and other Wagnerian characters. 





































Alvey 


Amadis 


In 1890, he returned to Germany. lie died 
near Grosstabarz, Nov. 7, 1898. 

Alverstone, Lord. See Webster, Sir 
R lCHARD Everard. 

Alvey, Richard Henry, an American 
jurist, born in 182G; admitted to the bar in 
1849; member of the Maryland State Con- 
stitutional Convention; Chief Judge of the 
Fourth Judicial Circuit, and a judge of the 
Maryland Court of Appeals in 1867—1883; 
Chief Justice of the latter Court in 1883- 
1893; became Chief Justice of the Court of 
Appeals of the District of Columbia in 1893, 
and one of the Venezuela Boundary Com¬ 
missioners in 189G. He died Sept. 14, 190(5. 

AIzog, Johann Baptist (alts'og), a Ger¬ 
man Catholic Church historian, born in Si¬ 
lesia in 1808; in 1834, he became a priest, 
and in 183G was appointed professor in the 
Clerical Seminary at Posen; in 1845, pro¬ 
fessor and regent of the Seminary at Hil- 
desheim, and in 1853, professor in the Uni¬ 
versity of Freiburg. His chief work is a 
“Manual of the Universal History of the 
Christian Church,” which has been trans¬ 
lated into many languages, even into Ar¬ 
menian, and the 10th edition of which was 
reprinted in 1882 in two volumes. He also 
wrote a sketch of “ Patrology.” He died 
March 1, 1878. 

Amaddedulat, the founder of the Persian 
dynasty, was the son of a fisherman. He 
and his two brothers took Persia proper, 
Persian Irak and Caramania, which they 
divided among them. Amaddedulat set¬ 
tled at Shiraz in Persia proper, in 933; 
died in 947. 

Amadeus, a common name in the house 
of Savoy. The first who bore it was Count 
Amadeus, who lived in the 11th century, 
but the first to make an important figure 
in history was Amadeus V. (1249-1323). 
Amadeus VIII., born in 1383, secured the 
elevation of Savoy into a duchy. Tie was 
elected Pope in 1439, as Felix V., but re¬ 
signed later. Amadeus I., of Spain, born in 
1845, brother of King Victor Emmanuel of 
Italy, was elected King of Spain in 1870, 
abdicated in 1873, and died in 1890. 

Amadis, a much used name in the chival- 
ric poetry of the Middle Ages. Of the nu¬ 
merous romances that may be grouped un¬ 
der it, that which narrates the adventures 
of Amadis of Gaul is at once the most an¬ 
cient and the best. It is believed that the 
earliest forms of the story were a lost Cas¬ 
tilian version, perhaps about 1250, and a 
Portuguese version, also lost, composed 
about 1370 by Vasco de Lobeira of Porto. 
Most likely these earlier versions were in 
verse. Instead of these, we have a Span¬ 
ish version of almost 100 years later, writ¬ 
ten bv Gn.rci-Ordonez de Montalvo about 
1465, but first printed in 1508. This prose 


romance is one of the three spared by the 
licentiate and the barber at the burning of 
Don Quixote’s books, and the barber’s 
reason is that “ it is the best of all the 
books of this kind.” Its hero is Amadis, the 
model of every knightly virtue, son of King 
Perion of Gaul and Elisena, Princess of 
Brittany; he is sent away to Scotland, 
where he falls in love with Oriana, the in¬ 
comparable daughter of King Lisuarte of 
England, and the narration of the course of 
this love story, with its varied adventures, 
wide journeys into foreign lands, number¬ 
less struggles with knights, giants and rob¬ 
bers, forms the chief subject of the romance. 
The work is wearisome from its length, 
but it contains many pathetic and striking 
passages, and has great value as a mirror 
of the manners of the age of chivalry. 

The Spanish Amadis romances consist of 
12 books, of which the first four contain the 
history of Amadis of Gaul. The earliest 
existing version of this is, as has been 
said, that of Montalvo, and the earliest 
edition now in existence bears the date of 
1508. He himself added a fifth book con¬ 
taining the adventures of Esplandian 
(1510), the eldest son of Amadis and Glori- 
ana; later writers have multiplied the pos¬ 
terity of the old hero. Already, in 1510, 
appeared a sixth book with the history of 
Florisando, his nephew; in 1514, 1526, and 
1535, respectively, a seventh, eighth and 
ninth book, with the wonderful histories of 
Lisuarte of Greece, a son of Esplandian, and 
Perion of Gaul, and the still more wonder¬ 
ful history of Amadis of Greece, a great- 
grandson of the Gallic hero. Then follow 
Don Florisel of Niquea and Anaxartes, son 
of Lisuarte, whose history, with that of the 
children of the latter, fills the tenth and 
eleventh books. Lastly, the twelfth book, 
printed in 1546, narrates the exploits of 
Don Silves do la Selva, son of Amadis of 
Greece and Finistea. A French translation 
appeared in 1540, an Italian in 1546, an 
English in 1588, while a version in German 
was published in 1583. The French trans¬ 
lators increased this series of romances 
from 12 to 24 books; the German, to 30. 
Lastly, a Frenchman, Gilbert Saunier Du- 
verdier, at the beginning of the 17th cen¬ 
tury, arranged all these romances into a 
harmonious and consecutive series, and with 
his compilation in seven volumes, the “ Ro¬ 
man des Romans,” brought the history of 
Amadis and the series of about 50 volumes 
to a close. A version of the old romance 
in French was published by Creuze de 
Lesser, in 1813; in English, by William 
Stewart Rose, in 1803; while the literary 
skill of Southey produced, in 1803, an 
abridgement that is still readable. On the 
other hand, Wieland's “ Neuer Amadis ” has 
nothing in common with the more ancient 
Amadises, except the title. 




Amadou 


Amanita 


Amadou, a kind of brown match, tinder 
or touchwood, brought chiefly from Ger¬ 
many. It is called also punk, German 
tinder and pyrotechnic sponge. It is made 
by steeping a large fungus — the boletus ig- 
niarius — in a strong lye prepared with 
saltpetre, and afterward drying it thor¬ 
oughly. In addition to being employed as 
a match, it is u&ed to stop haemorrhage. 
The hernandia guicinensis, a species of 
daphnad, readily taking fire with flint and 
steel, is used as amadou. In India, a fun¬ 
gus, the polyporus fomentarius, or an al¬ 
lied species, is employed for the same pur¬ 
pose. 

Amalfi (am-al'fe), a city and seaport, in 
the Province of Salerno, Italy; on the Gulf 
of Salerno; 22 miles S. E. of Naples. It 
was founded in the 4th century; was the 
birthpl ace of Flairo Gioja, the inventor of 
the mariner’s compass; became the capital 
of a republic; and attained very large com¬ 
mercial importance. It contained a cathe¬ 
dral with bronze doors cast in Constanti¬ 
nople in 1066, and a Capuchin monastery, 
which, in recent years, became a popular 
hotel. On Dec. 24, 1809, a portion of the 
rocks and land facing the Gulf suddenly slid 
into the water, carrying down the ancient 
monasterv building and other structures. 
Pop. (1901 ) 7,308. 

Amalgam, the union or alloy of any 
metal with quicksilver (mercury). 

In mineralogy, a mineral classed by Dana 
under his “ Native Elements.” It occurs 
crystallized, massive, or semi-fluid. Its color 
and streak are silver-white. It is brittle, 
and when cut gives a grating noise. It con¬ 
sists of silver 34.8, and mercury 65.2. It 
occurs in Hungary, the Palatinate, Sweden, 
Spain, Chile, and elsewhere. 

Gold amalgam is a mineral occurring in 
white, crumbling grains about the size of a 
pea, or in yellowish-white four-sided prisms. 
It consists of goR 39.02, and mercury 60.98. 
It is found in Colombia and in California. 

Amalia, Anna, Duchess of Saxe-Weimar, 
was born in 1739, and, left a widow in the 
second year of her marriage (1758), by her 
judicious rule as guardian of her infant 
son, she enabled the country to recover 
from the effects of the Seven Years’ War. 
She appointed Wieland tutor to her son, af¬ 
terward Grand Duke, and attracted to Wei¬ 
mar such men as Herder, Goethe, Musaeus, 
Schiller; forming a galaxy of genius such 
as few courts were ever graced with. The 
battle of Jena is said to have broken her 
heart; she died (1807) six months after 
that event. 

Amalie, Marie Friederike Auguste (ii- 
ma'le-e), a German dramatist (1794-1870), 
who wrote under the pseudonym Amalie 
Heiter. She was Duchess of Saxony, sister 


of King John of Saxony. Comedies and 
dramas of simple conception, but careful 
delineation of character, and well adapted 
for the stage, have given her eminence. 
Among them are “ The Uncle,” “ The 
Prince’s Fiancee,” “ Primogeniture,” “ The 
Young Lady from the Country,” and “ The 
Agriculturist.” 

Amalphitan Code, a collection of laws 
bearing on navigation, collected by the in¬ 
habitants of Amalfi about the 11th century, 
and received as authority for a long period 
subsequently. 

Amalric, or Arnauld, a Spanish military 

Churchman, who distinguished himself by 
his cruelties against the Albigenses. In 1209, 
he laid siege to Beziers, and commanded 
60,000 of its inhabitants to be slaughtered 
after the town had surrendered. “ How are 
we to distinguish the Catholics from the 
heretics?” inquired one of the officers. 
“Kill them all—God knows his own,” re¬ 
plied Amalric. Died in 1225. 

Amalthea, one of the 10 sibyls. It was 
she who, according to the old Roman legei 1, 
offered Tarquinius Priscus the nine Sibyl¬ 
line books at a price so high that, instead 
of giving her what she asked, he laughed 
at her, believing her to be mad. On this 
she burned three of the nine volumes in his 
presence, and asked the original price for 
the remaining six. Meeting with a second 
refusal, she proceeded to burn three more, 
and asked the full price for the remaining 
three. Awed by her extraordinary conduct, 
the king at last purchased the three for the 
sum originally asked for the nine. 

Amana, a communistic German colony in 
Iowa, 28 miles W. of Iowa City, founded by 
the Amanites, who branched out from the 
so-called “ Inspiration Congregation,” con¬ 
sisting of seven villages, with over 2,000 
inhabitants, which, through agriculture, 
wool and cotton spinning, have attained 
great prosperity. 

Amana and Amanus, a chain of lofty 
mountains separating Cilicia from Syria. 
This name was given by the Greek and Ro¬ 
man geographers, and is also sometimes ap¬ 
plied by modern geographers to the branch 
of Mount Taurus, which, beginning at the 
mountain of Cape Hvnzyr, on the Gulf of 
Scanderoon, runs in a N. E. direction into 
the interior. 

Amanita, a genus of hymenomycete fungi, 
nearly allied to the mushrooms (agaricus ). 
Several of the species are edible, notably 
the delicious orange (A. ccescirea ), but 
the majority are poisonous. A. muscaria, 
which is quite common in woods, espe¬ 
cially of fir and beech, in Great Britain, is 
one of the most dangerous fungi. It is 
sometimes called fly agaric, being used in 
Sweden and other countries to kill flies and 
bugs, for which purpose it is steeped in. 



Amarantaceae 


Amati 


milk. The pileus or cap is of an orange- 
red color, with white warts, the gills white, 
and the stem bulbous. It grows to a con¬ 
siderable size. It contains a bitter and nar¬ 
cotic principle, resembling in its physiolog¬ 
ical action that of Indian hemp (hasheesh), 
and is used by the Kamchadales to produce 
intoxication. 


AMANITA, YOUNG. AMANITA, ADULT. 

Amarantaceae, or Amaranthaceae, a 

natural order of plants, consisting of “che- 
nopodal exogens, with separate sepals op¬ 
posite the stamens, usually one-cel led an¬ 
thers, a single ovary often containing sev¬ 
eral seeds, and scarious flowers buried in 
imbricated bracts.” The order is divided 
into three sub-orders— (Jomplircnew, Achy- 
ranthece , and Ccloscw. The species are gen¬ 
erally unattractive weeds, but sometimes 
they are of more showy appearance. In 1840 
Lindley estimated the known species at 282; 
now, it is believed, about 500 are known. 
They occur chiefly in the tropics of America 
and Asia; a number also are Australian. 

Amaranthus, or Amarantus, a genus of 
plants, the typical one of the order Ama- 
rantacew. It is placed under the sub-order 
Achyranthece. It has green, purplish, or 
crimson flowers in large spiked clusters, 
which are very ornamental. A. mclancho- 
licus and tri color are tender annuals, and 
A. sanguineus and caudatus common border 
flowers. The leaves of A. viridis are em¬ 
ployed externally as an emollient poultice. 
A. obtusifolius is said to be diuretic. A. 
dcbilis is used in Madagascar as a cure for 
syphilis. 

Amari, Michele (am-ar'e), an Italian 
statesman and Orientalist, born at Palermo, 
1800. In 1841 he published a history of the 
Sicilian Vespers, which made him famous. 
He was active in the Revolution of 1848, and 
in 1800 aided Garibaldi. He also filled the 
chair of Arabic at Pisa, later at Florence. 
He was an authority on Oriental studies as 
well as a distinguished publicist. He died 
in 1889. 


Amarillo, a town of Texas, county-seat of 
Potter co., and the largest town in the “Pan¬ 
handle,” 333 miles N. W. of Fort Worth; 
on the Fort Worth and Denver, Southern 
Kansas and Texas, Pecos Valley and North¬ 
eastern, and Colorado, Rock Island, and 
Gulf railroads. A United States weather 
bureau observatory and an agricultural ex¬ 
periment farm are located at Amarillo. 
I here are water works and electric-light 
plants under private control, and in 1907 
gas works and a street railway system were 
in process of construction. Five banks have 
$3,000,000 on deposit. Amarillo is the ship¬ 
ping point for the cattle-raising section of 
Texas. The leading religious denominations 
are represented, and there are well-equipped 
public and private schools. Pop. (1910) 
9,957. 

Amaryllidacese, an order of plants 
placed by Lindley in the narcissal alliance 
of the class endogens. In their six-partite or 
six-cleft colored perianth, and their three- 
celled fruit, they resemble lily-worts, from 
which, however, they are at once distin¬ 
guished by their inferior ovary. In 1840 
Lindley estimated the known species at 400. 
The representatives of the order in the Eng¬ 
lish flora are narcissus, galanthus, and 
leucojum. Beautiful as they are, most of 
them have poisonous bulbs. The Hotten¬ 
tots are said to dip the heads of their ar¬ 
rows in the viscid juice of the bulbs of 
Hwmanthus toxica rius and some allied 
species. Several are emetic, having a prin¬ 
ciple in their composition like that of the 
squill. 

Amaryllis, the name of a certain beauti¬ 
ful girl beloved by the shepherd Tityrus, 
also the servant-girl of a sorceress. A simi¬ 
lar meaning in Theocritus. From Greek 
amarusso = (1) to sparkle, (2) to dazzle. 
The word is also applied to a genus of 
plants, the typical one of the order Amaryl- 
lidacece. 

Amasis (am-a'sis), a king of Egypt, of 
humble origin, who rose to be general, and, 
when sent to put down an insurrection, 
joined tire rebels, and was proclaimed king 
(570 b. c.). He cultivated the friendship 
of the Greeks, opened up to them the com¬ 
merce of Egypt (previously confined to Nau- 
cratis), married a Greek wife, and took a 
body guard of Greeks into pay. Pythagoras 
and Solon are said to have visited him. Dur¬ 
ing his reign of 44 years he greatly pro¬ 
moted the prosperity and adornment of 
Egypt. 

Amati (am-a'te), a family of Cremona, 
in the 10th and 17th centuries, famous for 
;heir violins, which are at the present time 
valued very highly on account of their tone, 
which is beautiful and pure, though not very 
strong. They are instruments of exquisite 
finish, but being arched below and above, lack 
breadth and fullness of tone. The founder 










Amaurosis 


Amazon 


of the violin works at Cremona was An¬ 
drea Amati, who died 1577. He worked 
with his brother Niccolo. From them 
24 violins were sent to the courts of Louis 
XIII. and Louis XIV. His sons, Antonio, 
born about 1555, and Geronimo (1556-1630), 
brought the business to still greater fame. 
In 1595, the famous violin which was de¬ 
signed for Henry IV. and is still in exist¬ 
ence, was made by them. Geronimo’s son, 
Niccolo, born in 1596, was the most dis¬ 
tinguished member of the family, and 
brought the brilliancy of the Cremona vio¬ 
lins to the highest perfection. He was the 
teacher of Stradivarius and Andrea Guar- 
nerius. He died April 12, 1684. 

Amaurosis, a disease of the eye, arising 
from impaired sensibility of the retina. It 
is held to exist when a patient without 
opaqua cornea, closed pupil, or cataract, 
complains of lost or defective vision. It 
commences with confused vision; then there 
is the appearance of a black spot in the 
center of an object looked at; next, floating 
bodies called musese volitantes appear before 
the eye, or objects appear brighter than nat¬ 
ural. In the commencement of the disease 
the pupil dilates and contracts sluggishly; 
after a time it becomes more dilated and 
fixed; and at last there is established a 
state of complete blindness, constituting the 
true gutta serena. Amaurosis arises from 
inflammation or turgescence of the retina, 
from derangement of the digestive organs, 
from exercise of the eye on minute objects, 
and from injury or disease of the fifth nerve 
or its branches, or from injury of the eye 
itself. 

Amazon, a river of South America, the 
largest in the world, formed by a great num¬ 
ber of sources which rise in the Andes; the 
two head branches being the Tunguragua or 
Maranon and the Ucayale, both rising in 
Peru, the former from Lake Lauricocha, in 
lat. 10° 29' S., the latter formed by the 
Apurimac and Urubamba, the head-waters 
of which are between lat. 14° and 16° 
S.; general course N. of E.; length, in¬ 
cluding windings, between 3,000 and 4,000 
miles; area of drainage basin, 2,300,000 
square miles. It enters the Atlantic under 
the equator by a mouth 200 miles wide, di¬ 
vided into two principal and several smaller 
arms by the large island Marajo, and a 
number of smaller islands. In its upper 
course, navigation is interrupted by rapids, 
but from its mouth upward for a distance 
of 3,300 miles (mostly in Brazil) there is 
no obstruction. It receives the waters of 
about 200 tributaries, 100 of which are nav¬ 
igable, and 17 of these 1,000 to 2,300 miles 
in length; Northern tributaries: Santiago, 
Morona, Pastaga, Tigre, Napo, Putumayo, 
Japura, Bio Negro (the Cassiquiare con¬ 
nects this stream with the Orinoco), etc. 
Southern: Huallaga, Ucayale, Javari, Ju- 


tay, Jurua, Coary, Purus, Madeira, Tapajos. 
Xingu, etc. 

At Tabatinga, where it enters Brazilian 
territory, the breadth is 1 miles; below 
the mouth of the Madeira, it is 3 miles wide, 
and where there are islands often as much 
as 7; from the sea to the Rio Negro, 750 
miles in a straight line, the depth is no¬ 
where less than 30 fathoms; up to the junc¬ 
tion of the Ucayale there is depth sufficient 
for the largest vessels. The Amazonian 
water system affords some 50,000 miles of 
river suitable for navigation. The rapidity 
of the river is considerable, especially dur¬ 
ing the rainy season (January to June), 
when it is subject to floods; but there is no 
great fall in its course. The tides reach up 
as far as 400 miles from its mouth. The 
singular phenomenon of the bore, or, as it 
is called on the Amazon, the pororoca, oc¬ 
curs at the month of the river at spring- 
tides on a grand scale. The river swarms 
with alligators, turtles, and a great variety 
of fish. The countrv through which it flows 
is fertile, and is mostly covered with im¬ 
mense forests; it must at some future time 
support a numerous population, and be the 
theater of a busy commerce. Steamers and 
other craft ply on the river, the chief cen¬ 
ter of trade being Para, at its mouth. The 
Amazon was discovered by Yahez Pingon in 
1500, but the stream was not navigated by 
any European till 1540, when Francis Orel¬ 
lana descended it. He stated that he found 
on its banks a nation of armed women, and 
this circumstance gave the name to the 
liver. 

Amazon, or Amazone (from a = with¬ 
out, and mazos — the breast, from the story 
that the Amazons cut off their right breast 
to prevent its interfering with the use of 
the bow), a nation on the river Thermodon, 
the modern Termeli in Pontus, in Asia 
Minor, said to consist entirely of women re¬ 
nowned for their love of manly sports, and 
as warriors. Men were excluded from their 
territory, and commerce was held only with 
strangers, while all male children born 
among them were killed. They are men¬ 
tioned by Homer. Diodorus also speaks of 
a race of Amazons in Africa. They are 
said to have founded a kingdom within Asia 
Minor, with Themiscyra for its capital. The 
legends of this strange race of warriors are 
simply legends. 

Also the females of an Indian tribe on 
the banks of the great river Maranon, in 
South America, who assisted their husbands 
when fighting against the Spaniards, and 
caused the Maranon to receive the new name 
of the Amazon, and any female soldiers, such 
as the band of female warriors kept by the 
King of Dahomey in Africa. 

In entomology, Huber’s name for the neu¬ 
ters of a red ant (polyergus), which arc 



Ambassador 


Amber 


accustomed to sally forth in large numbers 
from their nests, in military array, and, 
proceeding to some neighboring anthill be¬ 
longing to another species, plunder it of the 
larvje of its neuters. These, when hatched, 

become a kind of 
pariah caste in 
the habitation of 
the Amazons. 

Ambassador, 

a diplomatic of¬ 
ficer of the high¬ 
est rank, sent by 
a sovereign or 
nation to anoth¬ 
er power to treat 
on affairs of 
State, represent¬ 
ing not only the 
affairs, but also 
the person, of his 
sovereign or ex¬ 
ecutive and en¬ 
titled to almost 
equal respect. 
From the most 
ancient times, 
ambassadors have 
had a sacred 
character, owing 
to the impossibi¬ 
lity of mediating 
between armed 
men without 
some assurance 
of personal invio¬ 
lability, and to 
this privilege 
they are still en¬ 
titled. Anciently ambassadors were sent 
only on special missions, after the perform¬ 
ance of which they returned, their func¬ 
tions corresponding to those of the modern 
ambassador extraordinary; only in modern 
times did there originate the employment 
of an ambassador residing permanently at 
the seat of a foreign government, who is 
expected to familiarize himself with its poli¬ 
tics and to exert his influence for the ad¬ 
vantage of his own nation. At the outbreak 
of war between his own government and 
that to which he has been sent, the ambas¬ 
sador is dismissed or summoned to return. 
If the ambassador appointed by one govern¬ 
ment be considered by the State to which he 
is assigned personally disagreeable or not 
calculated to produce friendly relations be¬ 
tween the two countries, he may be objected 
to as a persona non grata, and his recep¬ 
tion refused: but if he is actually received 
he is entitled to each and every privilege of 
his office. These privileges have never been 
closely defined, but include the inviolability 
of the perscfn of the ambassador from pub¬ 
lic and private violence; immunity from all 
jurisdiction, both civil and criminal, of the 


country in which he is a resident; and simi¬ 
lar exemption from local jurisdiction for 
his family, household and retinue. His 
house is sacred, but he cannot harbor male¬ 
factors. Exemption of his personal effects 
from duties, free exercise of worship, and 
numerous minor privileges are also granted. 
He must, however, regard the laws and cus¬ 
toms of the country in which he is resident, 
or complaint may be made to the govern¬ 
ment he represents, and his recall demanded, 
or if his offense be serious, he may be sent 
beyond its borders by the offended power 
and a trial in his own country exacted. In 
the United States, jurisdiction in all diplo¬ 
matic cases is by the Constitution delegated 
to the Supreme Court. The term ambassador 
was not formerly applied to American diplo¬ 
matic agents, the highest rank being envoy 
extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary, 
until 189.3, when Congress provided that all 
ministers to nations sending ambassadors 
to the United States should rank as am¬ 
bassadors. Great Britain was the first to 
respond to the suggestion of Congress, and 
raised her minister at Washington (Sir 
Julien Pauncefote) to the grade of am¬ 
bassador, the United States reciprocating 
by the similar promotion of Thomas F. 
Bayard. Since then Italy, France, Russia, 
Germany, Mexico, and Austria-Hungary 
(May, 1902) have raised their missions in 
Washington to embassies, and the United 
States has promptly returned the diplo¬ 
matic courtesy. Representatives of the 
rank of ambassadors have the privilege ot 
audience with the head of the State to which 
they are accredited. 

Amber, as a mineral, called also suc¬ 
cinite, from Latin succinum = amber. Its 
color is generally yellow, but sometimes red¬ 
dish, brownish, or whitish and clouded. It 
is resinous in luster, always translucent, 
and sometimes transparent. It is brittle, 
and yields easily to the knife. It fuses at 
287° C. It is also combustible, burning 
readily with a yellow flame, and emit¬ 
ting an agreeable odor. It is also highly 
electrical, so much so that electricity is de¬ 
rived from the Greek word elektron, or 
eielctros = amber. Composition: Carbon, 
78.94; hydrogen, 10.53; oxygen, 10.53 = 
100. Found occasionally in masses as large 
as a man’s head; but at other times in 
smaller pieces, some no larger than a 
grain of coarse sand. It is found in Europe, 
Asia and America. It is valued as a 
gem. 

As a Geological Product .— Pliny was cor¬ 
rect when he considered it to be an exuda¬ 
tion from trees of the pine family, like gum 
from the cherry, and resin from the ordinary 
pine. Prof. Goppert, of Breslau, in 1845, 
deemed it a resinous exudation from an 
extinct pine, pinus succinifcr, most nearly 



MUSEUM. 



















Amberg 


Amboyna 


allied to pinus abies (abics excclsa, the Nor¬ 
way spruce), or pinus picca (abies picea, 
the silver fir). He believed that forests of 
this tree once grew in the southeastern part 
of what is now the bed of the Baltic, in 
about 55° N. lat. and from 37° to 38° E. 
long.; but that during the time of the drift 
they were swept away, and the amber car¬ 
ried S. and S. W. to Pomerania and the 
adjacent regions, where now it is found. 
Subsequently he discovered that amber had 
been formed, not by the pinus succinifer 
only, but by eight other allied species, if, 
indeed, all the abietince and cupressinccc 
of the time and place did not share in its 
production. In 1845 he thought it of the 
age of the Molasse (Miocene?) ; in 1854 he 
deemed it Pliocene, and perhaps of the drift 
formation (Upper Pleiocene — pleistocene) ; 
but its exact age is as yet undetermined. 
Of 163 species of plants found in it, 30 still 
exist. Eight hundred species of insects have 
also been met with in it, with remains of 
animals of other classes. 

In Scripture, the word amber, Hebrew 
chasmal (Ezek. i: 4, 27; vii: 2), is not 
what is now called by the name, but a 
mixed metal. It may be polished brass, or 
brass and gold, or silver and gold; it is 
difficult to say which. 

Amberg, a town of Germany, formerly 
the capital city of the Upper Palatinate, 
situated on both sides of the Yils, in Ba¬ 
varia, in the midst of numerous ironworks. 
The town is well built, and has a consid¬ 
erable manufacture of glass, iron wares, 
stoneware, tobacco, beer, vinegar, and arms 
of good quality. The principal buildings 
are a Gothic church of the 15th century, the 
royal palace, the town house, the old Jesu¬ 
its’ college, etc. At Amberg the Archduke 
Charles defeated the French General Jour- 
dan on Aug. 24, 1796. Pop. (1905) 24,303. 

Ambergris, a substance derived from the 
intestines of the sp 21111 whale, and found 
floating or on the shore; yellowish or black¬ 
ish white; very light; melts at 140°, and 
is entirely dissipated on red hot coals; is 
soluble in ether, volat'le oils, and partially 
in alcohol, and is chiefly composed of a pe¬ 
culiar fatty substance. Its odor is very 
agreeable, and hence it is used as a per¬ 
fume. 

Amblyopsis, a North American bony fish, 
found in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, 
and interesting as illustrating in the rudi¬ 
mentary condition of its eyes the effects of 
darkness and consequent disuse. It only 
measures a few inches in length, is colorless, 
and has its small eyes covered by the skin. 
It seems able, however, to hear acutely, and 
the wrinkles of skin on its head are re¬ 
garded as special feeling organs. Typhlich- 
thys is a closely allied genus found in the 
same surroundings, while another relative, 


chologaster, occurring in the ditches of the 
South Carolina rice fields, is, as one would 
expect, open eyed. The caves are tenanted 
by similar half-blind animals of various 
classes. Wholly blind fishes are found only 
ill the unsunned ocean depths. 

Ambo (Greek, ambon) , a kind of read¬ 
ing desk or pulpit, which in early churches 
was placed in the choir. The epistle and 
gospel were read from the ambo, and ser¬ 
mons were sometimes preached from it. 
The ambo had two ascents — one from the 
E. and the other from the W. In the Ro¬ 
man churches there were two ambos, one 
on each side of the choir, from one of which 
the gospel was read, and from the other the 
epistle. The name ambo was also given to 
an eagle shaped reading desk. 

Amboise (amb-wftz'), a French town in 
the Department of Indre-et-Loire, on the 
Loire, 15 miles by rail E. of Tours. It lies 
in a region so rich in vineyards that it has 
been called “ the Garden of France.” The 
town is memorable for the Huguenot con¬ 
spiracy (1560), which cost the lives of 1,200 
Protestants, and as the place whence was 
issued the Edict of Amboise (1563), con¬ 
ceding certain privileges to the Huguenots. 
The castle of Amboise, from 1431, was a 
frequent residence of the Valois kings; the 
birth and death place of Charles VIII.; and, 
since the days of Louis XI., 15,000 prison¬ 
ers are said to have been confined in its 
subterranean “ oubliettes.” Pop. 5,000. 

Amboise, Aymerie d’, a famous French 
admiral, and brother ,of George d’Amboise 
( q . v.). He became, in 1503, Grand Mas¬ 
ter of the Knights of St. John in Rhodes, 
and gained a splendid victory over the Sul¬ 
tan of Egypt, in 1510. Died in 1512. 

Amboise, Bussi d’. See Bussi. 

Amboise, George d\ a French Cardinal, 
and Minister of State, born in 1460. He 
became successively Bishop of Montauban, 
Archbishop of Narbonne, and of Rouen. 
Louis XII. made him Prime Minister. He 
was one of the wisest statesmen France ever 
had. He reformed the Church, remitted the 
people’s burdens, and conscientiously la¬ 
bored to promote the public happiness. 
Died in 1510. 

Amboy, a city of Lee co., Ill.; 95 miles 
W. of Chicago, on the Chicago, Burlington 
and Quincy and the Illinois Central rail¬ 
roads; has public schools, churches, news¬ 
papers, and shops of the Illinois Central 
road. Pop. (1890) 2,257; (1900) 1,826. 

Amboyna, the most important of the Mo¬ 
luccas or Spice Islands belonging to the 
Dutch, lies S. W. of Ceram, and N. W. of 
Banda. Area, 365 square miles. Population 
about 58,000, nearly a third Mohammedans. 
A bay runs into the island lengthways, 
forming two peninsulas, the northern called 



Ambriz 


Ambulance 


Hitu, and the southern, Leitimor. Amhoyna 
is mountainous, well watered, fertile and 
healthy. Clove, sago, mango and cocoanut 
trees are abundant, also line timber for cab¬ 
inet work. The Dutch have diligently fos¬ 
tered the growth of the clove, and forced 
its culture by tyrannical methods. The 
Dutch took Amboyna from the Portuguese 
in 1605. The British settlement was de¬ 
stroyed by the Dutch in the terrible Am¬ 
boyna massacre of 1623, for which, in 1654, 
Cromwell exacted compensation. The Brit¬ 
ish held the island, 1796-1802. It became 
finally Dutch in 1814. Amboyna, capital of 
the Dutch Moluccas, is situated on the N. 
W. shore of Leitimor, has a good roadstead, 
and was almost wholly destroyed by an 
earthquake in 1898. The government build¬ 
ings are in Fort Victoria. Pop. 9,000. 

Ambriz (am-breth'), a seaport and re¬ 
gion in the Portuguese colony of Angola, 
on the coast of Old Guinea, at the mouth 
of the Loje. The official name is Oporto do 
Ambriz or Mbrish. It lies in a flat, treeless 
region with an unfavorable harbor. It was 
originally the capital of Quibanza and was 
taken by the Portuguese, and in 1855 they 
built a fort, a custom-house and a church, 
which gradually became the nucleus of a 
city. It has a number of factories, and a 
trade in Tndia rubber, cofTee and palm oil. 
The trade in ivory, which at one time Avas 
important, is noAV transferred to Nokki and 
other places on the Kongo. 

Ambros, August Wilhelm (am'bros), 
a notable Austrian writer on music, born 
at Mauth, Bohemia, Noa 7 . 17, 1816; was 
trained for the civil serA T ice and served in 
it with distinction; but his aptitude for 
music, and particularly for the criticism 
and literature of music, led him in another 
direction, and he rose to eminence as the 
author of “ The Limits of Music and 
Poetr\ r ,” besides numerous essavs and stud- 
ies connected with art. His masterpiece, 
however, he left unfinished, “ The History 
of Music.” a Avork which cost him many 
years of labor and which he carried only to 
the fourth volume. lie attempted musical 
composition, but in it won no popularity. 
He died in Vienna, June 28, 1876. 

Ambrose, St., a celebrated father of the 
Church; born in 333 or 334 a. n., pro¬ 
bably at Treves, AAdiere his father Avas pre¬ 
fect; died in 397. He Avas educated at 
Rome, studied laAv, practiced as a pleader at 
Milan, and, in 369, was appointed governor 
of Liguria and yFmilia (North Italy). His 
kindness and Avisdom gained him the es¬ 
teem and lo\ 7 e of the people, and. in 374, 
he was unanimously called to the bishopric 
of Milan, though not yet baptized. For a 
time he refused to accept this dignity, hot 
he had to give Avay, and at once ranged 
himself against the Aryans. In his strug¬ 


gles against the Aryan heresy he Avas op* 
posed by Justina, mother of Valentinian II., 
and for a time by the young Emperor him¬ 
self, together with the courtiers and the 
Gothic troops. Backed by the people of 
Milan, however, he felt strong enough to 
deny the Aryans the use of a single church 
in the city, although Justina, in her son’s 
name, demanded that tAvo should be given 
up. lie had also to carry on a Avar Avith 
paganism, Symmachus, the prefect of the 
city, an eloquent orator, having endeavored 
to restore the worship of heathen deities. 
In 390, on account of the ruthless massacre 
at Thessalonica, ordered by the Emperor 
Theodosius, he refused him entrance into 
the church of Milan (for eight months). 
The later years of his life Avere devoted to 
the more immediate care of his see. He 
wrote Latin hymns, but the “ Te Dcum Lau- 
damus ” which has been ascribed to him 
was Avritten a century later. He introduced 
the Ambrosian chant, a mode of singing 
more monotonous than the Gregorian which 
superseded it. Tie also compiled a form of 
ritual known by his name. 

Ambrosia, in Greek mythology, the food 
of the gods, as nectar AA r as their drink. 

Ambrosian Library, a public library in 
Milan, founded by the Cardinal Archbishop 
Federigo Borromeo, a relation of St. Charles 
Borromeo, and opened in 1609; noAV con¬ 
taining 160,000 printed books and 8.000 
MSS. Tt Avas named in honor of St. Am¬ 
brose, the patron saint of Milan. 

Ambrosius, Johanna (am-bro'zi-os), a 
German poet and story Avriter, born at Leng- 
wethen, East Prussia, Aug. 3, 1854. 

Daughter of an artisan, and married in 
1874 to a peasant’s son by the name of 
Voigt, she led the hard life of a peasant 
Avoman till, in middle age, she Avrote verses, 
AA r hieh Avere published in a weekly neAvs- 
paper; their success led to the publication 
of other poems and stories of hers, Avhich 
have had extremely wide circulation. 

Ambulance, a hospital establishment 
which accompanies an army in its move¬ 
ments in the field for the purpose of pro¬ 
viding assistance and surgical treatment to 
the soldiers wounded in battle. The name 
is also given to one of the carts or Avagons 
used to transfer the wounded from the spot 
where they fell to the hospital. One form 
of ambulance wagon is a strong but light 
covered vehicle, the body of Avhich contains 
tAvo stretchers for the accommodation of 
those most severely wounded, while seats be¬ 
fore and behind are provided for those suf¬ 
fering from less, serious Avounds. The hos¬ 
pital chests, containing surgical instru¬ 
ments. bandages, splints, etc., are placed in 
the box under the driver’s seat. A thorough 
ambulanee system in eonnection Avith armies 
in the field is of quite recent introduction. 



Amen 


Amenhotep 


A training in ambulance work is now rec¬ 
ognized as of importance beyond the field 
of military affairs, and as being of the ut¬ 
most service wherever serious accidents are 
likely to happen — as in large cities. 

During the war between the United States 
and Spain, in 1898, the former put into op¬ 
eration two unique agencies for the relief of 
the sick and wounded, both thoroughly 
equipped with the best hospital appliances. 
One was a railroad ambulance train to 
convey soldiers from Key West to camps 
in the N.; the other was the steamship 
“ Solace ”, which accompanied the fleet to 
Cuba. 

Amen, a Hebrew word of asseveration, 
equivalent to “ Yea,” “ Truly,” which has 
been commonly adopted in the forms of 
Christian worship. In Jewish synagogues, 
the “ Amen ” is pronounced by the congre¬ 
gation at the conclusion of the benediction 
given at parting. Among the early Chris¬ 
tians, the prayer offered by the presbyter 
was concluded by the word “ Amen,” uttered 
by the whole congregation (cf. I Cor. 
xiv: 16). Justin Martyr is the earliest 
of the fathers who alludes to the use of the 
response. In speaking of the sacrament of 
the Supper, he says that, at the close of the 
benediction and prayer, all the assembly re¬ 
spond “ Amen.” According to Tertullian, 
none but the faithful were permitted to 
join in the response. Up to the 6th cen¬ 
tury, it was the custom of those present at 
the Lord’s Supper to utter a loud “ Amen ” 
at the reception of the bread and wine, and 
to join in shouting “Amen ” at the close of 
the consecration. The same custom was ob¬ 
served at baptism, where the sponsors and 
witnesses responded vehemently. In the 
Greek Church, this word was pronounced 
after the name of each person of the Trin¬ 
ity; and, at the close of the baptismal for¬ 
mula, the people responded. At the con¬ 
clusion of prayer, it signifies (according to 
the English Church Catechism) “ So be it; ” 
after the repetition of the creed, “ So is 
it.” The Roman Catholic version of the 
New Testament (Rheims, 1582), substitutes 
“Amen” for the “Verily” of our author¬ 
ized version, it being the word used in the 
original Greek. The Mohammedans also use 
this word in their service. 

Amendment, in law, the correction of anv 
mistake discovered in a writ or process. 

In legislative proceedings, a clause, sen¬ 
tence, or paragraph proposed to be substi¬ 
tuted for another, or to be inserted in a 
bill before Congress, and which, if carried, 
actually becomes part of the bill itself. As 
a rule amendments do not overthrow the 
principle of a bill. 

In public meetings, a proposed alteration 
of the terms of a motion laid before a meet¬ 
ing for acceptance. This amendment may 
be so much at variance with the essential 


character of the motion that a counter mo¬ 
tion would be its more appropriate name. 

Amenemhat (am-en'em-hat), or Amen- 
emha, the name of four Egyptian Kings of 
the 12th dynasty. The first, called Se- 
hotep-ab Ra, the founder of the dynasty, 
reigned about 2466 B. c.; was successful as 
a ruler and general, and built the temple 
of Amun, in Thebes. The second, called 
Nub-kan Ra, reigned in 2400 b. c. The 
third, called Maa-en Ra, reigned in 2300 
b. c. He was best known by the name of 
Moiris among the Greeks. He reigned 43 
years; after he had carefully marked the 
height of the Nile floods at different times, 
he built a great reservoir in the oasis of 
Fayum, connected with the Kile by a canal 
in order to regulate the flow of the water 
and improve its usefulness. He built also, 
beside the Lake Moiris, the great temple 
called the Labyrinth and pyramid of his 
tomb. Records of his time are found on the 
rocks in the peninsula of Sinai. The fourth, 
called Maat-khern Ra, reigned in 2266 B.c. 

Amenhotep (am-en'ho-tep), or Ameno- 
phis, the name of four Egyptian kings of 
the 18th dynasty. The first, Ser-ka Ra, 
reigned about 1666 B. c., 
and carried on success¬ 
ful wars in Ethiopia 
and Libva. The second, 
called Aa-kheperu Ra, 
reigned in 1566 b. c., 
and made a successful 
campaign in Asia, com¬ 
memorated in an in¬ 
scription in a temple in 
Nubia. The third, the amenopiiis i. 
most famous, was the 
9th of the 18th dvnastv, known as Maat- 
neb Ra; reigned about 1500 B. c. He was 
great in war and in peace. During his reign 

Egypt stretched from 
Mesopotamia to the 
country of Karo in 
Abyssinia. He also 
built along the banks 
of the Nile a series of 
marvelous monuments. 
The temple at Gebel- 
Barkal in the Sudan 

was erected by this 
%> 

King. He added con¬ 
siderably to the temple 
of Karnak and that 
part of the temple of 
Luxor which bears his 
name; also erected on 
amenophis hi. the left bank of the 

Nile, opposite Luxor, 
a sacred edifice which once must have been 
one of the most important in Egypt, of 
which now only the enormous colossi are 
left, which are portrait statues of himself. 
T le was known to the Greeks as Ammon. 
The fourth was known as Khun-aten and 

















A Mensa et Thoro 


America 


reigned in 1466 b. c., and made an innova¬ 
tion in religion by substituting the new 
worship of Aten (the sun’s disk) for that 

of Aniun and other 
Egyptian deities. He 
also moved the capi¬ 
tal from Thebes to a 
place in the middle 
of Egypt, the modern 
Tel-el Amarna. 

A Mensa et Thoro, 

a legal term used 
when a wife is di¬ 
vorced from her hus¬ 
band (as far as bed 
and board are con¬ 
cerned), 1 iabil ity, how¬ 
ever, remaining on 
him for her separate 
maintenance. 

Amenthes, the un¬ 
seen world of the 
ancient Egyptians, 
the Hades of the 
Greeks, who bor¬ 
rowed their ideas 
about the lower world from Egypt. The 
passage across the river, the islands of the 
blessed, Cerberus, and the judgment of the 
dead, all have their original in Amenthes, 
the localities of which, and the account of 
its divinities, are described in the famous 
“ Book of the Dead.” as well as in pictorial 
representations. The principal scene is the 
judgment seat of Osiris, the judge of the 
dead, before whom the dead are carried by 
the goddess Ma (“righteousness”), while 
Horus and Anubis weigh out their deeds. 

America, or the New World, the larg¬ 
est of the great divisions of the globe ex¬ 
cept Asia, is washed on the W. by the Pa¬ 
cific, on the E. by the Atlantic, on the N. 
by the Arctic, and on the S. by the Antarc¬ 
tic Ocean. On the N. W. it approaches at 
Bering Straits within 48 miles of Asia, and 
on the N. E. Greenland approaches within 
370 miles of the European island Iceland; 
but in the S. the distance between the Amer¬ 
ican mainland and the E. continent is much 
greater, the shortest distance between its 
E. coast and the W. coast of Africa being 
1,600 miles, and between its W. coast and 
the E. coasts of Asia and Australia from 
six to eight times more. The extreme points 
of America are — N., the point of Boothia 
Felix, in the Strait of Bellot, lat. 71° 56' N., 
Ion. 94° 34' W.; S., Cape Froward, lat. 53° 
53' 45" S., Ion. 71° 18' 30" W., or, if the 
archipelago of Tierra del Fuego is included, 
Cape Horn, lat. 55° 59' S., Ion. 67° 16' W.; 
W., Cape Prince of Wales, lat. 65° 33' N., 
Ion. 167° 59' W.; and E., the Point de Guia, 
lat. 7° 26' S., Ion. 34° 47' W. The entire 
American continent has a length of about 
9,500 miles; a maximum breadth, between 


Cape Prince of Wales and Cape Charles in 
North America, of 3,500 miles; a coast line 
of 43,200 miles; and a total area, including 
the islands, estimated at about 15,896,000 
square miles. 

Coast-line .— The E. coast of America 
strikingly resembles the opposite coasts on 
the other side of the Atlantic, the rounded 
shore of Africa being repeated in that of 
South America; while the ragged and in¬ 
dented outline of Europe is not unfitly rep¬ 
resented by the shores of Melville Sound, 
Labrador, Nova Scotia, Maryland, Florida, 
and Yucatan. This difference between the 
E. coasts of North and South America is ex¬ 
hibited also in their W. coasts, and still 
more remarkably in their respective archi¬ 
pelagos. A similar contrast is presented by 
the inlets of the two continents — the Gulfs 
of Darien and Venezuela, the Bahia de 
Todos os Santos (All-Saints’ Bay), and the 
Gulfs of San Matias and St. George on the 
E., and the Gulfs of Guyaquil and Panama 
on the W., though the largest which South 
America possesses, being very feeble repre¬ 
sentatives of the North American inlets, for 
example, Hudson Bay, the Gulf of St. Law¬ 
rence, the Bay of Fundy, the Bays of Cam- 
peachy and Honduras, the Gulf of Califor¬ 
nia, etc. 

Surface .— Three-fourths of the area of 
America is flat, and yet, throughout, the 
relative position of highland and lowland 
is very uniform. The Andes and the Rocky 
mountains stretch from N. to S., and the 
depression of the Isthmus of Panama, which 
rises only from 500 to 600 feet, forms a 
natural separation between the cordillera 
systems. The cordilleras of South America 
descend by steep short terraces to the sea¬ 
shore, or to a narrow belt of level land im¬ 
mediately adjoining it, form regular chains, 
display the loftiest masses of all America, 
and send out only short branches to the 
E. plains; whereas, on the contrary, the 
North American cordilleras lean, in the 
W., on elevated plateaus, so as to favor a 
large development of rivers, are less vertical 
in their structure, and less high, and send 
to the E. more extensive ramifications. 
The names of particular groups of the An¬ 
des are taken from the countries to which 
they more especially appertain; thus, pro¬ 
ceeding from S. to N., we have the cordil¬ 
leras of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and 
Colombia, and along with these there oc¬ 
cur elevated plateaus of considerable ex¬ 
tent; while snow-capped summits, such as 
Aconcagua (the culminating point of 
America), the peak of Sorata, Illimani, 
Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, the peak of Tolima, 
etc., tower far above the general average 
height. N. from the depression of the Isth¬ 
mus of Panama, the North American cor¬ 
dilleras rise, under the names of the cor¬ 
dilleras of Guatemala, Mexico, Sonora; the 
W., central, and E. cordilleras, inclosing the 






America 


America 


plateaus of Analiuac, New Mexico, and Ore¬ 
gon, and surmounted by snow-covered sum¬ 
mits, for example, Popocatepetl, Orizaba, 
James, Mount Brown, etc. The isolated 
mountain groups, which do not stand in 
immediate connection with the cordillera 
system, and, with some exceptions, lie in 
chains parallel to the nearest coasts, are, 
in North America, the system of the Ap¬ 
palachians or Alleglianies, and, in South 
America, the mountain land of Brazil, 
Guiana, Venezuela, and the Sierra Nevada 
of Santa Marta. As the cordilleras fill the 
W. with mountains, so the great American 
plain commences with few interruptions at 
their E. base, and stretches from the shores 
of the Arctic Ocean to the S. extremity of 
Patagonia. In South America the plains 
form three-fourths, in North America about 
the half of the area of their respective con¬ 
tinents; and a general similarity in their 
horizontal grouping cannot fail to be per¬ 
ceived. The narrow plains of the Mexican 
coast correspond to the Patagonian steppes, 
and the savannahs of the Mississippi to the 
pampas of the Parana, Paraguay, and Rio 
de la Plata; in the same manner the Ap¬ 
palachians and the mountain chains of Bra¬ 
zil must be regarded as forming similar in¬ 
terruptions to the continuity of the plains. 
There is also another grand point of re¬ 
semblance, namely, that in both continents 
the great plains are situated in the E. This 
resemblance, however, is merely in posi¬ 
tion, and cannot be extended to the nature 
of the plains, since those of the N. regions 
and of the Amazon, when compared, are 
seen at once to present, not resemblances, 
but striking contrasts. The immense 
grassy hats of America have no counter¬ 
part in any other quarter of the globe what¬ 
ever, and present life itself under a new 
and characteristic form. 

Hydrography .— Of the many advantages 
the New \\ orld has over the Old, none is so 
striking as the extent of its river systems. 
The rivers which How into the Pacific, how¬ 
ever, owing to the fact that the great back¬ 
bone of tlie continent, the Rocky moun¬ 
tains and the Andes, lies so near the W. 
coast, have so short a distance to traverse 
before they reach the ocean, that their vol¬ 
ume necessarily remains small. On the 
other hand, those rising from the opposite 
slopes have extraordinarily long courses, 
and ramify into every part of the continent. 
Sometimes rivers traversing the same 
plains, and nearly on the same levels, open 
communications with each other, especially 
when their waters are high, and form a 
kind of network. In this way it frequently 
becomes difficult to fix the exact limits of 
the basin of any river, and to say where the 
watershed separating it from other basins 
properly begins. Of this peculiarity there 
is a remarkable instance in the Cassiquiari, 
which, branching off from the Rio Negro 


and joining the Orinoco, forms a kind of 
natural canal, uniting the basins of the 
Orinoco and the Amazon. The largest riv¬ 
ers of the world are in South America. The 
Amazon or Maranon has a course of about 
4,000 miles, and a*basin of 2,300,000 square 
miles; and the La Plata, estimating it from 
the source of the Parana, is 2,700 miles 
long, with a basin of 1,295,400 square miles. 
The Mississippi-Missouri, the largest river 
of North America, runs as long a course as 
the Amazon, but the area of its basin is 
only 1,221,000 square miles. On the other 
hand North America has the most ex¬ 
tensive group of lakes in the world. The 

river svstem of the St. Lawrence,, with 

its majestic lakes, drains an area of 000,000 
square miles, and, like the Mississippi, 
opens up the heart of the continent, while 
other rivers in countless number inter¬ 

sect the N. plains. In the N., as in the S., 
in the pampas as in the savannahs, in the 
llanos and selvas as on the Arctic flats, the 
copious watercourses perform an equally 
important part as a means of communica¬ 
tion over widely extended areas; without 
them whole regions, both within the icy 
polar circle and within the tropics, would 
be uninhabitable. To this presence of wa¬ 
ter it is owing that America has no sterile 
deserts so extensive as those of Africa, even 
when, from the nature of the soil, such a 
result might have been anticipated. The 
rivers, where the strata at their mouths is 
of solid texture, discharge themselves into 
bays or estuaries, but where the ground is 
alluvial and soft, form deltas and lagoons. 
The principal rivers of America are the 
Mackenzie, Coppermine, and Great Fish riv¬ 
ers, entering the Northern Ocean; the 
Churchill, Nelson, Severn, and Albany, en¬ 
tering Hudson bay; the St. Lawrence, 
Mississippi, Rio del Norte, Magdalena, Ori¬ 
noco, Amazon, Paranahiba, San Francisco, 
Rio de la Plata, Colorado and Rio Negro 
entering the Atlantic; and the Yukon 
T raser, Colombia, San Joaquin, Sacramento, 
and Colorado, entering the Pacific. 

Climate and T cgetation .—The climate of 
America, even in the equatorial regions, is 
characterized as comparatively cool and 
humid. This is justly ascribed to the vast 
extent of territory that may be classed as 
insular to the copious waters of the in¬ 
terior, together with the magnificent vegeta¬ 
tion produced by them — to the configura¬ 
tion of the surface and the nature of the 
soil — to the possession of a polar shore — 
and to the prevailing winds. The rainy 
zone . is disproportionately extended in 
America; and as the continent stretches 
cn ei all the zones, the vegetation is re¬ 
markably diversified, from the lowly moss 
of the N. to the lordly banana of the 
tropics. The giant coast chain of the An¬ 
des everywhere rises above the snow¬ 
line. From the sterile Peruvian coast, 






































































































































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♦ 




America 


America 


burned up by tropical heats, one can 
look up to summits covered with perpetual 
snow and ice; and one may climb from the 
gigantic equatorial vegetation of Quito to 
heights where only the condor testifies to 
the existence of organic life, and wings his 
flight over snow fields and glaciers. In 
Peru the culture of cereals is carried on at 
the height of 12,000, and near Quito at 9,- 
000 feet. The N. and S. of America have 
the same length of day; but in the seasons, 
which depend not merely on astronomical 
but on a variety of local causes, the analogy 
does not hold, and very remarkable discrep¬ 
ancies appear. Thus, for example, the E. 
coast of Brazil has the rainy season from 
March to September, while Peru, lying un¬ 
der the very same latitude, has it from No¬ 
vember to March. Within the tropics the 
transition from the rainy to the dry sea¬ 
son takes place almost instantaneously; but 
in receding from the tropics on either side 
the change of seasons becomes more and 
more gradual, till at last in the polar 
zones, nature, bound in icy chains, affords 
for living existence only a short awakening 
out of a long winter sleep. 

In passing from N. to S. through the dif¬ 
ferent climates of America, the following 
characteristic appearances are observed: 
From the N. shores, almost destitute of 
vegetation, to an isothermal line which is in 
lat. 50° on the E. and lat. 60° on the W. 
coast, and shows a mean temperature of 
02° F. in the warmest and 14° F. in the 
'coldest month, are seen in succession plains 
covered first with low mosses and lichens, 
and then with shrubby plants, most of 
them yielding berries, next pines, firs, and 
birches, at first isolated and of stunted 
growth, but afterward grouped in small 
woods as forerunners of tree vegetation. 
This becomes developed in its more vigor¬ 
ous forms in the next zone, which reaches 
to about lat. 40°, and has in the warmest 
month a mean temperature of 77° F. and in 
the coldest of 35° F. Here grow the trees 
which periodically shed their leaves and 
form extensive forests, for example, oaks, 
beeches, maple, limes, elms, chestnuts, etc.; 
here, too, instead of the heaths of the Old 
World boundless plains become covered 
with various grasses, particularly to the 
W. of the Mississippi, while to the E. of it 
the European cereals and other plants 
yielding food take their place in the culti¬ 
vated districts, European fruit trees thrive, 
and in the more S. portions of the zone the 
vine begins to attract attention. The next 
zone which may be considered as forming 
the transition to one of a genuine tropical 
character, extends to lat. 25°, where the 
mean temperature of the hottest months is 
80° F., and of the coldest GG° F., a differ¬ 
ence which, amounting to 14°, induces a 
luxuriant vegetation. Trees with evergreen 
foliage, as oranges, laurels, and olives, are 


now seen, and vegetation presents new 
forms in the magnolias, tulip trees, plane 
trees, and dwarf palms. Along with wheat 
maize, and rice, sugar, cotton, and tobacco 
are cultivated, while the batatas and mani- 
hots offer their farinaceous roots for food. 
From lat. 25° N. to the S. tropic bananas 
and tropical productions occupy a zone 
which, under the equator, possesses a mean 
temperature of 86° F. in the warmest, and 
75° F. in the coldest month, and in which 
the vegetable world revels in the most lux¬ 
uriant and gigantic forms. Sugar cane, cot¬ 
ton, and coffee now ascend to the lower 
mountain regions, and in their place, at sea- 
level, appear yams, pineapples, bananas, 
melon, bread fruit and cow trees, cocoa 
palms, etc. The impenetrable forests con¬ 
tain numerous and occasionally most majes¬ 
tic trees, yielding timber of the finest qual¬ 
ity as mahogany, guaiacum, campeachy, and 
Brazil woods, etc. Especially in South 
America tropical luxuriance is represented 
by the loveliest species of palms. Dense 
forests of the chinchona overshadow the 
mountain terraces of Quito; the cactus de¬ 
velops its most singular forms on the Mexi¬ 
can plateaus, and instead of the aloe of 
Africa, furnishes vegetable food for the 
animals which might otherwise starve on 
the arid steppes. The ferns assume the 
form of trees; the grasses become almost 
incredibly tall; and instead of a matting of 
turf, numbers of creeping and climbing 
plants form an impenetrable web, at once 
attesting the wild luxuriance of nature, and 
furnishing, particularly in vanilla and gin¬ 
ger, products of great economical value. 
The zone reaching S. as far as lat. 40° S. 
has a mean temperature of 71° F. in the 
warmest and 53° F. in the coldest month. 
There the palm still thrives on the lower 
basin of the La Plata, beside the mulberry 
and indigo, while thistles like trees cover 
the plains; the pampas and the W. coasts 
of Chile are characterized by beautiful arau¬ 
carias, by beeches and oaks, the potato and 
the arum. There, too, we are reminded of 
Europe by the plants introduced to culti¬ 
vation: the vine, olive, and orange; hemp, 
flax, and tobacco; maize, barley, and wheat. 
The S. limit of the periodical rains reaches 
as far as lat. 48° S., when the mean tem¬ 
perature of 59° F. in the warmest and 39° 
F. in the coldest month still favors the 
growth of European cereals, and on shel¬ 
tered spots of the W. coast the growth 
even of the vine and the finer fruits. The 
zone reaching to the S. extremity of Ameri¬ 
ca shows comparatively little difference be¬ 
tween the warmest and coldest month, the 
mean temperature of the one being 41° F., 
and of the other 25° F.; but the low degree 
of summer warmth produces a sudden 
change in the form of vegetation, which 
now presents only a few trees, as the beech 
and birch, and an extraordinary abundance 




America 


America 


of mosses and ferns. As in passing from 
the equator to the pole the region of the 
vegetable world gradually declines, so in 
climbing from the tropical shores to the 
ice-covered mountain summits three differ¬ 
ent climates have been distinguished by the 
names of tierra caliente, templade, and fria. 
Of these the templada extends over those 
healthy and beautiful regions where a kind 
of perpetual spring prevails, and green pas¬ 
tures and noble forest trees are found uni¬ 
ted with the fantastical and gigantic forms 
of the tropics. 

Zoology .— If America, in respect of the 
development of vegetable life, takes prece¬ 
dence of all other quarters of the globe, it 
cannot advance the same claim in respect of 
the animal world, though it must be admit¬ 
ted that here too it has its own peculiar 
features. The American jaguar and cougar, 
or puma, have not the majesty of the Asi¬ 
atic tiger or the African lion; the tapir is 
only a very humble representative of the 
elephant or hippopotamus, and the llama 
falls far short of the camel. Still, America 
has many animals which belong only to 
itself. It has its own species of bears (the 
grizzly being most formidable), wolf, and 
deer, the bison and musk ox, with special 
kinds of squirrels, etc. To it also belong 
the Virginian stag, the wild sheep of Cali¬ 
fornia, the opossum, and raccoon. Charac¬ 
teristic of Central and South America are 
sloths, ant-eaters, and armadillos, the con¬ 
dor among the heights of the Andes, the 
most beautiful parrots as well as peculiar 
monkeys in the woods, the humming bird 
with its rich metallic plumage, the rattle¬ 
snake, the alligator or cayman on the banks 
of the streams, the electrical eel in the 
tropical waters, swarms of mosquitos on 
the wide plains, and sea fowl in such num¬ 
bers on the W. coast as to have fur¬ 
nished large deposits of guano, to which 
some of the richest countries of Europe are 
indebted for the means of extending and 
largely increasing the produce of their agri¬ 
culture. 

Mineralogy .— To no part of the world has 
nature been more lavish in dispensing min¬ 
eral treasures. No other regions are so 
rich in silver, and few are so rich in gold, 
as some of the W. portions of the United 
States, while the States are also equally 
favored in possessing ample stores of coal, 
iron, copper, lead, etc. The precious metals 
also abound in Mexico and other American 
countries. 

Population .— The origin of the indige¬ 
nous population of America cannot now be 
traced. There can be no doubt, however, 
that man was in existence at a very early 
period in the Western Hemisphere. Human 
remains have been found in the coral reef 
of Florida, which is estimated to be 10,000 
years old; and a skeleton dug up from be¬ 
neath four buried forests in the Mississippi 


delta, near New Orleans, is supposed to 
have lain there for 50,000 years; but such 
estimates are hazardous. Human skeletons 
and fossilized bones, together with articles 
made by man, have also been found in Mis¬ 
souri, Kansas, California, in the volcanic 
deposits on the coast of Ecuador, and else¬ 
where, all under conditions indicative of re¬ 
mote antiquity. When the Europeans first 
became well acquainted with the New World 
they found a population presenting man un¬ 
der many aspects and society in various 
stages, from the semi-civilization of Mexico 
and Peru to the brutal abasement of sav¬ 
age life; at the exteme N. of the continent 
they came into contact with the dwarfed 
Eskimos; at the extreme S. with the gigan¬ 
tic Patagonians; the variety of complexion 
embraced almost every hue met with else¬ 
where on the face of the globe, except the 
coal-black negro. Ever since the discovery 
of America at the close of the 15th century 
Europeans of all nations have crowded into 
it; and the comparatively feeble native 
races, partly in consequence of the barbar¬ 
ous treatment to which they have been sub¬ 
mitted, and partly as the necessary result 
of a higher when brought into contact with 
a lower civilization, have rapidly dimin¬ 
ished, or lost their distinctive features 
intermixtures with whites, and also with 
negroes brought from Africa to work as 
slaves. These mixed races the Spaniards 
distinguished by a variety of names, as mes¬ 
tizos, mulattoes, zambos, etc., while the 
native descendants of European parents are 
called creoles. The total population of the 
New World may be estimated at about 133,- 
000,000 souls, of which perhaps 85,000,000 
are whites, 23,000,000 mixed races, 15,000,- 
000 negroes, and 10,000,000 Indians. 

Civilization .— The indigenous civiliza¬ 
tion spread simultaneously from three cen¬ 
tral points — the lofty plains of Peru, Cun- 
dinamarca, and Mexico. The Peruvians under 
their princes and high priests, the Incas 
or sons of the sun, were trained by the 
forms of the mild religion of Manco Capac 
into a peaceable but effeminate people. The 
Toltecs and Aztecs of the high land of 
Anahuac were ruled in a more politic and 
warlike spirit by the caziques; while in 
the center, betwixt Peru and Mexico, the 
Muiscas in Cundinamarca bad a spiritual 
and a temporal head. All of them, from 
Lake Titicaca to Mexico, practised agri¬ 
culture, mechanical trades, and arts, and 
have left behind them remains of a peculiar 
civilization. On the Isthmus of Panama 
savage and warlike tribes placed themselves 
between the theaters of civilization; while 
in the higher and more temperate regions 
of the Andes the more cultivated races 
gradually gained the ascendency over the 
ruder hordes of the low-lying plains. S„ in 
the alpine valleys of Chile, dwelt, and still 
dwell, the warlike and hospitable Araucan- 




































































































■ 





. 





































































































































































































































America 


American Antiquities 


ians, engaged in agriculture and the rear¬ 
ing of cattle; N., on the high plateaus of 
Mexico, and extensive areas now included 
in the United States, were, and even now 
are, settled tribes, who live indeed mostly 
by hunting and fishing, but also engage in 
tillage, and show traces of having once been 
still more civilized. The cold, taciturn, and 
apathetic races of uncivilized Indians in¬ 
habit the low-lying plains and the lower 
highlands. These roam about as hunters 
and fishers, but are constantly becoming 
more and more restricted in their limits as 
civilization advances, though over great 
areas of South America in particular they 
have even yet come hut little in contact with 
civilization. Since the beginning of the 
16th century the ethnographic condition of 
America has essentially changed. While 
the Europeans were advancing as conquerors 
and colonists, the native races declined or 
sunk. At a later period negroes were intro¬ 
duced as slaves. The Spaniards and Portu¬ 
guese made themselves masters of South 
America and Mexico; the French and Brit¬ 
ish of North America, though the French 
were soon obliged to quit the field. The 
Antilles in time were occupied by six Euro¬ 
pean nations and a race of negroes, and 
Guiana became a colonial land for France, 
Great Britain, and Holland. The Spanish 
peninsula and Great Britain have been the 
main instruments to make of America a 
new Europe, to introduce and spread in it 
civilization and Christianity. 

Political Divisions. — The independent 
States of both North and South America 
are now all republican in their form of gov¬ 
ernment, though it was only in 1889 that 
Brazil became a republic instead of an em¬ 
pire. The different independent States are 
as follows: In North America— 1 . The 
United States; 2. Mexico; 3. Nicaragua; 4. 
Honduras; 5. Guatamala; 6. Costa Rica; 

7. (San) Salvador. In the West Indies — 

8. Cuba; 9. Haiti; 10. San Domingo. In 
South America —11. Venezuela; 12. Co¬ 
lombia; 13. Peru; 14. Ecuador; 15. Bolivia; 
16. Argentine Republic; 17. Uruguay; 18. 
Paraguay; 19. Chile; 20. Brazil. In North 
America the European colonies are: the 
Dominion of Canada, including the prov¬ 
inces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New 
Brunswick, Manitoba, British Columbia, 
Prince Edward Island, and the Northwest 
Territories, etc; Newfoundland; and the 
Bermudas, all belonging to Great Britain; 
Greenland, belonging to Denmark; and St. 
Pierre and Miquelon to France. The West 
Indian Islands comprise the republics of 
Haiti, San Domingo, and Cuba, and Porto 
Rico, formerly Spanish, now a territory of 
the United States; the British possessions 
of Jamaica, Trinidad, Barbados, Grenada, 
St. Vincent, Tobago, St. Lucia, Antigua, 
Montserrat, St. Christopher, Anguilla, 
Nevis, Virgin Islands, Dominica, the Baha¬ 


mas, Turk’s Island, etc.; the French posses¬ 
sions of Guadeloupe and dependencies (in¬ 
cluding St. Bartholomew’s), Martinique, the 
N. part of the island of St. Martin’s; the 
Dutch possessions, the S. side of St. Mar¬ 
tin’s Curasao and its dependencies; Santa 
Cruz, St. Thomas and St. John’s, possessions 
of Denmark which agreed by treaty (Jan. 
24, 1902) to sell them to the United States. 
In South America the British possess (be¬ 
sides the Falkland Islands) an important 
part of Guiana, the remaining portions be¬ 
ing owned respectively by the French and 
Dutch. 

Discovery .— The merit of first unlocking 
the American continent to modern Europe 
belongs to the Genoese Christopher Colum¬ 
bus, who, after a voyage of discovery as 
dangerous as it was fortunate, discovered, in 
October, 1492, Guanahani, one of the Baha¬ 
mas, and named it San Salvador. It is cer¬ 
tain, however, that Europeans had in the 
earlier part of the Middle Ages, and on dif¬ 
ferent occasions, discovered the American 
coasts. Northmen proceeding from Iceland 
discovered the N. polar land of Greenland. 
The Icelander Bjorne Iierjulfson, in 986, 
got a glimpse of the coasts of Massachu¬ 
setts and Rhode Island, which in the year 
1000 were visited by Leif the Lucky, and 
named by him Vinland. In 1388 and 1390 
Niccolo and Antonio Zeni undertook voyages 
to the North Atlantic Ocean, and were 
wrecked on Frieslanda, probably the Faroe 
Islands; thereafter they saw a part of the 
N. E. coast of America, probably Nova 
Scotia, which they named Drogno. These 
discoveries, however, had no influence on the 
enterprise of Columbus, and cannot detract 
in the least from his merit; they were for¬ 
gotten, and had never been made known to 
the inhabitants of the S. of Europe. Though 
Columbus was the first of his time who set 
foot on the New World, it has taken its 
name not from him, but from Amerigo Ves¬ 
pucci. The mainland was first seen in 1497 
by Sebastian Cabot, who sailed under the 
patronage of Henry Vll. of England. See 
United States; Canada; Mexico; etc. 

American Antiquities. The antiquities 
of America present a study of great interest 
from many points of view. In particular 
they afford evidence of the existence in long- 
past ages of a numerous population spread 
over a widely extended region of the N. and 
S. continents, and with a civilization vary¬ 
ing in degree but distinguished throughout 
by common characteristics. The first in¬ 
quiry which naturally suggests itself is in 
regard to the antiquity on the New Conti¬ 
nent of man himself, but in regard to this 
no satisfactory evidence has been reached. 
Human remains have been found along with 
those of extinct mammals, and in geological 
formations indicating a.n antiquity extend¬ 
ing far beyond any authentic historical rec¬ 
ords either of the Old or the New World, 



American Antiquities 

but little direct evidence as to the antiquity 
of man in America has been obtained. That 
this continent received its early inhabitants 
from Asia is exceedingly probable, and it 
may have also received some from Europe 
by way of Greenland and Labrador, the. 
aboriginal inhabitants appear to have been 
in the palaeolithic or early stone age, and to 
this followed, in America as elsewhere, the 
neolithic or later stone age. The stone im¬ 
plements of these periods are not different 
in America from those found elsewhere, but 
subsequently American culture developed on 
lines of its own; and the antiquities which 
we are here to deal with are those that 
possess a special American character, such 
as earthworks, pyramids, and other re¬ 
mains of human industry which, from their 
local associations, afford some direct inter¬ 
nal evidence of human history. These dis¬ 
tinctly American antiquities might perhaps 
be divided into two or three sections or 
periods, in particular into a historical and 
a non-historical period, the first embracing 
those remains regarding which there is au¬ 
thentic external historical information; the 
second, those regarding which there is no 
authentic information of an external kind. 

The central region of the American conti¬ 
nent, embracing the table-lands formed by 
the mountain systems of both divisions 
(North America and South America), in 
which, owing to the elevation of the surface, 
a moderate temperature is preserved, was 
the principal seat of ancient American civil¬ 
ization, and within this region, extending 
from about lat. 35° N. to 35° S., the most 
important remains exist. In the N. part of 
this region the remains to which the highest 
antiquity is ascribed have been found, and 
from this region civilization appears to have 
first receded; there appears, therefore, to be 
no authentic tradition preserved, and no 
probability that any information will ever 
be acquired, apart from that furnished by 
the remains themselves. The Indians of the 
present day, who know nothing of the his¬ 
tory of these monuments, ascribe them to 
supernatural beings. In the basins of the 
Mississippi, Ohio, and Missouri, the remains 
consist chiefly of earthworks, and though 
the extent, regularity, and variety of these 
seem to place them above the reach of any 
Indian tribes known to have inhabited these 
regions since the arrival of Europeans, there 
are not wanting some links of connection 
between these monuments and the known en¬ 
terprises of the later inhabitants. The 
leading purposes served by these works, as 
would appear from their nature, were those 
of defense, of sepulture, and of worship. 
There is evidence both from French and En¬ 
glish sources that the Indians, even in his¬ 
toric times, were in the habit of making 
earthwork fortifications, and the ancient 
works have been partially used by them for 
both of the other objects. The ancient for- 


American Antiquities 

tifications are found in positions of natural 
vantage, on hills, on peninsulas, and on 
banks of rivers. They inclose considerable 
areas, and are surrounded by an exterior or 
interior ditch; the ramparts are composed 
of mingled earth and stones, are often of 
great extent in proportion to the area in¬ 
closed, and show a clear conception of the 
elementary principles of fortification. They 
are always supplied either naturally or ar¬ 
tificially with water, and give other indica¬ 
tions of having been provided for a siege. 
Fort Hill, on the Little Miami in Ohio, had 
an embankment of this kind, with a line of 
circumvallation 4 miles in length, and vary¬ 
ing from 10 to 20 feet in height, inclosing 
an area of several hundred acres. A large 
class of forts consist of several lines of em¬ 
bankment drawn across the neck of a penin¬ 
sula. Barrows and tumuli containing hu¬ 
man bones, and which bear indications of 
having been used both as places of sepulture 
and as temples, are also numerous. They 
are in exact geometrical forms — circles, 
squares, parallelograms, or combined fig¬ 
ures. They vary much in size, the smaller 
apparently having been used as tombs, the 
larger as temples. It - is seldom that more 
than one skeleton has been found in each 
mound, unless where they have been used as 
burying-places by the later Indians. A 
mound on the plain of Cahokia in Illinois, 
opposite the city of St. Louis, is 700 feet 
long, 500 broad, and 90 feet high, and on the 
site of this city there were so many of these 
mounds that it was called Mound City. 
Another class of earth mounds represent 
gigantic animal forms in bas-relief on the 
ground. One is a man with two heads, the 
body 50 feet long and 25 feet broad across 
the breast; another represents a serpent 
1,000 feet in length, with graceful curves, 
trebly coiled tail, and open jaws, in the act 
of swallowing an object of oval form, repre¬ 
sented by an embankment 4 feet high, with 
transverse and conjugate diameters of 100 
and 80 feet respectively. The embankment 
constituting the effigy of the serpent is up¬ 
wards of 5 feet high and 30 feet broad at the 
base in the middle of the body. These ani¬ 
mal forms are supposed to be symbolically 
connected with objects of worship. They 
have been mostly found in Wisconsin and 
Iowa. 

Besides the vast dimensions of many of 
these structures, and their elaborate and 
skillful workmanship, another circumstance 
very difficult to account for is their immense 
number. Upwards of 10,000 have been 
counted in the State of Ohio alone. From 
geological changes, and from the state of the 
human skeletons found in them, it has been 
conjectured that these remains cannot be 
less than 2,000 years old, but it is practical¬ 
ly certain that they are by no means all of 
the same antiquity. The nature of many of 
them indicates that wars were carried on 
among those who constructed them, while 



American Antiquities 


Americanisms 


their extent and elaborateness attest the ex¬ 
istence of a large population, and conse¬ 
quently a settled agricultural condition of 
society, either divided into hostile states, or 
■with powerful nomadic foes. Among the 
remains too are some which, together with 
the arts of civilization, indicate a certain 
amount of commerce, such as carvings of 
stone, elegant designs in pottery, ornaments 
in metal, mica, shells, and other materials 
brought from various parts of the continent, 
from Lake Superior to Mexico. What be¬ 
came of the people by whom these works 
were executed is left entirely to conjecture, 
for many refuse to believe that the Amer¬ 
ican Indians of the present day are their de¬ 
scendants. 

The monuments of Mexico, Central Amer¬ 
ica, and Peru belong to a more advanced 
state of civilization, approach nearer to the 
historical period, and make the loss of au¬ 
thentic information more severely felt. 
Great numbers of these have, as already 
mentioned, been destroyed, and numerous 
facts illustrate how rapidly the memory of 
what has been lost has faded. Forty-four 
towns were discovered by Stephen in Cen¬ 
tral America, buried in almost impenetrable 
forests. All these towns are within the 
historic period, and of many the names and 
dates of the founders have been preserved. 
The fort-like erections called casas grandes, 
which have been assumed as monuments of 
indefinite antiquity, were seen in use by 
Coronado in 1540, and several of the towns 
where the most celebrated ruins are found, 
as Cholula, Uxmal, Chichen, Quiche, and 
Pachacamac, are known to have been inhab¬ 
ited at the time of the conquest. Yet there 
are here also undoubtedly the remains of 
successive stages of civilization, and perhaps 
of different races. 

The Mexican annals which are con¬ 
tained in picture writing supply some val¬ 
uable information on the movements of the 
American populations, but their authentic¬ 
ity and accuracy are not unquestioned. In 
Peru aqueducts, bridges, and roads of elabo¬ 
rate construction have been found; but the 
principal remains of Mexico, Peru, and Cen¬ 
tral America consist of the temples. The 
descriptions given by the Spanish conquer¬ 
ors of the Mexican and Peruvian temples 
are in the highest degree magnificent. The 
number of these edifices also appears to ha\e 
been very great. In the city of Mexico nine 
great temples of the first magnitude and 
2,000 smaller ones dedicated to as many 
idols are mentioned, and in the whole em¬ 
pire 40,000 is the number estimated by 
Torquemada, while Clavigero places it much 
highor. Peru was not less magnificent in 
its devotions, the Temple of the Sun at 
Cuzco being of peculiar splendor. The Peru¬ 
vian temples were generally built on eleva¬ 
tions, surrounded with four circular em¬ 
bankments of earth, rising one above the 
other. 


In Central America and Mexico the 
form of the temples was generally pyram¬ 
idal. They are known as teocallis. Be¬ 
sides being raised on elevated platforms 
formed of artificial mounds of earth, when 
they consist of more than one story the 
higher stories are usually less in area than 
the lower, preserving the form of a pyramid 
in stages. They are usually of imposing 
dimensions, the platform commonly contain¬ 
ing a series of buildings, some of greater, 
others of less size. They are most frequent¬ 
ly only one story in height, the chambers ar¬ 
ranged in two parallel rows lighted by doors 
instead of windows, and the inner row only 
lighted from the outer, yet adorned with 
rich sculptures and gaily painted. The 
temple at Uxmal contains 11 chambers in 
each row, the roofs are supported on bearers 
of hard wood, while those at Palenque and 
Copan are formed of arched stone. The 
temple of Palenque is 200 feet by 180, and 
25 high. That at Uxmal is 322 feet long, 
and is ascended from the second to the third 
terrace (19 feet) by well-made steps 130 
feet wide. Buildings similar in character 
are found in Mexico, Honduras, Chiapas, 
and Yucatan, and numerous hieroglyphics 
are found in them, from which it appears 
that the inhabitants of these districts had 
formerly the same written language. At 
Copan in Honduras, where the principal 
temple and subordinate buildings are con¬ 
tained within a sacred enclosure, the skull 
of a quadrumanous animal is carved repeat¬ 
edly in high relief on the walls. Numerous 
well-executed statues, as well as hiero¬ 
glyphics and sculpture in relief, occur in 
other buildings, and at Copan there are also 
several sculptured obelisks. At Chichen a 
space of 274 feet long and 30 wide is in¬ 
closed by walls 30 feet thick. It is sup¬ 
posed to have been designed for some public 
games. 

American Federation of Labor. See 

Labor, American Federation of. 

American Colonization Society (more 

accurately, The National Colonization 
Society of America), an organization 
formed “ to promote and execute a plan for 
colonizing, with their own consent, the fiee 
people of color residing in our country in 
Africa, or such other place as Congress shall 
deem expedient.” The constitution was 
adopted on Dec. 28, 1816, and officers were 
elected on Jan. 1, 1817. The first colonists 
finally settled in 1822 at Cape Mesurado, 
where the Republic of Liberia {q.v.) was 
founded. With the development of the 
abolition movement, increasing dissatisfac¬ 
tion was expressed with the society, and 
many of its leading supporters withdrew. 

American Indians. See Indians, Ameri¬ 
can. 

Americanisms, a word defined as a term, 
phrase or idiom of the English language 
as spoken in America (or in the United 


IG 





Americanisms 


Americanisms 


States) which either (a) originated in 
America; or, (b) is peculiar to America; 
or, (c) is chiefly employed in America. The 
following is a list of a few of the more 
noteworthy Americanisms: 

Approbate, to. — To license, as to appro¬ 
bate to preach; to approbate a man to keep 
a hotel or public house. 

Around or round. — About or near. To 
hang around is to loiter about a place. 

Backicoods. — The partially cleared forest 
regions in the western states. 

Bayou. — A small bay in Louisiana. 

Bee. — An assemblage of persons to unite 
their labors for the benefit of an individual 
or family or to carry out a joint scheme. 

Bogus. — False: counterfeit. 

Bone. — One dollar. 

Boss. — An employer or superintendent of 
laborers; a leader. 

Bulldoze, to. — To intimidate voters. 

Bunco. — A swindling game. 

Buncombe or Bunlcum. —-A speech made 
solely to please a constituency; talking for 
talking’s sake, and in an inflated style. 

Calculate. — To suppose, to believe, to 
think. 

Camp-meeting. — A meeting held in the 
fields or woods for religious purposes, and 
where the assemblage encamp and remain 
for several days. 

Car. — A carriage or wagon of a railway 
train. The Englishman “ travels by rail,” 
the American .takes, or goes by, the cars. 

Carpet-bagger. — A needy political adven¬ 
turer who carries all his earthly goods in a 
carpet-bag; originally applied to politicians 
from the Northern States who sought offices 
in the South after the Civil War. 

Caucus. — A private meeting of the lead¬ 
ing politicians of a party to agree upon the 
plans to be pursued in an approaching elec¬ 
tion. 

Chewing the rag. — Frivolous conversa¬ 
tion. 

Chunk. — A short, thick piece of wood or 
any other material. 

Cop. — A police officer. 

Corn. — Maize. In England, wheat or 
grain in general. 

Corn-hushing or Corn-shucking. — An oc¬ 
casion on which a farmer invites his neigh¬ 
bors to assist him in stripping the husks 
from his corn. 

Crooking the elbow. — Taking a drink. 

Dead-heads. — People who have free ad¬ 
mission to entertainments, or who have the 
use of public conveyances, or the like, free 
of charge. 

Dope. — A narcotic; also a sleepy person. 

Down East. — In or into the New England 
States. A down-easter is a New Englander. 

Drummer. — A commercial traveler. 

Dry goods. — A general term fo v such ar¬ 
ticles as are sold by linen-drapers, haber¬ 
dashers, hosiers, etc., in England. 


Fix, to. — To put in order, to prepare, to 
adjust. To fix the hair, the table, the fire, 
is to dress the hair, lay the table, make up 
the fire. 

Fixings. — Arrangements, dress, embel¬ 
lishments, luggage, furniture, garnishments 
of any kind. 

Foul shop. — A non-union factory. 

Freeze out. — To get rid of objectionable 
persons. 

Gerrymander. — To arrange political di¬ 
visions so that in an election one party may 
obtain an advantage over its opponent, even 
though the latter may possess a majority of 
votes. 

Grab. — To gain a privilege without proper 

payment. 

Greenback. — A former kind of paper 
money. 

Guess, to. — To believe, to suppose, to think. 

Gulch. — A deep, abrupt ravine, caused by 
the action of water. 

Happen in, to. — To happen to come in or 
call. 

Hatchet, to bury or take up the. — To end 
or begin war. 

Hayseed. — A farmer. 

Help. — The labor of hired persons collect¬ 
ively: the body of servants belonging to a 
farm or household or factory. 

High-falutin.- —Inflated speech, bombast. 

Hobo. — A tramp or vagabond. 

Hoe-cake. — A cake of corn meal baked 
on or before the fire. 

Hoodlum.. — A rough. 

How! —Indian abbreviation of “How do 
you do ? ” 

Interlock. — When the sources of two or 
more streams are so close together that at 
certain seasons, as in times of freshet, they 
flow into one another, the rivers are said 
to “ interlock.” 

Jolly, to. — To flatter, to tease, to poke 
fun at. 

Johnny cake. — A cake made of corn meal 
mixed with milk or water and sometimes a 
little stewed pumpkin. 

Lobster. — A turncoat. 

Log-rolling. — The assembly of several 
parties of wood-cutters to help one of them 
in rolling their logs to the river after they 
are felled and trimmed; also employed in 
politics to signify a like system of mutual 
co-operation. 

Lynch laic. — An irregular species of jus¬ 
tice executed by the people or a mob, with¬ 
out legal authority or trial. 

Mail letters, to. — To post letters. 

Main guy. — The one in authority. 

Make tracks, to. — To run away. 

Mush. — A kind of hasty-pudding. 

Nickel. — A five cent coin. 

Notions. — A term applied to every va¬ 
riety of small wares. 

One-horse. — A one-horse thing is a thing 
of no value or importance; a mean or tri¬ 
fling thing. 



American Institute of Social Service 


American Party 


Oxbow . — The bend in a river or the land 
inclosed within such a bend. 

Peart (in the South).— Equal to smart 
or well. 

Piazza. — A veranda. 

Picayune. — A trifle. 

Pickaninny. — A negro child. 

Pile. — A quantity of money. 

Planks. — In politics, the several prin¬ 
ciples which appertain to a party; “plat¬ 
form ” is the collection of such principles. 

Plunk. — Same as bone, one dollar. 

Pull. — A special individual favor. 

Pull a leg, to. — To work for a favor, to 
coax, to get money from a person. 

Reckon, to. — To suppose, to think. 

Right smart. — Very well. 

Roast, to. — To criticise severely. 

Scab. — A non-union workman. 

Scalaivag. — A scamp, a scapegrace. 

Shake. — To leave a person. 

Skedaddle, to. — To run away, a word in¬ 
troduced during the Civil war. 

Smart. — Used in the sense of consider¬ 
able, a good deal, as a smart chance; also 
equal to well, as “ right smart,” very well. 

Stakes, to pluck or pull up. —'To remove. 

Stampede. — The sudden flight of a crowd. 

Stiff. — In medical schools, a corpse. 

Store. — Same as shop in Great Britain; 
as a book store, a grocery store. 

Strike oil, to. — To come upon petroleum; 
hence, to make a lucky hit, especially finan¬ 
cially. 

Stump speech. — A bombastic speech cal¬ 
culated to please the popular ear, such 
speeches in newly settled districts being of¬ 
ten delivered from the stumps of trees. 

Tanglefoot. — A Westernism for liquor. 

Tenderfoot. — A name applied in Western 
mining and cattle-raising regions to a self- 
conscious city man, as a new arrival. 

Ticker. — A watch; also a telegraph re¬ 
ceiver. 

Ticket, to vote the straight. — To vote for 
all the men or measures on the ticket. 

Truck. — The small produce of gardens; 
truck patch, a plot in which the smaller 
fruits and vegetables are raised. 

Turn down, to. — Same as freeze out. 

Vamose, to. — To run off. 

Vendue. — An auction; to vendue, to sell 
at auction. 

Whoop it up. — To create an excitement. 

Wilt. — To become soft or languid, to lose 
energy, pith, or strength. 

American Institute of Social Service, 

an organization effected in 1898 for social 
and industrial improvement; gathers and 
disseminates information concerning social 
problems to churches, organizations, and in¬ 
dividuals; has over 500 classes, with 0,000 
members. 

American Party, The, the name of three 
separate organizations which at different 
times held a prominent place in the po¬ 


litical affairs of the United States. The 
first, organized about 1852, at a time when 
the Whig Party was near its dissolution 
was, in fact, a secret society, and was bet¬ 
ter known in later years as the “ Know 
Nothings,” from the assumed ignorance of 
its members when questioned in regard to 
the objects and name of the order. Its prin¬ 
cipal doctrine was opposition to all foreign¬ 
ers and Roman Catholics, and its motto was 
“ Americans must rule America.” The first 
National Convention of the Party was held 
in February, 1856, at which resolutions were 
adopted, demanding a lengthening of the 
residence necessary to naturalization, and 
condemning President Pierce’s administra¬ 
tion for the repeal of the Missouri Com¬ 
promise. A number of the members with¬ 
drew because of the refusal to consider a 
resolution regarding the restriction of 
slavery. Millard Fillmore, of New York, 
was nominated for President, and Andrew 
Jackson Donelson for Vice-President, which 
nominations were subsequently indorsed by 
a Whig Convention. Fillmore carried but 
one State, Maryland; his popular vote being 
about 850,000. The party was successful in 
carrying the State elections in Rhode Island 
and Maryland in 1857, but never gained any 
popularity in the Western States. A second 
party, bearing the same name, but directly 
adverse to the first in that it was founded 
in opposition to secret societies, was or¬ 
ganized for political purposes by the Na¬ 
tional Christian Association, at the adjourn¬ 
ment of a convention held by the latter body 
at Oberlin, O., in 1872. The organization 
was completed and the name adopted at a 
convention in Syracuse, N. Y., in 1874. At 
Pittsburg, June 9, 1875, a platform was 
adopted in which were demanded recogni¬ 
tion of the Sabbath, the introduction of the 
Bible into public schools, prohibition of the 
sale of liquors, the withdrawal of the char¬ 
ters of secret societies, and legislative pro¬ 
hibition of their oaths, arbitration of in¬ 
ternational disputes, the restriction of land 
monopolies, resumption of specie payment, 
justice to the Indians, and a direct popular 
vote for President and Vice-President. 
James B. Walker of Illinois was nominated 
for President. In 1880, the party again 
made nominations, and in 1884, S. C. Pom¬ 
eroy was nominated, but withdrew in fa¬ 
vor of John P. St. John, the Prohibition 
candidate. The third party to be called 
by the name of American Party was or¬ 
ganized at a convention held at Phila¬ 
delphia, Sept. 16-17, 1887. Its principal 
aims, as set forth in its platform, were, to 
oppose the existing system of immigration 
and naturalization of foreigners; to de¬ 
mand its restriction and regulation so as to 
make a 14-years’ residence a prerequisite 
of naturalization; to exclude from the bene¬ 
fits of citizenship all anarchists, socialists, 




American Protective Association 


America’s Cup 


and other dangerous characters; to demand 
free schools; to demand the establishment 
of a navy and the construction of fortifica¬ 
tions and internal improvements; to con¬ 
demn alien proprietorship; to declare for 
the permanent separation of Church and 
State, and in favor of the enforcement of 
the Monroe Doctrine. But little has been 
heard of the American Party in the past 
few years. 

American Protective Association, pop¬ 
ularly known as the “ A. P. A.,” a secret or¬ 
der organized throughout the United States, 
with branches in Canada, which has at¬ 
tracted much attention by its aggressive 
platform and active agitation. Its chief doc¬ 
trine, as announced in its declaration of 
principle, is that “ subjection to and sup- 
port of any ecclesiastical power not created 
and controlled by American citizens, and 
which claims equal, if not greater, sover¬ 
eignty than the Government of the United 
States of America, is irreconcilable with 
American citizenship;” and it accordingly 
opposes “ the holding of offices in National, 
State, or Municipal Government by any sub 
ject or supporter of such ecclesiastical 
power.” Another of its cardinal purposes 
is to prevent all public encouragement and 
support of sectarian schools. Tt does not 
constitute a separate political party, but 
seeks to control existing parties, and to 
elect friendly and defeat objectionable can¬ 
didates, by the concerted action of citizens 
affiliated with all parties. The order was 
founded March 13, 1887, and in 1899 

claimed a membership of about 2,000,000. 

American Psychological Association, 

an organization founded in 1892 for the 
advancement of psychology as a science; an¬ 
nual dues, $1; Secretary and Treasurer, 
Prof. Arthur H. Pierce, Smith College, North¬ 
ampton, Mass. 

American Social Science Association, 

a society organized in 1805; annual dues, 
.$5; General Secretary, Isaac F. Russell, 
120 Broadway, New York City. 

American Society of Civil Engineers, 

an association instituted in 1852; holds two 
meetings each month (excepting in July and 
August) at headquarters, 220 W. 57th st., 
New York city; membership, 5,800; Sec¬ 
retary, Charles W. Hunt, at headquarters. 

American Society of Mechanical En= 
gineers, an organization chartered in 1881; 
annual dues, members and associates, $15; 
juniors, $10; entrance fee, members and as¬ 
sociates, $25; juniors, $15; membership 
unlimited; holds two meetings annually; 
headquarters, 29 W. 39th St., New York 
city; Secretary, Calvin W. Rice, at head¬ 
quarters. 

American System, a term used by Henry 
Clay and applied to his plan of protective 


duties and internal improvements, as pro¬ 
posed in the debates in Congress which re¬ 
sulted in the tariff law of 1824. At pres¬ 
ent it is used to denote the policy of pro¬ 
tection to home industries by means of 
duties on imports. 

American University, a co-educational 
and non-sectarian institution in Harriman, 
Tenn.; organized in 1891; has grounds and 
buildings valued at over $50,000; volumes 
in the library, 5,000; professors and in¬ 
structors, 12; students, 320; income, from 
board, tuition, etc., over $0,000. 

American University, The, a post¬ 
graduate institution in Washington, D. C., 
founded under the auspices of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church, in 1891, with Bishop 
John F. Hurst as chancellor. 

America’s Cup, a yachting trophy, origi¬ 
nally known as the Queen’s Cup, offered as 
a prize to the yachts of all nations by the 
Royal Yacht Squadron of Great Britain, in 
1851. The first contest for it was held Aug. 
22 of that year, when it was won by the 
American yacht “ America,” whose owners 
deeded it in trust to the New Y r ork Yacht 
Club. The subsequent success of American 



THE AMERICA’S CUP. 


yachts in keeping the cup caused it to be¬ 
come knoAvn as the “ America’s ” Cup. The 
first challenger was the schooner “ Cambria,” 
built at Cowes in 1808. Since the defeat of 
the “Cambria” on Aug. 8, 1870, British 
owners and designers have made numerous 
attempts to recover the trophy. The follow¬ 
ing is a complete record of contests: 















Amerigo Vespucci 


Ames 


Record of Contests for tiie America’s Cuf. 


Date. 

Yachts. 

Corrected Time. 

Won by 

Course. 

Auer. 22. 1851 

America. 

10 

10 

3 

4 

37 

58 

58 

37 



21 




Aurora. 



> Around Isle of Wight. 

Aug. 8, 

1870 

Magic. 

21 

38 

41 

39 

17 


Cambria. 

f N. Y. Y. C. inside course. 

Oct. 16, 

1871 

Columbia. 

6 

6 

3 

3 

4 

4 

19 

27 

04 

) 


Livonia. 

46 

07 

18 

02 

17 

36 

45 

41-M 

£ NL Y. Y. C. inside course. 

Oct. 18, 

1871 

Columbia. 

10 

15 

33 % 

10 

) 

Oct. 19, 

1871 

Livonia. 

Columbia. 

Livonia. 

15ft 

25 

35 

02 

315 miles to windward aud return. 

[n. Y. Y. C. inside course. 

Oct. 21, 

1871 

Sappho. 

5 

30 

21 

) 

[20 miles to v/indward and return. 

Livonia. 

6 

4 

09 

46 

H 

23 

17 

44 

54 

53 

46 

09 

Oct. 23, 

1871 

Sappho. 

25 

27 

) 

£ N. Y. Y. 0. Inside course. 

Livonia. 

5 

Aug. 11, 

Aug. 12, 

Nov. 9, 

1876 

Madeleine. 

5 

23 

10 

27 

28 

59 

14 

2034 

1876 

Countess of Duffei-in. 
Madeleine.. . 

5 

7 

34 

18 

46 

17 

| N. Y. Y. C. inside course. 

) 

1881 

Countess of Dufferin. 
Mischief. 

7 

4 

3 20 miles to windward and return. 

£ N. Y. Y. C. inside course. 

\ 16 miles to leeward from Buoy 5 
) and return. 

( N. Y. Y. C. Inside course. 


Atalanta. 

4 

45 

2934 

53 

47 

Nov. 10, 

1881 

Mischief. 

4 

54 

38 

54 


Atalanta. 

5 

33 

Sept. 14. 1885 

Puritan. 

6 

06 

05 

16 

19 



Qenesta. 

f, 

22 

03 

04 

24 

14 

Sept. 16, 

1885 

Puritan. 

5 

1 

38 

|-20 miles to leeward and return, 
f N. Y. Y. C. inside course. 

Genesta. 

5 

52 

Sept. 9, 

1886 

Mayflower. 

5 

26 

41 

12 

02 


Galatea. 

5 

38 

43 

Sept. 11. 1886 

Mayflower. 

6 

49 

29 

09 

120 miles to leeward and return. 



Galatea. 

7 

18 

09 

Sept. 27, 

1887 

Voluuteer. 

4 

53 

18 

19 

23 H 

jN. V. Y. C. inside course. 


Thistle. 

5 

12 

4I ; M 

Sept. 30, 

1887 

Volunteer. 

5 

42 

56*4 

11 

48% 

^20 miles to windward and return. 


Thistle. 

5 

54 

45 

Oct. 7, 

1893 

Vigilant. 

4 

05 

47 

5 

48 

[l5 miles to windward and return. 



Valkyrie 11. 

4 

11 

85 


Oct. 9, 

1893 

Vigilant. 

3 

25 

01 

10 

35 

^ 30 mile triangle. 



Valkyrie 11. 

3 

35 

36 

Oct. 13, 

1893 

Vigilant. 

3 

24 

39 


40 

£ 15 miles to windward and return. 


Valkyrie 11. 

3 

25 

19 


Sept. 7, 

1895 

Defender. 

4 

59 

55 

8 

49 

j 15 miles to windward and return. 

) 


Valkyrie III. 

5 

08 

44 

Sept. 10, 

1895 

Defender. 

3 

55 

56 


47 


Valkyrie III. 

3 

55 

09 

(Valkyrie III. disqual 
ified for fouling.) 
(Valkyrie III. withdrew 
on crossine line ) 

r 30 mile triangle. 

115 miles to leeward and return. 

Sept. 12, 

1S95 

Defender. 

4 

43 

43 


Valkyrie IK. 


Oct. 16, 

1899 

Columbia. 

4 

53 

53 

10 

08 

15 miles to windward and return. 
130 mile triangle. 


Shamrock I. 

5 

04 

01 

Oct. 17, 

1899 

Columbia. 

3 

37 

(Sail-over; 

disi 

6 

Shamrock I. 



Shamrock I. 




ibled.) 

34 

Oct. 20, 

1899 

Columbia. 

3 

38 

09 

- 15 miles to leeward and return. 

Shamrock I. 

3 

44 

43 


Sept. 28. 1901 

Columbia. 

4 

30 

24 

i 

20 

115 miles to windward and return. 



Shamrock II. 

4 

31 

44 



Oct. 3, 

1901 

Columbia. 

3 

12 

35 

3 

35 

£ 30-mile triangle. 

Shamrock II. 

3 

16 

10 


Oct. 4, 

1901 

Columbia. 

4 

S3 

57 


41 

| 15 miles to leeward and return. 

Shamrock II. 

4 

33 

38 



Aug. 22, 

1903 

Reliance. 

3 

32 

39 

17 

7 

03 

^ 15 miles to windward and return. 

Shamrock III. 

3 

20 



Aug. 25. 1903 

Reliance. 

3 

14 

54 

1 

19 

130 mile triangle. 

15 miles to windward and return. 



Shamrock Ill. 

3 

16 

13 



Sept. 3, 

1903 

Reliance. 

4 

28 

04 

(Sail-over; 
III. w 

Shamrock 

Shamrock III. 


itlidrew.) 


Amerigo Vespucci. See Vespucci. 

Ames, Adelbert, an American military 
officer, born in 1835; graduated at West 
Point, 1801; became Brigadier-General and 
brevet Major-General United States Volun¬ 
teers, in the Civil War; Provisional Gover¬ 
nor of Mississippi, 1868: resigned army 
commission, 1870; United States Senator 
from Mississippi, 1870-1873, Governor 1874- 
1876; and Brigadier-General United States 
Volunteers in the war with Spain, 1898. 

Ames, Charles Gordon, an American 
clergyman, editor, and lecturer, born in Dor¬ 
chester, Mass., Oct. 3, 1828. He graduated 
at the Geauga Seminary, Ohio; was or¬ 
dained in 1849 as a Free Baptist, but later 
became a Unitarian, and pastor of the 
Church of the Disciples, Boston. He was 


editor of the Minnesota “ Republican ” and 
the “ Christian Register,” of Boston. He 
wrote “ George Eliot’s Two Marriages,” “ As 
Natural as Life,” some poems, etc. 

Ames, Eleanor Kirk, an American au¬ 
thor, born at Warren, R. I., Oct. 7, 1831. 
Among her many books are “ Information 
for Authors,” “ Beecher as a Humorist,” 
“ The Influence of the Zodiac on Human 
Life,” “ Libra, or What the Stars told Eliza¬ 
beth,” etc. She died June 24, 1908. 

Ames, Fisher, an American orator and 
statesman, born in Dedham, Mass., April 9, 
1758. Admitted to the bar in 1781, he be¬ 
came a member of Congress in 1789, where 
he gained a national reputation by his ora¬ 
tory. Two of his finest efforts were in 
support of John Jay’s treaty with Great 























































































Ames 


Amherst 


Britain, and a eulogy on Washington be¬ 
fore the Massachusetts Legislature. He was 
elected president of Harvard College in 1804, 

but declined. A 
brilliant talker, 
he was distin¬ 
guished in conver¬ 
sation for wit and 
imagination, 
while his charac¬ 
ter was spotless. 
His works con¬ 
sist of orations, 
essays, and letters 
(2 vols., 1854). 
He died in Ded- 
h a m, July 4, 
1808. 

Ames, Mary 
Clemmer, an Am¬ 
erican author, 
fisher AMES. born in Utica, N. 

Y., in 1839; was 
a frequent contributor to the Springfield 
“ Republican,” and afterward to the New 
York “ Independent.” Married to and di¬ 
vorced from the Rev. Daniel Ames, she be¬ 
came, in 1883, the wife of Edward Hudson 
tit Washington. Among her works are the 
novels “Victoria” (1864); “ Eirene ” 

(1870), and “His Two Wives” (1874); a 
volume of “Poems” (1882); and biogra¬ 
phies of Alice and Phoebe Cary. She died 
in Washington, D. C., Aug. 18, 1884. 

Amesbury, a town in Essex co., Mass.; 
on the Merrimac river and the Boston and 
Maine railroad; 27 miles N. of Salem. It 
has manufactories of cotton and woolen 
goods, boots and shoes, machinery, and car¬ 
riages, and was long the residence of the 
poet Whittier. Pop. (1890) 9,798; (1900) 
9,473. 

Ametabola, or Ametabolians, a sub¬ 
class of insects, consisting of those which do 
not undergo metamorphosis. It includes 
three orders: the anoplura, or lice; the mal- 
lophaga, or bird-lice; and the thyscin- 
ura, or spring-tails. All are wingless 
insects. 

Amethyst, so named either (1) from the 
foolish notion that it was a remedy for 
drunkenness; or (2), as Pliny thinks, be¬ 
cause it did not reach, though it approxi¬ 
mated to, the color of wine. A mineral, a 
variety of quartz, named by Dana amethyst¬ 
ine quartz. Its color, which is either dif¬ 
fused through the entire crystals or affects 
only their summits, is clear purple or blu¬ 
ish violet; hence it is sometimes called vio¬ 
let-quartz. The coloring matter is generally 
believed to be manganese, but Heintz con¬ 
siders it to arise from a mixture of iron and 
soda. The beauty and hardness of the ame¬ 
thyst cause it to be regarded as a precious 
stone. It occurs in veins or geodes in trap- 


pean and other rocks. The best specimens 
are brought from India, Armenia, and 
Arabia. 

The Oriental amethyst is a rare purple 
variety of sapphire. 

The word amethyst in the English Bible 
[Septuagint and New Testament, Greek 
amethystos — Exod. xxviii: 19; Rev. xxi: 
20] is the rendering of the Hebrew word 
achhclamali. It is from the root chhalam 
=r to sleep; apparently from the delusion 
that the fortunate possessor of an amethyst 
is likely to sleep soundly. The last stone 
in the third row of the Jewish high-priest’s 
breastplate was an amethyst (Exod. xxviii: 
19) ; and the 12th foundation of the new 
Jerusalem, mentioned in Rev. xxi: 20, was 
to be an amethyst. 

Amharic, or Amarirma, a Semitic lan¬ 
guage with an intermixture of African 
words; since the 14th century the court and 
official language of Abyssinia; originally a 
dialect of the Province of Amhara and of 
Shoa. Within the last three centuries 
Ethiopian characters have been adapted to 
it for purposes of writing. 

Amherst, a town in Hampshire co., 
Mass.; on the Boston and Maine and the 
Central Vermont railroads; 23 miles N. N. 
E. of Springfield. It has manufactories of 
paper, straw and palm leaf hats, leather, and 
children’s wagons, and is best known as the 
seat of Amherst College (q. v.), the State 
Agricultural College, and the State Experi¬ 
ment Station. Pop. (1890) 4,512; (1900) 
5,028; (1910) 5,112. 

Amherst College, a college at Amherst, 
Mass.; founded by Congregationalists in 
1821, but now non-sectarian. In its curricu¬ 
lum it has adhered strictly to classical and 
general culture. It has scientific and art 
collections of note. Of its graduates a high 
percentage has entered the ministry or the 
teaching profession. The faculty numbers 
about 50; the average enrollment is about 
500; the library has over 80.000 volumes; 
and the annual income, exclusive of benefac¬ 
tions, is about $170,000. 

Amherst, Jeffery, Lord, a distinguished 
British officer, born in 1717. He entered the 
army at an early age, and ultimately be¬ 
came Major-General. Sent over to America, 
he captured Louisburg, and followed it up 
by the reduction of Forts Duquesne, Niag¬ 
ara, and Ticonderoga, which paved the way 
for the entire conquest of Canada. In 1763, 
Amherst was made Governor of Virginia, 
and created Baron Amherst of Holmesdale 
in 1776. He was appointed Commander-in- 
Chief of the British army in 1778. in which 
capacity he took a most active, but humane, 
part in suppressing the London riots of 
1780. Upon resigning his chief command 
in 1795 he was made a Field-Marshal. Died 
in 1798. 





Amicis 


Ammianus Marcellinus 


Amicis, Edmondo de, an Italian writer; 
born in Oneglia, Liguria, Oct. 21, 1846; 
served several years in the Italian army; 
afterward applied himself to literature; and 
produced sketches of army life, novels, and 
a volume of verse. His writings have been 
widely translated, and those relating to 
travel are especially popular. Died in 1908. 

Amiel, Henri FrederU, a distinguished 
Swiss essayist, philosophical critic, and poet, 
born at Geneva, Sept. 27, 1821; was for 
five vears a student in German universities, 
and on his return home became Professor of 
Philosophy in the Geneva Academy. He is 
author of several works on the history of 
literature, as “ The Literary Movement in 
Romanish Switzerland” (1849) ; “ Study on 
Mine, de Stael ” (1878) ; and of several 
poems, among them “ Millet Grains ” (1854). 
But his fame rests principally on the “ Jour¬ 
nal,” which appeared after the author’s 
death. He died in Geneva, March 11, 1881. 

Amiens (am-yan'), an old French city, 
the capital once of Picardy, and now of the 
Department of Somme, on the many-chan- 
nelled navigable Somme, 81 miles N. of 
Paris by rail. Its fortifications have been 
turned into charming boulevards, but it 
still retains its old citadel. The Cathedral 
of Notre Dame is a masterpiece of Gothic 
architecture. Begun in 1220, or a little 
later than Salisbury Cathedral, it is 452 
feet long, and has a spire (1529) 426 feet 
high; but its special feature is the loftiness 
of the nave, 141 feet. In his little work 
called “ The Bible of Amiens,” Ruskin says 
this church well deserves the name given it 
by Viollet-le-Duc, “ the Parthenon of Gothic 
architecture,” and affirms that its style is 
“ Gothic, pure, authoritative, and unaccus- 
able.” Other noteworthy buildings are the 
H6tel de Ville (1600-1760), in which the 
Peace of Amiens was signed, the large mu¬ 
seum (1864), in Renaissance style; and the 
public library, which was founded in 1791, 
and contains 70,000 volumes. Amiens has 
considerable manufactures of velvet, silk, 
woolen, and cotton goods, ribbons, and car¬ 
pets. Peter the Hermit and Ducange were 
natives, and there are statues to both of 
them. The “ Mise of Amiens,” was the 
award pronounced by Louis IX. of France, 
in 1264, on the controversy between Henry 
III. of England and his people as to the 
“ Provisions of Oxford.” The Peace of 
Amiens (March 27, 1802) was a treaty in¬ 
tended to settle the disputed points between 
England, France, Spain, and Holland. By 
it, England retained possession of Ceylon 
and Trinidad, and an open port at the Cape 
of Good Hope; the republic of the Ionian 
islands was recognized ; Malta was restored 
to the Knights of St. John; Spain and Hol¬ 
land regained their colonies, with the ex¬ 
ception of Trinidad and Ceylon; the French 
were to quit Rome and Naples; and Turkey 


was restored to its integrity. In the Franco- 
Prussian War, on Nov. 27, 1870, near 
Amiens, General ManteufTel defeated a 
French army 30,000 strong, and three days 
later the citadel fell. Pop. (1901) 90,758. 

Amish, The. See Mennonites. 

Amity College, a coeducational institu¬ 
tion in College Springs, la., organized in 
1872; reported in 1899: Professors, 11; 
students, 250; volumes in the library, 2,500; 
grounds and buildings valued at $40,000; 
productive funds, $30,000; income, $6,000; 
president, J. C. Calhoun, A. M. 

Ammen, Daniel, an American naval offi¬ 
cer, born in Brown county, O., May 15, 1820; 
entered the United States navy, July 7, 
1836. He was executive officer of the North 
Atlantic Blockading Squadron at the out¬ 
break of the Civil War. From 1861 to 1865 
he rendered signal service in the attacks on 
Port Royal, Fort Macallister, Fort Fisher, 
and both the ironclad attacks on Fort Sum¬ 
ter. On June 4, 1878, he was retired with 
the rank of Rear-admiral. He was the de¬ 
signer of the Ammen life raft and harbor 
defense ram. Among his works are “ The 
Atlantic Coast” (1883); “The Old Navy 
and the New,” and “Navy in the Civil War” 
(1883). He died in Washington, D. C., 
July 11, 1898. 

Ammergau (am'er-gou), Ober= and Un- 
ter, two adjoining villages in Upper Ba¬ 
varia, in the higher part of the valley of 
the Ammer, 42 miles S. W. by S. of Munich. 
Ober-Ammergau is noted for the perform¬ 
ance of the “Passion Play,” a series of dra¬ 
matic representations of the sufferings of 
Christ, which has been produced every tenth 
year on every Sunday of the summer by 
about 500 performers, in accordance with 
a vow made at the time of the pestilence of 
1634. During the intervening years, the 
actors give a series of representations of 
Old Testament legends. The performance 
generally lasts seven or eight hours, often 
without intermission, and is partly a re¬ 
ligious service and partly a popular fes¬ 
tival. In 1889, a theater was built just out¬ 
side the place, with a stage and auditorium 
capable of seating 6,000 persons. On the 
height near by is a colossal memorial of 
“ Christ on the Cross, with Mary and John,” 
modeled by Halbig, the gift of King Lud¬ 
wig II. 

Ammianus Marcellinus, a Roman his¬ 
torian, born of Greek parents at Antioch, in 
Syria, about 330. After serving in several 
campaigns in Gaul, Germany, and the East, 
he settled at Rome, devoting himself to lit¬ 
erature, and was alive as late as 390. He 
wrote in Latin a history of the Roman Em¬ 
pire from 96 to 378 a. d., in 31 books, of 
which only 18 books are extant, comprising 
the years 353 to 378. This part of the work, 
however, is the most valuable, as it treats 






Air. m on 


Amironiacum 


of affaire with which the author was con¬ 
temporary, and is one of the most import¬ 
ant sources for the history of the Emperor 
Julian. The work may be regarded as a 
continuation of Tacitus, and though the por¬ 
tions remaining have many faults of style, 
they are valuable on account of the author’s 
careful descriptions of countries and events 
from personal observation. 

Ammon, the eponymic ancestor of a peo¬ 
ple, known in Hebrew and Biblical history 
as the “ children of Ammon ” or Ammon¬ 
ites; frequently mentioned in the Old Tes¬ 
tament. According to the account in Gen¬ 
esis (xix:38), and in the form of Ben- 
Ami, Ammon was the son of Lot by his 
youngest daughter. 

Ammon, a god of the ancient Egyptians, 
worshipped especially in Thebes (No-Am¬ 
mon), and early represented as a ram with 
downward branching horns, the symbols of 
power; as a man with a ram’s head; and as 
a complete man with two high feathers on 
his head, bearded, sitting on a throne, and 
holding in his right hand the scepter of the 
gods, in his left the handled cross, the sym¬ 
bol of divine life. Ammon, his wife Mut 
(the mother), and his son Chensu, form 

the divine triad of 
Thebes: their wor¬ 
ship was at its 
greatest height un¬ 
der the 18th to the 
20th dynasty. The 
name signifies the 
hidden, unrevealed 
deity; and in 
Egyptian mythol¬ 
ogy he held his 
highest place. His 
undefined charac¬ 
ter may serve to 
explain how other 
deities were identi¬ 
fied with Ammon. 
After the 18th dy¬ 
nasty we find in 
hieroglyphics the 
name Amur-Ra fre¬ 
quently inscribed, 
indicating a blend¬ 
ing of Ammon with 
the sun-god Ra. 
Similarly, the rep¬ 
resentation of Am- 
ammon. mon with a ram’s 

head shows the 
blending of him with Kneph. From about 
the time of the 21st djmasty, he came 
to be considered the god of oracles, and 
as such was worshipped in Ethiopia and 
in the Libyan desert. Twelve days’ journey 
W. of Memphis, in the desert, was a green 
oasis fringed with a belt of palm trees, on 


which rose the temple of Ammon. Hither 
came pilgrims laden with costly presents; 
among them Alexander the Great and Cato 
of Utica. Alexander was hailed as the ao* 
tual son of the god by the priests, quick 
to anticipate the wishes of the hero. The 
Persian conqueror, Cambyses, sent against 
the temple an expedition, which perished 
miserably in the sands. The worship of Am¬ 
mon spread at an early period to Greece, 
and afterward to Rome, where he was iden¬ 
tified with Zeus and Jupiter. 

Ammonia, a substance consisting of NH,. 
Molecular weight, 17. Sp. gr. 8.5, com¬ 
pared with H; compared with air (1), 
its sp. gr. is 0.59. It is a colorless, 
pungent gas, with a strong alkaline reac¬ 
tion. It can be liquefied at the pressure of 
seven atmospheres at 15°. Water at 0° dis¬ 
solves 1,150 times its volume of NH„, at or¬ 
dinary temperatures about 700 times its vol¬ 
ume. A fluid drachm of ammonice liquor 
fortior contains 15.83 grains of NH„ and has 
a specific gravity of 0.891. The liquor am¬ 
monice of the pharmacopoeia has a specific 
gravity of 0.959, and a fluid drachm con¬ 
tains 5.2 grains of NH 8 . (Water being unity, 
the specific gravity of ammonia is .0007594.) 
Ammonia is obtained by the dry distillation 
of animal or vegetable matter containing ni¬ 
trogen; horns, hoofs, etc., produce large 
quantities; hence its name of spirits of 
hartshorn. Guano consists chiefly of urate 

*J 

of ammonia. But ammonia is now obtained 
from the liquor of gasworks, coal contain¬ 
ing about 2 per cent, of nitrogen. Ammonia 
is formed by the action of nascent hydrogen 
on dilute nitric acid. Ammonia gas is pre¬ 
pared in the laboratory by heating together 
one part of NH 4 C1 with two parts by weight 
of quicklime, and is collected over mercury. 
NH 3 is decomposed into N and H„ by pass¬ 
ing it through a red-hot tube, or by sending 
electric sparks through it; the resulting 
gases occupy twice the volume of the am¬ 
monia gas. It is used in medicine as an an¬ 
tacid and stimulant; it also increases the 
secretions. Externally, it is employed as a 
rubefacient and vesicant. Ammonia lini¬ 
ment consists of one part of solution of am¬ 
monia to three parts of olive oil. Ammonia 
is used as an antidote in cases of poisoning 
by prussic acid, tobacco, and other sedative 
drugs. Substitution ammonias are formed 
by the replacement of H by an alcohol rad¬ 
ical forming amines and by acid radicals 
forming amides. There are also ammonia 
substitution compounds of cobalt, copper, 
mercury, and platinum. 

Ammoniacum, a gum resin, called also 

gum ammoniac, which is imported into this 
country from Turkey and the East Indies 
in little lumps, or tears, of a strong and not 
very pleasing smell and a nauseous taste. 









Ammonite 


Ammonius 


followed by bitterness in the mouth. It is 
a stimulant, a deobstruent, an expectorant, 
an antispasmodic, a discutient, and a re¬ 
solvent. Hence, it is internally employed in 
asthma and chronic catarrh, visceral ob¬ 
structions, and obstinate colic, while it is 
used externally in scirrhous tumors and 
white swellings of the joints. The plant 
from which it comes has not yet been thor¬ 
oughly settled. That of Persia has been said 
to come from the dorema amrnoniacum, but 
is more probably derived from the ferula 
orientalis. (Lindley’s “Vegetable King¬ 
dom.”) Garrod believes it to be from the 
first-named of these two plants, which grows 
in Persia and the Punjaub. Both are urn- 
belliferce. 

Ammonite, a large genus of fossil cham¬ 
bered shells, belonging to the class cephalo¬ 
poda, the order tetrabranchiata, and the 
family ammonitidcc. The shell is discoidal, 
the inner whorls more or less concealed, the 
septa undulated, the sutures lobed and foli¬ 
ated, and the siphuncle dorsal. Before geol¬ 
ogy became a science, even scientific men, 
and much more the unscientific, were puz¬ 
zled what to call these fossils. They were 
looked on as real ram’s horns, or as the 
curled tails of some animals, or as petrified 
snakes, or as convoluted marine worms or 
insects, or as vertebrae. The petrified snake 
hypothesis being a popular one, some deal¬ 
ers fraudulently appended heads to make the 



AMMONITES. 


resemblance more complete. It is to am¬ 
monites that Sir Walter Scott refers when 
he says that — 

“ . . .of thousand snakes, each one 
Was changed into a coil of stone 
When holy Hilda prayed.” 

“ Marmion,” ii: 13. 

The ancients venerated them, as the Hin¬ 
dus still do. About 700 so-called species 
have been described, ranging from the trias 
to the chalk. Several attempts have been 
made to divide the genus into sub-genera or 
sections; or, if ammonites be looked upon 
as a sub-family, then they will be elevated 
into genera. 


Ammonites, a Semitic race of people, liv¬ 
ing on the edge of the Syrian Desert; 
according to Gen. xix: 38, the descendants 
of Lot, and closely akin to the Moabites. 
They inhabited the country lying to the 
N. of Moab, between the rivers Arnon and 
Jabbok. Their chief city was Rabbath- 
Ammon. The Israelites were often at war 
with them. Jephthah defeated them with 
great slaughter, and they were also over¬ 
come by Saul, David, Uzziah and Jotham; 
but after the fall of the kingdom of Israel 
(721 b. c.), they spread themselves in the 
districts E. of the Jordan. They some¬ 
times secured the alliance of Syria, of Ne¬ 
buchadnezzar, and of Arabian tribes, in 
their wars with the Jews. After the cap¬ 
tivity, they endeavored to hinder the re¬ 
storation of the Jewish State, but were fi¬ 
nally conquered by Judas Maccabgeus. 

Justin Martvr affirms that in his time the 
* 

Ammonites were still numerous. From the 
name of their princes, it is evident that 
their language was closely akin to Hebrew. 
Their chief deity was Moloch. 

Ammonium, the name given by Berzelius 
to a supposed monatomic radical (NHJ. It 
is doubtful whether the ammonia salts — 
as chloride of ammonium, NH 4 C1 — contain 
this radical, that is, whether N is some¬ 
times a pentatomic element, or the mole¬ 
cule of NH 3 is united with the acid, as HC1, 
by molecular attraction — thus, NH 3 .HC1 — 
in the same manner as water of crystalliza¬ 
tion is united in certain crystalline salts. 
At high temperatures this salt is decom¬ 
posed into NH .3 and HC1. The so-called amal¬ 
gam of mercury and ammonium decomposes 
rapidly into hydrogen ammonia and mer¬ 
cury. It is formed by placing sodium amal¬ 
gam in a saturated solution of NH 3 HC1. 
It forms a light, bulky, metallic mass. A 
dark-blue liquid, said to be (NH 4 ) 2 (am¬ 
monium), has been formed at low tempera¬ 
ture and high pressure. But many of the 
salts of ammonium are isomorphous with 
those of potassium and sodium. The salts 
of ammonium give off NH 3 when heated with 
caustic lime or caustic alkali. With pla- 
tinic chloride they give a yellow precipi¬ 
tate of double platinic ammonium chloride; 
also with tartaric acid a nearly insoluble 
white crystalline precipitate of acid tartrate 
of ammonia. The salts of ammonium leave 
no residue when heated to redness. 

Ammonius, surnamed Saccas, or “ The 
Porter,” a philosopher of the 3d century, was 
born at Alexandria, probably of Christian 
parents, and became the founder of a new 
school of philosophy, which sought to ef¬ 
fect a reconciliation of the Platonic and 
Aristotelian systems. The great critic Lon¬ 
ginus, the mystic Plotinus, and the great 
Church teacher Origen, were his disciples. 
He died about 243, 













Amnesty 


Ampere 


Amnesty, an act of oblivion passed after 
an exciting political period. Its object is 
to encourage those who have compromised 
themselves by rebellion or otherwise to re¬ 
sume their ordinary occupations, and this 
it does by giving them a guarantee that they 
shall never be called upon to answer for 
their past offenses. 

Amoeba, a term applied to a protozoon 
which perpetually changes its form. It is 
classed under the rhizopoda. It is among 
the simplest living beings known, and might 
be described almost as an animated mass of 
perfectly transparent moving matter. Amoe¬ 
bae may be obtained for examination by plac¬ 
ing a small fragment of animal or vegeta¬ 
ble matter in a little water in a wine-glass, 
and leaving it in the light part of a warm 
room for a few days. (Prof. Lionel S. 

Amomum, a genus of plants belonging 
to the order zingiberacece, or ginger-worts. 
They are natives of hot countries. The 
seeds of .4. granum paradisi, A. maximum, 
and on the frontiers of Bengal of A. aromat- 
icum, are the chief of the aromatic seeds 
called cardamoms. A pungent flavor 
is imparted to spirituous liquor by the hot 
acrid seeds of A. angustifolium, macrosper- 
mum, maximum, and clusii. It is also the 
specific name of the sison amomum, the 
hedge-bastard stone-parsley. 

Amor, the god of love among the Romans, 
equivalent to the Greek Eros. He had no 
place in the national religion of the Romans, 
Avho derived all their knowledge of him from 
the Greeks. According to the later mythol¬ 
ogy Amor is the son of Venus and Mars, 
the most beautiful of all the gods; a winged 
boy, with bow and arrows, sometimes repre¬ 
sented blindfolded. His arrows inflict the 
wounds of love, and his power is formidable 
to gods and men. He is not always a play¬ 
ful child in the arms of his mother, but 
appears sometimes in the bloom of youth, 
for example, as the lover of Psyche. He is 
brother of Hymen, the god of marriage, 
whom he troubles much by his thoughtless¬ 
ness. Acording to the earlier mythology 
he is the oldest of all the gods, and existed 
before any created being. In English the 
god of love is less frequently called Amor 
than Cupid; yet with the ancients cupido 
denoted, properly, only the animal desire. 

Amorites, a powerful tribe of Canaan- 
ites, who inhabited the country N. E. of the 
Jordan, as far as Mount Herinon. In the 
13th century b. c. they defeated the Moabites, 
crossed the Jordan, overpowered the Hit- 
tites, and overran Canaan to the sea; but 
their power was broken by the great victory 
of the Hebrews under Joshua, at Gibeon. 
Their two most famous kings were Sihon, 
King of ITeshbon, and Og, King of Bashan, 
the last said to have been of gigantic size. 
The victory of Joshua did not wholly ex¬ 


terminate the Amorites in Canaan. The 
residue of this people became tributary un¬ 
der Solomon. Recent investigations seem 
to prove that they were a race akin to the 
Hittites. 

Amos, one of the so-called minor proph¬ 
ets of the Hebrews, was a herdsman of Te- 
koa, in the neighborhood of Bethlehem, and 
also a dresser of sycamore trees. During 
the reigns of Uzziali in Judah, and Jeroboam 
II. in Israel (about 800 b. c.), he came 
forward to denounce the idolatry then prev¬ 
alent. His prophetical writings contain, 
in the first six chapters, denunciations of 
the Divine displeasure against several 
States, particularly that of Israel, on ac¬ 
count of the worship of idols. The three 
remaining chapters contain his symbolical 
visions of the approaching overthrow of the 
kingdom of Israel, and lastly, a promise of 
restoration. His style, remarkable for its 
clearness and picturesque vigor, abounds 
with images taken from rural and pastoral 
life. 

Amour, or Amoor. See Amur. 

Amoy, a seaport town and one of the 
treaty ports of China; on a small island of 
the same name in the Province of Fukien; 
325 miles E. by N. E. of Canton, and di¬ 
rectly opposite the island of Formosa. It 
has been celebrated as a trading town for 
some centuries. It was one of the earliest 
seats of European commerce in China, the 
Portuguese having had establishments here 
in the 16tli and the Dutch in the 17th 
centuries. In 1841 it was taken by the 
British, and, by the treaty of Nankin, a 
British consul and British subjects were 
permitted to reside here. The imports are 
opium, rice, cotton twist, British long- 
cloths, beans, peas, umbrellas, clocks, etc.; 
the exports are tea, sugar, paper, opium, 
grass cloths, gold leaf, etc. This port is es¬ 
pecially important in its relations to the 
prospective trade of the United States with 
China, and already its trade with the 
United States leads that of all other Chi¬ 
nese ports. During 1896 the United States 
took from this port alone tea amounting in 
value to nearly $4,000,000. While the United 
States is the principal export customer of 
the port its imports thereto make a very 
small showing, owing to the fact that, under 
the local system of handling goods, the great 
bulk of the receipts from the United States 
is classified as English goods. During the 
international military operations in China, 
in 1900, the city was occupied by the Jap¬ 
anese. 

Ampere, the practical unit of electric cur¬ 
rent strength. It is the measure of the cur¬ 
rent produced by an electro-motive force 
of one volt through a resistance of one ohm. 
In electric quantity it is the rate of one 
coulomb per second. 




Ampere 


Amphictyonfc Council 


Ampere, Andre Marie (am-par'),a French 
mathematician and physicist, was horn at 
Lyons in 1775. The guillotining of his 
father in 1793 made a deep and melancholy 
impression on young Ampere, who sought 
for solace in the study of nature and an¬ 
tiquity. In 1805, after he had been engaged 
for four years as a lecturer at Bourg and 
Lyons, he was called to Paris, where he dis¬ 
tinguished himself as an able teacher in the 
Polytechnic School, having already begun 
his career as an author by his “ Considera¬ 
tion of the Mathematical Theory of Gaming” 
(1802). In 1814 he became a member of the 
Academy of Sciences; in 1824, Professor of 
Experimental Physics in the College de 
France. He died at Marseilles, June 10, 
1836. Scientific progress is largely indebted 
to Ampere, especially for his electro-dyna¬ 
mic theory, and his original views of the 
identity of electricity and magnetism, as 
given in his “ Collection of Electro-Dynamic 
Observations” (1822), and his “Theory 
of Electro-Dynamic Phenomena” (1830. 
These researches prepared the way for Fara¬ 
day’s experiments. See his “ Journal and 
Correspondence,” 1793-1805 (7th ed., 
1877); “ Andrd Marie Ampere and Jean 

Jacques Amp&re;” “Correspondence and 
Recollections” (2 vols., 1875); and St. 
Hilaire’s “ Philosophy of the Two Amperes ” 
(1860). 

Ampere, Jean Jacques Antoine, son of 

the preceding, was born at Lyons, Aug. 12, 
1800. After laying the groundwork of his 
comprehensive studies in Paris he proceeded 
to Italy, Germany and Scandinavia. After 
his return he lectured on the history of 
literature at Marseilles; but, after the July 
revolution (1830), succeeded Andrieux as 
professor in the College de France. He 
was elected to the Academy in 1847; and 
died March 27, 1864. Ampere was deeply 
read in German literature; his learning was 
marvellously wide, and his valuable writ¬ 
ings upon China, Persia, India, Egypt, Nu¬ 
bia and his Levantine voyages, proved that 
the far East itself was embraced within the 
circle of his studies. Many of his maga¬ 
zine articles have been collected under the 
title “Literature and Travel” (1833). 
His chief works are “ Literary History of 
France Before the Twelfth Century” (1840); 
“History of French Literature in the Mid¬ 
dle Ages ” (1841) ; “ History of the Forma¬ 
tion of the French Language ” (1841); 

“Greece, Rome and Dante” (1848), and 
“ Science and Literature in the Orient ” 
(1865). Deep research and judicious criti¬ 
cism, expressed in a clear and classical style, 
distinguish his various compositions. 

Amphiaraus (am-fe-ar'a-us) son of Oic- 
leus (according to some, of Apollo) and Hy- 
permnestra; endowed by the gods with pro¬ 
phetical powers. Foreseeing that he should 
perish before Thebes, he hid himself; but 


being betrayed by his wife, Eriphyle, he 
joined Polynices in his expedition against 
this city, and was one of his most valiant 
warriors. The besiegers having been re¬ 
pulsed in one of their attacks, the earth 
opened under him in his flight, and swal¬ 
lowed him, with his horses. On the spot 
where this event is said to have taken place, 
at Oropus, a feast was celebrated in honor 
of him {Amphiarwa ), and, not far from this 
city, a temple was dedicated to him, where 
oracles were delivered. His death was re¬ 
venged by his son, Alcmscon. 

Amphibia, in zoology, animals which can 
live indiscriminately on land or water, or 
which at one part of their existence live in 
water and at another on land. It is used —- 

1. By Linnaeus for the third of his six 
classes of animals. He includes under it 
reptiles in the wide sense of the word, with 
such fishes as are most closely akin to them. 
He divides the classes into three orders, 
reptiles, serpents and nantes. 

2. By Cuvier, in his “ Regne Animal,” for 
his third tribe of carnivorous mammalia, 
the first and second being the plantigrades 
and digitigrades. He included under it the 
seals and their allies. In his “ Tableau Ele- 
mentaire,” the arrangement is different, the 
amphibia being an order ranked with the 
cetacea (whales), under his third grand 
division, mammalia, which have extremities 
adapted for swimming, the first being 
“ Mammalia which have claws or nails,” 
and the second “ those which have hoofs.” 

3. By Macleay, Swainson, Huxley, and 
other modern zoologists, the fourth great 
class of animals corresponding to Cuvier’s 
reptilian order batrachia. It is inter¬ 
mediate between reptilia and pisces. They 
have no amnion. Their visceral arches dur¬ 
ing a longer or shorter period develop fila¬ 
ments exercising a respiratory function, or 
branchiae. The skull articulates with the 
spinal column by two condyles, and the base 
occipital remains unossified. But Huxley 
divides them into four orders, the urodela, 
the batrachia, the gymnophiona, and the 
labyrintliodonta. The frog, the toad, and 
the newt are familiar examples of the om- 
phibia. 

Amphictyonic Council, a celebrated coun¬ 
cil of the States of ancient Greece. An 
amphictvony meant originally an associa¬ 
tion of several tribes for the purpose of 
protecting some temple common to them all, 
and for maintaining worship within it, and 
it was only later that it acquired also a po¬ 
litical importance. Its members were called 
amphictvons (“the dwellers around”) 
Such associations existed at Argos, Delos, 
and elsewhere; but the most important was 
that at Anthela, near Thermopylae, the seat 
of which was transferred later to Delphi 
through Dorian influence. The members 
of this league were 12 in number, and 



I 


Amphion 

were, according to iEschines, the Thes¬ 
salians, Boeotians, Dorians, Ionians, Per- 
rhsebians, Magnetes, Locrians, QEtoeans, 
Phthiots, Malians, and Phocians and the 
Dolopians who are mentioned in other ac¬ 
counts. The members of this confederation 
bound themselves by an oath not to destroy 
any city of the Amphictyons, nor cut off 
their streams in war or peace, and to em¬ 
ploy all their power in punishing those who 
did so, or those who pillaged the property 
of the god, or injured his temple at Delphi. 
So excellent an oath was very indifferently 
kept. In the primitive period of Greek 
history, it had a beneficial and civilizing 
influence; but its more important interfer¬ 
ences in the affairs of Greece were directly 
contrary to the spirit of its institution. 
The first of these was the so-called sacred 
war, waged from 595 to 585 b. c., against 
the Phocian city of Crissa. The second 
sacred war, from 355 to 346 b. c., gave 
occasion to the fatal interference of Philip 
of Macedon in the affairs of Greece; and a 
third sacred war, instigated by Philip, was 
but the prelude to the victory of Chseronea, 
so fatal to Greek liberty. 

Amphion (am-fTon), in mythology, the 
son of Jupiter and Antiope; the eldest of 
the Grecian musicians. In Lvdia, where he 
married Niobe, the daughter of King Tan¬ 
talus, he learned music, and brought it 
thence into Greece. He reigned in Thebes, 
which was before called Cadmea. Amphion 



AMPHION AND ZETHUS. 


joined the lower and upper city by walls, 
built the seven gates, and gave it the name 
of Thebes. To express the power of his 
music, and, perhaps, of his eloquence, the 
poets said, that, at the sound of his lyre, 
the stones voluntarily formed themselves 
into walls; that wild beasts, and even trees, 


Amphitheater 

rocks, and streams, followed the musician. 
With the aid of his brother, Zethus, he is 
said to have revenged Antiope, who was 
driven into banishment by his father, and 
to have bound Dirce to the tail of a wild 
bull; which incident is supposed to be rep¬ 
resented by the famous piece of sculpture, 
the Farnese bull. 

Amphioxus, a genus of fishes of an or¬ 
ganization so humble, that the first speci¬ 
men discovered was believed by Pallas to be 
a slug, and was described by him as the 
Umax lanceolatus. It is now called am¬ 
phioxus lanceolatus. 

Amphipod, in the singular, in zoology, 
an animal belonging to the crustaceous or¬ 
der amphipoda. In the plural, an order of 
crustaceans, consisting of species provided 
with feet both for walking and swimming. 
They live in the water, or burrow in the 
sand, or are parasitic upon fish. When 
they swim they lie on their side. Some, 
when on shore, leap with agility. The or¬ 
der consists of two families, the liyperidce 
and the gammaridce. 

Amphipolis, an important city of Thrace 
or Macedonia; at the mouth of the Strymon 
river; 33 miles from the Aegean. It was 
founded by an Athenian colony about 430 



b. c.; was captured by Sparta in 424 B. c.; 
and near it the Spartans defeated the 
Athenians in 422 b. c. Subsequently it be¬ 
came a Macedonian possession; was called 
Popolia in the Middle Ages; and its site is 
now occupied by the Turkish town of 
Yenikeui. 

Amphitheater, a double theater. The 
ancient theaters were nearly semi-circular 
in shape; or, more accurately, they were 



AMPHITHEATER, SECTIONAL VIEW. 


half ovals, so that an amphitheater, theo¬ 
retically consisting of two theaters, placed 
with their concavities meeting each other, 

























































Amphitrite 


Amputation 


was, loosely speaking, a nearly circular, or, 
more precisely, an oval building. Amphi¬ 
theaters were lirst constructed of wood, but 
in the time of Augustus stone began to be 
employed. The place where the exhibitions 
took place was called the arena (Lat. = sand), 
because it was covered with sand or sawdust. 
The part next the arena was called podium, 
and was assigned to the emperor, the sena¬ 
tors, and the ambassadors of foreign na¬ 
tions. It was separated from the arena by 
an iron railing and by a canal. Behind it 
rose tiers of seats, the first 14, which were 
cushioned, being occupied by the equities, 
and the rest, which were of bare stone, be¬ 
ing given over to the common people. Ex¬ 
cept when it rained, or was exceedingly hot, 
the amphitheater was uncovered. Among 
the sights were combats of wild beasts and 
gladiator fights. The Romans built amphi¬ 
theaters wherever they went. Remains of 
them are still to be found in various parts 
of Europe; but the most splendid ruins ex¬ 
isting are those of the Coliseum at Rome, 
which was said to have held 87,000 people. 

Amphitrite (am-fe-trl'te), a daughter of 
Oceanus and Tethys, or of Nereus and Doris. 
Neptune wished to make her his wife, and, 
as she hid herself from him, he sent a 
dolphin to find her, which brought her to 
him, and received as a reward a place 
among the stars. As a goddess and queen 
of the sea, she is represented as drawn in 
a chariot of shells by Tritons, or riding on 
a dolphin, with the trident of Neptune in 
her hand. 

Amphitrite, The, a twin-screw, iron, 
double-turreted monitor of the United 
States navy; 3,000 tons displacement; 
length, 259 feet 6 inches; breadth, 55 feet 
10 inches; mean draft, 14 feet 6 inches; 
horse power, 1,000; armor, 9 inches on 
sides, 7.5 inches on turrets, and 11.5 inches 
on barbettes; main battery, four 10-inch 
breech-loading rifles and two 4-inch rapid- 
fire guns; secondary battery, two 6-pounder 
and two 3-pounder rapid-fire guns, two 37- 
and two 1-pounder rapid-fire cannons; 
speed, 12 knots; crew, 26 officers and 145 
men; cost, $3,178,046. 

Amphitryon (am-fit're-on), King of 
Thebes, son of Alcseus, and husband of Alc- 
mena. Plautus, after him Moliere, and, 
still later, Falk and Kleist, have made the 
trick played upon him by Jupiter the sub¬ 
ject of amusing comedies, in which the re¬ 
turn of the true Amphitryon, and his meet¬ 
ing with the false one, occasion several 
humorous scenes at the palace and in the 
city. The French give this name to a 
courteous host. 

Amphora, a two-handled vessel, generally 
made of clay, and used for holding wine, 
oil, honey, or even the skeletons or ashes 
of the dead. 


It is also a liquid measure, containing 
48 sectari, or nearly six gallons. The 
Greek amphoreus held nearly nine. The 
capacity of the Saxon ambra is unknown. 



AMPIIOR.E. 


Ampulla, a vessel bellying out like a 
jug, used by the ancient Romans, either for 
containing unctions for the bath, or for 
drinking at table. It is also one of the 
sacred vessels used at the altar. Such vials 
were employed for holding the oil for chris¬ 
mation, as also that for consecration, cor¬ 
onation, inclosing the relics of saints, and 
similar purposes. 

In biology, any membranous bag shaped 
like a leathern bottle; in anatomy, a dilata¬ 
tion occurring in each of the semi-circular 
canals of the ear; and in botany, one of the 
little flasks composed of metamorphosed 
leaves found on certain water plants, such 
as utricularia; called also ascidium; also 
a spongiole of a root. 

Amputation, the cutting off of a part 
which, by its injured or diseased condition, 
endangers, or may endanger, the safety of 
the whole body. The amputation of a limb 
was in ancient times attended with great 
danger of the patient's dying during its 
performance, as surgeons had no efficient 
means of restraining the bleeding. They 
rarely ventured to remove a large portion 
of a limb, and when they did so, they cut 
in the gangrened parts, where they knew 
the vessels would not bleed; the smaller 
limbs they chopped off with a mallet and 
chisel; and in both cases had hot irons at 
hand with which to sear the raw surfaces, 
boiling oil in which to dip the stump, and 
various resins, mosses, and fungi, supposed 
to possess the power of arresting hemor¬ 
rhage. Some tightly bandaged the limbs 
they wished to remove, so that they morti¬ 
fied and dropped off; and others amputated 
with red-hot knives, or knives made of 
wood or horn dipped in vitriol. The de¬ 
sired power of controlling the hemorrhage 
was obtained bv the invention of the tourni¬ 
quet in 1674, by a French surgeon, Morel, 
and its improvement early in the next cen¬ 
tury by his countryman Petit. The ancient 
surgeons endeavored to save a covering of 
skin for the stump, by having the skin 


































Amritsar 


Amsterdam 


drawn upward by an assistant, previously 
using the knife. In 1G79 Lowdham of Exe¬ 
ter suggested cutting semicircular flaps 
on one or both sides of a limb, so as to pre¬ 
serve a fleshy cushion to cover the end of 
the bone. Both these methods are now in 
use, and are known as the “ circular ” and 
the “ flap ” operations; the latter is most 
frequently used in this country. 

A “flap” amputation is performed thus: 
The patient being placed in the most con¬ 
venient position, an assistant compresses 
the main arterv of the limb with his thumb, 
or a tourniquet is adjusted over it. An¬ 
other assistant supports the limb. The 
surgeon with one hand lifts the tissues from 
the bone, and transfixing them with a long, 
narrow knife, cuts rapidly downward and 
toward the surface of the skin, forming a 
flap; he then repeats this on the other side 
of the limb. An assistant now draws up 
these flaps, and the knife is carried round 
the bone, dividing any flesh still adhering 
to it. The surgeon now saws the bone. 
An expert surgeon can remove a limb thus 
in from 30 to GO seconds. He then, with a 
small forceps, seizes the end of the main 
artery, and while he draws it slightly from 
the tissues, an assistant ties it with a 
thread. All the vessels being secured, the 
flaps are stitched together with a needle 
and thread, and the wound is dressed. 

The question when amputation of a limb 
is necessary, is often, especially after an 
accident, one of the most difficult in sur¬ 
gery. The chief indications for it in these 
cases are — very extensive destruction or 
laceration of the skin; injury to the large 
vessels or nerves; severe splintering of the 
hones. The diseases most commonly re¬ 
quiring it are — disease of bones or joints, 
especially when the discharge from it 
threatens to exhaust the patient; tumors, 
especially cancer and sarcoma, which can¬ 
not otherwise be removed; and gangrene. 

Amritsar or Umritsir, a well built city 
of the Punjab, 32 miles E. of Lahore 
by rail. It is the religious metropolis of 
the Sikhs, a distinction which, along with 
its name (literally, “ pool of immortal¬ 
ity”), it owes to its sacred tank, in the 
midst of which stands the marble temple 
of the Sikh faith. Founded in 1574, but all 
of it more recent than 17G2, it is, next to 
Delhi, the richest and most prosperous city 
in Northern India, with manufactures of 
cashmere shawls, cotton, silks, etc. Pop. 
(1891) 136,7G6. 

Amruebnalas (am'ro-ibn-al'as), or Um* 
rubenelas, a famous Saracen general, at 
first a great enemy of Mohammed, but after¬ 
ward his zealous disciple. He conquered 
Syria and Egypt. He died A. n. 663. 

Amsterdam (“dam” or “dike of the 
Amstel”), the capital of the Netherlands, 


is situated at the influx of the Amstel to 
the Ij or Y (pronounced eye), an arm (now 
mostly drained) of the Zuyder Zee, 44% 
miles N. N. E. of Rotterdam by rail. It is 
divided by the Amstel and numerous canals 
into a hundred small islands, connected by 
more than 300 bridges. Almost the whole 
city, which extends in the shape of a cres¬ 
cent, is founded on piles driven 40 or 50 
feet through soft peat and sand to a firm 
substratum of clay. At the beginning of 
the 13th century it was merely a fishing 
village, with a small castle, the residence 
of the Lords of Amstel. In 1296, on ac¬ 
count of its share in the murder of Count 
Floris of Holland, the rising town was de¬ 
molished; but in 1311, with Amstelland 
(the district on the banks of the Amstel), 
it was taken under the protection of the 
Counts of Holland, and from them received 
several privileges which contributed to its 
subsequent prosperity. In 1482 it was 
walled and fortified. After the revolt of the 
seven provinces (1566), it speedily rose to 
be their first commercial city, a great 
asylum for the Flemish Protestants; and 
in 1585 it was considerably enlarged by the 
building of the new town on the W. The 
establishment of the Dutch East India Com¬ 
pany (1602) did much to forward the well¬ 
being of Amsterdam, which, twenty years 
later, had 100.000 inhabitants. In the mid¬ 
dle of that century, the war with England 
so far reduced the commerce of the port 
that, in 1653, 4,000 houses stood unin¬ 
habited. Amsterdam had to surrender to 
the Prussians in 1787, to the French in 
1795; and the union of Holland with France 
in 1810 entirely destroyed its foreign trade, 
while the excise and other new regulations 
impoverished its inland resources. The old 
firms, however, lived through the time of 
difficulty, and in 1815 commerce again be¬ 
gan to expand — an expansion greatly pro¬ 
moted by the opening in 1876 of a new and 
more direct waterway between the North 
Sea and the city. 

The city has a fine appearance when seen 
from the harbor, or from the high bridge 
over the Amstel. Church towers and spires, 
and a perfect forest of masts, relieve the 
flatness of the prospect. The old ramparts 
have been leveled, planted with trees, and 
formed into promenades. Between 1866 
and 1876 many spacious streets and an 
extensive public park were added to the 
city. Tramways have been successfully in¬ 
troduced, and the harbor greatly improved. 
There is railway communication with all 
parts of the country and of Europe. Rich 
grassy meadows surround the city. On the 
W. side are a great number of windmills 
for grinding corn and sawing wood. The; 
three chief canals — the Heerengraclit, Kei- 
zersgracht, and Prinsengracht — run in 
semi circles within each other, and are from 



Amsterdam 


Amur 


two to three miles long. On each side of 
them, with a row of trees and a carriage¬ 
way intervening, are handsome residences. 
The building material is brick; and the 
houses have their gables toward the streets, 
which gives them a picturesque appearance. 
The defenses of Amsterdam now consist in 
a row of detached forts, and in the sluices, 
several miles distant from the city, which 
can flood, in a few hours, the surrounding 
land. A hard frost, however, like that of 
1794-1795, when Pichegru invaded the 
country, would render this means of de- 
fense useless. 

The population, which from 217,024 in 
1794, sank to 180,179 in 1815, rose steadily 
to 557,614 in 1906, of whom the majority 
belong to the Dutch Reformed Church. Of 
the remainder, about 80,000 were Catholics, 
30,000 German Jews, and 3,200 Portuguese 
Jews. The chief industrial establishments 
are sugar refineries, engineering works, 
mills for polishing diamonds and other 
precious stones, dockyards, manufactories 
of sails, ropes, tobacco, silks, gold and sil¬ 
ver plate and jewelry, colors, and chemicals, 
breweries, distilleries, with export houses 
for corn and colonial produce; cotton-spin¬ 
ning, book-printing, and type-founding are 
also carried on. The present Bank of the 
Netherlands dates from 1824, Amsterdam’s 
famous bank of 1609 having been dissolved 
in 1796. 

The former Stadhuis (“ townhouse ”), 
converted in 1808 into a palace for King 
Louis Bonaparte, and still retained by the 
reigning family, is a noble structure. Built 
by Van Kampen in 1648-1655, and raised 
upon 13,659 piles, it extends 282 feet in 
length, by 235 feet in breadth, and is sur¬ 
mounted by a round tower rising 182 feet 
from the base. It has a hall, 120 feet long, 
57 wide, and 90 high, lined with white 
Italian marble — an apartment of great 
splendor. The cruciform Kieuwe Kerk 
(New Church), a Gothic edifice of 1408- 
1414, is the finest ecclesiastical structure in 
the city, with a splendidly carved pulpit, 
and the tombs of Admiral de Ruyter, the 
great Dutch poet Vondel, and various other 
worthies. The Old Church (Dude Kerk), 
built in the 14th century, is'rich in painted 
glass, has a grand organ, and contains sev¬ 
eral monuments of naval heroes. Literature 
and science are represented by a university 
supported by the municipality (till 1876 
known as the Athenceum illustre ), by acad¬ 
emies of arts and sciences, bv museums and 
picture galleries, a palace of national in¬ 
dustry, a botanical garden, several theaters, 
etc. The new Ryksmuseum contains a truly 
national collection of paintings, its choicest 
treasure being Rembrandt’s “ Night-guard.” 
Remrrandt (q. v.), made Amsterdam his 
home; and his statue (1852) now fronts the 
house he occupied. Spinoza was a native. ' 


Ihe hospital for aged people, the poorhouse, 
house of correction, the orphan asylums, a 
navigation school, and many benevolent so¬ 
cieties, are well supported, and managed 
on good principles. A water supply was 
introduced in 1853. The North Holland 
canal, to which Amsterdam is so largely 
indebted for the rapid increase of its com¬ 
merce, is noticed under Zuyder Zee. 

Amsterdam, a city in Montgomery co., 
N. \.; on the Mohawk river and the New 
^ ork Central and Hudson River and the 
West Shore railroads; 33 miles N. W. of 
Albany. It is in an agricultural region, 
but is noted for its manufactures, espe¬ 
cially of knit goods, carpets, steel springs, 
and paper. Pop. (1910) 31,267. 

Amulet, anything hung around the neck, 
placed like a bracelet on the wrist, or other¬ 
wise attached to the person, as an imagined 
preservative against sickness, witchcraft, 
or other evils. Amulets were common in 
the ancient world, and thev are so vet in 
nations where ignorance prevails. Thus 
an observant visitor to a school in India 
may see many a pupil with a piece of ordi¬ 
nary string tied bracelet-fashion round one 
or both of his wrists. This is an amulet, 
or talisman, which having been blessed by 
a Brahman, has then been sold for half a 
rupee (about 24 cents), or even for a rupee 
itself, as a sure preservative against fever. 

Amur (am-or'), a river formed by the 
junction (about 53° N. lat., and 121° 
E. long.) of the Shilka and the Argun, 
which both come from the S. W.— the 
former rising in the foothills of the Yab- 
lonoi Mountains. From the junction, the 
river flows first S. E. and then N. E., and, 
after a total course of 3,060 miles, falls into 
the Sea of Okhotsk, opposite the island of 
Sakhalin. Its main tributaries are the Sun¬ 
gari and the Ussuri, both from the S. 
Above the Ussuri, the Amur is the boundary 
between Siberia and Manchuria; helow it, 
the river runs through Russian territory. 
It is very valuable for navigation, and car¬ 
ries a considerable fleet of steamers, but on 
account of the bar at its mouth, goods are 
generally disembarked, and carried overland 
to Alexandrovsk. The river is frozen for 
six months of the year; in summer there are 
extensive inundations. 

From as early as 1636, Russian adven¬ 
turers made excursions into the Chinese ter¬ 
ritories of the lower Amur. In 1666 they 
built a fort at Albazin, and succeeded in 
navigating from that fort to the mouth of 
the river. In 1685, the fort was taken and 
destroyed by the Chinese, but was retaken 
promptly by the Russians, who again, in 
1689, abandoned it and the whole of the 
Amur to the Chinese. But soon fur hunters 
of Siberia, Russian traders, and adven¬ 
turers, encouraged by government, continued 
to pursue their vocations on Chinese ground. 




A mu rath 

In 1854-185G two military expeditions were 
conducted by Count Muravieff, who twice 
descended the river, unopposed by the Chi¬ 
nese, and established the stations of Alexan- 
drovsk and Nikolaevsk. In 1858 China 
agreed to the Treaty of Tientsin, by which 
the boundaries of Russia and China were 
defined. The left bank of the Amur, and all 
the territory N. of it, became Russian; and 
below the confluence of the Ussuri, both 
banks. In 1860, after the occupation of 
Pekin by the British and French, General 
Ignatieff secured the signature of Prince 
Rung to a treaty, by which Russia acquired 
the broad and wide territory comprised be¬ 
tween the river Amur and the mouth of the 
Tumen, extending 10° of latitude nearer the 
temperate regions, and running from the 
shore of the North Pacific eastward to the 
banks of the river Ussuri, a principal afflu¬ 
ent of the Amur. In September, 1900, Rus¬ 
sia took formal possession of the right 
bank of the river. An enormous advantage 
to Russia of this acquisition of territory 
was the fact, that it conferred on that coun¬ 
try the advantage of harbors on the Pacific 
in a comparatively temperate latitude, 
where navigation is impeded by ice for not 
more than three or four months a year. 

This vast territory falls into two Russian 
provinces — the Maritime Province between 
the Ussuri and the sea, and the government 
of Amur, N. of the river. The latter has 
an area of 175,000 square miles. The coun¬ 
try is richly timbered, and is admirably 
adapted for pasturage and agriculture, 
though the climate is severe. On the middle 
course of the river the summer heat is ex¬ 
cessive, and the cold in the long winter very 
keen. Fur bearing animals are still plenti¬ 
ful, and the river abounds in fish. The cap¬ 
ital is, since 1882, Khabarovka, and not, as 
formerly, Blagovestschensk. Nikolaevsk, 
once the only important place in these re¬ 
gions, is on the Amur, 26 miles from its 
mouth, where the river is 144 miles wide, 
and in places 15 feet deep; but the political 
center tends southward to the more tempe¬ 
rate maritime province (area, 730,000 
square miles), near the southern end of 
which is situated the important harbor of 
Vladivostok (“Rule of the East”), or Port 
May, which, in 1872, was placed in tele- 
grapic communication with Europe by the 
China submarine cable, and is now the cap¬ 
ital of the Amur provinces. The island of 
Sakhalin (Saghalien), N. of the Japan 
group, along a portion of the coast of Asi¬ 
atic Russia, and formerly possessed partly 
by Russia and partly by Japan, is also a 
part of the Amur region in the wider sense. 

Amurath I. (am-6-rat'), a sultan of the 
Turks; succeeded his father Orchan in 1360. 
He founded the corps of Janissaries, con¬ 
quered Phrygia, and, on the plains of Cas- 
sova. defeated the Christians. In this battle 


Amygdalfn 

he was wounded, and died the next day, 
1389. 

Amurath II., one of the more illustrious 
of the Ottoman emperors, succeeded his 
father, Mohammed I., in 1421, at the age 
of 17. In 1423 he took Thessalonica from 
the Venetians; in 1435, subdued the despot 
of Servia, besieged Belgrade, which was suc¬ 
cessfully defended by John Hunniades; de¬ 
feated the Hungarians at Varna, in 1444, 
and slew their king, Ladislaus. He died in 
1451. 

Amurath III., succeeded his father, Selim 
II., in 1574. His first act was the murder 
of his five brothers. He added several of 
the best provinces of Persia to the Turkish 
empire. He was noted for his avarice, and 
his sensual excesses made him prematurely 
old. He died in 1595. 

Amurath IV., succeeded his uncle, Mus- 
tapha X., 1623. After two unsuccessful at¬ 
tempts he took Bagdad from the Persians 
in 1638, and ordered the massacre of 30,000 
prisoners who had surrendered at discretion. 
The excessive cruelty and debauchery of 
Amurath IV. have earned for him the char¬ 
acter of being one of the worst sovereigns 
that ever reigned over the Ottomans. He 
died in 1640. 

Amyclas (am-ik'le). (1) An ancient town 
of Laconia, on the eastern bank of the Euro- 
tas, 2 Yu miles S. E. of Sparta. It was the 
home of Castor and Pollux, the “ Amyclsean 
brothers.” It was conquered by the Spar¬ 
tans only before the first Messenian War. 
(2) An ancient town of Latium, which 
claimed to have been built by a colony from 
the Greek Amycl*. 

Amygdalus (am-ig'dal-us), a genus of 

plants belonging to the order drupacece, or 
almond-worts. It contains, among other 
species, the common peach, amygdalus per- 
sica, with the nectarine (variety nectarina), 
the almond, amygdalus communis, with the 
variety amara, or bitter almond. They are 
valued both for their flowers and their fruit. 
The flowers of the common peach are gently 
laxative. They are, therefore, suitable to 
be employed in the ailments of children. 

Amygdalin (C 20 H 27 NO n 3H 2 O), a crystal¬ 
line principle existing in the kernel of bitter 
almonds, the leaves of the prunus lauro- 
cerasus, and various other plants, which, by 
distillation, yield hydrocyanic acid. It is 
obtained, by extraction with boiling alcohol, 
from the paste or cake of bitter almonds, 
which remains after the fixed oil has been 
separated by pressure. When obtained pure, 
it has a sweetish, somewhat bitter taste, and 
is not poisonous, and, when treated with al¬ 
kaline solvents, ammonia is expelled, and 
amygdalic acid, C 20 H 2 ,.O 12 , is produced. Its 
most remarkable change is, however, that 
which may be thus briefly stated: When 
the bruised almond kernel, or almond paste, 




Amygdaloid 


Amyntor 


is brought in contact with water, the pecu¬ 
liar odor of bitter almonds is almost imme¬ 
diately evolved; and in 24 hours all traces 
of amygdalin will have disappeared, its 
place being taken by essential oil of al¬ 
monds, hydrocyanic acid, sugar, and formic 
acid. This transformation is due to the 
presence of a peculiar nitrogenous matter 
called emulsin, or synaptase, which sets up 
a kind of fermentation. 

Amygdaloid, an igneous crystalline, or, 
as the case may be, vitreous rock (lava), 
containing numerous cells, which owe their 
origin to the segregation and expansion of 
steam, with which all lavas are more or less 
charged at the time of their eruption. The 
cells vary in size from mere pores up to 
cavities several inches, or even feet, in di¬ 
ameter— these last, however, being excep¬ 
tional, and, when they do occur, quite spo¬ 
radic. The cells are generally flattened or 
drawn out in the direction of flow of the 
lava, and are frequently filled with mineral 
matter (amygdules), subsequently intro¬ 
duced by infiltrating water. This is the 
origin of many of the agates and so-called 
“ Scotch pebbles ” of jewelers. As cells and 
cellular structure occur in many different 
kinds of igneous rock, the term amygdaloid 
no longer denotes a rock species, and has, 
therefore, fallen into disuse. It is now only 
employed in the adjectival form, amygdaloi- 
dal, as indicating a cellular or slaggy-like 
structure, in which the pores and cells are 
more or less filled up with mineral matter. 

Amyl (C 5 H u ), the fifth in the series of 
alcohol radicals whose general formula is 
C n H 2 n+i> and of which methyl and ethyl 
are the first two members. It is ob¬ 
tained by heating amyl-iodide with an 
amalgam of zinc in a closed tube at a 
temperature of about 350° F. (177° C.), 
and is one of the natural products of the 
distillation of coal. As thus obtained, it 
represents two molecules of the radical 
united together, and usually goes by the 
name diamyl (C 5 H n ) 2 . The single molecule, 
C 5 H n , has not been produced. Diamyl is a 
colorless liquid, with a specific gravity of 
.770 at 52° F. (11° C.), and a boiling 
point of about 316° F. (158° C.). It has 
an agreeable smell and burning taste. 
It enters into a large number of chemi¬ 
cal compounds, most of which — as, for 
instance, bromide, chloride, iodide, etc.— 
are derived from amylic alcohol, which 
bears precisely the same relation to amyl 
that ordinary alcohol bears to ethyl, 
C 2 H 5 . Amylic alcohol is sufficiently de¬ 
scribed in the article fusel oil, which is 
the name given to the crude alcohol. It 
seems invariably to accompany ordinary al¬ 
cohol when the latter is prepared by fermen¬ 
tation, and apparently occurs in largest 

17 


quantity in those liquids which remain most 
alkaline during fermentation. 

Amyl, Nitrite of (C 5 H n N0 2 ), a valu¬ 
able drug which must not be confounded 
with nitrate of amyl, may be prepared by 
the action of nitric acid on fusel oil (amylic 
alcohol). It is a pale yellowish liquid, with 
an ethereal fruity odor, the vapor of which, 
when inhaled, even in very small quantity, 
causes violent flushing of the face and a 
feeling as if the head would burst. It is a 
very powerful remedy in all convulsive dis¬ 
eases, and is of special value in angina pec¬ 
toris, as well as in asthma. Owing to its 
volatile nature it is usually kept in small 
glass globes containing from two to five 
drops, one of which, when crushed in the 
handkerchief, and the vapor breathed, will 
often give immediate relief. 

Amyloid, a term used both in chemistry 
and botany, and generally equivalent to 
“ starchy.” Amyloids are substances like 
starch, dextrine, sugar, gum, etc., which con¬ 
sist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the 
latter two being always in the proportion 
in which they occur in water, ILO. The an¬ 
imal body, chemically considered, is a mix¬ 
ture of proteids, amyloids or carbohydrates, 
and fats, plus water and mineral constitu¬ 
ents, and the normal food always contains 
these constituents. Of the three items, 
proteids are, however, absolutely essen¬ 
tial, amyloids and fats only desirable, 
accessories. In the human body the most 
important carbohydrates are glycogen, 
C o II 10 O 5 ; grape-sugar or dextrose, C o H 12 0 0 ; 
maltose, C 12 H 23 0„; and milk-sugar, C 12 H 22 O u . 
A compound radical called amyl is formed 
by the decomposition of starch in a peculiar 
fermentation — the amylic fermentation — 
but to it the term amylaceous has no refer¬ 
ence. 

Amyntas (am-in'tas), the name of vari¬ 
ous characters in ancient Greek or Mace¬ 
donian history, especially kings of Macedo¬ 
nia. (1) A son of Alcetas, reigned about 
540 to 500 b. c., and he was succeeded by 
his son, Alexander I. (2) King of Mace¬ 
donia, son of Philip, and brother of Per- 
diccas II.; reigned 393 to 309 b. c., having 
gained the crown by the murder of Pausa- 
nias. He was engaged in war with the 
Olynthians and assisted by the Spartans. 
He was father of Alexander, Perdiccas, and 
the famous Philip. (3) Philip excluded the 
grandson of Amyntas II. from his succession 
and he was put to death in the first year of 
the reign of Alexander the Great, because 
of a plot against the life of Alexander. The 
4th was a Macedonian officer in Alexander’s 
army. 

Amyntor, Gerhard von (a-min'tor), 

pseudonym of Dagobert von Gerhardt, a 
German novelist and poet, born at Liegnitz, 
Silesia, July 12, 1831. He entered the army 




Amyot 


Anabasis 


in 1849, took part in the campaigns of 1864 
and 1870-1871 as a major, was severely 
wounded in the former and resigned in 
1872 ; settled in Potsdam in 1874. His prin¬ 
cipal works are “Peter Quidam’s Rhine- 
Journey” (1877), an epic; “Songs of a 
German Night Watchman” (1878); “The 
New Romancero ” (1880), poems; “The 

Priest” (1881), an epic; novels, “It Is 
You” (1882); “A Problem” (1884); 
“Praise of Woman” (1885); and “ Gerke 
Suteminne ” (1887), a historical romance. 

Amyot, Jacques (a-me-o'), a French au¬ 
thor (1513-1593), famous for his transla¬ 
tions from the Greek, which, owing to their 
elegant style, are considered classical litera¬ 
ture. They are the “ Theagencs and Chari- 
clea ” of Heliodorus; “ Seven Books of Di¬ 
odorus Siculus,” the “ Daphnis and Chloe ” 
of Longus; and “ Plutarch’s Lives,” which 
was used by Corneille as a source for his 
antique tragedies, and by Shakespeare (in 
its English version by Sir Thomas North) 
for some of his plays. 

Amyridaceae (am-er-e-das'e-i), an order 
of exogenous plants placed by Lindley under 
his rutales, or rutal alliance. The amyri- 
dacece have a panicled inflorescence, hypo- 
gynous stamina, double the petals in num¬ 
ber, a one-celled ovary, with two to six 
pendulous ovules; the fruit sub-drupaceous, 
samaroid, or leguminous, with from one to 
two seeds, the leaves compound with pellu¬ 
cid dots, and abounding in resin. They oc¬ 
cur in the tropics of India and America, in 
the latter region extending as far N. as 
Florida. In 1846, Lindley estimated the 
known species at 45. 

Ana, a termination added to proper 
names to designate collections of sayings, 
table talk, anecdotes, items of gossip, as 
Johnsoniana, Boswelliana; as well as notes 
about some person, or publications bearing 
upon him, as Shakespeariana, Burnsiana. 
Such titles were first used in France, where 
they became common after the publication 
of Scaligerana by the brothers Dupuy 
(1666). In English literature there are 
many works of this kind, from Baconiana 
(1679) to Dickensiana (1886). America, 
also, has its Washingtoniana (1800). A 
tolerably complete catalogue of such works 
up to its own date may be found in Namur’s 
“ Bibliographic des Ouvrages publies sous le 
Nom d’Ana ” (Brussels, 1839). 

Anabaptists, members of a well-known 
sect, which largely figured in the ecclesias¬ 
tical and civil history of the 16th century. 
It began to attract notice within four years 
of the ever-memorable 31st of October, 1517, 
on which Luther affixed his “ theses ” to the 
gate of the castle church of Wittenberg. 
The most eminent of its early leaders were 
Thomas Munzer, Mark Stubner, and Nich¬ 
olas Storck. They had been disciples of 


Luther; but, becoming dissatisfied with the 
moderate character of his reformation, they 
cast off his authority, and attempted more 
sweeping changes than he was prepared to 
sanction. During his absence, they, in 1521, 
began to preach their doctrines at Witten¬ 
berg. Laying claim to supernatural powers, 
they saw visions, uttered prophecies, and 
made an immense number of proselytes. 
The ferment which the exciting religious 
events taking place in Central Europe had 
produced in men’s minds, had made them 
impatient of social or political as well as of 
spiritual despotism; and, in 1525, the peas¬ 
ants of Suabia, Thuringia, and Franconia, 
who had been much oppressed by their feu¬ 
dal superiors, rose in arms, and commenced 
a sanguinary struggle, partly, no doubt, for 
religious reformation, but chiefly for politi¬ 
cal emancipation. The Anabaptists cast in 
their lot with the insurgent peasantry, and 
became their leaders in battle. After a 
time the allied princes of the empire, led 
by Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, put down 
the rebellion, and Munzer was defeated, cap¬ 
tured, put to the torture, and ultimately 
beheaded. In 1532, some extreme Anabap¬ 
tists from Holland, led by a baker called 
John Matthias, and a tailor, John Boccoldt, 
called also, from the place whence he came, 
John of Leyden, seized on the city of Mun¬ 
ster, in Westphalia, with the view of setting 
up in it a spiritual kingdom, in which, at 
least nominally, Christ might reign. The 
name of Munster was changed to that of 
Mount Zion, and Matthias became its actual 
king. Having soon after lost his life in a 
mad,, warlike exploit, the sovereignty de¬ 
volved on Boccoldt, who, among other fana¬ 
tical freaks, once promenaded the streets of 
his capital in a state of absolute nudity. 
On June 24, 1535, the Bishop of Munster 
retook the city by force of arms, and Eoc- 
coldt was put to death in the most cruel 
manner that could be devised. The excesses 
of the Anabaptists were eagerly laid hold 
of by the Popish party to discredit the 
Reformation. It was in 1534, when Boc¬ 
coldt was in the height of his glory in Mun¬ 
ster, that Ignatius Loyola took the first step 
toward founding the Order of the Jesuits, 
and the extension and rapid success of that 
celebrated fraternity are to be attributed in 
a very large measure to the reaction against 
Protestantism produced by the share which 
the Anabaptists took in the peasants’ war, 
and the character of the spiritual sover¬ 
eignty which they set up while Munster was 
in their hands. 

Anabasis (an-ab'a-sis), the name given 
by Zenophon to his celebrated work describ¬ 
ing the expedition of Cyrus the younger 
against his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, 
King of Persia. Arrian also calls the expe¬ 
dition of Alexander the Great to Asia an 
anabasis. It is also applied to any similar 



Anaesthesia 


Anableps 


expedition, as that of Napoleon I. to Mos¬ 
cow. 

Anableps, a genus of abdominal fishes, of 
the order malacopterygii abdominales, be¬ 
longing to the family cyprinidce (carps). 
Their eyes greatly project, and, moreover, 
seem, but only seem, as if divided into two; 
hence, the species is called anableps tetroph- 
thalmus. It is found in the rivers of 
Guiana. 

Anaconda, a large serpent of the boa 
family, common in inter-tropical America. 
The head is comparatively small, conical, 
very flat below, and truncated in front. 
The color is grayish-brown or olive above, 
with two rows of large black spots running 
down the back and tail; the sides are 
adorned with black rings on a yellow 
ground; the under surface is ochre-yellow 
with black spots. The anaconda is the 
largest of living snakes, sometimes reach¬ 
ing a length of over 30 feet. Brazil and 
Guiana form its chief habitat. It always 
lives in or in the neighborhood of water; 
lies in wait for its prey in the water, or 
stretched on the sand; seldom attacks man; 
and during the dry season buries itself and 
becomes torpid. 

Anacreon (a-nak're-on), a renowned lyric 
poet of Greece, born at Teos in Ionia, 562 

(?) b. c. He enjoyed 

^-^ the patronage of 

n. Polycrates, autocrat 
\ of Samos; and, while 
\ at his court, com- 
\ P ose d most of the 
| odes in praise of wine 
I and women which 
I won for him pre-em- 
\ I inence among singers. 

/ A few of his authen- 
V' / / tic compositions have 

/ y come down to us; un- 
‘"p der his name as many 

-' as 68 extant poems 

ANACREON. circulate, but the au¬ 

thorship of many of 
these is extremely doubtful. He died 477 
B. C. 

Anadyomene (an-a-di-om'en-e), a name 
given to Aphrodite (Venus) when she was 
represented as rising from the sea, as in 
the celebrated painting by Apelles, painted 
for the temple of Aesculapius at Cos, and 
afterward in the temple of Julius Caesar at 
Rome. 

Anadyr (an-a'der), the most easterly of 
the larger rivers of Siberia and of all Asia; 
rises in the Stanovoi Mountains, and falls 
into the Gulf of Anadyr; length, 600 miles. 

Anaemia, bloodlessness; a morbid state 
of the system produced by loss of blood, by 
deprivation of light and air in coal mines, 
or causes more obscure. Tbe patient is 
characterized by great paleness, and blood¬ 


vessels, easily traceable at other times, be¬ 
come unseen after great hemorrhage, or in 
cases of anaemia. 

Anaesthesia (Greek, “lack of sensa¬ 
tion ”), a term used to express a loss of 
sensibility to external impressions, which 
may involve a part or the whole surface of 
the bodj. It may occur naturally as the 
result of disease, or may be produced arti¬ 
ficially by the administration of anaesthetics. 
In some diseased conditions of the nervous 
centers, a part of the body may become 
totally insensible to pain, while in another 
part sensation may be unnaturally acute, 
constituting a state of hyperaesthesia. 
When a nerve is divided, there is no feeling 
of touch or pain referred to the parts which 
it supplies, because these are cut off from 
communication with the brain; and, in some 
diseases, as the elephantiasis graecorum, a 
loss of sensation in patches of the skin is 
an early and characteristic symptom. In¬ 
sensibility to external impressions may be 
either general, i. e., affecting the whole body, 
or local, where only that part is affected to 
which the anaesthetic agent is applied. 

In ancient writers, we read of insensibil¬ 
ity or indifference to pain being obtained by 
means of Indian hemp (cannabis indica), 
either smoked or taken into the stomach. 
The Chinese, more than 1,500 years ago, 
used a preparation of hemp, or ma-ya, to 
annul pain. The Greeks and Romans used 
mandragora for a similar purpose (poiein 
anaisthesian) ; and, as late as the 13tli cen¬ 
tury, the vapor from a sponge filled with 
mandragora, opium, and other sedatives was 
used. The mandragora, however, occasion¬ 
ally induced convulsions, with other alarm¬ 
ing symptoms; and, though Bullein, an Eng¬ 
lish physician (died 1579), mentions the 
possibility of putting patients who were to 
be opera ted upon into “ a trance, or a deepe 
terrible dreame ” by its use, it gradually 
became obsolete, and was banished from the 
pharmacopoeia. John Baptista Porta, of 
Naples, in his work on “ Natural Magic ” 
(1597), speaks of a quintessence extracted 
from medicines by somniferous menstrua. 
This was kept in leaden vessels hermetically 
closed, lest the aura should escape. “ When 
it is used, the cover being removed, it is ap¬ 
plied to the nostrils of the sleeper, who 
draws in the most subtile power of the vapor 
by smelling, and so blocks up the fortress 
of the senses, that he is plunged into the 
most profound sleep, and cannot be roused 
without the greatest effort. * * * * 

These things are plain to the skilful phy¬ 
sician, but unintelligible to the wicked.” 
In 1784, Dr. Moore, of London, used com¬ 
pression on the nerves of a limb requiring 
amputation, but this method was in itself 
productive of much pain. In 1800, Sir 
Humphry Davy, experimenting with the nit« 






Anaesthesia 


Anagram 


rous oxide or laughing-gas, suggested its 
usefulness as an anaesthetic; and in 1828 
Dr. Hickman suggested carbonic acid gas. 
As early as 1795, Dr. Pearson had used the 
vapor of sulphuric ether for the relief of 
spasmodic affections of the respiration. The 
fact that sulphuric ether could produce in¬ 
sensibility was shown by the American phy¬ 
sicians, Godwin (1822), Mitchell (1832), 
Jackson (1833), Wood and Bache (1834) ; 
but it was first used to prevent the pain of 
an operation in 1840, by Dr. Morton, a den¬ 
tist of Boston. The news of his success 
reached England on Dec. 17, 1846; on the 
22d, Mr. Robinson, a dentist, and Dr. Lis¬ 
ton, the eminent surgeon, operated on pa¬ 
tients rendered insensible by the inhalation 
of sulphuric ether. This material was ex¬ 
tensively used for a year, when Sir J. Y. 
Simpson, of Edinburgh, discovered the an¬ 
aesthetic powers of chloroform and intro¬ 
duced the use of it into his special de¬ 
partment, midwifery. Since that time, 
chloroform has been the anaesthetic in gen¬ 
eral use in Europe, but ether is preferred in 
the United States. It is now the opinion 
of most medical men that chloroform should 
not be given where there is weak action of 
the heart from disease. Other substances 
have been used by inhalation, such as nit¬ 
rous oxide gas, which is the best and safest 
anaesthetic for operations that last only one 
or two minutes, as in the extraction of 
teeth; bichloride of methylene and tetra¬ 
chloride of carbon have also been employed, 
but are not so reliable as those above men¬ 
tioned. 

The employment of general anaesthetics 
in surgery has greatly increased the scope 
of the surgeon’s usefulness, and has been a 
great boon to suffering humanity. It is, 
however, fraught with a certain amount of 
danger. However much care may be taken 
in its administration, an occasional fatal 
accident occurs from the action of the an¬ 
aesthetics employed. In these cases, there is 
generally disease of the heart, or a hyper¬ 
sensitive nervous system, predisposing to 
sudden sinking, or to shock. 

Local anaesthesia, artifically produced, is 
of great value in minor operations, and, in 
painful affections of limited areas of the 
body. It depends upon a paralysis of the 
sensory nerves of the part, and may be in¬ 
duced by the application of cold, or of medi¬ 
cal agents. An ether or ethyl chloride 
spray, thrown on the part, produces such 
intense cold by its evaporation that the part 
is completely numbed, and a layer of ice 
forms on its surface. The after effects, 
however, when reaction sets in, are very 
painful, and there is danger that in weak 
constitutions sloughing and ulceration may 
follow. Of medical agents the best is co¬ 
caine, prepared from the coca shrub of Peru 


(erythroxylon coca). In the form of a .1 
to 5 per cent, watery solution, this drug is 
introduced into the tissues by a hypodermic 
needle, and produces complete anaesthesia 
of the part thus treated, immediately, or in 
a few seconds. A stronger solution, 4 to 
20 per cent., applied to mucus surfaces, is 
also of great value. Rarely it produces gid¬ 
diness, but has few unpleasant local after 
effects. Eucaine, thymol, menthol, aconite, 
belladonna, chloroform (the last three as 
the well-known A. B. C. liniment), phenol, 
chloral, and Indian hemp, have also a local 
anesthetic action if rubbed on the skin, or 
applied to abraded surfaces, but most are 
too irritating to be of any great value. 

Anagni (an-an'ye), a town of Italy, on a 
hill, 40 miles E. S. E. of Rome. The seat 
of a bishop since 487, it has an old, but 
much modernized cathedral, and was the 
birthplace of four popes — Innocent III., 
Gregory IX., Alexander IV., and Boniface 
VIII. The chief city of the Hernici, it was 
a place of importance during the whole pe¬ 
riod of Roman history, and Vergil mentions 
it as “ wealthy Anagnia.” 

Anagram, the letters of any word read 
backward. Thus in a satire on the English 
Government under Lord Melbourne, which 
appeared in a provincial Tory paper, the 
political leader was described as Enruoblem, 
which was simply Melbourne spelled back¬ 
ward. It is also applied to the letters of 
any word or words transposed in their or¬ 
der so as to make another word, or more 
generally, a short sentence. Thus the let¬ 
ters in the name of William Noy, Attorney- 
General to Charles I., who toiled hard in his 
vocation, became, when transposed, I moyl 
in law. Similarly Galen becomes by trans¬ 
position angel, and Mary, army. The prac¬ 
tice was not much in vogue among the 
Greeks and Romans, but it was common 
among the Jewish cabalists. Among Euro¬ 
pean nations it first began to be extensively 
employed in the 16th century. Sometimes 
writers put not their own name, but its ana¬ 
gram, on their works; thus, Calvin put not 
Calvinus, but its anagram, Alcuinus, on the 
edition of his “ Institutes,” published at 
Strasburg in 1539. In certain cases mathe¬ 
maticians, who had made discoveries for 
which they wished to claim priority without 
communicating their secret, gave forth its 
anagram instead of itself. This was done 
by Galileo, Huyghens, and Sir Isaac New¬ 
ton. Sometimes these anagrams were inten¬ 
tionally so obscurely worded, and of such 
a length, as to render their solution almost 
impossible. Thus Galileo announced his ob¬ 
servations on Saturn: Smaismrmilme poeta 
leumi bone nugttaviras = altissimum pla- 
netam tergeminum observavi (I have ob¬ 
served that the most distant planet is triple- 
formed). Huyghens also announced his dis- 




Anahuac 


Analysis 


covery of Saturn’s ring in the following ana¬ 
gram: aaaaaaa ccccc d eeeee iiiiiii 1111 mm 
nnnnnnnnn oooo pp q rr s ttttt iiuuuii = 
annulo cingitur, tenui, piano nusquam 
cohoerente, ad eclipticam inclinato (it is 
surrounded by a slender ring, nowhere co¬ 
herent, inclined to the ecliptic). 

Anahuac (an-a-whak'), a term signifying, 
in the old Mexican language, “ near the 
water,” the original name of the ancient 
kingdom of Mexico. It is now used to des¬ 
ignate either the whole of the tableland of 
Mexico or certain portions thereof, more or 
less extensive, with the capital as a common 
center. This plateau has a height of from 
6,000 to 8,000 feet above the sea, and is 
generally level, though the great volcanoes 
of Jorullo and Popocatepetl rise out of it. 
The plateau, which comprises three-fifths of 
the republic of Mexico, is bounded E. and 
W. by the two great chains of the Cordil¬ 
leras. The Anahualtecas, perhaps so called 
as living near the numerous lakes of the 
great plateau, are the Aztecs, and figure 
prominently in the ancient history of 
Mexico. 

Analogue, that which resembles some¬ 
thing else in one or more respects, as a 
word in one language corresponding to a 
word in another; or a part of an animal or 
plant which has the same function as an¬ 
other part in a second animal or plant 
differently organized; or any body which 
corresponds with, or bears great resemblance 
to, another body. (Especially used by geolo¬ 
gists in comparing fossil remains with liv¬ 
ing specimens.) 

Analogy, similitude of relations between 
one thing and other. The thing to which 
the other is compared is preceded by to or 
with. When both are mentioned together 
they are connected by the word between. 

In logic, the resemblance of relations, a 
meaning given to the word first by the 
mathematicians, and adopted by Ferguson, 
Whately, and, as one of various senses, by 
John Stuart Mill. To call a country which 
has sent out various colonies the mother 
country implies that there is an analogy 
between the relation in which it stands to 
its colonies and that which a mother holds 
to her children. 

As more commonly used it is a re¬ 
semblance of any kind on which an ar¬ 
gument falling short of induction may be 
founded. Under this meaning the element 
of relation is not especially distinguished 
from others. “ Analogical reasoning, in 
this second sense, may be reduced to the 
following formula: Two things resemble 
each other in one or more respects; a cer¬ 
tain proposition is true of the one, there¬ 
fore, it is true of the other.” If an invari¬ 
able conjunction is made out between a 
property in the one case and a property in 


the other, the argument rises above analogy, 
and becomes an induction on a limited 
basis; but if no such conjunction has been 
made out, then the argument is one of an¬ 
alogy merely. According to the number of 
qualities in one body which agree with those 
in another, may it be reasoned with confi¬ 
dence that the as yet unexamined qualities 
of the two bodies will also be found to cor¬ 
respond. Metaphor and allegory address 
the imagination, while analogy appeals to 
the reason. The former are founded on 
similarity of appearances, of effects, or of 
incidental circumstances; the latter is built 
up on more essential resemblances, which 
afford a proper basis for reasoning. 

In biology, an analogy is the relation be¬ 
tween parts which agree in function, as the 
wing of a bird and that of a butterfly, the 
tail of a whale and that of a fish. Rela¬ 
tions of analogy were made very prominent 
in the system of the now extinct Quinary 
school of zoologists. They are to be care¬ 
fully distinguished from those of affinity. 

Analysis, in ordinary language, the act 
of analyzing; the state of being analyzed; 
the result of such investigation. The sep¬ 
aration of anything physical, mental, or a 
mere conception into its constituent ele¬ 
ments. It is a scientific word which has 
partially established itself in ordinary 
speech. It is also applied to a syllabus, 
conspectus, or exhibition of the heads of a 
discourse; a synopsis, a brief abstract of 
a subject to enable a reader more readily to 
comprehend it when it is treated at length. 

In mathematics, the term analysis, sig¬ 
nifying an unloosing, as contradistinguished 
from synthesis = a putting together, was 
first employed by the old Greek geometri¬ 
cians to characterize one of the two proc¬ 
esses of investigation which they pursued. 
The analytical method of inquiry has been 
defined as the art or method of finding out 
the truth of a proposition by first suppos¬ 
ing the thing done, and then reasoning back 
step by step till one arrives at some ad¬ 
mitted truth. It is called also the method 
of invention or resolution. Analysis in 
mathematics may he exercised on finite or 
infinite magnitudes or numbers. The an¬ 
alysis of finite quantities is the same as 
specious arithmetic or algebra. That of 
infinites, called also the new analysis, is 
particularly used in fluxions or the differ¬ 
ential calculus. But analysis could be em¬ 
ployed also in geometry, though Euclid pre¬ 
ferred to make his immortal work syn¬ 
thetic; it is, therefore, a departure from 
correct language to use the word analysis, 
as many do, as the antithesis of geometry; 
it is opposed, as already mentioned, to syn¬ 
thesis, and to that alone. 

In chemistry, the examination of bodies 
with the view of ascertaining of what sub- 




Analvsis 


Analysis 


stances they are composed, and in what pro¬ 
portion these substances are contained in 
them. The former is called qualitative and 
the latter quantitative analysis. Chemical 
analysis is classified into blowpipe, quali¬ 
tative, gravimetrical, and volumetric anal¬ 
ysis; and the proximate and the ultimate 
analysis of organic bodies. 

1. Blow-pipe analysis. See Blow-Pipe. 

2. Qualitative analysis is employed to find 
out the composition and properties of any 
unknown substance, and to separate differ¬ 
ent substances from each other. It is per¬ 
formed in the following manner: The sub¬ 
stance is dissolved in distilled water; if not 
soluble in water, then in hydrochloric acid 
or in aquaregia; if insoluble in these, it is 
fused with sodium carbonate. The com¬ 
moner bases and acids contained in the so¬ 
lution are tested for as follows: 

Add hydrochloric acid. A white precipi¬ 
tate is either AgCl (argentic chloride), 
Hg 2 Cl 2 (mercurous chloride), or PbCl 2 
(plumbic chloride). 

Filter; pass H 2 S (sulphuretted hydrogen 
gas) through the filtrate. A black precipi¬ 
tate is either PbS (plumbic sulphide), CuS 
(cuoric sulphide), HgS (mercuric sul¬ 
phide), or Bi 2 S 3 (sulphide of bismuth). A 
yellow precipitate is either CdS (cadmium 
sulphide), As 2 S 3 or As 2 S 5 (sulphides of arse¬ 
nic), or SnS, (stannic sulphide). A brown 
precipitate is SnS (stannous sulphide). 
An orange precipitate is Sb 2 S s (antimonic 
sulphide). 

Filter; boil the filtrate to expel H ; S, add 
a few drops of nitric acid, and boil to oxi¬ 
dize the iron; then add chloride of am¬ 
monium and ammonia. A red precipitate 
is Fe 2 0 3 (ferric oxide). A bluish-green 
precipitate is 0r 2 0 3 (chromic oxide). A 
white precipitate is A1 2 0 3 (aluminic oxide), 
or phosphates, borates, and oxalates. 

Filter; to the filtrate add sulphide of 
ammonium. A black precipitate is either 
CoS (sulphide of cobalt), or NiS (sulphide 
of nickel). A pink precipitate turning 
brown is MnS (sulphide of manganese). A 
white precipitate is ZnS (sulphide of zinc). 

Filter : to the filtrate add ammonium car¬ 
bonate. A white precipitate is either 
BaCO a , SrC0 3 , or CaC0 3 (carbonates of 
barium, strontium, or calcium). 

Filter; divide the filtrate into two parts. 
To one part add Na 2 H.P0 4 (sodium phos¬ 
phate). A white precipitate is Mg(NH 4 )- 
P0 4 +6H,0, indicating the presence of mag¬ 
nesia. The other part is evaporated to dry¬ 
ness, heated strongly to drive off the am- 
moniacal salts, and if there is a residue it 
is tested for potash and soda. 

Ammoniacal salts are tested for in the 
original solution by adding caustic potash, 
which liberates ammonia, NH 3 , which is 
recognized by its smell, and by its turning 


red litmus paper blue. The sulphides of 
arsenic, antimony and tin are soluble in sul¬ 
phide of ammonium, and are reprecipitated 
by HC1. 

Acids may be tested for as follows: Car¬ 
bonic, hydrosulphuric, hydrocyanic acids 
are liberated by stronger acids with effer¬ 
vescence. Carbonic, arsenious, arsenic, 
chromic, boracic, phosphoric, oxalic, hydro¬ 
fluoric, and silicic acids give from a neutral 
solution a white precipitate, with BaCl s 
(barium chloride), which dissolves in hy¬ 
drochloric acid; but sulphuric acid gives a 
white precipitate insoluble in acids. Tar¬ 
taric and citric acids are recognized by the 
precipitate charring when heated, and emit¬ 
ting fumes of peculiar odor. 

Chloride of calcium, with phosporic and 
boracic acids, gives a white precipitate, 
which is soluble in acetic acid; also with 
oxalic and hydrofluoric acids, a white pre¬ 
cipitate, insoluble in acetic acid. 

Nitrate of silver (AgN0 3 ) gives a black 
precipitate with hydrosulphuric acid; a yel¬ 
low precipitate with arsenious, phosphoric, 
and silicic acid; a red precipitate with chro¬ 
mic and arsenic acid, and a white precipitate 
with boracic and oxalic acids. All these 
precipitates are soluble in nitric acid. 

Nitrate of silver (AgN0 3 ) gives a pre¬ 
cipitate insoluble in nitric acid with hydro¬ 
chloric, hydrocyanic, hydrobromic, and hy- 
driodic acids. 

Ferric chloride (Fe 2 Cl fl ) gives a red color 
with acetic acid and sulphocyanic acid; a 
black precipitate with gallic and tannic* 
acids; a blue precipitate with ferrocyanides. 

Nitric acid (1IN0 3 ) and chloric acid 
(HC10 3 ) are not precipitated by any 
reagent. Their salts deflagrate on ignited 
charcoal. 

3. Gravimetrical analysis, or quantitative 
analysis by weight, is the method of sep¬ 
arating out of a weighed quantity of a 
compound its constituents, either in a pure 
state or in the form of some new substance 
of known composition, and accurately 
weighing the products; from the results of 
these operations the percentage of the con¬ 
stituents contained in the substance can be 
determined. 

4. Volumetrical analysis, or quantitative 
analysis by measure, determines the amount 
of the constituents contained in a given 
solution by: (a) Neutralization of a mea¬ 
sured quantity of the liquid by a certain 
volume of a standard solution of acid or 
alkali, (b) By the quantity of a standard 
solution of an oxidizing or reducing agent 
required to oxidize or reduce a measured 
quantity of the liquid to be tested. (c) 
By observing when no further precipitation 
takes place on adding the standard solution 
of the reagent to a known volume of the 
liquid to be tested. 



Anam 


Auarajapura 


5. By proximate analysis we determine 
the amount of sugar, fat, resin, alkaloid, 
etc., contained in an organic compound, 
each of these being removed and separated 
by different solvents, etc. 

6. By ultimate analysis of an organic 
substance we determine the percentage of 
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sul¬ 
phur, and phosphorus contained in it. Thus 
the amount of carbon and hydrogen is de¬ 
termined by burning a weighed quantity of 
the substance in a combustion tube along 
with oxide of copper, and collecting the 
water produced in a weighed U tube filled 
with chloride of calcium, and the carbonic 
acid gas in weighed bulbs filled with caustic 
potash. 

In other sciences, etc., the separation of 
anything which becomes the object of scien¬ 
tific inquiry into its constituent elements; 
also the result thus obtained. 

“ Analysis consists in making experi¬ 
ments and observations, and in drawing 
general conclusions from them by induc¬ 
tion, and admitting of no objections but 
such as are taker* from experiments, or 
other certain truths.” (Newton’s“ Optics.”) 

“ By anatomico-physiological analysis we 
separate the solids and fluids of the body 
into their various kinds, and classify and 
arrange them according to their characters 
and properties.” (Todd and Bowman’s “ An¬ 
atomical Physiology,” vol. i, introduction, 
p. 34.) 

“ By prismatic analysis Sir William 
Herschel separated the luminous from the 
non-luminous rays of the sun, and he also 
sought to render the obscure rays visible by 
concentration.” (Tyndall’s “Fragments of 
Science,” 3d ed., viii, 5, p. 185.) 

Anam, or Annam, a name given by the 
Chinese in the 3d century a. d. to a coun¬ 
try of Asia occupying the E. side of the 
Southeastern or Indo-Chinese peninsula, 
along the China Sea, having a length of 
about 850 miles, with a breadth varying 
from over 400 miles in the N. to 100 in the 
middle. It is composed of three parts: 
Tonquin (or Tongking) in the N.; Cochin- 
China in the S.; and the territory of the 
Laos tribes, S. W. of Tonquin (together, 
area, 170,000 square miles, pop, 15,000,000, 
9,000,000 being in Tonquin). 

Topography .— The coast is considerably 
indented, especially at the mouths of the 
rivers, where it affords many commodious 
harbors. Tonquin is mountainous on the 
N. but in the E. is nearly level, ter¬ 
minating toward the sea in an alluvial 
plain yielding good crops of rice, cotton, 
fruits, ginger, and spices, and a great va¬ 
riety of varnish trees, palms, etc. The 
principal river is the Song-ka, which has 
numerous tributaries, many of them, being 
joined together by canals, both for irriga¬ 
tion and commerce. Tonquin is rich in 


gold, silver, copper, and iron. Cochin- 
China is, generally speaking, unproductive, 
but contains many fertile spots, in which 
grain, leguminous plants, sugar-cane, cin¬ 
namon, etc., are produced in great abun¬ 
dance. Agriculture is the chief occupation, 
but many of the inhabitants are engaged 
in the spinning and weaving of cotton and 
silk into coarse fabrics, the preparation of 
varnish, iron smelting, and the construction 
of ships or junks. 

People .— The inhabitants are said to be 
the ugliest of the Mongoloid races of the 
peninsula, being under the middle size and 
less robust than the surrounding peoples. 
Their language is monosyllabic, and is con¬ 
nected with the Chinese. The religion of 
the majority is Buddhism, but the edu¬ 
cated classes hold the doctrines of Con¬ 
fucius ; beside which there are 420,000 
Roman Catholics. The principal towns are 
Hanoi, the capital of Tonquin, and Hue, 
the capital of Cochin-China and formerly of 
the whole empire. 

History .— Anam was conquered by the 
Chinese in 214 b. c., but in 1428 a. d. it 
completely won its independence. The 
French began to interfere actively in its 
affairs in 1847 on the plea of protecting the 
native Christians. By the treaties of 1802 
and 1807 they obtained the southern and 
most productive part of Cochin-China, sub¬ 
sequently known as French Cochin-China; 
and in 1874 they obtained large powers over 
Tonquin, notwithstanding the protests of 
the Chinese. Finally, in 1883, Tonquin was 
ceded to France, and next year Anam was 
declared a French protectorate. After a 
short period of hostilities with China the 
latter recognized the French claims, and 
Tonquin is now directly administered by 
France, while Anam is entirely under 
French direction. 

Anamorphosis, a term denoting a draw¬ 
ing executed in such a manner as to pre¬ 
sent a distorted image of the object repre¬ 
sented, but which, when viewed from a 
certain point, or reflected by a curved mir¬ 
ror or through a polyhedron, shows the 
object in its true proportions. 

Anapa, an important seaport and forti¬ 
fied town in Russian Circassia, on the Black 
Sea, a station of the Russian navy. 

Anarajapura, or Anuradhapoora, a 

ruined city, the ancient capital of Ceylon, 
built about 540 b. c., and said to have 
covered an area of 200 square miles. The 
spacious main streets seemed to have been 
lined by elegant structures. There are still 
several dagobas in tolerable preservation, 
but the great object of interest is the re¬ 
mains of the sacred Bo-tree planted over 
2.000 years ago, and probably the oldest 
historical tree in the world. It was shat¬ 
tered by a storm in 1887. 




Anarchism 


Anarchism 


Anarchism, a tendency founded upon 
anarchy in human society. By anarchy is 
not to be understood the word in its exag¬ 
gerated sense of chaos and disorder, but 
literally a state of society in which au¬ 
thority does not exist; that is, a society 
with the greatest imaginable independence 
of the individual, without law and with¬ 
out any relations whatever of superior and 
inferior. There were tendencies to anarchy 
in the thought of antiquity and of the 
Middle Ages as well as in modern times. 
Ever since there has been a philosophy of 
law there have been thinkers who have 
denied any necessity whatever for law, 
finding the most rational ordering of so¬ 
ciety in giving the utmost freedom to the 
will of the individual. A thoroughly an¬ 
archistic teaching is to be found in the 
work of William Godwin, called “ An En¬ 
quiry Concerning Political Justice and Its 
Influence on General Virtue and Happi¬ 
ness,” published in London in 1793. But 
anarchistic tendencies first became notably 
influential as a phase of thought toward 
the middle of the 19th century, when they 
were developed under an increasing sense of 
the misery of the oppressed masses of hu¬ 
manity. The founder of modern anarchism 
was Peter Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865). 
Impressed by the unequal distribution of 
property and the recurrence of disastrous 
financial crises he was led to write his es¬ 
say, “What Is Property?” (1840). For 
these evils he made existing conditions of 
law responsible. He held that under the 
compulsion of the laws of property there 
existed between employers and workingmen 
a condition of exchange in commodities 
most unfavorable to the latter, in conse¬ 
quence of which the capitalist, without 
working himself, appropriated to himself, 
most unjustly, a portion of the earnings of 
the worker. Hence Proudhon’s famous 
conclusion: “Property is robbery.” As a 
remedy for these unjust conditions, Proud¬ 
hon held that there should be a free activ¬ 
ity of industrial forces under which there 
would be a just exchange of commodities 
corresponding to the actual relations of 
value. In order to achieve such conditions 
Proudhon rejected law and authority of 
every kind and demanded a social condition 
in which there should be absolutely no 
authority. As a characterization of this 
condition he was the first to employ the 
word “ anarchy.” In his essay, “ A General 
Idea of the devolution ” (1851), he set 

forth his theory. According to this there 
should be an unfettered activity of indus¬ 
trial forces, under which there would be a 
true adjustment of production and distri¬ 
bution. Every division of industrial func¬ 
tions and of work would take place among 
individuals and groups of individuals ex¬ 
clusively according to the indwelling sense 


of justice and mutual right conduct among 
men. In order to make the producer in¬ 
dependent of the capitalist, Proudhon ad¬ 
vocated the establishment of a bank of 
exchange, or bank of the people. By this 
means the individual worker would receive 
from the collectivity an advance, without 
interest, of the capital necessary to the 
production of his commodities. For the 
producer or the group of producers prices 
would be established on the basis of cost, 
as measured by the advance from the bank 
and the time required for the labor of pro¬ 
duction. 

Proudhon looked for the peaceful realiza¬ 
tion of his ideals under the influence of ar¬ 
gument and philosophical development. 
This theory found much approval in Ger¬ 
many at first. The doctrine was elaborated 
by Max Stirner in a book called “ The Indi¬ 
vidual and His Property,” published in 
1845. Stirner acknowledges nothing but 
the will of the individual. He rejects every 
combination among men toward a higher 
unity, every compulsion of civilized princi¬ 
ples— all of these signifying for him 
nothing but the enthralment of the indi¬ 
vidual will. In place of Proudhon’s sense 
of justice Stirner puts a naked egoism; in 
place of Proudhon’s industrial groups 
Stirner has a “ Society of Egoists.” For 
the accomplishment of this egoistic anarchy, 
Stirner advocated the path of revolution. 
The triumph of the reaction in 1848 crowded 
anarchistic teachings into the background. 
In 1852 Proudhon himself, in his essay on 
“ The Federative Principle,” declared an-> 
archv to be impracticable, and held the cor¬ 
rect form of government to be a federation 
of autonomist communities. The labor agi¬ 
tations that began in the ’60’s were ac¬ 
companied by a development of the anar¬ 
chistic party, chiefly under the influence 
of Russian agitators. The founder of this 
party was Michael Bakunin (1814-1876). 
Since 1864 Bakunin was active in Switz¬ 
erland as an anarchistic agitator. He 
followed Proudhon in advocating the 
free development of the powers of the 
individual in groups and societies of work¬ 
ers, resting upon a sense of solidarity. 
Unlike Proudhon, however, he advocated 
revolution as the means to the end, but he 
drew the line at murder. Bakunin sent his 
disciple, Sergei Netshaye,to Russia and there, 
in 1869. the latter developed the so-called 
“ propaganda of action; ” that is, an agi¬ 
tation by means of deeds of violence, mur¬ 
der and disorder, not for the purpose of 
overcoming the existing order of society, 
but simply to arouse sentiment by the ef¬ 
fect of horrible deeds. This frightful error, 
which had nothing to do with the theoreti¬ 
cal system of anarchism, was incorporated 
in the programme of the anarchistic party. 

One of the most eminent representatives 




Anarchism 


Anarchism 


of anarchistic doctrines is the Russian 
Prince Krapotkin (born in 1842). Krapot- 
kin advocates a system of communistic an¬ 
archy based upon the idea of free production 
and consumption, with a free development 
of industrial powers in groups and socie¬ 
ties. According to his theory, everybody 
should share as he pleased in production 
and also in the enjoyment of the fruits of 
collective effort. False relations would not 
exist, since everyone, following a higher 
morality, would give bis best efforts to a par¬ 
ticipation in collective production. This is 
the programme of the greater number of the 
anarchists of to-day, especially of those who 
are called the Latin anarchists, being those 
believers in the doctrine who live in Western 
Switzerland, the S. o* France, in Italy 
and in Spain. With the growing develop¬ 
ment of the Social Democratic organization, 
anarchy fell more and more into disfavor. 
These two tendencies, anarchy and social¬ 
ism, have a common source in a sense of the 
misery of the oppressed masses, but their 
ends are directly opposed, the aim of an¬ 
archy being to achieve the extreme of indi¬ 
vidualism, while that of socialism aims to 
realize the extreme of collectivism. There¬ 
fore, very naturally, a bitter hostility arose 
between the representatives of the two ten¬ 
dencies. At the Congress of International 
Societies of Workingmen, hold at The Hague, 
in 1872, at the instance of Carl Marx, the 
International Alliance of the Social Demo¬ 
cracy, which followed the doctrines of Ba¬ 
kunin, was excluded, and ever since the hos¬ 
tility between the tendencies has been in¬ 
creasing. The German law against social¬ 
ism, passed in 1878, caused, for the time, a 
tendency toward anarchism in consequence 
of the formation of revolutionary groups 
under the leadership of Most (1840), a 
former member of the German Reichstag. 
In consequence of this Most was expelled 
from the Social Democratic Party and went 
to London, but, in 1882, he came to New 
York and advocated the “ propaganda of ac¬ 
tion.” Most sought to improve upon the 
teaching of Proudhon by advocating the 
regulation of production and price through 
common action among groups of workers. 
In this doctrine, however. Most has given to 
the collectivity such influence as to leave 
anarchy hardly to be understood thereun¬ 
der, and about the only thing which he has 
in common with the anarchists is the 
“ propaganda of action.” On the other 
hand, the peaceful tendency of Proudhon 
is represented by those who call themselves 
philosophical anarchists, as opposed to the 
revolutionary anarchists. Among these are 
numbered Benjamin R. Tucker, of New 
York, editor of “ Liberty,” and the German- 
Scotchman, John Henry Mackay, the biog¬ 
rapher of Stirner. 

In Germany, unlike the Latin countries, 


the anarchistic agitation has never had 
much significance. The “ propaganda of ac¬ 
tion,” however, has resulted in various deeds 
of violence — for instance, the attempted 
assassination of Emperor Wilhelm I., by 
Hoedel (1878). and the attempt of Reins- 
dorf against the German princes at the 
dedication of the Niederwald monument, in 
1 883. The latter caused the enactment of 
the law against the criminal use of explo¬ 
sives on June 9, 1884. In consequence of 
the assassination of the French President 
Carnot by an Italian anarchist, in Decem¬ 
ber, 1894, there was an attempt made to in¬ 
crease the severity of the German laws, but 
the proposition was rejected by the Reich¬ 
stag. More recently, the assassination of 
the Empress Elizabeth of Austria, by an 
Italian anarchist, in 1898, and also that 
of the Spanish statesman Canovas by an 
Italian anarchist led the Italian Govern¬ 
ment to feel that it was its duty to call 
for some international action for the sup¬ 
pression of anarchists and an anti-anar¬ 
chist conference was held at Rome in the 
later part of 1898. It had, however, no 
further result than a proposition to insti¬ 
tute a sort of international intelligence ser¬ 
vice for the watching of anarchists. King 
Humbert of Italy was, notwithstanding this 
vigilance, assassinated by an anarchist, in 
1900 (July 29). 

The cause of anarchy appears to have 
made recently no marked advance in any 
part of the world, although the “ propa¬ 
ganda of action ” continues to be manifest 
in repeated deeds of violence in various 
countries. In France, where the anarchis¬ 
tic party has the greatest number of ad¬ 
herents, there are two newspapers devoted 
to the cause, the “ Revolt ” and “ Pere 
Peinard.” In 1892 France passed the law 
imposing the death penalty upon those who 
should cause damage to property by the use 
of explosives. After the attempt of Vail- 
lant in the Chamber of Deputies and the 
murder of President Carnot, special laws 
against anarchists were passed in 1893 and 
1894, whereby the glorification <t anarchis¬ 
tic crime and the incitement thereto were 
made criminal offenses and the punishment 
of anarchists was provided for. In 1894, 
Switzerland passed a law against the crim¬ 
inal use of explosives and the incitement of 
such crimes. Similar laws were also passed 
in 1894-1890 in Spain and Italy. Accord¬ 
ing to a recent investigation of the Paris 
“ Figaro ” there are about 2,000 anarchists 
in France known to the police, 500 of them 
being Frenchmen and 1,500 foreigners. Of 
the foreign contingent 45 per cent, are 
Italian. 

It was asserted that anarchistic ideas 
among the Armenian revolutionists were 
responsible for the beginning of the out¬ 
rages of 1890; that the use of dynamite 





Anarchists 


Anarchists 


bombs in Constantinople was designed to 
cause the great powers to interfere in Turk¬ 
ish affairs, but they only aroused the rage 
of the Mohammendans and fearful massa¬ 
cres ensued. Sylvester Baxter. 

Anarchists, members of the revolution¬ 
ary sect or body devoted to the doctrines of 
anarchism. Their principal journals have 
been “ La Revolte ” (Paris), the “ Frei- 

heit ” (New York), “Liberty” (New 
York), and the “Anarchist” (London). 
The congress of anarchists at London, in 
1881, decided that all means were justifi¬ 
able as against the organized forces of mod¬ 
ern society. 

In Europe, the anarchistic crimes com¬ 
mitted in the name of liberty have been 
numerous, especially in the last few years. 
Vaillant, who threw a bomb with murder¬ 
ous effect upon the floor of the French 
Chamber of Deputies, Dec. 9, 1893, was exe¬ 
cuted February, 1894. Emile Henry, con¬ 
victed of causing the bomb explosions in 
Paris, Feb. 12, 1894, was guillotined May 1. 
Guiseppe Fornaro and Francesco Polti, con¬ 
victed May 4, 1894, of bomb throwing in 
London, were sentenced to imprisonment 
for 20 and 10 years respectively. Six men, 
convicted of bomb throwing and attempted 
assassination, were executed May 21, 1894, 
at Barcelona, Spain. President Carnot of 
France was assassinated June 24, 1894, at 
Lyons, by an Italian anarchist named Sante 
Ironimo Caserio. On Aug. 13, 1894, four 
Bohemians were sentenced at Jung-Bunzlau, 
Bohemia, to imprisonment for different 
terms for circulating an anarchist paper. 
March 4, 1893, a man named Olivieri was 
arrested in Rome for threatening King 
Humbert. On Aug. 8, 1897, Canovas del 
Castillo, prime minister of Spain, and vir¬ 
tually ruler of the country, was shot and 
killed at Santa Agiieda. A dastardly crime 
was committed in the assassination of Em¬ 
press Elizabeth of Austria, at Geneva, Sept. 
29, 1898, by Lucliini, an Italian anarchist. 
He was sentenced to imprisonment for life. 
On April 4, 1900, the Prince of Wales was 
twice fired upon, while passing through 
Brussels, by a young man of anarchist pro¬ 
clivities. The bullets did not take effect. 
On July 29, 1900, King Humbert was shot 
and killed by an anarchist named Bresci, 
who was sentenced to imprisonment for life. 

In the United States, the followers of an¬ 
archist doctrines committed no overt act 
till the Haymarket riot, which took place 
in Chicago, May 4, 1886, in which seven 
policemen were killed and 60 wounded while 
attempting to disperse a meeting of anar¬ 
chists. The injuries of the policemen were 
caused chiefly by a dynamite bomb thrown 
by someone in the crowd, supposed, to have 
been a man named Schnaubelt, who was 
never arrested. The anarchists, August 
Spies ; Adolph Fischer, George Engle and 


Albert R. Parsons, were hanged Nov. 11 , 
1887, for complicity in the riot, while Louis 
Lingg escaped the gallows by committing 
suicide in prison. Samuel Fielden and 
Michael Schwab were committed to prison 
for life and Oscar W. Neebe for a term of 
15 years. These three were pardoned by 
Governor Altgeld, in 1893. The execution 
of the anarchists was opposed by some of 
the foremost people in Chicago, on the 
ground that the case against them was not 
proven. 

On the afternoon of Friday, Sept. 6, 1901, 
the world was horrified by a telegraphic an¬ 
nouncement from Buffalo, N. Y., that Presi¬ 
dent McKinley had been shot twice by an 
avowed anarchist, named Leon Czolgosz, 
while holding a public reception in the Tem¬ 
ple of Music of the Pan-American Exposi¬ 
tion. The President died Sept. 14, and his 
assassin was executed at the State prison 
in Auburn, N. Y., Oct. 29 following. 

This assassination at once suggested a 
variety of anti-anarchist legislation, which 
later resolved itself into (1) a bill for the 
protection of the President and (2) several 
bills providing for the suppression of anar¬ 
chism in the United States and for the ex¬ 
clusion of foreign anarchists. On Dec. 4, 
1901, Senator Hoar introduced a bill in 
the United States Senate, which provided 
as follows: 

“ That any person who shall, within the limits 
of the United States, or any place subject to the 
jurisdiction thereof, wilfully kill or cause the 
death of the President of the United States, or 
any officer thereof, or who shall wilfully kill or 
cause the death of the ruler or chief magistrate 
of any foreign country, shall be punished with 
death. 

“ That any person who shall, within the limits 
of the United States, or any place subject to the 
jurisdiction thereof, make an attempt on the life 
of the President of the United States, or any 
officer thereof; or who shall make an attempt on 
the life of the ruler or chief magistrate of any 
foreign country, shall be punished with death. 

“ That any person who shall, within the limits 
of the United States, or any place subject to the 
jurisdiction thereof, advise the killing of the 
President of the United States, or any officer 
thereof, or shall conspire to accomplish the same; 
or who shall advise or counsel the killing of the 
ruler or chief magistrate of any foreign country, 
or shall conspire to accomplish the same, shall be 
punished by imprisonment not exceeding 20 years. 

“ That any person who has conspired as afore¬ 
said may be indicted and convicted subsequently, 
although the other party or parties to the con¬ 
spiracy are not indicted or convicted. 

“ That any person who shall wilfully and know¬ 
ingly aid in the escape from punishment of any 
person guilty of either of the acts mentioned in 
the foregoing sections shall be deemed an accom¬ 
plice after the fact, and shall be punishable as 
if a principal, although the other party or parties 
to the said offense shall not be indicted or con¬ 
victed.” 

The same day Senator McComas present¬ 
ed to the Senate a resolution declaring that 
Congress had power and should by law pro¬ 
vide: 

“ That a person or persons who wilfully kill or 
assault with intent to kill the President or Vice- 
President, or both, or any officer upon whom the 
powers and duties of President may devolve under 



Anarchists 


Anastasia, Si 


the constitution and laws, shall be punished with 
death, the bederal courts to have jurisdiction of 
such offenses; also for the exclusion and depor¬ 
tation of alien anarchists. Also that Congress 
shall support the Executive Department in pro- 
curing an amendment to all extradition treaties 
similar to the provision in the convention with 
Belgium for the extradition of criminal anar¬ 
chists.” 

Senator Burrows, also on the same day, 
introduced a bill “ to provide for the ex¬ 
clusion and deportation of alien anar¬ 
chists.” The first section was as follows: 

“ That no alien anarchists shall hereafter be 
permitted to land at any port of the United States 
or be admitted into the United States; but his 
prohibition shall not be so construed as to apply 
to political refugees or political offenders other 
than such anarchists.” 

The second section directed the special 
board of inquiry authorized by the immi¬ 
gration laws to make diligent investigation 
concerning the antecedents of any alien 
seeking admission into the United States 
who is suspected of being an anarchist, and 
authorized the board to go even to the ex¬ 
tent of examining the person of suspected 
aliens for marks indicative of membership 
in anarchistic societies. Section 3 provided 
for the return of persons to their native 
countries who had secured admission to the 
United States contrary to law and who had 
afterward been found to be anarchists. The 
fourth section provided that when any alien 
was convicted of crime in any United States 
court, and it should appear from the evi¬ 
dence that he was an anarchist, the presid¬ 
ing judge should direct a further hearing, 
and if satisfied that the convicted alien 
is an anarchist, or that his remaining in 
this country would be a menace to the gov¬ 
ernment or society in general, he may direct 
that, in addition to other punishments ad¬ 
judged, the convicted alien, after undergo¬ 
ing such punishments, shall be deported at 
the expense of the United States to the 
country from which he came, and if he re¬ 
turns to the United States shall be pun¬ 
ished by imprisonment at hard labor for a 
period not exceeding five years and after¬ 
ward again deported. Provision was also 
made for the appointment of 12 immigra¬ 
tion agents, at a salary of $2,500 each, to 
make investigations in foreign countries 
concerning intended immigrants. The sixth 
and last section of the bill provided that 
“ the fact that an alien has declared his 
intention to become a citizen of the United 
States shall constitute no bar to proceedings 
against him under this act.” 

To these several bills Senator Vest added 
a resolution directing the Judiciary Com¬ 
mittee to inquire if Congress has power to 
legislate for the punishment of anarchists 
who assassinate or attempt to assassinate 
the President of the United States, and if 
not, whether it is expedient to amend the 
Federal Constitution to enable Congress so 
to legislate. Also whether it is necessary 


and expedient so to amend the Federal Con¬ 
stitution as to empower Congress to pre¬ 
vent by such means as may be deemed neces¬ 
sary the teaching by anarchists of the doc¬ 
trine that all governments should be de¬ 
stroyed; also whether it is necessary and 
expedient so to amend the Federal Consti¬ 
tution that Congress shall have power to 
punish all persons belonging to anarchistic 
associations; also what amendments, if any, 
are necessary to the naturalization laws to 
prevent the coming into this country of an¬ 
archists and their becoming citizens of the 
United States; also whether it is necessary 
or expedient so to amend the Federal Con¬ 
stitution as to give Congress the power to 
establish a penal colony on some suitable 
island under the jurisdiction of the United 
States, to which, after trial and conviction, 
every anarchist holding the doctrine that 
all governments should he destroyed by the 
assassination of their chief rulers shall be 
deported; and that the committee, after 
due examination and inquiry, shall recom¬ 
mend to the Senate such amendments to 
the Federal Cpnstitution as may be neces¬ 
sary to prevent the teaching and promulga¬ 
tion of anarchical doctrines in the United 
States. 

The bill for the protection of the Presi¬ 
dent was passed in the Senate on March 21, 
1902, somewhat changed from its original 
form, but without a number of amendments 
that were offered on the day of its passage. 
As passed, the bill provides that any person 
within the United States, who shall wil¬ 
fully and maliciously kill the President or 
any officer on whom the duties of the Presi¬ 
dent may devolve, or any sovereign of a 
foreign country, or shall attempt to kill any 
of the persons named, shall suffer death; 
that any person who shall aid, abet, ad¬ 
vise, or counsel the killing of any of the 
persons named, or shall conspire to accom¬ 
plish their death shall be imprisoned not 
exceeding 20 years; that any person who 
shall threaten to kill or advise or counsel 
another to kill the President, or any offi¬ 
cial on whom the duties of President may 
devolve, shall be imprisoned not exceeding 
10 years; that any person who shall wil¬ 
fully aid in the escape of any person guilty 
of any of the offenses mentioned shall be 
deemed an accomplice and shall be punished 
as a principal. The Secretary of War is 
directed to detail from the regular army a 
guard of officers and men to protect the 
President, “ without any unnecessary dis¬ 
play,” and the Secretary is authorized to 
make such regulations as to the dress, arms, 
and equipment of such guard. 

Anastasia, St. (1) A Christian martyr, 
slain during the reign of Nero (54-68 A. d.). 
She is said to have been a pupil of St. 
Peter and St. Paul. Her martyrdom is 
commemorated on April 15. (2) A Chris- 





Anastasius 


Anatomy 


tian martyr, who perished in the persecu¬ 
tion, by Diocletian, presumably in 303. 

Anastasius (an-a-sta'shus), the name of 
four Popes, the first and most eminent of 
whom held that office for only three years 
(398-401). He enforced celibacy on the 
higher clergy, and was a strong opponent 
of the Manichaeans and Origen. 

Anastasius I., Emperor of the East, suc¬ 
ceeded Zeno, a. d. 491, at the age of 60. 
He was a member of the imperial life-guard, 
and owed his elevation to Ariadne, widow of 
Zeno, whom he married. He distinguished 
himself by suppressing the combats between 
men and wild beasts in the arena, abolish¬ 
ing the sale of offices and building the forti¬ 
fications of Constantinople. His support of 
the heretical Eutychians led to a dangerous 
rebellion and his anathematization by the 
Pope. He died a. d. 518. 

Anastatic Printing (derived from a 
Greek adjective signifying resuscitation), a 
process by which the perfect facsimile of a 
page of type or a engraving, old or new, 
can be reproduced and printed in the man¬ 
ner of a lithograph or page of letterpress. 
The print or page to be transferred is 
dipped in diluted nitric acid, and while re¬ 
taining a portion of the moisture, is laid 
face downward on a polished zinc plate and 
passed through a roller-press. The zinc is 
immediately corroded by the acid contained 
in the paper, excepting on those parts occu¬ 
pied by the ink of the type or engraving. 
The ink while rejecting the acid is loosened 
by it, and deposits a thin film on the zinc, 
thus protecting it from the action of the 
acid. The result is, that those parts are 
left slightly raised in relief, and the plate 
being then washed with a weak solution of 
gum, and otherwise treated like a litho¬ 
graph, the raised parts being greasy, readily 
receive ink from the roller, and give off a 
facsimile impression of the original. 

Anathema, a word originally signifying 
some offering or gift to the gods, generally 
suspended in the temple. It also signifies 
a thing devoted; a thing devoted to de¬ 
struction (the equivalent of the Hebrew 
Clierem) ; and was ultimately used in its 
strongest sense, implying perdition, as in 
Rom. ix., 3; Gal. i., 8, 9. In the Catho¬ 
lic Church, from the 9th century, a dis¬ 
tinction has been made between excom¬ 
munication and anathematizing; the latter 
being the extreme form of denunciation 
against obstinate offenders. The first gen¬ 
eral council (Nice, 325 a. d. ) anathema¬ 
tized those who held the Aryan heresy. It 
thus declared that they were excluded from 
the communion of the Church, and that if 
they persisted in their offense they must 
perish eternally. Anathema Maranatha (I 
Cor. xvi., 22) is not, as commonly un¬ 
derstood. a more fearful kind of curse; 


the Syriac words, Maran athd (“Our Lord 
cometh ”), should, according to the best au¬ 
thorities, be read as a separate sentence, as 
in the Revised Version. 

Anatomy (Greek, “a cutting up”), 
strictly the art of dissection. It implies 
generally the science which treats of the 
structure of living beings, it being reserved 
for the related science of physiology to 
study the functions of living beings. The 
term “ living beings ” includes both plants 
and animals. So there is vegetable anat¬ 
omy or phytotomy, having to do with the 
structure of plants; and the anatomy of 
animals or zootomy, a special branch of 
which is human anatomy or anthropotoiny. 
Comparative anatomy discusses the resem¬ 
blances and differences between the struc¬ 
ture of the bod-'es of various animals and 
man, a comparison which is a great aid to 
exact knowledge; while special anatomy 
is concerned only with the structure of sin¬ 
gle types. By minute anatomy, general 
anatomy, or histology, is meant the study of 
the elements of which a tissue or organ is 
built up, a study conducted by means of 
highly magnifying microscopes, and aided 
by the use of chemical reagents and dyeing 
materials which, by attacking the various 
elements of a tissue in different ways, ren¬ 
der them more easily distinguished from 
one another. The tracing of the develop¬ 
ment of form and structure from the earli¬ 
est stage of an organism to its most com¬ 
plete form belongs to developmental or em- 
bryotical anatomy. Morbid or pathological 
anatomy treats of the changes of structure 
due to or accompanying disease or congeni¬ 
tal malformations; and teleological or 
physiological anatomy treats of structure 
and structural change with reference to the 
functions of the parts. We also speak of 
regional anatomy, or the anatomy dealing 
with the surgical regions of the body. 

The chief method of obtaining anatomical 
knowledge is by dissection. The dissection 
of the human body was but little practised 
by the ancients. The old Egyptians held it 
in great abhorrence, and even pursued with 
stones those men who, in embalming the 
dead, were obliged to cut open their bodies. 
The Greeks were prevented by the princi¬ 
ples of their religion from studying anat¬ 
omy, since these required them to bury the 
bodies of the deceased as soon as possible. 
Even in the time of Hippocrates anatomical 
knowledge was imperfect, and was probably 
derived from the dissection of animals; the 
skeleton, however, was better known. Nei¬ 
ther Hippocrates nor his disciples and fol¬ 
lowers, such as Polybus, Syennesis of Cy¬ 
prus, and Diogenes of Apollonia, had any 
really definite and correct knowledge of the 
circulatory and nervous systems; and, 
moreover, the later Hippocratic writings 
contain much that is purely fanciful and 



Anatomy 


Anatomy 


speculative in addition to the statement 
of known facts. With Aristotle compara¬ 
tive anatomy took a great step in advance. 
That philosopher reached much more ac¬ 
curate conceptions as to the blood-vessels 
and the heart than his predecessors, and on 
many other points, too, his knowledge was 
substantially correct, but in regard to the 
nervous system his ideas were very con¬ 
fused. 

When, in later times, under the Ptole¬ 
mies, Alexandria in Egypt became the seat 
of the arts and sciences, anatomy was also 
brought to a high degree of perfection by 
Herophilus of Chalcedon, 300 b. c., and by 
Erasistratus of Chios. The work of these 
men is, however, known to us only through 
the references and quotations of later writ¬ 
ers. According to the testimony of Celsus, 
the former obtained permission to open liv¬ 
ing criminals. He enriched anatomy with 
many important discoveries respecting the 
brain, the functions of the nerves, the blood¬ 
vessels of the mesentery which go to the 
liver, etc. Erasistratus determined many 
facts in the construction of the brain with 
greater distinctness, and, among other im¬ 
provements, gave to the valves in the vena 
cava the names which are yet used. In the 
work on medicine by Celsus (53 B. c.- 
7 A. d.) which has come down to us there 
are many anatomical references; and from 
these we may gather that that celebrated 
physician, in addition to a very accurate 
and extensive knowledge of osteology, had a 
good acquaintance with the windpipe, 
oesophagus, lungs, heart, stomach, liver, 
kidneys, uterus, and other parts. In later 
times the study of anatomy was again neg¬ 
lected, particularly by the empirics. 

Galen (a. d. 130-193), educated in Alex¬ 
andria, collected all the anatomical knowl¬ 
edge of his contemporaries and of earlier 
physicians, but seems not to have much en¬ 
riched human anatomy himself, as he was 
principally occupied with the dissection of 
animals, and only applied his observations 
on them to the structure of the human 
body. . His osteology is the most accurate 
and complete part of his system, and to 
him we owe the first really complete ac¬ 
count of the vertebrae, and their division 
into cervical, dorsal, and lumbar. In his 
knowledge of the muscles he was much 
ahead of those already mentioned, but, of 
course, not satisfactory from a modern 
standpoint. In respect of angiology, he 
proved that the view that the arteries con¬ 
tained air and not blood was erroneous, 
but beyond that he did not go very far. 
He accepted the distinction made by earlier 
anatomists between the nerves of sensation 
and those of motion; the former lie re¬ 
garded as originating in the brain, the lat¬ 
ter as proceeding from the spinal cord. Of 
the brain and the leading viscera his knowl¬ 
edge was very accurate. The only post- 


Galenian, ancient anatomists worthy of note 
are Soranus of Ephesus, who lived under 
Trajan and Hadrian, and Oribasius, born in 
Pergamus, Galen’s birthplace, who was the 
friend of Julian the Apostate. Of these 
the former is remembered for his dissection 
of the female genital organs, while the lat¬ 
ter has left a good description of the sali¬ 
vary glands. 

Among the Arabians anatomy was not 
practised: it was forbidden by their re¬ 
ligion. Their physicians, therefore, took 
their anatomical information merely from 
the writings of the Greeks, particularly 
from those of Galen. Thus anatomy was 
checked in its progress for several centuries. 
Finally, in the 14th century, individuals 
arose who, not satisfied with the anatomical 
instruction of the age, ventured to make 
investigations of their own. The supersti¬ 
tious fear of the dissection of human corpses 
which had hitherto prevailed appeared to 
subside by degrees, when a philosophical 
spirit gave birth to more liberty of 
thought. Mondino di Luzzi, professor at 
Bologna, first publicly dissected two corpses 
in 1315, and soon afterward published a de¬ 
scription of the human body, which for a 
long time was the common compendium of 
anatomy, though many errors were con¬ 
tained in it. To him has been traced the 
first conception of the circulation of the 
blood. From this time it became custom¬ 
ary in all universities to make public dis¬ 
sections once or twice a year. Anatomy, 
however, made but slow progress, since the 
dissections were intended only as illustra¬ 
tions of the writings of Galen and the 
compendium of Mondino. Montagnana 
alone, professor at Padua in the 15th cen¬ 
tury, could boast of having performed 14 
dissections, which was then a great number. 

In the 16th century there were many 
celebrated anatomists, by whose influence 
the study oi anatomy became more general. 
Dubois (1478-1555), Fallopio (about 1550), 
Eustachi (about 1500), Etienne (1503- 
1564), Vesalius (1514-1564), Varoli 
(1545), and many others, enriched anat¬ 
omy with new discoveries. In the 17th cen¬ 
tury there were likewise many famous 
anatomists, and many discoveries were 
made; thus Harvey discovered the circula¬ 
tion of the blood, Wirsung the pancreatic 
duct, Schneider the mucous membrane, 
Asellius the mode of absorption of the nu¬ 
tritious part of foods into the circulation, 
Bartoline the lymphatic system; and other 
notable names are those of Glisson, Whar¬ 
ton, Willis, Malpighi, Steno, Ruysch, Brun¬ 
ner, Tassin, Duverney, Collins, Nieussens, 
Santorini, and Morgagni. In the 18th cen¬ 
tury Pacchioni, Valsalva, Keil, Lancisi, 
Haller, Boerhaave, Vieq-d’Azir, the two 
Hunters, and others, distinguished them¬ 
selves by their skill in anatomy. The 



Anatomy 


Anaxagoras 


younger Meckel, Summering, Loder, Reil, 
Bichat, Portal, Rosenmiiller, Quain, Cooper, 
Bell, Carus, Hackel, Gegenbaur, Owen, and 
Huxley, are worthy to be mentioned as re¬ 
nowned anatomists of later times. 

According to the parts of the body de¬ 
scribed the different divisions of anatomy 
receive different names; as, osteology, the 
description of the bones; myology, of the 
muscles; desmology, of the ligaments and 
sinews, etc.; splanchnology, of the viscera or 
bowels, in which are reckoned the lungs, 
stomach, and intestines, the liver, spleen, 
kidneys, bladder, pancreas, etc. Angiology 
describes the vessels through which the 
liquids in the human body are conducted, 
including the blood-vessels, which are di¬ 
vided into arteries and veins, and the 
lymphatic vessels, some of which absorb 
matters from the bowels, while others are 
distributed through the whole body, pick¬ 
ing up juices from the tissues and carrying 
them back into the blood. Neurology de¬ 
scribes the system of the nerves and of the 
brain; dermology or dermatology of the 
skin. 

Among anatomical labors are particu¬ 
larly to be mentioned the making and pre¬ 
serving of anatomical preparations. Thus 
the whole system of bones, cleared from all 
the adherent muscles, tendons, and other 
parts, is prepared by drying and washing 
with acids, the latter process giving firm¬ 
ness and whiteness to the bones. The in¬ 
testines and other soft parts of the body 
are prepared by putting them into various 
liquids, such as alcohol, spirits of turpen¬ 
tine, etc. For the preservation of vessels, 
and in order to show clearly their course 
and distribution, injections are used. The 
most usual liquid for this purpose is a 
mixture of linseed oil and turpentine with 
certain metallic compounds, to which is add¬ 
ed a suitable coloring substance, such as 
red for arteries, green or blue for veins, and 
white for lymphatic vessels. 

Until 1832 the law in Great Britain 
made very insufficient provision for en¬ 
abling anatomists to obtain a sufficient 
supply of subjects for dissection. The only 
act under which such supply could be got 
down to that date was 9 Geo. IV. cap xxxi. 
sec. 4, which empowered a criminal court, 
when it saw fit, to direct that the body of 
a person executed for murder should be 
dissected after execution. The consequence 
of this deficiency was that the price of 
bodies for anatomical purposes was so great 
as to lead people to resort to illegal and 
nefarious practices in order to get dead 
bodies to sell to the doctors. Resurrec¬ 
tionists, as they were called, used to dig up 
newly-buried corpses with this object, and 
in more than one case it was discovered that 
murder was systematically practised for the 
same purpose. To remedy these evils the 


law that still regulates the supply of bodies 
for dissection, 2 and 3 Will. IV. cap. lxxv., 
was passed in the year mentioned, and its 
operation is said to be such as, generally 
speaking, to meet the wants of anatomical 
students. This act, after reciting in the 
preamble the evils that it is intended to 
counteract, “ empowers the principal secre¬ 
tary of state (the home secretary) and the 
chief secretary for Ireland to grant a li¬ 
cense to practise anatomy to any fellow or 
member of any college of physicians or sur¬ 
geons, or to any graduate or licentiate in 
medicine, or to any person lawfully quali¬ 
fied to practise medicine, or to any pro¬ 
fessor or teacher of anatomy, medicine, or 
surgery, or to any student attending any 
school of anatomy.” The main provision 
for the supply of subjects for dissection is 
contained in the seventh clause, which says 
that executors or others having lawful pos¬ 
session of the body of any deceased person, 
unless intrusted with the body only for the 
purpose of interment, may permit such 
body to undergo anatomical examination, 
unless, to the knowledge of such executors 
or others, such person shall have expressed a 
desire, either in writing during life or 
verbally in the presence of two or more 
witnesses during the illness whereof he or 
she died, that his or her body after death 
might not undergo such examination, or 
unless the surviving husband or wife, or 
any known relative of the deceased person, 
shall require the body to be interred with¬ 
out such examination. This clause enables 
anatomists to acquire the bodies of a con¬ 
siderable number of persons who die friend¬ 
less in almshouses, hospitals, etc. The 
eighth clause requires that, if any person 
has duly expressed a desire that his or 
her body be anatomically examined after 
death, those having lawful possession of the 
body after death shall see that this desire 
is carried out, unless the surviving hus¬ 
band or wife, or the nearest known relative 
of the deceased, shall require the body to 
be interred without such examination. In¬ 
spectors are appointed to supervise the 
carrying out of the act. No body may be 
removed from the place of death till 48 
hours after the decease, nor till after 24 
hours’ notice of the intended removal has 
been given to the inspector of the district, 
or if there be no inspector to some physi¬ 
cian or qualified person, nor till the cause 
of death has been duly certified. The act 
does not prohibit post mortem examination 
directed to be made by any competent legal 
authority. 

Anaxagoras (an-aks-ag'o-ras), a famous 
Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, born 
at ClazomemB, in 500 (?) b. c. He explained 
eclipses and advanced physical science. In 
philosophy, he taught that the universe is 
regulated by an eternal selRexistent and 



Anaximander 


Anchor 


infinitely powerful principle, called by him 
mind; matter he seems to have asserted to 
be eternal, what is called generation and 
destruction being merely the temporary 
union and separation of ever existing ele¬ 
ments; he disproved the doctrine that things 
may have arisen by chance. Fragments of 
his “Treatise on Nature ” are still in ex¬ 
istence. He died in 428 b. c. 

Anaximander (an-ax-im'an-der), a Greek 
mathematician and philosopher, successor 
• of Thales as head of the physical school of 
philosophy, was born at Miletus, in Gil b. 
c. He is said to have discovered the ob¬ 
liquity of the ecliptic, and he certainly 
taught it. He appears to have applied the 
gnomon, or style set on a horizontal plane, 
to determine the solstices and equinoxes. 
The invention of geographical maps is also 
ascribed to him. As a philosopher, he specu¬ 
lated on the origin ( arclic ) of the phenom¬ 
enal world, and this principle he held to be 
the infinite or indeterminate (to apciron ). 
From it he conceived all opposites, such as 
hot and cold, dry and moist, to proceed 
through a perpetual motion, and to return 
to it again. Of the manner in which he 
imagined these opposites to be formed, and 
of his hypothesis concerning the formation 
of the heavenly bodies from them, we have 
no sufficient information. Some of his par¬ 
ticular opinions were, that the sun is in 
the highest region of the heavens, is in cir¬ 
cumference 28 times greater than the earth, 
and resembles a cylinder from which flow 
continual streams of fire; also that the earth 
is of the form of a cylinder, that it floats 
In the midst of the universe, and that it was 
formed by the drying up of moisture by 
the sun. He died in 547. 

Anaximenes (an-ax-im'en-ez), a philos¬ 
opher of Miletus, flourished about 55G b. c. 
He was a disciple of Anaximander, from 
whose doctrines he, however, deviated. Ac¬ 
cording to him, the air is the infinite, di¬ 
vine, perpetually active, first principle of 
all things. Pliny attributes to him the in¬ 
vention of the sun-dial. 

Anaya, Pedro Maria (an-i'ya), a Mex¬ 
ican general, born at Huichapan, in 1795. 
He held many important military and civil 
offices; was acting president for a short time 
while Santa Ana was resisting the army 
of General Scott in the war of 184G-1847; 
and commanded the Mexican force of 800 
men which defended the Convent of Churu- 
busco, and only surrendered after his am¬ 
munition was exhausted, Aug. 20. 1847. On 
Santa Ana’s restoration, in 1853, he was 
made postmaster-general, an office he held 
until his death in 1854. 

Anbert Kend, a celebrated book of the 
Brahmins, wherein the Indian religion and 
philosophy are contained. It is divided into 
60 beths or discourses, each consisting of 


10 chapters. It has been translated into 
Arabic, under the title of “Morat al Maani,” 
i. e., the marrow of intelligence. 

Ancachs (iln-kachs'), a Department of 
Peru, bounded N. by the Department of Lib- 
ertad, S. by that of Lima, and extending 
from the Pacific eastward to the head-waters 
of the Amazon. Area, 17,405 square miles; 
pop. 284,091. It is rich in minerals, and 
is traversed by a railway. Capital, Huaraz. 

Anchises (an-ki'sez), the father of the 
Trojan hero /Eneas, who carried him off on 
his shoulders at the burning of Troy and 
made him the companion of his voyage to 
Italy. He died at Drepanum, in Sicily. 

Anchitherium (an-ke-the're-um), a fossil 
mammal belonging to the family palceo- 
thcridce. It has been called also hipparither- 
ium, suggesting an affinity to the horse in 
the neighboring family of equidce. The 
anchitherium aurelianense occurs in mio- 
cene rocks in Spain, France, Germany, and 
in Nebraska. 

Anchor, a well known instrument for pre¬ 
venting a ship from drifting, by mooring her 
to the bottom of the sea, provided that the 
water is shallow enough to permit of this 
being done. Its invention was at a very 
early period. Those of the early Greeks 
were simply large stones, sacks filled with 
sand, or logs of wood loaded with lead. 
Then the Tuscans, or Midas, King of Phry¬ 
gia, introduced a tooth, or fluke, which was 
ultimately exchanged for two. The modern 
anchor consists of a long bar or shank of 
iron c, branching out at the lower ex¬ 
tremity into two arms b ending in flukes 
a, barbed at their extremity, and with a 
stock of oak or wood d at the upper one, 
while it terminates in a ring, to which a 
rope or chain is affixed. The arms or flukes 
are designed to penetrate and fix themselves 
in the sea-bottom. They consist of a blade, 
a palm, and a bill. The one end of the 
shank is made square to receive and hold 
the stock steadily in its place without turn¬ 
ing. To keep the stock also from shifting 
along the shank there are raised on it from 
the solid iron, or welded on it, two square, 
tenon-like projections, called nuts. The end 
of the shank next the stock is called the 
small round. The other extremity, where 
the arms and the shank unite, is called the 
crown; and the points of the angle between 
the arms and the shank, the throat. A dis¬ 
tance equal to that between the throat of 
one arm and its bill is marked on the shank 
from the place where it joins the arms, and 
is called the trend. The use of the shank 
is to present an attachment for the cable. 
That of the stock is to make the anchor fall 
in such a way as to enable one of the flukes 
easily to infix itself in the ground. Large 
vessels have more anchors than one, which 
are stowed in different parts of the ship. 



Anchoret 


Ancona 


The best bower to the starboard, the small 
bower to the port-cathead, with the flukes 
on the bill-board, the sheet anchor on the 
afterpart of the fore-channels on the star¬ 
board side, and the spare anchor on the port 
side. Some technical phrases which have 
found their way into English literature have 
already been given. Others are the follow¬ 
ing: An anchor is said to come home when 
it is wrenched out of the ground and 
dragged forward by the violence of the wind 
or the sea, or by the strength of a current. 
It is foul if it become entangled with the 
cable; awash, when the stock is hove up 
to the surface of the water; a-peak, when 
the cable is so drawn as to bring the ship 
directly over it; a-cockbill, when hanging 
vertically; a-tip, when drawn out of the 
ground in a perpendicular direction; and 
a-weigh, when it lias been drawn just out 
of the ground and hangs vertically. To 
back an anchor is to lay down a small 
anchor ahead of the one by which the ship 
rides, with the cable fastened to the crown 
of the principal one to aid in preventing its 
“ coming home.” To cat the anchor: To 
draw the anchor to the cathead by means of 
a machine called the “ cat.” To fish the 
anchor: To employ a machine called a 

“ fish ” to hoist the flukes of an anchor to 
the top of the bow. To steer the ship to 
her anchor: To steer the ship to the spot 
where the anchor lies while the cable is 
being heaved on board the ship. To shoe 
the anchor: To cover the flukes of it with 
a triangular plank of wood, to enable it to 
fix itself more tenaciously in a soft bot¬ 
tom. To sweep the anchor: To dredge at 
the bottom of the anchoring ground for a 
lost anchor. To throw the anchor: The 
same as cast the anchor. 

An anchor, in architecture, is a kind of 
carving somewhat resembling an anchor. It 
it generally used as part of the enrichment 
of the bottoms of capitals in the Tuscan, 
Doric, and Ionic orders, or as that of the 
boultins of bed-moldings in Doric, Ionic, and 
Corinthian cornices, anchors and eggs being 
carved alternately throughout the whole 
building. 

Anchoret, Anachoret, or Anchorite, 

any person who, from religious motives, has 
renounced the world, and retired from it 
into seclusion. The peculiarity of the 
anchorites, properly so called, was, that 
though they had retired for solitude to the 
wilderness, yet they lived there in fixed 
abodes (generally caves or hovels) in place 
of wandering about. When they did travel 
they slept wherever night overtook them, so 
that visitors might not know where to find 
them. They were most numerous in the 
Egyptian desert, where they lived on roots 
and plants, believing that to afflict the body 
was the best method of spiritually benefit¬ 
ing the soul. Most of them were laymen; 


there were also female anchorites. They 
first arose, it is said, about the middle of 
the 3d century, and in the 7th the Church 
extended its control over them, and ulti¬ 
mately threw difficulties in the way of any¬ 
one who wished to adopt such a mode of life. 
It is also applied to any person of similar 
habits to those of the old anchorites just 
described. The mistaken desire to retreat 
from the world to the wilderness is not 
distinctively Christian; it tends to manifest 
itself to a greater or less extent in all re¬ 
ligions and in all ages. Anchorites of vari- 
our Hindu ascetic sects are at present to 
be found among the jungles and hills of 
India, and they were much more numerous 
when the dominant faith in that land was 
Buddhism. 

Anchovy, a fish, the engraulis encrasi- 
colus of Fleming; the engraulis vulgaris 
of Cuvier. It belongs to the clupeidce, or 
herring family. In general, its length is 
from 4 to 5 inches; but specimens have 
been found 7% inches long. It is common 
in the Mediterranean and parts of the ocean. 
Shoals of anchovies annually enter the Med¬ 
iterranean, and various fisheries exist along 
its northern shores, the most celebrated 
being at Gorgona, a small island W. of 
Leghorn. Sometimes another species, the 
engraulis maletta, is either mixed with, or 
substituted for, the genuine fish. 

Anchovy Pear, the English name of tho 
genus grias, which is placed by Lindley 
doubtfully under the order barringtoniacece 
(Barringtoniads). Grias cauliflora, the 
stem-flowering anchovy pear, is an elegant 
tree, with large leaves, which grows in the 
West Indies. The fruit, which is eaten, 
tastes like that of the mango, and is pickled 
in the same way. 

Anchylosis, the coalescence of two bones, 
so as to prevent motion between them. If 
anything keep a joint motionless for a long 
time, the bones which constitute it have a 
tendency to become anchylosed, in which 
case all flexibility is lost. In other cases, 
when anchylosis is the lesser of two evils, 
the bones which nature is about to weld to¬ 
gether should be kept in the positions in 
which they will be of the greatest use when 
the union between them takes place. 

Ancile, a shield said to have fallen from 
heaven during the reign of Numa Pompilius. 
It was believed to be the shield of Mars; 
and as the prosperity of Rome was supposed 
to depend upon its preservation, 11 others 
were made like it, that any one wishing to 
steal it might not know which to take. 
It is conjectured to have been originally a 
lump of meteoric iron. 

Ancona, capital of a province in Italy, is 
situated on a promontory of the Adriatic 
coast, 127 miles S. E. of Ravenna by rail. 
The seat of a bishop, it contained (1901) 
50,825 inhabitants. Its harbor had become 



Ancre 


Andalusia 


much Bilted up, but in 1887-1890 was im¬ 
proved and deepened; while plans had been 
adopted by the government for new docks, 
an arsenal, and separate dry-docks for the 
navy and mercantile marine. Its commerce 
is much less considerable than it once was, 
but it is still the most important seaport 
on the Adriatic between Venice and Brindisi. 
The manufactures are silk, ships’ rigging, 
leather, tobacco, and soft soap; the exports 
(declining in recent years) are cream of tar¬ 
tar, lamb and goat skins, asphalt, bitumen, 
corn, hemp, coral, and silk. Since 1815, the 
old citadel was the only fortification until, 
recently, strong forts were erected on the 
neighboring heights, and the citadel turned 
into a large depbt for soldiers. A mole of 
2,000 feet in length, built by the Emperor 
Trajan, and a triumphal arch of the same 
emperor, are the most notable monuments 
of antiquity. One of the most venerable 
buildings is the Cathedral of San Ciriaco, 
built in the 11th century, and possessing the 
oldest cupola in Italy. But the houses are 
in general mean, and the streets narrow. 
Ancona is supposed to have been founded 
about 380 B. c. by Syracusans, who had fled 
from the tyranny of Dionysius the Elder. 
It was destroyed by the Goths, rebuilt by 
Narses, and again destroyed by the Saracens 
in the 10th century. It afterward became a 
republic; but in 1532 Pope Clement VII. 
annexed it to the States of the Church. In 
1797 it was taken bv the French; but in 
1799 General Meunicr was obliged to sur¬ 
render it to the Bussians and Austrians, af¬ 
ter a long and gallant defense. In 1832 a 
French force took possession of the town 
and kept it in their hands till 1838, when 
both French and Austrians retired from the 
Papal States. In 1849 a revolutionary gar¬ 
rison in Ancona capitulated after enduring 
a siege by the Austrians of 25 days. In 
18G1 the flag of the kingdom of Italy waved 
over the ancient city. “ The March of An¬ 
cona ” was the name applied to the terri¬ 
tory lying between the Adriatic and the 
Apennines, from Tronto N. W. to San Mar¬ 
ino. Erected into an independent marquis- 
ate under the Longobards, the district was 
a papal dependency from the 13th century, 
but passed into the hands of Victor Em¬ 
manuel in 1860. 

Ancre (ank'er), Baron de Lussigny, 
Marshal d\ originally Concino Concini, a 
Florentine by birth, who went to the French 
court in 1600, in the train of Marie de 
Medici, the wife of Henry IV. He married 
Leonore Galigal, one of the queen's women, 
and aided her in promoting the disagree¬ 
ment between the king and queen. After 
Henry’s death, he became chief favorite and 
adviser of the queen-regent, and was raised 
to post after post of profit and honor, be¬ 
coming at length Marquis, and, in 1614, 
even Marshal of France, though he had 
18 


never seen war. His prodigality was im¬ 
mense, and he squandered enormous sums 
on the decoration of his palaces. Hated 
alike by nobility and populace, he was as¬ 
sassinated in the Louvre in open day, on 
April 24, 1617, the young King Louis XIII. 
himself being privy to the plot. His body 
was dragged by the mob through the streets, 
and burned before the statue of Henry IV. 
His wife was soon executed, on a charge of 
having practiced witchcraft to gain influ¬ 
ence over the queen. 

Ancrum Moor, Roxburghshire, 514 miles 
N. W. of Jedburgh, was in 1544 the scene 
of the defeat of 5,000 English, under Sir 
Ralph Evers and Sir Brian Latoun, by a 
Scottish force under the Earl of Angus and 
Scott of Buccleucli. A defaced monument 
marks the spot where a Scottish maiden, 
named Lilliard, is said to have done prodi¬ 
gies of valor. 

Ancus Marcius (mar'shus), the fourth 
King of Rome, was the grandson of King 
aSTuma Pompilius. Following the example 
of Numa, he endeavored to restore the al¬ 
most forgotten worship of the gods and the 
cultivation of the arts of peace among the 
Romans. But, despite his inclination for 
peace, he became involved in several wars 
with the neighboring Latin tribes, whom 
he subdued and reduced to order. He car¬ 
ried their inhabitants to Rome, and settled 
them on the Aventine. Against the Etrus¬ 
cans he fortified the Janiculum, connected 
it with Rome by a wooden bridge, and 
gained possession of both banks of the Tiber, 
as far as its mouth, where he founded Ostia 
as the port of Rome; and built the first Ro¬ 
man prison of which we read. He died in 
616 b. c., after reigning 24 years. 

Andalusia, a large and fertile region oc¬ 
cupying the S. of Spain. Its shores are 
washed both by the Mediterranean and the 
Atlantic; and, though it is not now a polit¬ 
ical division of Spain, it is more frequently 
spoken of than the eight modern provinces 
into which it has been divided. The name is 
a form of Vandalitia or Vandalusia, from 
the Vandals, who overran it in the 5th cen¬ 
tury. When it was a Phoenician trade em¬ 
porium, it was called Tartessus (probably 
the “ Tarshish ” of the Bible) ; the Romans 
named it Boetica, from the river Bsetis, the 
modern Guadalquivir. In the 8th century, 
the Moors founded here a splendid mon¬ 
archy, which quickly attained a high degree 
of civilization. The four great Moorish 
capitals were Seville, Cordova, Jaen, and 
Granada. During the darkness of the Mid¬ 
dle Ages, Cordova was “ the Athens of the 
West, the seat of arts and sciences.” The 
Moorish kingdoms were finally conquered 
by the Castilians in 1235-1248. Christian 
intolerance seriously and permanently im¬ 
poverished the country; but later, under the 
Spaniards, painting here arose in a new 





Andamans 


Andersen 


form in the schools of Velasquez and Mu¬ 
rillo. Andalusia mainly consists of the 
great basin of the Guadalquivir, and the 
mountainous districts which bound it. In 
the S., the Sierra Nevada attains a 
height of 11,657 feet. Andalusia was called 
the garden and the granary of Spain; but 
now such names are merited only by por¬ 
tions of the country on both sides of the 
Guadalquivir, where, even with careless cul¬ 
tivation, the soil is luxuriantly productive, 
and vegetation generally -assumes a tropical 
character. Cotton and sugar-cane flourish 
in the open air, and the cactus and aloe 
form impenetrable hedges. Wine and oil 
abound; but some tracts are very barren, 
especially in the W., owing to deficiency of 
water. On the whole, however, Andalusia 
is still one of the most fertile districts of 
Spain, owing to its delicious southern cli¬ 
mate and the abundance of water supplied 
by its snowy mountains. Its breeds of 
horses and mules have long been celebrated. 
The mountains yield silver, copper, lead, 
iron, and coal; and some ores are extensively 
worked. The Andalusians are lively, imag¬ 
inative, and active, but boastful, unwarlike, 
and superstitious. They speak a dialect of 
Spanish, manifestly tinctured with traces 
of Arabic. Andalusia is divided into the 
Provinces of Almeria, Jaen, Malaga, Cadiz, 
Huelva, Seville, Cordova, and Granada. 
The chief towns are Seville, Cordova, Jaen, 
and Cadiz. Area, 33,340 square miles. Pop. 
(1900) 3,562,606. 

Andamans, a group of thickly wooded 
islands toward the E. side of the Bay of 
Bengal, about 680 miles S. of the Hooghly 
mouth of the Ganges, between 10° and 14° 
of N. latitude, and 92° and 94° of E. longi¬ 
tude. They consist of the Great and Little 
Andaman groups, surrounded by many 
smaller islands. The Great Andaman group 
is more than 150 miles long and 20 miles 
broad, and comprises four islands, the North, 
Middle, and South Andaman, and Rutland 
Island. The Little Andaman, which lies 
about 30 miles S. of the larger group, is 28 
miles long by 17 miles broad. The total 
area is 2,508 square miles. The native in¬ 
habitants stand in the lowest stage of civil¬ 
ization, and belong to the same family as 
the original small statured races in South¬ 
ern India; their number in Great Andaman 
is about 2,000; in Little Andaman, from 
1,000 to 1,500. Those that have come into 
contact with the convicts here have deterior¬ 
ated morally. Their height seldom reaches 
five feet; their complexion is very dark, the 
hair crisp and wooly. The men go naked; 
the women wear round the loins a girdle of 
leaves. They have no settled dwellings, but 
go freely from island to island, and subsist 
on the fruits and beasts of the wood, and 
upon fish. A British settlement was made 
on North Andaman in 1789, but abandoned 


in 1796 for Penang. The capital of the 
present settlement is at Port Blair, on South 
Andaman, the largest island of the group. 
The harbor here is one of the finest in the 
world. Since 1858, the Andamans have been 
a penal settlement for Sepoy mutineers and 
other life convicts. In 1872 Lord Mayo, 
Viceroy of India, was assassinated at Hope- 
town, on Viper Island, by a Mussulman con¬ 
vict. 

Anderab, or Inderab, a town in Afghan¬ 
istan, on the N. slope of the Hindu Kush; 
65 miles S. of Ivunduz, and about 95 miles 
N. by E. of Kabul. It lies at the junction 
of the Anderab and Kiasan rivers, at the 
foot of a hill, and is surrounded by fine gar¬ 
dens, fruit trees, and vineyards. The road 
that leads to the extreme E. pass over the 
Hindu Kush passes through it, and it has 
thus a large transit trade. 

Andernach, a town of Rhenish Prussia; 
on the left bank of the Rhine; 10 miles N. 
W. of Coblentz. Its strong walls and massy 
gates (the Rhine Gate is said to belong to 
the time of the Merovingians) give it an 
air of antiquity, but it has narrow, dirty 
streets, and does not possess any edifice par¬ 
ticularly deserving of notice except the 
church of St. Genoveva, built in the 13th 
century, and the watch-tower. Andernach 
has maufactures of ultramarine, cigars, 
soap, and perfumes, and has long been 
famous for its millstones and its trass, or 
cement. Pop. (1900) 7,889. 

Andersen, Hans Christian, a Danish 

novelist, poet, and writer of fairy tales; 
born in Odense, April 2, 1805. His father, 
a poor shoemaker, had acquired some lit¬ 
erary tastes, and though he died when his 
son was quite young he seems to have given 
his mind the earliest bent to the studies 
which determined his future career. Hans 
learned to read and write in a charity 
school, and eagerly availed himself of these 
elements of instruction for further improve¬ 
ment. His reading consisted of national 
ballads, poetry, and plays, many of which 
he learned to repeat. He wrote juvenile 
plays, overcharged with horrors and couch¬ 
ed in an extravagant poetical diction, and 
was deeply mortified when they were laugh¬ 
ed at; and he acted plays which he had 
either read or written in a marionette thea¬ 
ter in which he was his own manager. He 
was put to work in a manufactory, and 
amused the workmen with singing — an ac¬ 
complishment in which he excelled; but 
their habits and his were uncongenial to 
each other, and he returned home to his 
favorite pursuits. His mother purposed to 
make him a tailor, but his heart was set 
on the theater; and in autumn, 1819. he 
went to Copenhagen, and failing to procure 
employment of the kind he wished worked 
for a short time as a joiner. Getting dis<- 



Andersen 


Anderson 


heartened with this work he applied to 
Professor Siboni of the conservatory, who, 
after hearing his voice, undertook to edu¬ 
cate him as a singer for the stage; but after 
six months his voice broke, and his patron 
recommended him to return home and learn 
a trade. Rejecting this unpalatable advice, 
he applied to the poet Guldberg, who ob¬ 
tained him a subordinate employment in a 
theater. Here he struggled on for a year 
or two, prosecuting his studies amid all 
difficulties, till Councillor Collin, who had 
become director of the theater, perceiving 
his abilities, procured for him free entry 
into a government school at Slagelse. Meis- 
ling, rector of this school, was transferred 
to the college at Helsingor, and took An¬ 
dersen with him; but notwithstanding this 
kindness, he was merciless in his ridicule 
of his pupil’s eccentricities, and Andersen’s 
sensibilities were so much hurt that he was 
constrained to leave him. Another friend, 
L. C. Mdller, introduced him to the univer¬ 
sity. His poetical contributions had already 
been received with favor in some of the lead¬ 
ing Danish journals; and in 1828, the year 
of his admission to the university, he pub¬ 
lished his first considerable work, “ A Jour¬ 
ney on Foot from Holmen’s Canal to the 
East Foint of Amager,” which was received 
with marked favor. During the same year 
he produced at the Royal Theater a comic 
vaudeville in rhymed verse, entitled “ Love 
on St. Nicholas’ Tower,” and at Christmas 
he published his first collection of poems. 
In 1830 he made a tour in Ftinen and Jut¬ 
land, and in 1831 he published “ Fancies 
and Sketches,” which was severely criticized, 
and was less successful than his previous 
works. This and other disappointments — 
one of which was in the more serious affair 
of love — broke down his spirits, and he was 
advised to travel for his health. After an 
excursion to Germany he published “ Shad¬ 
ow Pictures of a Tour in the ITartz and 
Saxon Switzerland,” “ Vignettes of Danish 
Poets,” and a new volume of poems called 
“ The Twelve Months of the Year.” Through 
the influence of Oehlenschlager and other 
friends he received a royal grant to enable 
him to travel, and in 1833, after passing 
through France, he visited Italy,. his im¬ 
pressions of which he published in “The 
Improvvisatore ” (1835)—a work which 

rendered his fame European, and which he 
dedicated, with appropriate gratitude and 
affection, to his friend Collin. The scene 
of his following novel, “ 0. T.,” was laid in 
Denmark, and in “Only a Fiddler” he de¬ 
scribed his own early struggles. In 1834, 
immediately on his return from Italy, he 
published the poem of “ Agnete and the Mer¬ 
man,” and in 1835 appeared the first vol¬ 
ume of his “ Fairy Tales,” of which succes¬ 
sive volumes continued to be published year 
by year at Christmas, first under the title 
of “ Eventyr ” and afterward of “ Ilisto- 


rier,” and which have been the most popular 
and widespread of his works. Among his oth¬ 
er works are “ Picture-books without Pic¬ 
tures,” “ A Poet’s Bazaar ” — the result of 
a voyage in 1840 to the East — and a num¬ 
ber of dramas. In the last species of com¬ 
position he did not excel so much as in tales 
of imagination, although some of his fairy 
comedies attained great success. Among 
his numerous travels he visited England in 
1848, and acquired such a command of the 
language that his next work, “ The Two 
Baronesses,” was written in English. In 
1845 he received an annuity from the gov¬ 
ernment which made him independent. 
Among his later works may be mentioned, 
“In Sweden” (1849); an autobiography, 
under the title, “ My Life’s Romance ” 
(1853), an English translation of which, 
published in 1871, contained additional 
chapters by the author, bringing the narra¬ 
tive down to the time of the Odense festival 
of 1807; “To Be or Not To Be” (1857); 
“Tales from Jutland” (1859) ; “The Sand¬ 
hills of Jutland” (18G0) ; “The Ice Maid¬ 
en,” and “In Spain” (1863). Many of 
his works, particularly “ The Improvvisa¬ 
tore ” and “ The Fairy Tales,” have been 
translated into most of the European lan¬ 
guages. A German translation, in 35 vol¬ 
umes 12mo, appeared at Leipsic, in 1847, 
and many of the English and other transla¬ 
tions have been made from the German in¬ 
stead of the original. He died in Rolighed, 
Aug. 4, 1875. Andersen’s tales are distin¬ 
guished by simplicity, humor, tenderness, 
and poetical imagination. Personally he 
was egotistical to an extraordinary degree, 
but with an inoffensive egotism; he was 
also, from his over-sensitiveness, somewhat 
irritable. 

Anderson, a city and county-seat of An¬ 
derson Co., 8. C.; is the seat of Anderson 
Female College and of Patrick Military 
Institute; has a cotton mill, shoe factory, 
churches and high school. Pop. (1890), 
3,018; (1900), 5,498; (1910) 9,054. 

Anderson, city and county-seat of Mad¬ 
ison Co., ind.; on several railroads and a 
hydraulic canal with a fall of nearly 50 feet; 
36 miles N. E. of Indianapolis. It is prin¬ 
cipally engaged in manufacturing, and has 
a National bank, public library, high 
school, daily and weekly newspapers, and a 
property valuation of over $2,250,000. Pop. 
(1900), 20,178; ( 1910), 22,470. 

Anderson, Adam, a Scotch economist; 
born in 1692. For many years he was a 
clerk in the South Sea house, where he 
wrote a book entitled “ Historical and 
Chronological Deduction of the Origin of 
Commerce.” He died in London, Jan. 10, 
1705. 

Anderson, Alexander, an American wood 
engraver, born in New ^ ork City, April 21, 
1775; began engraving on copper and type 




Anderson 


Anderson 


metal when 12 years old, without instruc¬ 
tion and with a knowledge of the art gained 
solely by watching jewelers. He was grad¬ 
uated at the Medical Department of Colum¬ 
bia College in 1796, and engaged in prac¬ 
tice for two years, when he applied him¬ 
self wholly to engraving, having found it 
possible to engrave pictures on blocks of 
box wood, and having made his own tools 
for his work. He produced the first wood 
engravings ever made in the United States, 
and for many years was the only engraver 
on wood in New York. He died in Jersey 
City, N. J., Jan. 17, 1870. 

Anderson, Alexander, the “ Surfaceman- 
poet,” was born at Kirkconnel, Dumfries¬ 
shire, April 30, 1845; worked for some 
years as a surfaceman and plate-layer on 
the Glasgow and Southwestern railway, and 
in 1880 went to Edinburgh as assistant uni¬ 
versity librarian. For three years he was 
secretary to the Edinburgh Philosophical 
Institution. Among his publications are 
poems, ballads, and sonnets. 

Anderson, Sir Edmund, an English ju¬ 
rist, born in Elixborough, or Broughton, 
Lincolnshire, in 1530; was Lord Chief Jus¬ 
tice of the Court of Common Pleas in 1582- 
1605; and is remembered as a bitter op¬ 
ponent of the Puritans. He died Aug. 1, 
1605. 

Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett, an Eng¬ 
lish physician, born in London in 1837, and 
brought up chiefly at Aldborough, Suffolk. 
In 1860 she studied medicine with much 
credit at the Middlesex Hospital; but a pe¬ 
tition from the students against the admis¬ 
sion of women prevented her return. Miss 
Garrett experienced considerable difficulty 
in qualifying, but in 1865 she passed the 
Apothecaries’ Hall examination with credit, 
and the next year received ber first dis¬ 
pensary appointment. In 1870 she was 
made a visiting physician to the East Lon¬ 
don Hospital, and headed the poll in the 
election for the London School Board. In 
this year, also, the University of Paris con¬ 
ferred on her the degree of M.D. Since her 
marriage to Mr. Anderson, in 1871, she has 
practiced regularly as a physician for wo¬ 
men and children. She has written several 
papers on professional and social subjects. 
From 1876 to 1898 she was Dean of the Lon¬ 
don Medical School for Women. 

Anderson, John, founder of the college 
in Glasgow bearing his name, was born in 
the parish of Roseneath, Dumbartonshire, in 
1726. He studied at the University of Glas¬ 
gow, in which he was for four years Pro¬ 
fessor of Oriental Languages; in 1760 he 
was transferred to the chair of Natural Phi¬ 
losophy. In addition to his usual class in 
physics, he instituted one far artisans, which 
he continued to teach to the end of his life. 
In 1786 appeared his “ Institutes of Phys¬ 


ics,” which went through five editions in 
10 years. He invented a species of gun, the 
recoil of which was stopped by the con¬ 
densation of common air within the body 
of the carriage; but having in vain endeav¬ 
ored to attract the attention of the British 
Government to it, he went to Paris in 1791 
and presented his model to the National 
Convention. It was hung up in their hall, 
with the following inscription over it: “The 
Gift of Science to Liberty.” Afterward, 
when the allied monarchical forces had 
drawn a military cordon around the fron¬ 
tiers of France, Anderson ingeniously sug¬ 
gested the expedient, which was adopted, of 
making small balloons of paper, to which 
newspapers and manifestoes might be tied, 
and so carried to Germany. Anderson died 
in 1796, and by his will he directed that the 
whole of his effects, of every kind, should 
be devoted to the establishment of an edu¬ 
cational institution in Glasgow, for the use 
of the unacademical classes. 

Anderson’s College was originally in¬ 
tended to be a university of four colleges. 
The funds being inadequate to the proposed 
plan, the institution was opened with only 
a single course of lectures on natural phi¬ 
losophy and chemistry, by Dr. Thomas Gar¬ 
nett, in 1796. In 1798 a professor of 
mathematics and geography was appointed. 
In 1799 Dr. Birkbeck, the successor of 
Dr. Garnett, commenced the system of giv¬ 
ing a familiar exposition of mechanics and 
general science, and this was the origin of 
mechanics’ institutes. 

The institution gradually enlarged its 
rpliere of instruction, till it came to have 
a staff of nearly 20 professors and lecturers. 
Courses of instruction are given in physical 
and medical science and in chemistry; there 
are also taught mathematics, Latin, Greek, 
Hebrew, French, music, etc. As a school 
of medicine, in particular, it possesses a 
high reputation. Between 1861 and 1870 
the endowments were largely augmented by 
large benefactions from Mr. Freeland, Mr. 
Ewing, and Mr. Young, of Kelly. The col¬ 
lege possesses a number of valuable bur¬ 
saries. 

Anderson, Martin Brewer, an American 
educator, born in Brunswick, Me., Feb. 12, 
1815; was graduated at Waterville College 
in 1840; became Professor of Rhetoric and 
organized and taught the course in Modern 
History at Waterville, and was chosen 
President of the newly organized bniver 
sity of Rochester (N. Y.) in 1853, hold¬ 
ing the post till 1888. He died Feb. 26, 
1890. 

Anderson, Mary (Mrs. A. de Navarro), 

an American actress, born in Sacramento, 
Cal., July 28, 1859. She played for the 
first time at Louisville, in 1875, in the char¬ 
acter of Juliet. Her success was marked 
and immediate, and during the following 



Anderson 


Andes 


year9 she played with increasing popularity 
in the principal cities of the United States 
in various roles. In 1883 she appeared at 
the Lyceum Theater, in London, and speed¬ 
ily became well known in England. 

Anderson, Rasmus Bjorn, an American 
author, born in Albion, Wis., Jan. 12, 1846, 
of Norwegian parents. He was educated at 
Norwegian Lutheran College, Decorali, la.; 
becomirg Professor of Scandinavian Lan¬ 
guages in the University of Wisconsin in 
1875-1884, and United States Minister to 
Denmark in 1885. His books include 
“ America Not Discovered by Christopher 
Columbus” (1874); “Norse Mythology” 
(1875); “Viking Tales of the North” 
(1877), and “Translation of the Younger 
Edda” (1880). 

Anderson, Robert, an American military 
oflieer; born near Louisville, Ivy., June 14, 
1805; was graduated at the United States 
Military Academy in 1825, and entered the 
artillery; was private secretary to the Uni¬ 
ted States minister to Colombia in 1825- 
1826; instructor at the Military Academy 
for a while; on ordnance duty in 1828- 
1835; served in the Black Hawk War in 
1832 as colonel of volunteers, taking part 
in the battle of Bad Axe; and in the Florida 
War in 1837-1838 on General Scott’s staff, 
and was made assistant adjutant-general 
on the staff in May of the latter year. He 
was with General Scott in his campaign in 
Mexico, taking part in the engagements at 
Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Amozoque, and at 
Molino del Roy, where he was severely 
wounded. He was commissioned major 
and was placed in command of Charleston 
harbor, to succeed Colonel Gardiner, with 
headquarters at Fort Moultrie, in 1860. 
After arriving at Fort Moultrie he informed 
the government of the weakness of the forts 
in the harbor, and urged the necessity of 
immediately strengthening them. As the 
government did not respond, and he was left 
to his own resources, he began to strengthen 
Castle Pinckney and Fort Moultrie. Fear¬ 
ing that Fort Moultrie would be attacked at 
any moment he applied to the government 
for instructions. Receiving none he decided 
to remove with his garrison to Fort Sumter. 
This he did on the evening of Dec. 26. The 
Confederates were much surprised the next 
day on discovering the change, and asked 
him to explain his conduct in acting with¬ 
out orders, to which he replied that he did 
it to save the government works. He was 
attacked and surrendered the fort after a 
heavy bombardment, April 12-13, 1861. In 
1861 he was promoted Brigadier-General, 
U, S. A., and placed in command of the 
Department of Kentucky and of the Cum¬ 
berland, but failing health caused him to 
retire from active service in 1863, when he 
was brevetted Major-General, He died in 
Nice, France, Oct. 26, 1871, 


Anderson, Rufus, an American mission¬ 
ary, born in North Yarmouth, Me., Aug. 
17, 1790; was graduated at Bowdoin 

College in 1818, and Andover Theolog¬ 
ical Seminary in 1822; Assistant Secretary 
of the American Board of Commissioners 
for Foreign Missions in 1824-1858; a foun¬ 
der of Mount Holyoke Seminary. His nu¬ 
merous publications include “ Observations 
on the Peloponnesus and Greek Islands ” 
(1830); “The Hawaiian Islands” (1864); 
“A Heathen Nation Evangelized” (1870), 
and “ History of the Missions, etc., to the 
Oriental Churches” (1872). He died in 
Boston, May 30, 1880. 

Andersonville, a village in Georgia, noted 
as having been the seat of a Confederate 
States military prison, which was notorious 
for unliealthfulness and for barbarity of 
discipline. Between Feb. 15, 1864, and April 
1805, 49,485 prisoners were received, of 
whom 12,920 died in that time of various 
diseases. Henry Wirz, the superintendent, 
was tried for injuring the health and de¬ 
stroying the lives of the soldiers confined 
here, was found guilty, and hanged, Nov. 
10, 1865. The long trenches where the sol¬ 
diers were buried have since been laid out 
as a cemetery. 

Andersson, Carl Jan, an African trav¬ 
eler; born in the province of Wermland, 
Sweden, in 1827. In 1850 he accompanied 
the English traveler Galton to Africa, and 
with him penetrated into the land of the 
Damaras and Ovampos, thus opening up a 
region hitherto little known. The purposed 
destination of the travelers, Lake Ngami, 
was not reached, however, on this journey; 
but in 1853 Andersson made his way thith¬ 
er, and explored also the Tioge, the N. and 
principal feeder of the lake. After publish¬ 
ing an account of this journey — “ Lake 
Ngami, or Discoveries in South Africa ” 
(2 vols. 1850) —he returned in 1856 to 
Africa, where, after being for a time mine- 
overseer on the Swakop river, near the Trop¬ 
ic of Capricorn, he started in 1858 to 
explore the Kunene, which enters the sea be¬ 
tween lat. 17° and 18° S. On this journey 
he discovered, in 1859, the Okavango, or up¬ 
per course of the Tioge, which was the sub¬ 
ject of his next publication, “ The Okavan¬ 
go River” (1801). In 1800 he married and 
settled as an ivory dealer at Otjimbingue, 
in the land of the Damaras, among whom 
he acquired the position of a chief. In a 
war against the neighboring tribe of the 
Namaquas, in 1864, he had one of his legs 
shattered. He died in the land of the Ovam¬ 
pos, in Western Africa, in July, 1867. 

Andes, The, or, as they are called by 
the Spanish in South America, Cordilleras 
(ridges) de los Andes, or simply Cordil¬ 
leras, a range of mountains, of such vast 
extent and altitude as to render them one 





Andes 


Andes 


0 

of the most remarkable physical features 
of the globe= It follows the whole of the 
W. coast of South America, from Cape Horn 
to the Isthmus of Panama and the Carib- 
oean Sea. Sometimes it is spoken of as a 
continuation of the Rocky mountains in 
North America, but there seems to be no 
other reason for doing this than the con¬ 
tinuity of the two divisions of America, 
and the fact that both ranges lie in the 
W. of their respective continents. There 
is a sufficiently marked break between the 
ridges of the Isthmus of Panama and the 
range of the Andes of South America, and a 
still more distinct hiatus between the Sier¬ 
ras of Central America and Mexico and the 
Rocky mountains. 

The S. part of this huge chain begins to 
be continuous about lat. 52° S. From this 
point to about lat. 42° S., a distance of 
nearly 1,100 miles, the range presses close 
to the Pacific Ocean. Its average height in 
this part is only about 3,00 feet, though 
several summits rise some thousands of 
feet higher, namely, Mount Melimoyu, 
Yanteles (the highest, above 8,000 feet), 
and the volcanoes of Corcobado and Minch- 
inmadiva. The width of the chain in the 
extreme S. is about 20 miles, farther N. it 
increases to 40 miles, and it attains a still 
greater width before it reaches lat. 42° S. 
About this latitude the chain begins to re¬ 
cede from the coast, leaving wide plains on 
the W. 1,000 or 1,500 feet above sea-level. 
N. of lat. 35° S. a double range may be 
traced, and the whole system of mountains 
widens o-ut to about 130 miles. At about 
lat. 21° S. the direction of the chain, which 
up to this point is N. and slightly E., begins 
to change a little to the W., and round this 
elbow, as it were, there is a large knot of 
mountains, partly in the Argentine Repub¬ 
lic and partly in Bolivia, and consisting of 
chains running in various directions, some 
of which are not connected with the chain 
of the Andes. This knot of mountains forms 
part of the watershed which divides the 
rivers of the La Plata from those of the 
Amazon basin. Among the peaks, up to 
lat. 21° S., are the active volcanoes of 
Antuco, Maypu, and Tupungato; but the 
culminating point of this portion, and, so 
far as is known, of the whole Andes, is 
Aconcagua, which rises to the height of 
23,028 feet, and is distinctly visible from 
Valparaiso, 100 miles distant. The Chilean 
Andes, under the 35th parallel of S. lati¬ 
tude, are about 150 miles from the Pacific; 
but this distance decreases to about 80 
miles in the latitude of Valparaiso. 

At the point we have now reached, lat. 
21° S., the Andes range bifurcates, forming 
two chains of great elevation, the Andes of 
Bolivia and Peru, which inclose the lofty 
table-land or longitudinal valley of the Des- 
aguadero and Lake Titicaca. Of these two 
chains the W. or Peruvian has the peaks of 


Sahama, Parinacota, Gualateiri, and Poma- 
rape, above 21,000 feet in height; and the 
E. or Bolivian (Cordillera Real) has those 
of Illimani and Sorata or Illampu (21,484 
feet). Of these the highest seems to be Gua¬ 
lateiri, the loftiest active volcano in the 
chain, 21,960 feet in height. Sahama, an¬ 
other active volcano, is 21,054 feet. These 
parallel cordilleras, the united breadth of 
which nowhere exceeds 250 miles, are united 
at various points by enormous transverse 
groups or mountain knots, or else by single 
ranges crossing between them like dikes. 
The descent to the Pacific is exceedingly 
steep; the dip is also very rapid to the E., 
whence offsets diverge to the level plains. 
The table-land of the Desaguadero, thus in¬ 
closed, has itself an absolute altitude of 
12,900 feet, a length of 400 miles, and an 
area of 150,000 square miles. A large E. 
offset, the Sierra de Cochabamba, leaves the 
E. cordillera under the 17th parallel, bound¬ 
ing the rich plain of Cochabamba N., 
and ending nearly under the 63d meridian 
of W. longitude, at Santa Cruz de la Sierra. 
The two main cordilleras once more unite 
in the group of Vilcanota, in lat. 15° S., 
and the united range then runs about 280 
miles N. W. to about lat. 10° S., where the 
Andes separate into three nearly parallel 
chains — the Eastern, Central, and Western 
Cordilleras, which inclose between them the 
Huallaga and Upper Maranon rivers; the 
Western or Coast Cordillera running N. as 
far as the group of Loja, near the S. ex¬ 
tremity of Ecuador. 

About lat. 6° S., opposite the Point Agu- 
ja, the Andes chain again takes a course N., 
and slightly E., forming, as in Chile, a 
single mass or rocky plateau, 80 miles 
broad, covered with a double series of high¬ 
ly-elevated summits, inclosing longitudinal 
valleys, one of which, that of Cuenca, in the 
group of Assouan, is upwards of 15,000 feet 
high, or nearly within the region of per¬ 
petual snow. N. of this point the chain 
again divides, the W. range comprising 
Moqnts Chimborazo (21,060 feet), lliniza, 
and Pichincha; while on the E. range are 
the volcanoes Sangay, Tunguragua, Coto¬ 
paxi, Antisana (19,137 feet), and Mount 
Cayambe (19,535 feet). Shortly after en¬ 
tering New Granada, crossing the equator, 
the chain, in lat. 1° 5' N., again meets in 
the knot or plateau of Los Pastos, on which 
is the volcano of Cumbal (15,620 feet) ; but 
a little N. of the city of Pastos it once more 
bifurcates, inclosing the mountain plain of 
Almaguer, comprising the volcano of Purace 
(17,034 feet) on its E. branch; and finally, 
somewhat N. of the town of Popayan, the 
Andes separate into three distinct ridges — 
the Sierra di Choco, running N. to the Isth¬ 
mus of Panama; the Sierra di Quindiu, run¬ 
ning E. of the Cauea river; and the Sierra 
Suma Paz, extending E. of the Magdalena 
to Lake Maracaybo and the city of Valen- 




Andes 


Andes 


cm in Venezuela. N. of the 5th 1ST. paral¬ 
lel the only summits within the snow line 
on these cordilleras belong to the E. chain, 
which also is very precipitous on its E. 
slope. On the Quindiu or central chain is 
the volcano of Tolima (18,325 feet), in lat. 
4° 46' N. The Choco or coast chain is of 
comparatively small elevation, its highest 
point not exceeding 9,000 feet. The total 
length of the Andes has been estimated at 
about 4,400 miles. 

Passes, Roads , and Railways .— This gi¬ 
gantic mountain chain is traversed in its 
different parts by numerous roads or passes, 
at heights almost equal to those of the ex¬ 
treme summits of the European ranges. 
Most of them are narrow, rugged, steep, 
and sometimes slippery and dangerous, pass¬ 
ing through gorges, across yawning chasms, 
and up nearly perpendicular rocks; nor can 
they be attempted with success except by 
the active and well-practised native, or the 
enterprising, courageous, and well-provided 
traveler. It is worthy of remark, likewise, 
that nearly all these roads cross the ridge, 
running transversely and direct, not, as is 
sometimes the case in the Alps, by a cir¬ 
cuitous course through the longitudinal val¬ 
leys. Subjoined is a list of most of the 
known mountain passes, with their position, 
connected localities, and highest elevation, 
commencing with those on the S.: 


Names. 

Portillo, lat. 33° 
40' S. 

Penquenes, lat. 

QQO 40 ' Q 

Cumbre, lat. "32° 
52' S. 

Pass of Tolapalca. 

Pass of Condur 
Pacheta . 

Pass of Pacuani.. 

Pass of Gualillas, 
lat. 17° 50' S.. . 

Pass of Chullun- 
quiani . 

Pass of Alto de 
Toledo, lat. 16° 
2' S. 

Angostura . 

Pass by San Ma¬ 
teo, lat. 11° 48' 
S. 

Alto de Tacaibam- 
ba Pass. 

Alto de Lachagual 
Pass . 

Road over the Pa¬ 
ramo de Assuay 

Road over the 
Quindiu Pass,,, 


1 

: 

: 


1 




! 


Feet. 

from Santiago to Es- 

tacada .above 14,000 

from Santiago to Es- 

tacada .above 13,000 

from Valparaiso to- 

Mendoza .above 12,400 

from Potosi to Oruro 

.. .... above 14,000 

from Potosi to Oruro 

. above 14,000 

from La Paz to the 
Valley of the Beni 
. above 15,000 

from Arica to La Paz. 14,750 
from Arica to La Paz 

. above 15,000 

from Arequipa to Puno 

. above 15,500 

between Tacora & Lake 

Titicaca .above 10,500 

from Lima to Tarma 
and Pasco.above 15,700 

from Jauja to Huanuco 

. above 15,000 

from Jauja to Huanuco 

. above 15,000 

from Alausi to Cuenca 

. above 15,500 

from Alausi to Cartago 11,502 


Besides the routes just mentioned, a great 
commercial road runs longitudinally along 
the Andes the whole distance from Truxillo, 
lat. 8° 5' S., to Popayan, lat. 2° 25' N., in 
the valley of the Cauca, not much less than 
1,000 miles, and attaining at its highest 
point, the Paramo de Bolicha, an elevation 
of 11,500 feet. Two railways across the 


Andes have already been completed, both in 
the republic of Peru. The one that was 
first in operation is from the port of Mol- 
lendo, near the S. of Peru, by Arequipa to 
Puno on Lake Titicaca, a distance of 217 
miles. The E. terminus of this railway is 
situated in a table-land 12,196 feet above 
the level of the sea. The first locomotive 
reached the shores of Lake Titicaca on Jan. 
1, 1874. The other and more recent railway 
is from Lima to Oroya, a distance of 145 
miles. The crest of the Andes is traversed 
by a short tunnel at an altitude of 15,645 
feet above sea-level; the steep and irregular 
slope up to this point being ascended by a 
series of sharp curves, and the ravines 
spanned by bridges. A transandine rail¬ 
way from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso is 
nearly completed. 

Rivers and Lakes .— From the Andes rise 
two of the largest water systems of the 
world — the Amazon and its affluents, and 
the La Plata and its affluents. Besides 
which, in the N., from its slopes flow the 
Magdalena to the Caribbean Sea, and some 
tributaries to the Orinoco. The mountain 
chain pressing so close upon the Pacific 
Ocean, no streams of importance flow from 
its W. slopes. The number of lakes inter¬ 
spersed through this vast mountain system 
is not great, and in this respect it presents 
a striking contrast to the Swiss Alps. The 
largest and most important, and the only 
one worthy of notice, is that of Titicaca on 
the Bolivian plateau. 

Geology, etc .— In considering the geology 
of the Andes, the first fact that strikes the 
observer is the vast development of volcanic 
force along the whole length of the chain, 
and even continued N. through Guatemala 
and Mexico. These volcanic vents occur in 
three linear groups, the extreme S. extend¬ 
ing from the 42d to the 33d parallel of S. 
latitude; the next from the 27th to the 15th 
parallel, and the last from lat. 2° S. to 
about lat. 5° N. Mention has already been 
made of the principal volcanoes. Another 
striking circumstance in the geology of this 
range is the fact that it consists almost en¬ 
tirely of sedimentary rocks, showing that its 
highest parts must at one time have been 
submerged. Granite comes so rarely to the 
surface in the N. parts of the chain, that, 
according to Humboldt, a person might trav¬ 
el for years in the Andes of Peru without 
meeting this species of rock; and he never 
saw any at a greater absolute elevation 
than 11,500 feet. Gneiss is sometimes found 
in connection with the granite; but mica- 
schist is by far the commonest of all the 
crystalline rocks. Quartz is likewise ex¬ 
tremely abundant, generally mixed with 
mica, and rich in gold and specular iron. 
Vast tracts cf red sandstone, with gypseous 
and saliferous marls, occur in Peru. Por¬ 
phyry and greenstone abound all over the 
range at every elevation, both on the slopes 


























Andes 


Andes 


and extreme ridges; and trachyte is almost 
as abundant as porphyry, both in Peru and 
Chile, great masses of it, from 14,000 to 
18,000 feet thick, being visible on Chimbo¬ 
razo and Pichinclia. As respects volcanic 
products, the W. face of the Andes presents 
immense quantities of lava, tufa, and obsid¬ 
ian, none of which are found on the E. 
side; this remark applies especially to that 
part of the chain lying between Chile and 
the equator. Fossil remains are by no 
means common; but in the limestone strata 
of the coast toward the N. extremity of the 
range, Humboldt found many marine shells 
of the Silurian period, about 30 miles from 
the coast; and Pentland observed others of 
the same era at a height of 17,500 feet on 
Mount Antakawa in Bolivia, as well as in 
several other parts. 

Earthquakes .— Many of the volcanoes, as 
before observed, are in a state either of 
constant or occasional action; it cannot, 
therefore, be matter of surprise that there 
should be frequent and violent earthquakes. 
All the districts of the Andes system, but 
Chile especially, have suffered more severely 
from these oscillations than any other part 
of the world; and among the towns either 
destroyed or greatly injured by these visita¬ 
tions may be mentioned Bogota, Quito, Rio- 
bamba, Lima, Callao, Valparaiso, and Con¬ 
cepcion. In 1819 Copiapo was entirely 
overturned, not a house being left standing. 
Concepcion was twice destroyed — in 1730 
and 1751; and in November, 1822, an earth¬ 
quake was felt on the same day at this 
town, in lat. 37° S., and at Lima in lat. 12° 
N., more than 1,700 miles distant; it was on 
this occasion that Valparaiso, Melipella, 
and Quillota, were all but completely anni¬ 
hilated. This earthquake, too, had the re¬ 
markable effect of upheaving the land on the 
coast, upward of 100 miles in extent, to the 
height of three or four feet, and elevating 
a portion of the shore above high-water 
mark. These shocks continued at brief in¬ 
tervals till the autumn of 1823; and since 
that time the volcanoes of Maypu, until 
then for many years quiescent, have had fre¬ 
quent eruptions. In August, 1868, the 
towns of Arequipa, Iquique, Tacna, and 
many other smaller towns in Peru and 
Ecuador, were destroyed. In fact, earth¬ 
quakes, slight or more serious, are of yearly 
occurrence, and faint oscillations of the soil 
are regarded with scarcely more attention 
than a hail storm in the temperate zone. 

Mineral Productions .—The Andes are ex¬ 
tremely rich in the precious metals. In 
Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia, gold is 
obtained. Silver occurs in Chile in the prov¬ 
inces of Coquimbo and Atacama, and the 
mines of these districts are remarkable for 
the richness of their ores. The Peruvian 
Andes have numerous silver mines scattered 
over their whole extent, from the province 
of Caxamarca S, to the confines of Chile; 


but incomparably the richest are the mines 
of Cerro de Pasco, which have been worked 
upward of two centuries. The mines of 
Chota likewise, which are situated on Mount 
Hualgayoc, are productive. The ore, which 
is richer even than that of Pasco, lies either 
on or very near the surface. Close to tile 
Pacific, at Huantajaya, in. the district of 
Arica, are several mines celebrated for the 
quantity of virgin silver found therein, 
sometimes in masses of great weight. The 
most famous mines are those of the Cerro 
de Potosi, in Bolivia, lat. 19° 36' S., which 
is perforated in all directions by thousands 
of openings, some of which are within 100 
feet of the summit (16,000 feet). Quick¬ 
silver is found in several parts of the Andes, 
but impure, in combination with sulphur, 
forming the red sulphuret of mercury, com¬ 
monly known as cinnabar. Copper is found 
both in the E. and W. cordilleras of Peru; 
but the E. chain is too far from the coast 
to admit of mines being profitably worked. 
The copper mines of Chile are the most 
valuable. They are situated chiefly in the 
desert of Atacama. Tin also, wrought in 
Chile, forms an article of export; but lead 
and iron, though plentiful, are not wrought. 
Considerable platinum is obtained from 
the State of Choco in Colombia. 

Climate and Meteorology .— On the W. 
side of the range little or no rain falls, ex¬ 
cept at the S. extremity; and scanty vegeta¬ 
tion appears only on spots, or in small 
valleys, watered by streams from the moun¬ 
tains; while, on the opposite slope, exces¬ 
sive heat and moisture combine to give the 
range a thick covering of tangled forest 
trees and dense brushwood. Currents of 
cold W. and N. W. winds blow nearly all 
the year from the ice-topped cordilleras, on 
the plateau beneath, daily accompanied dur¬ 
ing four months by thunder, lightning, and 
snow storms. Currents of warm air are 
also occasionally found on the crest of the 
Andes; they usually occur two hours after 
sunset, being both local and narrow, like 
the hot blasts in the Alps, not exceeding a 
few yards in width. They run parallel 
to each other, and so closely that five or six 
of them may be passed in a few hours. They 
blow chiefly from S. S. W. to N. N. E. 
and are especially frequent in August and 
September. Notwithstanding the great 
number of snow-clad summits, glaciers are 
of rare occurrence in the Andes, being found 
only, and then of but small extent, in the 
narrow ravines which furrow the sides of 
some of its giant summits. 

Vegetation .— In the low burning plains 
that .flank the bases of the Andes reign the 
banana, cycas, plantain, cassava, cacao, the 
cotton tree, indigo and coffee plant, and su¬ 
gar cane, all of which are extensively and 
profitably grown below the altitude of 
4,000 feet. Maize is likewise plentiful, and. 
may be said to form the bread of the Peru- 



Andesite 


Andorra 


vians; it is of three different kinds, and, 
according to Humboldt, is cultivated 7,000 
feet above the sea. Within the same limits 
also are found, either a wild or cultivated 
state, the pineapple, pomegranate, shaddock, 
orange, lime, lemon, peach, apricot, togeth¬ 
er with olives, aji or pepper plants, toma¬ 
toes, and sweet potatoes, and gum opal, co¬ 
paiba balsam, dragon’s blood, sarsaparilla, 
and vanilla. To these groups succeed, in the 
humid and shaded clefts on the slopes of 
the cordilleras, the tree ferns, and cinchona 
or cascarilla, from which we derive the 
febrifuge bark and quinine. Between the 
heights of 6,000 and 9,000 feet is the climate 
best suited for the European cereals. To 
these may be added the quinoa ( Chenopo - 
dium Quinoa), a most useful production for 
domestic uses. In this region also, and a 
little above it, grow the potato (indigenous 
to Chile and thence introduced into Eu¬ 
rope), and various tuberose congeners, all 
pretty extensively used as food; and here 
likewise grow the chickpea, broad bean, cab¬ 
bage, and other European vegetables. With¬ 
in the cereal limits are found the oak, elm, 
ash, and beech, which never descend lower 
than 5,500 feet, and seldom rise higher than 
9,200 feet above the sea. Above this level 
the larger forest trees, except the pine, begin 
to disappear. 

Zoology .— The fauna of the Andes is still 
very imperfectly known. Among the carniv¬ 
orous animals the principal are the jaguar, 
puma, ounce, ocelot, and wild cat. There 
are also bears, tapirs, raccoons, wild hogs, 
foxes, and otters, with both red and roe 
deer. The characteristic animals of the 
Andes, however, are the llama and its dif¬ 
ferent congeners — the guanaco, vicuna, and 
paco or alpaca. They are the chief beasts 
of burden on the Andes. The forests of the 
warmer regions abound with members of the 
monkey tribe, etc. Many varieties of ser¬ 
pents are found. Bats are numerous and 
of large size, the vampire bat being one of 
the most remarkable. The condor soars over 
the highest summits and makes its nest 
among the highest and least accessible 
rocks; other birds of prey are also numer¬ 
ous. Curassows, wild turkeys, parrots, and 
parrakeets are common in the woods, and 
there are also a great many varieties of 
smaller birds. 

Andesite, a group of volcanic rocks, 
gray, reddish or dark brown in color. The 
ground-mass of these rocks is usually com¬ 
posed of feldspar-microlith, scattered 
through which are abundant crystals of 
plagioclase feldspar. Hornblende and au- 
gite, one or both, are generally present, to¬ 
gether with magnetite, which is often very 
abundant. Andesite occurs chiefly in Ter¬ 
tiary and more recent strata, and is found 
in Hungary, Transylvania, Siebengebirge, 


Santorin, Iceland, the Andes, the Western 
part of the United States, etc. 

Andira, a genus of leguminous American 
trees, with fleshy plum-like fruits. The 
wood is well fitted for building. The bark 
of andira inermis, or cabbage-tree, is nar¬ 
cotic and is used as an anthelminthic under 
the name of worm bark or cabbage bark. 
The powdered bark of andira araroba is 
used as a remedy in certain skin diseases, 
as herpes. 

Andocides (an-dos'i-dez), an Athenian 
orator, born in 467 n. c., took an active 
part in public affairs, and was four times 
exiled; the first time along with Alcibiades, 
for profaning the Eleusinian mysteries. 
Several of his orations are extant. He died 
about 393 n. c. 

Andorra (an-dor'a), a valley in the 
Eastern Pyrenees, between the French de¬ 
partment of Ariege and the Spanish pro¬ 
vince of Lerida, part of Catalonia. It is 
inclosed by mountains, through which its 
river, the Balira, breaks to join the Segre 
at Urgel; and its inaccessibility naturally 
fits it for being the seat of the interesting 
little republic which here holds a kind of 
semi-independent position between France 
and Spain. Area (divided into six com¬ 
munes), 175 square miles. Population, 
6,800, according to an actual numberation 
made by Blad6 in 1875; but it has since 
been estimated by others as high as 15,000. 
The former abundant forests Have been 
much thinned for fuel; there is much excel¬ 
lent pasture; vines and fruit trees flourish 
on the lower grounds; and the mountains 
contain rich iron mines, unwrought lead 
supplies and mineral springs. The chief 
occupations are agriculture, cattle breeding, 
trade in wood, charcoal and wool, and es¬ 
pecially smuggling. Andorra is said to have 
been declared a Free State by Charlemagne. 
In 1278 the counts of Foix, afterward 
kings of Navarre, obtained the sovereignty, 
reserving the rights of the Bishop of Urgel 
in Catalonia; and with Henry IV. the 
feudal superiority fell to France. Now the 
State stands under the common protectorate 
of France and of the Bishop of Urgel. The 
Bepublic is governed by a sovereign council 
of 24 members, chosen by certain heads of 
houses, and the council elects a President 
for four years, a syndic, under whom is a 
second syndic. There are two criminal 
judges called viguiers (“vicars"’), °f whom 
the first is appointed by France, and the 
second by the Bishop of Urgel. There is 
also a civil judge appointed by France and 
the Bishop of Urgel alternately, and there 
is an appeal from his judgment to the 
Court of Cassation at Paris, or to the Epis¬ 
copal College at Urgel. In criminal cases, 
there is no appeal from the court of the 




Andover 


Andrd 


Republic itself. The revenue of the State is 
derived from lands and from some incon¬ 
siderable taxes. A sum of 960 francs is 
paid annually to France, and 425 francs to 
the Bishop of Urgel. Since 1882, the in¬ 
terests of France in the State are repre¬ 
sented by a, permanent delegate. The An¬ 
dorrans are good-natured, hard-working 
mountaineers, hospitable, moral and devoted 
to liberty. They are of the Catalonian 
stock, and speak a dialect of Catalonian. 
The capital is Andorra la Vieja (pop. 600) ; 
San Julian (500) and Canillo (500) are 
the other towns. 

Andover, a town in Essex co., Mass.; on 
the Merrimac river and the Boston and 
Maine railroad; 23 miles N. of Boston. It 
is widely known as the seat of a former 
theological seminary, the Phillips Academy 
for boys, and the Abbot Academy for girls, 
and has manufactories of llax, shoes and 
woolen goods, a National bank, Memorial 
Hall and school libraries, and a property 
valuation of over $4,000,000. Harriet Beecher 
Stowe lived here many years, and it was also 
the home of Elizabeth Stuart Phelps Ward. 
Pop. (1900) 6,813; (1910) 7,301. 

Andrade, Jose, a Venezuelan statesman, 
born in Merida, State of Los Andes, in 1838; 
brother of Gen. Ygnacio Andrade, President 
of Venezuela; became President of the State 
of Zulia, Speaker of the National Congress, 
Minister of Venezuela at Paris, Rome, 
Madrid, Berlin, and, in 1893-1899, at Wash¬ 
ington ; and was distinguished as a scholar, 
linguist, and diplomat. He died in New 
York city March 20, 1902. 

Andral, Gabriel (an-dral'), a French 
physician and pathologist, born in Paris, 
Nov. 6, 1797. In 1827 he was called to the 
chair of hygiene, in 1830 to that of pa¬ 
thology, in the University of Paris. Andral 
may be said to have been the first to ap¬ 
ply an analytical and inductive method to 
pathology. His “Medical Clinic” (1824) 
established his reputation, and his “ Sum¬ 
mary of Pathological Anatomy” (1829) was 
equally successful. Other works of import¬ 
ance are his “ Essay on Pathological Haema¬ 
tology ” (1843); “Course in Pathology — 
Interne;” and “Investigations into the 
Modification of the Relative Proportions of 
Haematic (Blood) Principles.” He died Feb. 
13, 1876. 

Andrassy, Julius, Count (an-dra'she), 
Hungarian statesman, born March 8, 1823; 
studied at the Pest University; took part 
in the Revolution of 1848; was condemned 
to death, but escaped and went into exile; 
appointed Premier when self-government 
was restored to Hungary, in 1867; became Im¬ 
perial Minister for Foreign Affairs in 1871; 
drew up the famous Andrassy note to the 
Porte in 1876; was a conspicuous member 
of the Congress of Berlin in 1878; nego¬ 


tiated the German-Austrian alliance with 
Bismarck in 1879; and the same year re¬ 
tired from public life. The Andrassy 
“ Note ” was a declaration relating to the 
disturbed condition of Bosnia and Herzego¬ 
vina, formulated by the Governments of 
Austria, Russia and Germany, with the ap¬ 
proval of England and France. It de¬ 
manded the establishment of religious lib¬ 
erty, the application of local revenues to 
local purposes, and other reforms. The 
“ Note ” was formally presented to the 
Porte, Jan. 31, 1876. He died Feb. 18, 1890. 

Andre, John (an-dra'), a British mili¬ 
tary officer, born in London in 1751; en¬ 
tered the army in 1771; went to Canada in 
1774; and was made prisoner by the Amer¬ 
icans in 1775. After his exchange, he was 
rapidly promoted, and in 1780 was ap¬ 
pointed Adjutant-General, with the rank of 
Major. His prospects were of the most flat¬ 
tering kind when the treason of Arnold led 


to his death. The temporary absence of 
Washington having been chosen by the 
traitor as the most proper season for car¬ 
rying into effect his design of delivering to 
Sir Henry Clinton the fortification at West 
Point, then under his command, and refus¬ 
ing to confide to any but Major Andre the 
maps and information required by the Brit¬ 
ish general, an interview became necessary, 
and Sept. 19, 1780, Andr6 left New "York in 
the sloop-of-war “ Vulture,” and on the next 
day arrived at Fort 
Montgomery, i n 
company with Bev¬ 
erly Robinson, an 
American residing 
at the lines, through 
whom the communi¬ 
cations had been car¬ 
ried on. Furnished 
with passports from 
Arnold, Robinson 
and Andre the next 
day landed and were 
received by the 
traitor at the wa¬ 


ter’s 


edge. 


Having 



MAJOR ANDRE. 


arranged all the de¬ 
tails of the pro¬ 
posed treason, Ar¬ 
nold delivered to Andr6 drafts of the 
works at West Point and memoranda of 
the forces under his command, and the 
latter returned to the beach in hopes of 
being immediately conveyed to the “ Vul¬ 
ture.” But the ferrymen, who were Amer¬ 
icans, refused to carry him, and as Arnold 
would not interpose his authority, he was 
compelled to return by land. Unfortunately 
for him he persisted, against the advice of 
Arnold, in retaining the papers, which he 
concealed in his boot. Accompanied by 
Smith, an emissary of Arnold, and provided 
with a passport under his assumed name of 
Anderson, he set out and reached in safety 




Andr£ 


Andreas 


a spot from which they could see the ground 
occupied by the English videttes. At Tar- 
rytown he was first stopped, and then ar¬ 
rested, by three Americans. Andre offered 
them his money, horse, and a large reward, 
but without avail. They examined his per¬ 
son, and, in his boots, found the fatal pa¬ 
pers. He was then conveyed to Colonel 
Jameson, commander of the American out¬ 
posts. On the arrival of Washington, An- 
dr6 was conveyed to Tappan and tried by 
a board of general officers, among whom 
were General Greene, the president, La¬ 
fayette, and Knox. Every effort was made 
by Sir Henry Clinton to save him, and there 
was a strong disposition on the American 
side to do so. His execution, originally 
appointed for Sept. 30, did not take place 
till Oct. 2. If possession could have been 
obtained of the traitor, the life of Andre 
would have been spared. His remains, which 
were buried on the spot, were afterward re¬ 
moved to London, and now repose in West¬ 
minster Abbey. 

Andre, Louis Joseph Nicolas, a French 
military officer, born in Nuits, Burgundy, 
March 29, 1838. He was graduated at the 
Polytechnic School, and in 1865 became cap¬ 
tain, serving in that capacity throughout 
the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. He 
became Major in 1877, Lieutenant-Colonel in 
1885, and Colonel in 1888. He was made 
General of Brigade in 1893, and placed in 
charge of the Polytechnic School. He mar¬ 
ried, in 1875, Mile. Chapuis, a talented 
singer of the Opera Comique. On May 29, 
1900, he was appointed Minister of War by 
President Loubet, succeeding General the 
Marquis de Gallifet, who held the office dur¬ 
ing the exciting period of the Dreyfus re¬ 
vision. 

Andre, St., Jacques d’Albon, Marquis 

of Fronsac, general^ known as Marshal of 
St. Andr6, a French nobleman, who, in 1547, 
was made gentleman of the bedchamber by 
Henry II. In 1550 he was deputed to bear 
the collar of his order to Henry VIII. of 
England, by whom he was invested with 
that of the Garter. On his return he was 
appointed to the command of the army in 
Champagne, where he greatly distinguished 
himself; but at the battle of St. Quentin 
was taken prisoner. On the death of Henry 
II. he was chosen one of the regency. Killed 
at the battle of Dreux, in 1562. The Hu¬ 
guenots called St. Andr6 “ The Harquebusier 
of the West.” 

Andrea, Jakob (an'dra-e), a German 
Protestant theologian, born in Wiirtem- 
berg, March 25, 1528; became Professor of 
Theology and Chancellor of the University 
of Tlibingen in 1562, and was author of 
over 150 works, nearly all of a polemical 
character, besides being the chief author of 


the “ Formula Concordia?.” He died in 
Tiibingen, Jan. 7, 1590. 



Andrea, Johann Valentin, a very orig¬ 
inal thinker and writer, born in 1586, near 
Tubingen. He studied at Tiibingen, became 
a Protestant pastor, and died in 1654 at 
Stuttgart, where he was chaplain to the 
court. Eminently practical in mind, he was 
grieved to see the principles of Christianity 
made the subject of mere empty disputa¬ 
tions, and devoted his whole life to correct 
this prevailing tendency of his age. Hi-s 
writings are remarkable for the wit and 
humor, as well as for the acuteness and 
moral power, which they display. He was 
long regarded as the founder or restorer of 
the order of the Rosicrucians, a view based 
on his quaint, but misunderstood, “ Chem¬ 
ical Jubilee of Christian Rozenkreuz’^ (1616). 
But his intention was certainly not to orig¬ 
inate or promote a secret society of mystics, 
but to ridicule the follies of the age, includ¬ 
ing the theosopliic Rosicrucians. He wrote 
mainly in Latin, but also in the Suabian 
dialect. Among the best of his works are 
his “ Menippus, or a Hundred Satyric Dia¬ 
logues ” (1617), and his “Spiritual (Cler¬ 
ical) Relaxation” (1619). 

Andrea del Sarto. See Sarto. 

Andreas, John, a famous canonist of 
Florence. His austerity was such that he 
was said to have lain upon the bare ground 
for 20 years, with nothing to cover him but 
a bear-skin. He had a daughter of great 
beauty and learning, who was accustomed 
to lecture to his students during his ab¬ 
sence, concealed behind a curtain, that the 
attention of the auditors might not be taken 
pff by her beauty. Her name was Novella, 
and in her honor he called one of his com¬ 
mentaries “ The Novellm.” Died of the 
plague in 1348. 










Andree 


Andrew 


Andree, Solomon Auguste (an-dra'), 
a Swedish aeronaut, born Oct. 18, 1854; edu¬ 
cated for a civil engineer. In 1882, he took 
part in a Swedish meteorological expedition 
to Spitzbergen. In 1884 he was appointed 
chief engineer to the patent office, and from 
1880 to 1889 he occupied a professor’s chair 
at Stockholm. In 1892 he received from the 
Swedish Academy of Sciences a subvention 
for the purpose of undertaking scientific 
aerial navigation. From that time Dr. An¬ 
dree devoted himself to aerial navigation, 
and made his first ascent at Stockholm in 
the summer of 1893. In 1895 he presented 
to the Academy of Sciences a well-matured 
project for exploring the regions of the 
"North Pole with the aid of a balloon. The 
estimated cost amounted to about $40,000. 



SOLOMON AUGUSTE ANDREE. 


A national subscription was opened, which 
was completed in a few days, the King of 
Sweden contributing the sum of $8,280. 
With two companions, Dr. S. T. Strindberg 
and Herr Fraenckell, he started from Dane’s 
island, Spitzbergen, July 11, 1897. His bal¬ 
loon was 0714 feet in diameter, with a 
capacity of 170,000 cubic feet. Its speed was 
estimated at from 12 to 15 miles an hour, 
at which rate the Pole should have been 
reached in six days, provided a favorable 
and constant wind had been blowing. Two 
days after his departure, a message was 
received from Dr. Andree by carrier pigeon, 
which stated that at noon, July 13, they 
were in latitude 82.2°, and longitude 15.5° 
E., and making good progress to the E., 
10° southerly. This was the last word 
received from the explorer. 

Andreini, Giovanni Battista (iin-dra- 
e'ne), an Italian comedian and poet, born 
in Florence, 1578. From his sacred drama, 
“Adam” (1613), Milton is by some sup¬ 
posed to have derived the idea of “ Paradise 
Lost.” He died in Paris about 1650. 

Andreossy (an'dres-e), Antoine Fran¬ 
cois, Comte, a French general and states¬ 
man, was born on March 6, 1761, at Castel- 


naudary, in Languedoc. He entered the ar¬ 
tillery in 1781, joined the revolutionists, 
rose rapidly in military rank, served under 
Bonaparte in Italy and Egypt, and took part 
in the revolution of the 18th Brumaire. 
He served as Ambassador at London, at 
Vienna, and at Constantinople, from which 
he was recalled at the restoration. He was 
raised to the peerage by Napoleon after his 
return from Elba. After the battle of 
Waterloo, he advocated the recall of the 
Bourbons; but, as deputy, he generally took 
part with the Opposition, He was elected 
to the Academy in 1826, and died at Mon- 
tauban on Sept. 10, 1828. He was a man of 
eminent scientific attainments, one of his 
earliest works being the “ Histoire G6nerale 
du Canal du Midi.” Besides his scientific 
works, he wrote several military “Memoirs.” 

Andrew, the first disciple, and one of the 
apostles of Jesus. Ilis career after the Mas¬ 
ter’s death is unknown. Tradition tells us 
that, after preaching the gospel in Scythia, 
Northern Greece, and Epirus, he suffered 
martyrdom on the cross at Patrae, in Achaia, 
62 or 70 a. d. The anniversary of St. An¬ 
drew falls on Nov. 30. About 740, St. 
Andrew became the patron saint of Scotland 
and he is held in veneration in Russia, as 
the apostle who, according to tradition, first 
preached the Gospel in that country. 

The Cross of St. Andrew is a white saltire 
on a blue ground, to represent the X-shaped 
cross on which the patron saint of Scotland 
suffered martyrdom, has been from an early 
date adopted as the national banner of Scot¬ 
land. It is combined with the crosses of St. 
George and St. Patrick in the Union Jack. 
The Scottish Order of the Thistle is some¬ 
times known as the Order of St. Andrew. 

The Order of St. Andrew, the highest in 
the Russian Empire, founded by Peter the 
Great in 1698. It has but one class, and is 
confined to members of the imperial family, 
princes, and persons of the rank of general 
who already hold two other important or¬ 
ders. The badge of the Order shows on the 
obverse the double-headed eagle, crowned, on 
which is a St. Andrew’s cross, enameled in 
blue, with a figure of the saint. 

Andrew, King of Naples, son of Charo- 
bert, King of Hungary, was assassinated 
with the connivance of his queen in 1345. 

Andrew I., King of Hungary, in 1046- 
1049; compelled his subjects to embrace 
Christianity; he was killed in battle in 1058. 

Andrew II., King of Hungary, 1205-1235. 
He was in the crusades, and displayed great 
valor in battle; he attempted to ameliorate 
the condition of his subjects, and died in 
1235. 

Andrew III., King of Hungary, 1290- 

1301. He was opposed in his claims to the 
throne, and involved in a civil war during 
his reign; he died in 1301. 







Andrews 


Andromeda 


Andrews, Charles McLean, an Amer¬ 
ican historical and descriptive writer, born 
in Wethersfield, Conn., Feb. 22, 1863; be¬ 
came Professor of History at Bryn Mawr 
College; author of “Historical Development 
of Modern Europe,” “ River Towns of Con¬ 
necticut,” “ The Old English Manor,” etc. 

Andrews, Christopher Columbus, an 

American diplomat and writer, born at Hills¬ 
boro, N. H., Oct. 27, 1829; was brevetted 
Major-General in the Civil War; United 
States Minister to Sweden from 1869 to 
1877, and Consul-General to Brazil from 
1882 to 1885. Among his numerous works 
are “ Minnesota and Dakota ” (1857); “ Prac¬ 
tical Treatise on the Revenue Laws of the 
United States” (1858); “History of the 
Campaign of Mobile” (1867), and “Brazil, 
Its Condition and Prospects ” (1887 ). 

Andrews, Elisha Benjamin, an Amer¬ 
ican educator, born in Hinsdale, N. H., 
Jan. 10, 1844; he was graduated at Brown 
University, 1870, and Newton Theological 
Seminary, 1874; President of Brown 
University in 1889-1898; became Su¬ 
perintendent of Public Schools in Chicago in 
1898, and Chancellor of the University of 
Nebraska in 1900; author of a “History of 
the United States,” “ An Honest Dollar: a 
Plea for Bimetallism,” etc. 

Andrews, Ethan Allen, an American ed¬ 
ucator and lexicographer, born at New Brit¬ 
ain, Conn., April 7, 1787 ; Professor of An¬ 
cient Languages at the University of North 
Carolina, 1822-1828; edited the “Religious 
Magazine ” with Jacob Abbott, whom he suc¬ 
ceeded as principal of the Young Ladies’ 
School in Boston; but his chief work was 
compiling classical text-books. He edited 
the well known “ Latin-English Lexicon ” 
(1850), based on Freund; and “Andrews 
and Stoddard’s Latin Grammar ” was for 
many years the leading one in America. 
He died in 1858. 

Andrews, Jane, an American juvenile 
story writer, born in Massachusetts in 1833; 
among her stories for children which have 
enjoyed great popularity are “ Seven Little 
Sisters Who Live on the Round Ball That 
Floats in the Air” (1876); “The Stories 
Mother Nature Told:” “The Seven Little 
Sisters Prove their Sisterhood” (1878); 
“ Ten Boys on the Road from Long Ago to 
Now” (1885) ; “Only a Year and What It 
Brought” (1887). She died in 1887. 

Andrews, John N., an American mili¬ 
tary officer, born in Delaware, in 1838; was 
graduated at West Point in 1860; served 
with distinction through the Civil War; 
commissioned Colonel of the 12th United 
States infantry in 1895; and .appointed a 
Brigadier-General of Volunteers for the war 
against Spain in 1898. 

Andrews, Lorrin, an American mission¬ 
ary, born in East Windsor, Conn., April 29, 
1795; was educated at Jefferson College and 


Princeton Theological Seminary, and went 
as a missionary to the Hawaiian Islands in 
1827. He founded, in 1831, the Lahaina- 
luna Seminary, which later became the Ha¬ 
waii University, where he served 10 years 
as a professor. He translated a part of the 
Bible into the Hawaiian language. In 1845 
he became a judge under the Hawaiian Gov¬ 
ernment and Secretary of the Privy Council. 
He produced several works on the literature 
and antiquities of Hawaii, and a Hawaiian 
dictionary. He died in 1868. 

Andrews, Stephen Pearl, an American 
writer, born at Templeton, Mass., March 22, 
1812; was a prominent abolitionist, prac¬ 
ticed law in the South, and settled in New 
York in 1847. He paid much attention to 
phonographic reporting, and also to the de¬ 
velopment of a universal philosophy which he 
called “ Integralism,” and of a universal lan¬ 
guage, “ Ahvato.” Besides numerous works 
relating to these subjects, he wrote “ Com¬ 
parison of the Common Law with the Ro¬ 
man, French, or Spanish Civil Law on En¬ 
tails, etc.; ” “ Love. Marriage, and Divorce; ” 
“ French, With or Without a Master; ” “ The 
Labor Dollar” (1881); “Transactions of 
the Colloquium” (a society founded by 
himself and his friends for philosophical 
discussion, 1882-1883). He contributed to 
the London “ Times ” and other papers, and 
was a member of the American Academy of 
Arts and Sciences and the American Etn- 
nological Society. He died at New York, 
May 21, 1886. 

Andromache (an-drom'ak-e), a daughter 
of Action, King of Thebes in Cilicia, and wife 
of Hector. After the conquest of Troy she 
became the prize of Pyrrhus, son of Achilles, 
who carried her to Epirus, and had three 
sons bv her, but afterward left her to Hele- 
nus, brother of Hector, to whom she bore a 
son. Euripides has made her the chief char¬ 
acter of a tragedy. 

Andromachus (an-drom'ak-us), physician 
to the Emperor Nero, and the inventor of a 
celebrated compound medicine, called thcri- 
alce, described in Galen’s works. Lived in 
the 1st century a. n. 

Andromeda (an-drom'e-da), in classical 
mythology a daughter of Cepheus, King of 
Ethiopia and Cassiope. It was fabled that 
she was chained to a rock by order of Ju¬ 
piter Ammon, and then exposed to the at¬ 
tacks of a monster. Perseus released, and 
afterward married her. On her death she 
was changed into the constellation which 
bears her name. 

In astronomy, a constellation, fancifully 
supposed to resemble a woman chained. It 
is in the northern hemisphere, and is sur¬ 
rounded by Cassiopeia, Lacerta, Pegasus, 
Pisces, Triangulum, and Perseus. It con¬ 
tains the bright stars Almach and Mirach, 
and Alpherat is on the boundary line be- 




Andronicus 


Andros Islands 


tween it and Pegasus. There is in the gir¬ 
dle of Andromeda a fine elliptic nebula, 
visible to the naked eye, and continually 
mistaken by the uninitiated for a comet. 
On Sept. 21, 1898, the astronomers of the 
Pulkowa Observatory in Russia announced 



ANDROMEDA AND PERSEUS. 


that they had discovered a stellated conden¬ 
sation in the center of this nebula, indicat¬ 
ing that its nucleus is composed of stars 
instead of gas, like the matter surrounding 

it. 

In botany, a genus of plants belonging to 
the order ericacece, or heath-worts. A spe¬ 
cies (the A. polifolia, or marsh andromeda) 
occurs in the bogs of Britain, the desolate 
character of the localities which it inhabits 
recalling tc dassical minds of fanciful ten¬ 
dency the barren rock to which Androm¬ 
eda was chained. The marsh androm¬ 
eda is an evergreen shrub, with beau¬ 
tiful, rose-colored drooping flowers. Its 
shoots poison sheep, as do those of the A. 
mariana, which grows in America; and the 
A. ovalifolia, of Nepaul, acts with similar 
effect upon goats. 

And ronicus (an-dron'e-cus), of Cyres- 
thes; a Greek architect, celebrated for hav¬ 
ing constructed, at Athens, the tower of the 
winds, an octagonal building, on each side 
of which was a figure representing one of 
the winds. On the top of the tower was 
a small pyramid of marble supporting a 
brazen Triton, which turned on a pivot, and 
pointed with its rod to the side of the tower 
on which was represented the wind that was 
then blowing. As each of the sides had a 
sort of dial, it is conjectured that it for¬ 
merly contained a clepsydra or water clock. 

Andronicus I. (Comnenus), grandson of 
Alexius I., was one of the most con¬ 
spicuous characters of his age, which pro¬ 
duced no man more brave, more profligate, 
or more perfidious. In his youth he served 
against the Turks, in 1141 was for some 


time a prisoner, and was afterward ap¬ 
pointed to a military command in Cilicia, 
but was unsuccessful. Having engaged in a 
treasonable correspondence with the King of 
Hungary, he was thrown into prison by his 
cousin, the Emperor Manuel; but after 12 
years he succeeded in making his escape, and 
reached Kiev, the residence of Prince Jaro- 
slav. He regained the favor of his cousin 
by persuading Jaroslav to join him in the 
invasion of Hungary, and by his gallantry 
in that war; but soon incurred his displeas¬ 
ure again, and was sent in honorable ban¬ 
ishment to Cilicia. After a pilgrimage to 
Jerusalem, and his scandalous seduction of 
Theodora, the widow of Baldwin, King of 
Jerusalem, he settled among the Turks in 
Asia Minor, with a band of outlaws, mak¬ 
ing frequent inroads into the province of 
Trdbizond; but at length made his peace 
with the Emperor, and was sent to G5noe in 
Pontus. After the death of Manuel in 1182, 
he was recalled to become, first guardian, 
then colleague, of the young Emperor Alex¬ 
ius II. Soon after, he caused the Empress- 
mother to be strangled, and afterward Alex¬ 
ius himself, with whose youthful widow he 
contracted an indecent marriage. His reign, 
though short, was vigorous, and restored 
prosperity to the provinces; but tyranny 
and murder were its characteristics in the 
capital. At last, a destined victim, Isaac 
Angelus, one of his relatives, having fled to 
the Church of St. Sophia for sanctuary, a 
crowd gathered, and a sudden insurrection 
placed Isaac on the throne, while Androni¬ 
cus, now 73 years of age, was put to death 
by the infuriated populace, after horrible 
mutilations and tortures, on Sept. 12, 1185. 

Andronicus, Livius. See Livius An¬ 
dronicus. 

Andros, an island of the Greek Archipel¬ 
ago, the most northern of the Cyclades, sep¬ 
arated from Euboea by a channel, the Doro 
Channel, 6 miles broad. The island is 25 
miles long, and about 10 miles in its great¬ 
est breadth, the area being 15G square miles. 
Its eastern coast is very irregular. It is 
mountainous, and on some of its mountains 
snow lies during great part of the year. 
The soil is remarkably fertile, and wine, 
silk, olives, and lemons are produced. The 
population in 1879 was 22,5G2. The chief 
town, Andros, is situated on a bay of the 
eastern coast. It has a little harbor, and 
about 1,800 inhabitants. 

Andros Islands, a group of islands be¬ 
longing to the Bahamas, lying between 
lat. 23° 41' and 25° 10' N.; long. 77° 
30' and 78° 32' W. The passages between 
these islands are intricate and dangerous. 
The principal island, Andros, which gave its 
name to the others, is about 70 miles long 
by 10 broad, at its broadest part. The in¬ 
terior of the largest of these islands is com¬ 
posed of extensive salt marshes and fresh 















Andros 


Aneurin 


water swamps, in which are islands valuable 
for their timber; consisting mostly of cedar 
of superior quality. The sea board is habit¬ 
able only during the summer months, owing 
to the myriads of mosquitoes and other in¬ 
sects that infest the low ground. 

Andros, Sir Edmund, an English prov¬ 
incial governor, born in 1G37 ; was Governor 
of New York in 1G74—1G82, and of New Eng¬ 
land, with New York included, in 1686-1G89. 
His harsh execution of the orders of the 
Duke of Y r ork caused him to be generally 
execrated, and, after his attempt to deprive 
Connecticut of its royal charter, he was 
seized by the people of Boston and sent to 
England under charges. He was also Gov¬ 
ernor of Virginia in 1692-1698, and of the 
Island of Jersey in 1704-170G. He died in 
1714. 

Androscoggin, a river of the United 
States; rises in the W. of Maine near the 
N. E. corner of New Hampshire, flows S. 
partly through New Hampshire, then E., re¬ 
entering Maine, then S. and S. E., passing 
Auburn and Brunswick, and finally joins 
the Kennebec a few miles above Bath; not 
navigable. 

Andujar, a city in the province of Jaen, 
Span; on the Guadalquivir river, 44 miles 
N. E. of Cordova. Here an engagement 
took place between the French and Spanish 
and the convention of Baileu was signed, 
both in 1808 ; and the French assumed su¬ 
perior authority over the Spanish officials 
in 1823. Fop. '(1900) 16,302. 

Anecdote, originally something kept un¬ 
published, secret history, or an ancient work 
not in fact published, though there was no 
intention of keeping its contents undivulged. 
The best collection of anecdotes, in this first 
sense of the word, is generally said to have 
been that of Muratori, in a. d. 1709; but 
the thing, if not the name, must have been 
much older. It is also a short, but gener¬ 
ally striking, narrative of some single event 
in a person’s history, related generally with 
a view of exhibiting his characteristic pe¬ 
culiarities. Among the best collections of 
anecdotes, in the modern sense, are the 
“ Percy Anecdotes,” sent forth by George 
Byerley and Joseph Clinton Robinson. 

Anegada (an-e-ga/da), the most north¬ 
erly of the Virgin Islands, lying E. of Porto 
Rico in the West Indies. It contains about 
13 square miles, with a scanty population 
of 200, and belongs to England. A little 
cotton is grown. The island is of coral for¬ 
mation, and beset with reefs; but the ship¬ 
wrecks for which these were notorious are 
now rare, thanks to the lighthouse on Som¬ 
brero. 

Anemometer, an instrument designed to 
measure the velocity of the wind, on which 
its strength depends. It was invented by 
Wolfins in 1709. Anemometers have been 


made of three kinds; 1st, those in which a 
windmill twists string round an axle 
against pressure; 2d, those in which a de¬ 
fined surface, say of a fool square, is pressed 
against a spring; 3d, those in which water 
or some other liquid is made to stand at a 
higher level in one leg of an inverted siphon 
than in the other. The anemometer now 
most commonly in use is more akin to the 
first, which also was the earliest type of the 
instrument, than it is to the second or the 
third. Four light metallic hemispheres, 
called from Dr. Robinson, who first em¬ 
ployed them, Robinson’s cups, are made to 
revolve like a vane or weather-cock, and are 
found to do so at the rate of exactly one- 
third the velocity of the wind. The result 
is then recorded in pencil marks by a self- 
registering apparatus. 

Anemone, a genus of plants belonging to 
the order ranunculacece, or crowfoots. 
What to the uninitiated seems a corolla is 
in reality a petaloid calyx highly developed. 
A. coronaria and hortensis are common gar¬ 
den flowers. 

In zoology, it is a popular name given to 
various radiated animals which present a 
superficial resemblance to the anemone, but 
really look more like the chrysanthemum 
or some others of the composites. The 
anemone, meaning the sea-anemone, is A. 
mesembryanthemum, called also the bend- 
let; the snake-locked anemone is the sagar- 
tia viduata, and the plumose anemone is 
the actinoloba dianthus. 

Anemoscope, an instrument for render¬ 
ing visible the direction of the wind. In 
that commonly used there is a vane exposed 
to the wind acting upon an index moving 
round a dial-plate on which the 32 points 
of the compass are engraved. 

Aneroid, not containing any liquid; used 
chiefly in the expression, “ aneroid barome¬ 
ter.” 

An aneroid barometer is a barometer not 
containing a liquid, but constructed on a 
totally different principle from a mercurial 
barometer. Various forms of the instru¬ 
ment exist. One of these consists of a cy¬ 
lindrical metal box exhausted of air, and 
having its lid of thin corrugated metal. As 
the pressure increases, the lid, which is 
highly elastic, and has a spring inside, is 
forced inward; while, again, as it dimin¬ 
ishes, it is forced outward. Delicate multi¬ 
plying levers then transmit these motions 
to an index which moves on a scale, and is 
graduated empirically by a mercurial bar¬ 
ometer. It is wonderfully delicate, but is 
apt to get out of order, particularly when 
it has been exposed to great variations of 
pressure. From its portability it is much 
used for determining the heights of moun¬ 
tains. 

Aneurin (an-ii'rin), a poet and prince of 
the Cambrian Britons, who flourished about 



Aneurism 


Angelico 


600 A. d., author of an epic poem, the 
“ Gododin,” relating the defeat of the Brit¬ 
ons of Strathclyde by the Saxons at the 
battle of Cattraeth. 

Aneurism, a morbid dilatation of the 
aorta, or one of the other great arteries of 
the body. Four varieties of this malady 
have been described. In the first the whole 
circumference of the artery is dilated; in 
the second, or true aneurism, the dilatation 
is confined to one side of the artery, which 
then takes the form of a sac; in the third, 
or false aneurism, the internal and middle 
coats of the artery are ulcerated or rup¬ 
tured, while those which are external or 
cellular expand into a sac; in the fourth, 
or mixed variety, the false supervenes upon 
the true aneurism, or upon dilatation. 

Angara, a Siberian river which flows into 
Lake Baikal at its N. extremity, and leaves 
it near the S. W. end, latterly joining the 
Yenisei as the Lower Angara or Upper Tun- 
guska. 

Angel, a messenger, one employed to 
carry a message, a locum tenens, a man of 
business. 

In a special sense an angel is one of an 
order or spiritual beings superior to man 
in power and intelligence, vast in number, 
holy in character, and thoroughly devoted 
to the worship and service of God, who em¬ 
ploys them as his heavenly messengers. 
Their existence is made known to us by 
Scripture, and is recognized also in the 
Parsee sacred books. 

“We find, as far as credit is to be given to the 
celestial hierachy of that supposed Dionysius, the 
senator of Athens, the first place or degree is given 
to the angels of love, which are termed seraphim ; 
the second to the angels of light, which are called 
cherubim; and the third, and so following places, 
to thrones, principalities, and the rest, which are all 
angels of power and ministry, so as the angels of 
knowledge and illumination are placed before the 
angels of office and dominations.” (Lord Bacon’s 
“Advent of Learning,” bk. i.) 

We learn from Scripture that many 
angels, originally holy like the rest, fell from 
their pristine purity, becoming so trans¬ 
formed in character that all their powers 
are now used for the purpose of doing evil 
instead of good. These are to be identified 
with the devils so frequently mentioned in 
Holy W'rit. 

The word is also applied to a spirit which 
has assumed the aspect of some human be¬ 
ing. The reference probably is to the Jew¬ 
ish belief that each person has his or her 
guardian angel. 

Angel is likewise the name of a beautiful 
fish, which has its body covered with large 
green scales, and the lamince above the gills 
armed with cerulean spines. It is one of 
the chsetodons, and occurs on the coast of 
Carolina. It is quite different from the 
anerel fish. 


In numismatics, an angel is a gold coin, 
named from the fact that on one side of it 
was a representation of the Archangel 
Michael in conflict with the Dragon (Bev. 
xii: 7). The reverse had a ship with a 
large cross for the mast, the letter E on 
the right side, and a rose on the left; while 
against the ship was a shield with the usual 
arms. It was first struck in France in 1340, 
and was introduced into England by Edward' 
IV. in 1465. Between his reign and that of 
Charles I. it varied in value from 6s. 8d. to 
10s. It is not now current either in France 
or England. The last struck in England 
were in the reign of Charles I. 

Angel Fish, a fish of the squalidce, or 
shark family, the reverse of angelic in its 
look, but which derived its name from the 
fact that its extended pectoral fins present 
the appearance of wings. It is called also 
monk-fish, fiddle-fish, shark-ray, and kings- 
ton. It is the squatina angelus of Dumeril, 
the squalus squatina of Linnfeus. It has an 
affinity to the rays as well as to the sharks. 
It lies close to the bottom of the sea, and 
feeds ravenously on flat-fishes. It some¬ 
times attains the length of seven or eight 
feet. It is found on the coasts of Europe 
and North America. 

Angelica, a genus of plants of the nat¬ 
ural order umbelliferce, by some botanists 
divided into two, angelica and archangelica. 
The species are mostly herbaceous and 
perennial, natives of the temperate and 
colder regions of the northern hemisphere. 
Wild angelica (A. sylvestris) is a common 
plant in moist meadows, by the sides of 
brooks, and in woods in Britain and 
throughout many parts of Europe and Asia. 
The garden angelica ( A . archangelica or 
archangelica' officinalis) is a biennial plant, 
becoming perennial when not allowed to 
ripen its seeds. The whole plant, and es¬ 
pecially the root, is aromatic and bitter, 
with a pleasant, somewhat musky color, and 
contains much resin and essential oil. The 
root was greatly valued in the Middle Ages 
as a specific against poisons, pestilential dis¬ 
eases, witchcraft, and enchantments, and 
was long employed as an aromatic stimulant 
and tonic, and in nervous and digestive ail¬ 
ments. The garden angelica was at one 
time also much cultivated for the blanched 
stalks, which were used as celery now is. 
The tender stalks and midribs of the leaves, 
candied, are still, however, a well-known ar¬ 
ticle of confectionery, and an agreeable 
stomachic; the roots and seeds are employed 
in the preparation of gin and of bitters. 
The roots are occasionally ground and made 
into bread in Norway, and the Icelanders 
eat the stem and roots raw, with butter. 
Several species of angelica are natives of 
North America. 

Angelico, Fra, the commonest designa¬ 
tion of the great friar-painter — in full, 




Angell 


Angelo 


“II beato Fra Giovanni Angelico da Fiesole,” 

“ the blessed Brother John the angelic of 
Fiesole.” Born in 1387 at Vicchio, in the 
Tuscan province of Mugello, in 1407 he en¬ 
tered the Dominican monastery at Fiesole, 
in 1436 he was transferred to Florence, and 
in 1445 was summoned by the Pope to Borne, 
where thenceforward he chiefly resided till 
his death in 1455. Of course, his frescoes, 
such as have not perished, are all in Italy — 
at Cortona, at Fiesole, in the Florentine con¬ 
vent of San Marco (now a museum), at 
Orvieto, and in the Vatican chapel of Nich¬ 
olas V. Of his easel pictures, the Louvre 
possesses a splendid example, “ The Corona¬ 
tion of the Virgin,” and the London Na¬ 
tional Gallery (since 1860) a “Glory,” or 
Christ with 265 saints. One supreme aim 
pervades all the creations of Fra Angelico — 
that of arousing devotional feeling through 
the contemplation of unearthly loveliness. 

Angell, George Thorndike, an Amer¬ 
ican reformer, born in 1823. He was gradu¬ 
ated at Dartmouth, 1846, and admitted to 
the bar, 1851; was active in promoting 
measures for the prevention of crime, cruel¬ 
ties, and the adulteration of food; and 
founded the American Humane Educational 
Society. He died March 16, 1909. 

Angell, James Burrill,an American edu¬ 
cator and diplomatist, born in Scituate, 
R. I., Jan. 7, 1827; was graduated from 
Brown University in 1850. He assumed the 
presidency of the University of Vermont in 
1866, and that of the University of Michi¬ 
gan in 1S71. He was Minister to China, 
1880-1881, and to Turkey, 1897-1898. In 
1900-1910 he resumed the presidency of the 
University of Michigan. 

Angell, Joseph Kinnicut, an American 
lawyer, born in Providence, R. I., in 1794; 
best known for his works on “ Treatise on 
the Right of Property in Tide-Waters,” and 
“ The Limitation of Actions at Law and in 
Equity and Admiralty.” He died in 1857. 

Angeln (ang'eln), a district in Schleswig 
of about 300 square miles, bounded N. by the 
Bay of Flensburg, S. by the Schlei, E. by 
the Baltic, the only continental territory 
which has retained the name of the Angles. 

Angelo (Michael Angelo Buonarroti), 

the most distinguished sculptor of the modern 
world, was born on March 6, 1475. His 
father, Ludovico di Leonardo Buonarroti 
Simoni, was a poor gentleman of Florence, 
who, though bankrupt in fortune, did not 
lack the consideration which is paid to an¬ 
cient lineage. When the sculptor was born, 
his father was podesta, or mayor, of Caprese 
and Chiusi, two townships in Tuscany. He 
returned to Florence when his term of office 
was expired, and the child was intrusted to 
the fostering care of a stonemason’s wife at 
Settignano, where Ludovico owned a small 
property. The boy’s enthusiasm for art re¬ 
vealed itself at an early age, and, though he 
19 


was sent to the school of Messer Francesco 

di Urbino to learn the elements, his best 

energies were devoted to drawing. To his 

father’s aristocratic prejudice sculpture 

seemed a calling unworthy of a gentleman. 

The lad, however, was resolute, and, in 1488, 

while yet only 13 years of age, he entered 

the bottega of Domenico Ghirlandajo, to 

whom he was bound apprentice for three 

years. None was ever more fortunate than’ 

Michael Angelo in the time and place of his' 

birth. From his bovhood he was familiar 

«/ 

with the masterpieces of Donatello, and he 
joined his contemporaries in making a pil¬ 
grimage to the Convent of the Carmine, 
where he studiously copied the supreme ex¬ 
amples of Masaccio’s art. By Ghirlandajo 
he was recommended to Lorenzo de Medici, 
and entered the school which the “ Mag- 
nifico ” had established in his garden on the 
Piazza. Here was gathered together, under 
the care of Bertoldo, a priceless collection 
of antiques, and here Michael Angelo encoun¬ 
tered what proved the most enduring influ¬ 
ence of his life. His talent was not long 
in arresting the notice of Lorenzo, who 
henceforth gave him a room in his house 
and a seat at his table; and to the benefi¬ 
cence of his patron he owed the acquaint¬ 
ance of Poliziano and many of the most 
learned of the day. To this period belong 
two interesting reliefs. In the “ Battle of 
the Centaurs” (now in the Casa Buonarroti 
at Florence) the classical influence of Lo¬ 
renzo’s garden is strikingly apparent. In 
truth it has little of the dignified calm 
which distinguishes the work of Phidias and 
his contemporaries; the style of a later 
period was its inspiration; but it reveals 
the lasting characteristics of Michael An¬ 
gelo’s genius. The inexhaustible variety of 
pose, the straining muscles, the contorted 
limbs, which mark the artist’s mature work, 
are already visible. A marvellous contrast 
to the “ Centaurs ” is the “ Madonna,” con¬ 
ceived and executed in the spirit of Dona¬ 
tello, which, without a suggestion of move¬ 
ment, is quiet and harmonious in composi¬ 
tion, and though not consciously antique, is 
far more classical. 

In 1492, when Michael Angelo had spent 
some three years in his house, Lorenzo died, 
and the school which had conferred so great 
benefits upon art was straightway dissolved. 
Piero, Lorenzo’s son and successor, it is true, 
retained for a time the services of Michael 
Angelo, but he is said to have treated him 
with scant courtesy; and Michael Angelo 
fled to Bologna. Nor did he here wait long 
for a patron; Gianfrancesco Aldrovandi 
commissioned him to execute a statue. In 
Bologna the sculptor lingered for a year; 
then he once more (in 1495) returned to 
Florence. It was during this sojourn in his 
native city that he fashioned the marble 
“ Cupid,” to which he owed his first intro- 






Angelo 


« 


Angelo 


duction to Rome. Baldassare del Milanese 
persuaded him to give the work the air of 
an antique by burial, and dispatch it to 
Rome. Here it was purchased by Cardinal 
San Giorgio, who, though he speedily dis¬ 
covered the fraud which had been put upon 
him, was quick to detect the talent of the 
sculptor who had tricked him. He there¬ 
fore summoned him to Rome, and on June 
25, 149G, Michael Angelo arrived for the 
first time in the Eternal City. The influence 
of Rome and the antique is easily discernible 
in the “ Bacchus,” now in the National Mu¬ 
seum at Florence; it is modeled with an ele¬ 
gance and restraint which are evidence of 
the hold which the classical tradition, as in¬ 
terpreted by the Groeco-Roman sculptors, 
had upon Michael Angelo. To the same 
period belongs the exquisite “ Cupid ” of 
the South Kensington Museum. The 
“ Pieta,” which is iioav in St. Peter’s, was 
executed in 1497, but presents an amazing 
contrast. There is in it a touch of the Mid¬ 
dle Ages, a suggestion of realism which is 
wholly at variance with the antique ideal. 
But it is beautifully composed, the drapery 
is handled with a masterly breadth, and the 
body of the dead Christ is an epitome of 
anatomical research. 

For four years the sculptor remained in 
Rome, perpetually urged to return to Flor¬ 
ence by his father, who, though he objected 
to his son’s craft as unbefitting his station, 
was nothing loth to profit by the wealth 
which was the reward of artistic success. 
Michael Angelo went back; and Soderini, 
who was then gonfaloniere, permitted him 
to convert into a statue the colossal block of 
marble upon which Agostino d’Antonio had 
been at work many years before, and out of 
the irregular block grew the celebrated 
“ David.” The sculptor was compelled to 
modify his composition on account of the 
shape and size of his material. Indeed, it 
is characteristic of this Titan’s impetuous 
genius that obstacles were ever an incentive. 
His “ David ” is the Gothic treatment of a 
classic theme. The influence of the antique 
is obvious, but the personal touch of the 
sculptor is also apparent (especially in 
such details as the treatment of the hands). 
The figure is modeled with strength and 
simplicity; the surface is not furrowed by 
an endless series of lines; there is no parade 
of anatomical knowledge; in pose and com¬ 
position there is a stately grandeur, a dig¬ 
nified solemnity, which do not for an in¬ 
stant suggest that the artist was hampered 
by material difficulties. Indeed, so far from 
being a tour de force , it is a complete, well- 
ordered achievement. In 1504 it was placed 
upon its pedestal in the Piazza de’ Signori, 
whence it was removed in 1873 to the Acad¬ 
emy of Arts. Michael Angelo’s sojourn in 
Florence was a period of great activity. A 
second “David” (this time of bronze) was 


commissioned and sent to France, where all 
trace of it is lost. The sculptor also de¬ 
signed two marble reliefs, one of which 
passed into the possession of Sir George 
Beaumont, and is now at Burlington House. 
The “ Holy Family of the Tribune ” and the 
“ Manchester Madonna,” in the National 
Gallery belong to the same time, and prove 
that Michael Angelo had not wholly neg¬ 
lected the art of painting. His genius, how¬ 
ever, was essentially plastic. He had far 
more interest in form than in color; in¬ 
deed, in his hands pictorial art was but 
an opportunity for the vigorous modeling 
of the human form. The zeal of Soderini, 
the gonfaloniere, in the cause of art inspired 
the scheme of decorating the Great Hall of 
the Council. For one wall Leonardo da 
Vinci was commissioned to design a fresco; 
a second was intrusted to Michael Angelo. 
The latter chose as his subject an incident 
in the war of Pisa, and executed a cartoon 
which Vasari, with devout exaggeration, 
proclaims to have been of divine rather 
than of human origin. A body of soldiers 
were represented bathing; their camp has 
been attacked by the enemy, and they are 
hastening to seize their arms and repulse 
the assault. The motive is admirable, and 
gave the artist scope for the variety of pose 
and the violent action in which he took pe¬ 
culiar delight. The fresco was never com¬ 
pleted, and on the return of the Medici to 
Florence the cartoon was removed to the 
hall of their palace, to which painters were 
permitted unrestrained access. The result 
was that over-zealous admirers of Michael 
Angelo cut the cartoon to pieces. The orig¬ 
inal is lost, as irretrievably as the master¬ 
pieces of Zeuxis and Apelles; and our im¬ 
pression of it is obtained from literary 
sources, from the engravings of Marcantonio 
and Agostino Veneziano, who reproduced 
single groups, and from a suspicious copy 
at Holkham Hall. 

In 1503 Julius II. succeeded to the pon¬ 
tificate, and, being not merely a warrior, 
but a patron of the arts as well, he lost no 
time in summoning Michael Angelo to Rome. 
In Michael Angelo the sturdy Pope met his 
match. The two men, indeed, were not un¬ 
like in temperament. Each was endowed 
with the extraordinary vigor of mind and 
body which was the best characteristic of 
the renaissance. But both had the defects 
of their qualities; Michael Angelo, no less 
than Julius, was violent and overbearing; 
the sculptor could as little brook opposition 
as the Pope, and their dealings were con¬ 
tinually interrupted by bitter quarrels and 
recriminations. It is impossible to accept 
Vasari’s anecdotes as statements of the lit¬ 
eral truth, but there is no doubt that they 
have solid foundation in fact. Had Michael 
Angelo known the misery and disappoint¬ 
ment which were in store for him, he might 




Angelo 


Angelo 


well have hesitated before obeying the sum¬ 
mons of Julius. The Pope commissioned 
the sculptor to design his lomb, and thus 
began what Condivi aptly calls la tragedia 
della sepoltura. For 40 years Michael An¬ 
gelo clung to the hope that he would- yet 
complete the great monument in honor of 
Pope Julius and his own genius. 'But in¬ 
trigue and spite were too strong for him. 
Other demands were continually made upon 
his energy, and the sublime statue of Moses 
is the best fragment that is left to us of 
the tomb of Julius. However, at the out¬ 
set both Pope and sculptor were full of en¬ 
thusiasm. The plans were approved and 
the work would have at once proceeded had 
not the sculptor one day asked audience of 
the Pope in vain. In a sudden fit of tem¬ 
per, Michael Angelo left Rome, and the en¬ 
treaties of the Pope availed not to procure 
his return. After much fruitless negotia¬ 
tion, they met at Bologna, and, with the gen¬ 
erosity that was characteristic of both, were 
instantly reconciled. Michael Angelo, as a 
pledge of renewed friendship, commenced a 
statue of Julius II., which was cast in 
bronze and placed over the gate of San 
Petronio (afterward melted down and con¬ 
verted into a cannon). Michael Angelo fol¬ 
lowed the Pope to Rome, eager to resume 
his work upon the monument. In the mean¬ 
time, however, Bramante, if Vasari’s ac¬ 
count be true, had poisoned the Pope’s mind 
against the sculptor; instead of being al¬ 
lowed to devote himself to the monument, 
which he deemed the work of his life, he 
was ordered to decorate the ceiling of the 
Sistine Chapel with paintings. In vain he 
protested that sculpture was his profession, 
in vain he urged Raphael’s higher qualifica¬ 
tions for the task; the Pope was obdurate, 
and in 1508 Michael Angelo began the work 
for which his training had ill adapted him. 
However, he set himself resolutely to the 
toil, and in four years achieved a master¬ 
piece of decorative design. The flat oblong 
space of the ceiling is divided into nine 
compartments, each of which contains an in¬ 
cident drawn from the Old Testament. The 
lunettes above the windows, the spandrels, 
as well as the ressaults between the lu¬ 
nettes, are filled with heroic figures. The 
designs are admirably accommodated to the 
space they are intended to fill, and the 
broad effect is one of harmony and homo¬ 
geneity. It is only when you analyze the 
composition and examine each compartment 
by itself that you realize the superhuman 
invention, the miraculous variety of atti¬ 
tude and gesture, which place this marvel¬ 
lous work among the greatest achievements 
of human energy. Michael Angelo, however, 
had not forgotten the monument of Pope 
Julius, and no sooner had he finished his 
work in the Sistine Chapel than he returned 
with eagerness to the tomb. But once again 


his favorite project was interrupted. In 
1513 Pope Julius II. died, and, though he 
had commanded the cardinals, Santi Quat- 
tro and Aginense, to see that his monument 
was completed in accordance with his ex¬ 
pressed wishes, the cardinals were thrifty 
men, and demanded of Michael Angelo an¬ 
other and a more modest design. This was 
furnished, but before the work could be un¬ 
dertaken, Pope Leo X. had dispatched Mi¬ 
chael Angelo on business of his own to 
Florence. Leo was of the Medici family, 
and professed no interest in the tomb of his 
predecessor; his whole anxiety was to do 
honor to his ancestors by the adornment of 
Florence. He, therefore, commissioned Mi¬ 
chael Angelo to rebuild the fagade of the 
Church of San Lorenzo and enrich it with 
sculptured figures. The master reluctantly 
complied, and set out for Carrara to quarry 
marble. Even here the Pope would not per¬ 
mit Michael Angelo to work his will, but 
urged him to leave Carrara and seek what 
material he needed at Serravezza, which lay 
in Leo’s own territory. In vain the sculptor 
insisted that the marble was of inferior 
quality, and that to convey it to Florence, 
roads must be cut through mountains and 
laid upon stakes over marsh-land and 
swamp. Leo X. was deaf to reason, and for 
eight years Michael Angelo was forced to 
devote himself to toil as idle as that of 
Sisyphus; from 1514 to 1522 his artistic 
record is a blank. Nor were the next years 
fruitful of achievement. The sculptor re¬ 
mained in Florence still working on the 
tomb of Julius and building the Sacristy of 
San Lorenzo. In 1528 the unsettled state of 
his native city turned him again from the 
practice of his art. He devoted himself 
heart and soul to the science of fortifica¬ 
tion, and when, in 1529, Florence was be¬ 
sieged, Michael Angelo was foremost in its 
defense. The city was forced to surrender 
in the following year, and for some time 
Michael Angelo, fearing treachery, lay in 
concealment. His safety, however, being as¬ 
sured, he resumed his work upon the tombs 
of the Medici, and completed the monuments 
to Giuliano and Lorenzo de’ Medici, which 
are among the greatest of his works. In 
1533 yet another compact was entered into 
concerning Pope Julius’ ill-fated sepulcher; 
it was at last determined to reduce it to a 
mere fagade, and Michael Angelo would 
doubtless have carried it to completion had 
he not been once again commissioned to 
adorn the Sistine Chapel with frescoes. Af¬ 
ter a delay of some years, he began, in 1537, 
to paint “The Last Judgment.” The de¬ 
sign was finished and displayed on the 
Christmas-day or 1541, and was the master’s 
last pictorial achievement. In the follow¬ 
ing year he was appointed architect of St. 
Peter’s, and devoted himself to the work 
with loyalty and devotion until his death, 
which took place on Feb. 18, 1564. 



Angelus 


Angle 


Angelus, in the Roman Catholic Church, 
a short form of prayer in honor of the in¬ 
carnation, consisting mainly of versicles and 
responses, the angelic salutation three times 
repeated, and a collect, so named from the 
word with which it commences, Angelus 
Domini (Angel of the Lord). Hence, also, 
the bell tolled in the morning, at noon, and 
in the evening, to indicate the time when 
the angelus is to he recited. The moijk’s 
dress is called “ angelicus,” or “ angelica 
vestis,” “quod et ipsi dicantur angeli a 
patribus ,” as in the Revelation, the minis¬ 
ters of the churches of Asia are addressed 
as “ angels.” 

Angerman=Elf, the most beautiful river 
in Sweden, flows S. E. through Westerbot- 
ten and West Norrland into the Gulf of 
Bothnia at Hernasand; navigable from Sol- 
leftea downward (about 65 miles). 

Angers (an-zha'), a town and river-port 
of France, capital of the Department of 
Maine-et-Loire, and formerly of the prov¬ 
ince of Anjou, on the banks of the Maine, 
5 y 2 miles from the Loire, 150 miles S. W. of 
Paris. Has an old castle, once a place of 
great strength, now used as a prison, bar¬ 
racks, and powder magazine; a fine cathe¬ 
dral of the 12th and 13th centuries, with 
very fine old painted windows; is the seat 
of a bishop, and has a school of arts and 
manufactures, a public library, an art gal¬ 
lery, a large modern hospital, the remains 
of a hospital founded by Henry II. of Eng¬ 
land in 1155, courts of law, theater, etc.; 
manufactures sail cloth, hosiery, leather, 
and chemicals, foundries, etc. In the neigh¬ 
borhood are immense slate quarries. Pop. 
(1901), 82,966. 

Angevins (an'je-vins), natives of Anjou, 
often applied to the race of English sover¬ 
eigns called Plantagenets. Anjou became 
connected with England by the marriage 
of Matilda, daughter of Henry I., with 
Geoffrey V., Count of Anjou. The Angevin 
kings of England were Henry II., Rich¬ 
ard I., John, Henry III., Edward I., 
Edward II., Edward III. and Richard II. 

Angilbert, St. ( iing-el-bar'), the most 
celebrated poet of his age, secretary and 
friend of Charlemagne, whose daughter, 
Bertha, he married. In the latter part of 
his life he retired to a monastery, of which 
he became abbot. Died in 814. 

Angina Pectoris, the name first given 
by Dr. Heberden in 1768, and since then 
universally adopted as the designation of a 
very painful disease, called by him also a 
disorder of the breast; by some others, 
spasm of the chest, or heart stroke, and 
popularly breast pang. It is characterized 
by intense pain in the prsecordial region, 
attended by a feeling of suffocation and a 


fearful sense of impending death. These 
symptoms may continue for a few minutes, 
half an hour, or even an hour, or more. 
During the paroxysm the pulse is low, with 
the body cold, and often covered with 
clammy perspiration. Death does not often 
result from the first seizure, but the malady 
tends to return at more or less remote in¬ 
tervals, generally proving fatal at last. 
There are several varieties of it: an organic 
and functional form, and again a pure or 
idiopathic and a complex or sympathetic 
one have been recognized. Angina is pro¬ 
duced by disease of the heart. It especially 
attacks elderly persons of plethoric habits, 
men oftener than women, generally coming 
on when they are walking, and yet more, if 
they are running upstairs or exerting great 
effort on ascending a hill. Stimulants 
should be administered during the continu¬ 
ance of a paroxysm, but it requires a rad¬ 
ical improvement of the general health to 
produce a permanent effect on the dis¬ 
order. 

Angiosperm, a term for any plant which 
has its seed inclosed in a seed vessel. Exo¬ 
gens are divided into those whose seeds are 
inclosed in a seed vessel, and those with 
seeds produced and ripened without the pro¬ 
duction of a seed vessel. The former are 
angiosperms, and constitute the principal 
part of the species; the latter are gymno- 
sperms, and chiefly consist of the coniferce 
and cycadacece. 

Angirases, The, in Hindu mythology, a 
class of beings between men and gods; some¬ 
times called “ the fathers of the human 
race;” also charged with the protection of 
the sacrifices performed according to the 
Atharvaveda. 

Angle, the point where two lines meet, 
or the meeting of two lines in a point. 
Technically, the inclination of two lines to 
one another. Angles may be ranked under 
two leading divisions, plane and solid angles. 
A plane angle is the inclination of two lines 
to one another in a plane, which two lines 
meet together. A solid angle is that 
which is made by the meeting in one point 
of more than two plane angles, which, 
however, are not in the same plane. 
Each of the leading divisions, plane and 
solid angles, may again be subdivided into 
rectilineal, curvilinear, and mixed angles. 
A plane rectilineal angle is the inclination 
to each other of tw r o straight lines, which 
meet together, but are not in the same 
straight line. A curvilinear angle is the 
inclination to each other of two curved lines 
which meet in a point. A mixed angle is 
one formed by the meeting of a curve and 
a straight line. 

Angles are measured by arcs, and it is im- 



Angler Fish 


Anglesey 


material with what radius the latter are 
described. The result is generally stated 
in degrees, minutes, and seconds, 0 ' thus 
30° 14' 23" = 36 degrees, 14 minutes, and 
23 seconds. When an angle is isolated from 
other angles, it may be named by a single 
letter; but when two or more angles meet 
at one point they are named by three let¬ 
ters, never by one or two. In such cases 
the letter at that point is always named in 
the middle. The point at which the lines 
forming the angle meet is called the angular 
point or the vertex of the angle, and the 
lines themselves the sides or legs of the 
angle. 

Plane rectilineal angles are generally di¬ 
vided into right and oblique, or into right, 
obtuse, and acute. When a straight line 
standing upon another straight line makes 
the two adjacent angles (those on the right 
and left of it) equal to one another, each of 
them is called a right angle. An oblique 
angle is one which is not a right angle. An 
obtuse angle is that which is greater than 
one right angle, but less than two. An acute 
angle is that which is less than a right 
angle: both are oblique. A spherical angle 
is one formed by the intersection or the 
meeting of two great circles of a sphere. 
Many other designations are applied to 
angles; thus, in geometry, there are oppo¬ 
site, exterior, interior, alternate, vertical, 
and other angles, also angles of contact, 
etc. 

In mechanics, there are angles of direction, 
of friction, of repose, etc. 

Optics has angles of incidence, of reflec¬ 
tion, of refraction, of deviation, of polariza¬ 
tion, etc. . 

Astronomy has angles of position, of sit¬ 
uation, of elevation, inclination, depression, 
etc. 

In fortification, a dead angle is an angle 
so formed that a small plot of ground in 
front of it can neither be seen nor defended 
from the parapet. 

In anatomy, the angle of the jaw is the 
point at which the vertical hinder edge of 
the ramus, descending from the condyle, 
meets the horizontal inferior border. 

Angler Fish, a fish called also sea devil, 
frog, or frog fish; and in Scotland, wide- 
gab, signifying wide mouth. It is the 
lophius piscatorius of Linnaeus, and is 
placed under the order acanthopterygii, and 
the family which has the pectoral fins feet¬ 
like. It has an enormous head, on which are 
placed two elongated appendages or fila¬ 
ments, the first of them broad and flattened 
at the end. These, being movable, are ma¬ 
neuvered as if they were bait; and when 
small fishes approach to examine them, the 
angler, hidden amid mud and sand, which 
it has stirred up by means of its pectoral 
and ventral fins, seizes them at once : hence 


its name. It occurs along the British 
coasts, and is three, or, occasionally, five, 
feet long. 

Angles, a German tribe who appear to 
have originally dwelt on the E. side of the 
Elbe between the mouth of the Saale and 
Ohre, and to have removed N. from their 
old abodes to the modern Schleswig, where 
they dwelt between the Jutes and Saxons. 
As they never approached the Rhine and the 
Roman frontiers we do not find their name 
mentioned by the Roman authors, who com¬ 
prehended them, with many others, under 
the general name of Chauci and Germani, 
till the conquest of Britain made them bet¬ 
ter known as a separate nation. In the 5th 
century they joined their powerful N. neigh¬ 
bors, the Saxons, and took part in the con¬ 
quest of Britain, which from them derived 
its future name of England. A part of 
them remained in their continental homes, 
where, to the present day, a small tract of 
land on the E. coast of the duchy of Schles¬ 
wig, between the Schlei and the Gulf of 
Flensburg, bears the name of Angeln. 

Anglesey, or Anglesea, an island and 
county of England, in North Wales, in the 
Irish Sea, separated from the mainland by 
the Menai Strait. It is about 20 mile3 long 
and 17 miles broad, and has an area of 175,- 
836 acres, of which fully 150,000 acres are 
under crops and pasture. The surface of 
the island, with the exception of Holyhead, 
Parys and Bodafon mountains, is compara¬ 
tively flat, and the climate is milder than 
that of the adjoining coast. There are no 
streams of any importance, but the coast af¬ 
fords some natural harbors, the principal 
of which are Holyhead and Beaumaris. The 
soil is various, but generally rather light 
and moderately fertile. The Menai Strait 
is crossed by a magnificent suspension 
bridge, 5S0 feet between the piers and 100 
feet above high-water mark, allowing the 
largest vessels which navigate the strait to 
sail under it; and also by the great Britan¬ 
nia tubular bridge, for the conveyance of 
railway trains, Holyhead being the point of 
departure for the Irish mails. The market 
towns are Holyhead, Beaumaris, Llangefni, 
and Amlwch. Holyhead is by far the 
largest town. The county returns one mem¬ 
ber to Parliament. On the coast are several 
small islands, the chief being Holyhead and 
Puffin Island. Pop. (1901) 50,590. 

Anglesey, Henry William Paget, Mar¬ 
quis of, English soldier and statesman, was 
the eldest son of Henry, first Earl of Ux¬ 
bridge, and was born in 1768. He was edu¬ 
cated at Oxford, and in 1790 entered Parlia¬ 
ment as member for the Carnarvon bor¬ 
oughs. In 1793 lie entered the army, and in 
1794 he took part in the compaign in Flan¬ 
ders under the Duke of York. In 1808 he 



Anglia, East 


Angling 


was sent into Spain with two brigades of 
cavalry to join Sir John Moore, and in the 
retreat to Coruna commanded the rear 
guard. In 1812 he became, by his father’s 
death, Earl of Uxbridge. On Napoleon’s es¬ 
cape from Elba he was appointed commander 
of the British cavalry, and at the battle of 
Waterloo, by the charge of the heavy bri¬ 
gade, overthrew the Imperial Guard. For 
his services he was created Marquis of An¬ 
glesey. In 1828 he became Lord-lieutenant 
of Ireland, and made himself extremely pop¬ 
ular, but was recalled in consequence of fa¬ 
voring Catholic emancipation. He was 
again Lord-lieutenant in 1830; but lost his 
popularity by his opposition to O’Connell 
and his instrumentality in the passing of 
the Irish coercion acts; and he quitted office 
in 1833. He died in 1854. 

Anglia, East, a kingdom founded by the 
Angles (q. v.) about the middle of the 6tli 
century, in the eastern part of Central Eng¬ 
land, in what forms the present counties of 
Norfolk and Suffolk — names which doubt¬ 
less refer to a twofold settlement now en¬ 
tirely forgotten. At first to some extent 
dependent on Kent, and afterward on Mer¬ 
cia, on the fall of the latter it was attached 
to Wessex, without, however, losing its own 
kings until the time of the Danish invasion, 
when it was seized by the invaders, and 
formed into a Danish kingdom under Guth- 
rum (878). Edward, the son and successor 
of Alfred, after a long struggle, forced the 
Danes to acknowledge him in 921. Under 
him Wessex grew to be England, and East 
Anglia was henceforward part and parcel of 
the kingdom. It was one of the four great 
earldoms of the kingdom under Canute. 
The modern see of Norwich is equivalent in 
extent to East Anglia, being an incorpora¬ 
tion that took place about the end of the 9th 
century of the see founded for the Northfolk 
at Elmham (removed first to Thetford in 
1078, then to Norwich in 1101), and that 
founded at Dunwich for the Southfolk. 

Anglican Church, or Anglican Commu= 
nion, collectively, that group of churches 
which are in communion with, or have 
sprung from, the Church of England. They 
are the following: The Church in Ireland, 
the Episcopal Church in Scotland, the Prot¬ 
estant Episcopal Church in the United 
States of America, the Church in Canada, 
the Church in Australia, the Indian Church, 
and the Church in South Africa, which are 
all autonomous bodies under the jurisdic¬ 
tion of their own metropolitans, and not 
amenable to the ecclesiastical courts of the 
Church of England, though they all look to 
the Archbishop of Canterbury as patriarch. 
In addition to these autonomous churches 
in connection with the Anglican communion, 
there are 25 missionary bishops, represent¬ 
ing the English Church in various remote 


parts of Asia, Africa, and America. While 
the Anglican Church coheres only by gen¬ 
eral agreement in doctrine, worship, and 
basis of communion, it has common repre¬ 
sentation through its bishops in the various 
branches at the Lambeth Conference, held 
from time to time at Lambeth Palace, the 
official residence of the Archbishop of Can¬ 
terbury. The first conference that was held 
there met in 1867, the second in 1878, the 
third in 1888, the fourth in 1897, the fifth 
in 1908. See England, Church of; Prot¬ 
estant Episcopal Church ; Reformed 
Episcopal Church. 

Angling, the art of catching fish with a 
hook, or angle (Anglo-Saxon, ongel), baited 



HOOKS BAITED WITH WORMS. 


with worms, small fish, flies, etc. We find 
occasional allusions to this pursuit among 
the Greek and Latin classical writers; it is 



TROLLING SPOONS. 


mentioned several times in the Old Testa¬ 
ment, and it was practiced by the ancient 
Egyptians. The oldest work on the sub- 















Angling 


Angling 


ject in English is the “ Treatyse of Fys- 
shinge with an Angle,” printed by Wynkyn 
de Worde in 1496, along with treaties on 
hunting and hawking, the whole being as¬ 
cribed to Dame Juliana Berners, or Barnes, 
prioress of a nunnery near St. Alban. Wal¬ 
ton’s inimitable discourse on angling was 
first printed in 1653. 

The chief appliances required by an angler 
are a rod, line, hooks, and baits. Rods are 
made of various materials, and of various 
sizes. The cane rods are lightest; and, where 
fishing-tackle is sold, they most commonly 
have the preference; but in country places 
the rod is often of the angler’s own manu¬ 
facture. Rods are commonly made in sep¬ 
arate joints, so as to be easily taken to 
pieces and put up again. They are made to 
taper from the butt end to the top, and are 
usually possessed of a considerable amount 



ARTIFICIAL FLIES. 


of elasticity. In length they may vary from 
10 feet to more than double, with a corre¬ 
sponding difference in strength — a rod for 
salmon being necessarily much stronger 
than one suited for ordinary brook trout. 
The reel, an apparatus for winding up the 
line, is attached to the rod near the lower 
end, where the hand grasps it while fishing. 
The best are usually made of brass, are of 
simple construction, and so made as to wind 
or unwind freely and rapidly. That part of 
the line which passes along the rod and is 
wound on the reel is called the reel line, 
and may vary from 20 to 100 yards in 
length, according to the size of the water 
and the habits of the fish angled for; it is 
usually made of twisted horse hair and silk, 
or of oiled silk alone. The casting line, 
which is attached to this, is made of the 
same materials, but lighter and finer. To 
the end of this is tied a piece of fine gut, on 
Which the hook, or hooks, are fixed. The 


casting or gut lines should decrease in 
thickness from the reel line to the hooks. 

The hook, of finely tempered steel, should 
readily bend without breaking, and yet re¬ 
tain a sharp point. It should be long in 
the shank and deep in the bend; the point 
straight and true to the level of the shank; 
and the barb long. Their sizes and sorts 
must, of course, entirely depend on the kind 



HOOKS BAITED WITH SMALL FISH. 


of fish that are angled for. Floats formed 
of cork, goose and swan quills, etc., are often 
used to buoy up the hook so that it may 
float clear of the bottom. For heavy fish 
or strong streams a cork float is used; in 
slow water and for lighter fish quill floats. 



HOOKS WITH LIVE BAIT. 


Baits may consist of a great variety of ma¬ 
terials, natural or artificial. The princi¬ 
pal natural baits are worms: common 
garden worms, brandlings and red worms, 
maggots or gentles (the larvae of glow-flies 
such as are found on putrid meat), insects, 






















Anglo-American Commission 


Anglo-Saxons 


small fish (as minnows), salmon roe, etc. 
The artificial flies so much used in angling 
for trout and salmon are composed of hairs, 
furs and wools, of every variety, mingled 
with pieces of feathers, and secured to¬ 
gether by plated wire, or gold and silver 
thread, marking silk, wax, etc. The wings 
may be made of the feathers of domestic 
fowls, or any others of a showy color. Some 
angling authorities recommend that the 
artificial flies should be made to resemble 
as closely as possible the insects on which 
the fish is wont to feed, but experience has 
shown that the most capricious and un¬ 
natural combinations of feather, fur, etc., 
have been often successful where the most 
artistic imitations have failed. Artificial 
minnows, or other small fish, are also used 
by way of bait, and are so contrived as to 
spin rapidly when drawn through the water 
in order to attract the notice of the fish 
angled for. Angling, especially with the 
demands a great deal of skill and prac¬ 
tice, the throwing of the line properly being 
the initial difficulty. Nowhere is the art 
pursued with greater success and enthu¬ 
siasm than in the United States. 

Anglo-American Commission, a joint 
international commission appointed in 1898, 
by the United States and Great Britain, to 
negotiate a plan for the settlement of all 
controversial matters between the United 
States and Canada. The subjects submitted 
for the consideration of the commission 
were officially determined as follows: “ The 

Bering Sea sealing question, reciprocal min¬ 
ing regulations, the preservation of the fish¬ 
eries of the Great Lakes, the North Atlantic 
fishery question, the boundary question, the 
alien labor laws, and reciprocity of trade/’ 
Lord Herschell, Sir Wilfred Laurier, Sir 
Richard Cartwright, Sir Louis H. Davies, 
and Mr. J. Charlton, a member of the Do¬ 
minion Congress, were appointed British 
commissioners. The American commission¬ 
ers were United States Senators Fairbanks 
and Gray, Congressmen Dingley, Reciproc¬ 
ity Commissioner Kasson, and Ex-Secretary 
of State Foster. The commission met at 
Quebec, Aug. 23, Lord Herschell being 
chosen chairman; W. C. Cartwright, of 
the Foreign Office, and H. Bourassa, mem¬ 
ber of Parliament for Labelle county, Que¬ 
bec, were chosen British secretaries, and 
C. P. Anderson United States secretary. 
Later in the year an adjourned session was 
held in Washington, D. C., which adjourned 
without practical results. See Alaska. 

AngIo=American League, The, an or¬ 
ganization formed July 13, 1898, at a meet¬ 
ing held at Stafford House, London. Its 
object is to give practical effects to the 
terms of the following resolution, passed at 
that meeting: 


“Considering that the peoples of the British Em¬ 
pire and of the United States of America are closely 
allied in blood, inherit the same literature and laws, 
hold the same principles of self-government, recog¬ 
nize the same ideas of freedom and humanity in the 
guidance of their national policy, and are drawn 
together by strong common interests in many parts 
of the world, this meeting is of opinion that every 
effort should be made, in the interest of civilization 
and peace, to secure the most cordial and constant 
co-operation between the two nations.” 

Membership is open to all British sub¬ 
jects and citizens of the United States. 
A very strong and representative com¬ 
mittee was formed, with the Right Hon. 
James Bryce, M. P., as chairman. 

Anglo-Catholic, a term sometimes used 
to designate those Churches which hold the 
principles of the English Reformation, the 
Anglican or Established Church of England 
and the allied Churches. The term is also 
applied to that party in the English Church 
which favors doctrines and religious forms 
closely approaching those of the Roman 
Catholic Church, objects to be called Prot¬ 
estant, and corresponds closely with the 
Ritualistic section of the Church. 

Anglo=Saxons, the name used, with 
doubtful propriety, by modern historians to 
include the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who 
settled in Britain in the 5th and 6th cen¬ 
turies after Christ, and thus became the an¬ 
cestors of the English people. These tribes 
came from Germany, where they inhabited 
the parts about the mouths of the Elbe and 
Weser, and the first body of them who gain¬ 
ed a footing in England are said to have 
landed in 449, and to have been led by Hen- 
gist and Horsa. The Jutes settled chiefly 
in Kent, the Saxons in the S. and middle 
of the country, and the Angles in the N. 
Among the various Anglo-Saxon States that 
afterwards arose those founded by the 
Angles first gained the preponderance, and 
the whole country came in time to be called 
after them Engla-land, that is, the land of 
the Angles. As an outline of Anglo-Saxon 
history will be found in the article En¬ 
gland, we shall here confine ourselves to 
giving some particulars regarding the insti¬ 
tutions and customs of the Anglo-Saxons. 

Among them we find the English consti¬ 
tution already existing in all its essentials, 
but its origin is not to be attributed to Al¬ 
fred, as is sometimes done, though he re¬ 
stored it, and brought it to a greater pitch 
of completeness. In a rudimentary form it 
was the common property of the Germanic 
peoples before the emigration of the Saxons 
and Angles from the Continent. It devel¬ 
oped itself more independently, however, 
among the Anglo-Saxons than among those 
Teutonic races who came into closer connec¬ 
tion with the Romans, and afterward with 
the Romish hierarchy. The whole Anglo- 
Saxon community was frequently spoken of 
as consisting of the eorls and the ceorls y or 



Anglo=Saxons 


Anglo=Saxons 


the nobles and common freemen. The form¬ 
er were the men of property and position, 
and were themselves divided into different 
ranks; the latter were the small landhold¬ 
ers, handicraftsmen, etc., who generally 
placed themselves under the protection of 
some nobleman, who was hence termed their 
hlaford or lord. Besides these there was the 
class of the serfs or slaves (theowas ), who 
might be either born slaves or freemen who 
had forfeited their liberty by their crimes, 
or whom poverty or the fortune of war 
had brought into this position. They sewed 
as agricultural laborers on their masters’ 
estates, and though they were mere chat¬ 
tels, as absolutely the property of their 
master as his cattle, their lot does not ap¬ 
pear to have been very uncomfortable. They 
were frequently manumitted by the will of 
their master at his death, and were also 
allowed to accumulate savings of their own, 
so as to be able to purchase their freedom 
or that of their children. 

One of the peculiar features of Anglo- 
Saxon society was the icergyld, or life-price, 
which was established for the settling of 
feuds. “ A sum, paid either in kind or in 
money where money existed, was placed up¬ 
on the life of every freeman, according to 
his rank in the state, his birth, or his office. 
A corresponding sum was settled for every 
wound that could be indicted upon his per¬ 
son; for nearly every injury that could be 
done to his civil rights, his honor, or his 
domestic peace; and further fines were ap¬ 
pointed according to the peculiar adventi¬ 
tious circumstances that might appear to ag¬ 
gravate or extenuate the offense. From the 
operation of this principle no one was ex¬ 
empt, and the king as well as the peasant 
was protected by a wergyld, payable to his 
kinsmen and his people” (Kemble, “ Saxons 
in England ”). 

The king ( cyning , cyng) was at the head 
of the State; he was the highest of the 
nobles and the chief magistrate. He was 
not looked upon as ruling by any divine 
right, but by the will of the people, as rep¬ 
resented by the icitan or great council of 
the nation. Accordingly we find that the 
new king was not always the direct and 
nearest heir of the late king, but one of the 
royal family whose abilities and character 
recommended him for the office. The king 
was invested with certain honors and privi¬ 
leges in order that he might maintain his 
position with becoming dignity. Besides 
his wergyld as an aetheling or person of 
royal blood, his life was further guarded 
by a sum of equal amount, called cynebol or 
price of royalty, and the former sum was 
to be paid to his relations, the latter to the 
people. As king he held possession of the 
crown lands, which were national property, 
and distinct from any private estates he 
might himself purchase. Among other priv¬ 
ileges he was entitled to a portion of the 


fines and confiscations laid upon offenders; 
he had the right of maintaining a standing 
army of household troops, the duty of call¬ 
ing together the council of the witan, and 
of laying before them measures which con¬ 
cerned the welfare of the State, with certain 
distinctions of dress, dwelling, etc., all his 
privileges being possessed and exercised by 
the advice and consent of the witena-gemot 
or parliament. 

The queen also was held in high honor. 
She sat on a throne by the king in the as¬ 
semblies, and she possessed a separate es¬ 
tablishment from that of the king, though 
on a smaller scale. Next in rank and dig¬ 
nity to the king were the ealdormen. These 
were at the head of the administration of 
justice in the shires, possessing both ju¬ 
dicial and executive authority, and had as 
their officers the scir-gerefan or sheriffs. 
One of their most important functions was 
the leading of the armed force of the coun¬ 
ty, a duty which often fell to their share 
during the period of the Danish invasions. 
The ealdorman, as such, held possession of 
certain lands attached to the office, and he 
was also entitled to a share of fines and 
other moneys levied for the king’s use and 
passing through his hands. “ Thus the 
position which his nobility, his power, and 
his wealth secured to the ealdorman was a 
brilliant one. In fact, the whole executive 
government may be considered as a great 
aristocratical association, of which the 
ealdormen were the members, and the king 
little more than the president. They were 
in nearly every respect his equals, and pos¬ 
sessed the right of intermarriage with him; 
it was solely with their consent that he 
could be elected or appointed to the crown, 
and by their support, cooperation, and al¬ 
liance that he was maintained there. With¬ 
out their concurrence and assent, their li¬ 
cense and permission, he could not make, 
abrogate, or alter laws; they were the prin¬ 
cipal witan or counsellors, the leaders of 
the great gamot or national inquest, the 
guardians, upholders, and regulators of that 
aristocratical power of which he was the 
ultimate representative and head” (Kem¬ 
ble. vol. ii. p. 142). 

Under the Danish kings the ealdorman 
fell into a subordinate position, and the 
eorl or earl took his place in the county. 
The ealdorman and the king were both sur¬ 
rounded by a number of followers called 
thegns or thanes, who were bound by close 
ties to their superior. The king’s thanes 
were the higher in rank, and formed a kind 
of nobility by themselves. They possessed a 
certain quantity of land, smaller in amount 
than that of an ealdorman, and they filled 
offices connected with the personal service of 
the king or with the administration of 
justice. According to Leppenberg they were 
in all respects the predecessors of the Nor¬ 
man barons. We frequently hear of a class 



Anglo=Saxons 


AngIo=Saxons 


of functionaries called gerefan or reeves, 
such as the scir-gerefa (shire-reeve or sher¬ 
iff), the yort-gerefa (port-reeve), the tun- 
gerefa (farm-reeve or bailiff'; Scotch, 
grieve). These, of course, had different du¬ 
ties to perform, those of the shire-reeve 
being the most important. He presided at 
the county court along with the ealdorman 
and bishop, or alone in their absence; and 
he had to carry out the decisions of the 
court, to levy fines, collect taxes, etc. In 
virtue of his office he had a portion of land 
allotted to him, and hence called reeve-land. 
The shires were divided into hundreds and 
tithings, the former being equal to 10 of the 
latter. The tithing consisted of 10 heads 
of families, who were jointly responsible to 
the State for the good conduct of any mem¬ 
ber of their body. Tor the trial and set¬ 
tlement of minor causes there was a hun¬ 
dred court held once a month. The place 
of the modern Parliament was held by the 
witena-gemot , the representative council of 
the nation. Its members, who were not 
elected, comprised the aethelings or princes 
of the blood royal, the bishops and abbots, 
the ealdormen, the thanes, the sheriffs, etc. 

Agriculture, including especially the rais¬ 
ing of cattle, sheep, and swine, was the chief 
occupation of the Anglo-Saxons. Large 
tracts of the marshy land in the E. of En¬ 
gland were embanked and drained by them, 
and brought into cultivation. Gardens 
and orchards are frequently mentioned, and 
vineyards were common in the S. coun¬ 
ties. The forests were extensive, and 
valuable both from the mast they produced 
for the swine, and from the beasts of the 
chase which they harbored. Hunting was a 
favorite recreation among the higher ranks, 
both lay and clerical. Fishing was largely 
carried on, herrings and salmon being the 
principal fish caught. The whale fishery 
was also pursued, when the Anglo-Saxon 
vessels used to go as far as Iceland. The 
manufactures were naturally of small mo¬ 
ment. Iron was made to some extent, and 
some cloth, and salt works were numerous. 
In embroidery and working in gold, how¬ 
ever, the English were famous over the 
continent, and some very elegant specimens 
of gold work have come down to our times. 
There was already a considerable trade at 
London, which was frequented by Normans, 
French, Flemings, and the merchants of the 
Hanse towns. The Anglo-Saxon forefathers 
were notorious for their excessive fondness 
for eating and drinking, and in this re¬ 
spect formed a strong contrast to the Nor¬ 
mans who invaded the country. Ale, mead, 
and cider were the common beverages, wine 
being limited to the higher classes. Pork 
was a favorite article of food, and so were 
eels, which were kept and fattened in eel 
ponds, and sometimes paid as rent. The 
houses were rude, ill-built structures, most¬ 
ly of wood and without proper chimneys, 


but were often richly furnished and hung 
with fine tapestry. The dress of the Anglo- 
Saxons was loose and flowing, the materials 
being linen, woolen, and also silk; and their 
garments were often adorned with embroid¬ 
ery. The men looked upon the hair as one 
of their chief ornaments, and wore it long 
and flowing over their shoulders, while they 
also usually wore beards. 

Christianity was introduced among the 
Anglo-Saxons in the end of the 6th century 
by St. Augustine, who was sent by Pope 
Gregory the Great, and became the first 
Archbishop of Canterbury. Kent, then un¬ 
der King Ethelred, was the first place 
where it took root, and thence it soon 
spread over the rest of the country. It 
must, of course, be remembered that the 
Britons and Scots had already embraced 
Christianity, and missionaries from these 
labored in the conversion of the Anglo- 
Saxons. Monasteries were founded at an 
early period, and became numerous. For 
a time the Anglo-Saxon Church remained 
independent of Pome, notwithstanding the 
continual efforts of the Popes to bring it 
under their power. Many Anglo-Saxon ec¬ 
clesiastics were distinguished for learning 
and ability, but the Venerable Bede holds 
the first place. St. Boniface, the apostle 
of Christianity to the Germans, was an 
Anglo-Saxon. 

Anglo-Saxon Language .— The Anglo-Sax¬ 
on language, the parent or earliest form of 
the modern English, is a member of the 
Teutonic class of languages, and belongs 
to the Low German, as distinguished from 
the High German and Scandinavian 
branches of those languages. It was not 
called Anglo-Saxon by those who spoke it, 
but English (Englisc ), and many condemn 
the former name as a misnomer, and tend¬ 
ing to mislead. It is now common to call 
Anglo-Saxon Old English, which indeed it 
is, but the former designation is employed 
by the best scholars, both British and for¬ 
eign ; and as one point in its favor we may 
state that the language in its earliest form 
is so different from modern English that 
even by an Englishman it has to be studied 
as a foreign tongue, like German or Ice¬ 
landic. Besides the Anglo-Saxon, other Low 
German dialects formerly spoken were the 
Moeso-Gothic, as we find it in Ulfilas’s trans¬ 
lation of the Gospels, a dialect which has 
left no lineal descendants; the Old Friesic, 
once spoken extensively between the mouths' 
of the Rhine and Elbe, and now represented 
by the modern Friesian and the Dutch; and 
the Old Saxon. To all these Anglo-Saxon 
was more or less closely allied, as English 
is to their descendants at the present day. 
To any one who intends to investigate the 
English language scientifically and thor¬ 
oughly the study of all the Teutonic 
tongues is of the utmost importance. 

The tribes that came from North Ger- 



AngIo=Saxons 


AngIo=Saxons 


many to Britain spoke several different dia¬ 
lects, and though some of these would no 
doubt coalesce in time, we find in the exist¬ 
ing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature three 
different dialects at least, a northern, a 
middle, and a southern. The northern and 
the southern were the principal. The for¬ 
mer was spoken in the N. where the Angles 
chiefly settled, and where numbers of Danes 
afterward established themselves, and con¬ 
sequently it shows a considerable intermix¬ 
ture of Danish elements; the latter pre¬ 
vailed in the Saxon settlements of the S., 
and is more nearly akin to the old Friesic 
and Old Dutch dialects. When the king¬ 
dom of Wessex acquired political and ec¬ 
clesiastical supremacy over the others, early 
in the 9th century, the dialect of Wessex 
came into vogue as the language of litera¬ 
ture and of the court, and so continued. 
The principal Anglo-Saxon literary remains 
are in this dialect. 

The Anglo-Saxon alphabet, as regards the 
forms of its letters, followed the Latin al¬ 
phabet as modified in certain ways, with the 
addition of one or two characters of runic 
origin. It had two special characters for 
th, the one answering to soft th, as in thy, 
the other to hard th, as thing (but they 
were not uniformly used in this distinctive 
way), and a special character for w. The 
letter k was little used (and q^ still less), 
c having always this sound. There was no 
j, sh, or v in the alphabet. Nouns and ad¬ 
jectives were declined much as in German 
or in Latin, thus — nominative, wulf, a 
wolf; genitive, wulfes, of a wolf; dative, 
wulfe , to a wolf; accusative and vocative, 
wulf; instrumental or ablative, wulfe , with 
or by a wolf; plural, nominative, wulf as, 
wolves; genitive, wulf a; dative, wulf urn; 
accusative and vocative, iculfas; instru¬ 
mental, wulfum. There were several de¬ 
clensions. The adjective had different forms 
for the three genders, for the two numbers, 
and for four cases; and so had the article 
and the pronoun. The adjective had two 
modes of declension, according as it stood 
alone with a noun or was preceded by the 
article or a pronoun also agreeing with the 
noun. With regard to the pronouns, the 
most remarkable fact is that those of the 
first and second person had a dual number, 
“ we two ” or “ us two ” and “ you two,” 
besides the plural for more than two. The 
infinitive of the verb is in an, and there is 
a gerund similar in its usage to the Latin 
gerund. The present indicative of the verb 
icesan, to be, is thus conjugated: Singu¬ 
lar, 1, eom, 2, eart, 3, is; plural, 1, 2, and 
3, synd (or syndon). The indicative pres¬ 
ent of lufian, to love, is — singular, 1, lufige, 
2, lufast, 3, lufath; plural, 1, 2, and 3, 
lufiath; past tense, lufode, lufodest, lufode; 
plural, lufodon. The verb had four moods 
— indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and 
infinitive, but only two tenses, the present 


or indefinite and the past. Other tenses 
and the passive voice were formed by aux¬ 
iliary verbs. There was no future tense, 
the present being used instead, and whether 
the meaning was future or not had to be 
gathered from the context. 

Anglo-Saxon words terminated in a vowel 
much more frequently than the modern En¬ 
glish, and thus the language must have 
been much more sonorous and full-toned, 
but the correct pronunciation of Anglo- 
Saxon words is a matter of some uncer¬ 
tainty. The final a, e, o, and u, which were 
so common in the Anglo-Saxon, were after¬ 
ward softened to e, which latterly fell away 
or remained silent, as the language 
gradually assumed the form used in speak¬ 
ing and writing at the present day. The 
large number of words of Latin origin that 
the English language contains, and great 
numbers of which were introduced through 
the Norman-French, does not prevent En¬ 
glish from being essentially a Teutonic 
language. The bone and sinew, the frame¬ 
work of the language, so to speak, is still 
Anglo-Saxon, and a conversation could be 
carried on and pages written without hav¬ 
ing recourse to words of any other origin. 
Many chapters of the New Testament do not 
contain more than 4 per cent, of alien words, 
and as a whole it averages perhaps 6 or 7. 
If we examine to what classes belong the 
words of Teutonic origin, we shall see how 
indispensably necessary they are to us, and 
how they form the groundwork of the En¬ 
glish mother tongue. The articles, pro¬ 
nouns, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliary 
verbs, and the numerals up to but exclu¬ 
sive of million, are all Anglo-Saxon. It 
may also be noted that though abstract 
words are generally derived from the Latin, 
those whose signification is specific are gen¬ 
erally Anglo-Saxon. The general term mo¬ 
tion, for instance, is Latin, but particular 
acts of motion, as walk, run, ride, crawl, 
creep, fly, are Teutonic; and so with the 
general word color, and red, white, blue, 
green, the individual colors The language 
of the common people and of everyday oc¬ 
cupations is largely Anglo-Saxon. 

Anglo-Saxon Literature .— The existing 
remains of Anglo-Saxon literature (a large 
proportion of which has been printed only 
in recent times) include numerous com¬ 
positions in prose and verse, some of which 
must be referred to a very early period. 
The longest and most important poem is 
the “ Tale of Beowulf,” which from in¬ 
ternal evidence, must have been composed 
before the Angles and Saxons emigrated to 
England, though it afterward received con¬ 
siderable modifications on English soil. It 
extends to more than 3.000 lines (each of 
which in some editions is printed as two). 
Its hero Beowulf is a Scandinavian prince, 
famed for strength and valor, who slays a 
fiendish or demonic cannibal (Grendel) and 



AngIo=Saxons 


Angola 


his equally formidable mother — having 
sought the latter in her mysterious abode 
beneath the waters of a mere — and is at 
last slain in a contest with a frightful fire¬ 
breathing oragon. It presents a spirited 
and picturesque series of semi-romantic 
scenes and incidents, curiously illustrative 
of early Teutonic manners and supersti¬ 
tions, and its scene appears to be laid en¬ 
tirely in Scandinavia. The Anglo-Saxon 
poetical remains have been divided into 
the ballad epic, of which Beowulf is the 
principal example; the Bible epic, to which 
belong the poems of Caedmon and some oth¬ 
ers; ecclesiastical narratives, as lives of 
saints and martyrs, etc.; psalms and 
hymns; secular lyrics; allegories, gnomes, 
riddles, etc. The religious class of poems 
was the largest, and of these Caedmon’s are 
the most remarkable. He wrote in the lat¬ 
ter half of the 7th century, and died about 
680. He was originally a poor ignorant 
hind in the service of the monks of Whitby, 
and his poetical faculties are said to have 
been roused in a miraculous manner by a 
dream. His poems consist of loose ver¬ 
sions of considerable portions of the Bible 
history, and in subject and thought some¬ 
times bear a far-off resemblance to Milton’s 
“ Paradise Lost.” They sing of the crea¬ 
tion, the temptation, the fall, the exodus 
of the Israelites, the story of Daniel, the 
incarnation of Christ, the rage and de¬ 
spair of Satan and the devils in consequence 
and the harrowing of hell, or release of the 
ransomed souls by Christ. It is probable 
that the language of the poems as we pos¬ 
sess them has been modernized from the 
language of the writer. Cynewulf is an¬ 
other poet of whose works we possess sev¬ 
eral specimens, but of whom little or noth¬ 
ing is known. Grein’s “ Bibliothek der An- 
gelsachsischen Poesie ” (new edition by 

Wuker) contains the Anglo-Saxon poetry 
complete. 

Rhyme w T as rarely used in Anglo-Saxon 
poetry, alliteration being employed instead, 
as in the older northern poetry generally. 
The style of the poetry is highly elliptical, 
and it is full of harsh inversions and ob¬ 
scure metaphors. 

The Anglo-Saxon prose remains consist of 
translations of portions of the Bible, hom¬ 
ilies, moral treatises, history, biography, 
laws, leases, charters, popular treatises on 
science and medicine, grammars, etc. Many 
of these were traslations from the Latin. 
The uses to which prose was applied were 
generally of a practical cast and the com¬ 
mon language of the people was used (as in 
charters and leases) when in other coun¬ 
tries at the same period nothing but Latin 
would have been employed. The Anglo- 
Saxon versions of the Gospels, next to the 
Moeso-Gothic, are the earliest scriptural 
translations in any modern language. The 


Psalms are said to have been translated by 
Bishop Aldhelm, and also under Alfred’s 
direction, and the Gospel of St. John by 
Bede, but it is not known who were the 
authors of the extant versions. A trans¬ 
lation of the first seven books of the Bible 
is believed to have been the work of HClfric, 
who was Archbishop of Canterbury at the 
close of the 10th century, and did much to 
diffuse knowledge among his countrymen. 
We have also a collection of 80 homilies 
from his pen, several theological treatises, 
a Latin grammar, etc. King Alfred was 
a diligent translator of Latin works. He 
was more than a translator, however, as he 
often adds to his author passages of his 
own, either containing valuable facts or 
apt comments on his text. We have under 
Lis name translations of Boethius ££ De Con- 
solatione Philosophise,” the “ Universal His¬ 
tory of Orosius,” Bede’s ££ Ecclesiastical 
History,” the ££ Pastoral Care of Gregory 
the Great,” etc. Among his works are an 
account of Germany as it existed at his 
time, and of the voyage of Wulfstan and 
Ohthere, two Northmen, both of which are 
inserted in his translation of Orosius. The 
most valuable to us of the Anglo-Saxon 
prose writings is the ££ Saxon Chronicle,” 
as it is called, a collection of historical rec¬ 
ords made in different religious houses. A 
chronicle was kept at the monasteries in 
Alfred’s time, and it has been supposed that 
this was done by his direction. The ££ Chron¬ 
icle ” has been often printed. Mr. Thorpe’s 
edition (1861) contains seven parallel 
texts, and a translation. The latest text 
comes down to 1154. A considerable body 
of law remains, which has been repeat¬ 
edly printed. The editions of Thorpe and 
of Schmid (with Latin and German trans¬ 
lation, notes, and a glossary) are the best. 
A large collection of charters is embraced 
in Mr. Birch’s ££ Cartularium Saxonicum,” 
and a mass of documents of the same kind, 
with leases, ecclesiastical constitutions, 
wills, etc., is contained in Kemble’s “ Index 
Diplomaticus iEvi Saxonici.” 

Angola, a name formerly given to the 
West African coast from Cape Lopez to 
Benguela, but now applied to the Portu¬ 
guese West African possessions, extending 
from the Kongo river southward to the 
Cunene, which, at its mouth, notes the 
boundary between the Portuguese and Ger¬ 
man territories. This region is divided into 
four districts — Ambriz, or Kongo, extend¬ 
ing from the Kongo river to the mouth of 
the Loje; Loanda, Benguela and Mossame- 
des. Capital, St. Paul de Loanda. The limit 
toward the interior is vague, but the Por¬ 
tuguese influence extends some 1.500 miles 
inland. The area of the whole dependency 
is stated at 312,000 square miles, and its 
population estimated at 2,000,000. The coast 
strip is level, hot and unhealthy, but be- 




Angora 


Angostura 


vond is hilly country. The main rivers are 
the Kwango, running N. to the Kongo, and 
the Coanza and Cunene, running W. to the 
Atlantic. The country is well watered, and 
has a luxuriant vegetation of the tropical 
African type. Yams, tobacco, indigo, rice, 
cotton, and sugar are freely produced. Wax, 
buffalo hides, ivory, conal gum, and palm 
oil are exported. Iron is found in the moun¬ 
tains; and copper, lead, sulphur, and petro¬ 
leum are obtained. Horses and camels can¬ 
not live here; the ox is ridden, but the 
burden-bearers are usually men. Angola 
was long notorious for its great slave trade. 
The natives are Kongo negroes, and belong 
to the great Bantu stock. In the 16th cen¬ 
tury they were mostly converted by the 
Jesuits to a kind of Christianity, but soon 
fell back into fetichism. The number of 
white men in Angola, mostly Portuguese, 
does not exceed 3,000, many of whom are 
transported convicts, and there are some 
30,000 mulattos. The Portuguese under 
Diego Cam discovered this coast in 1486, 
and soon began to settle in it: but St. Paul 
de Loanda was not built till 1578. The 
finances, in spite of very heavy taxes, are 
most unprosperous. But the neighborhood 
of the Kongo Free State has inspired some 
attempts at reform. 

Angora, or Engour (the ancient An- 

cyra), a town of Asiatic Turkey; 215 miles 
E. S. E. of Constantinople, with which there 
is now railway communication. It has ruin¬ 
ous walls, and there are some remains of 
Byzantine architecture belonging to the an¬ 
cient city, and a few relics of earlier times, 
both Greek and Roman. Among the latter 
are the remnants of the Monumentum Acy- 
ranum, raised in honor of the Emperor 
Augustus, who much embellished the an¬ 
cient city. Angora is celebrated for the 
long-haired goats bred in its vicinity called 
by the Arabs the chamal goat, meaning 
“ silky or soft”; hence camlet, the name of 
a fabric extensively manufactured from the 
hair here. The hair is about eight inches 
long, and is shorn twice a year. All the ani¬ 
mals of Ibis region are said to be long¬ 
haired, especially the dogs, cats, and rabbits. 
It is also asserted that they degenerate and 
lose this peculiarity wbcn removed to a 
distance, but this is certainly not the case 
with the goats which have been introduced 
into the Cape Colony. Goat’s hair forms an 
important export; other exports being 
goats’ skins, dyestuffs, principally madder, 
and yellow berries; mastic, tragacanth, and 
other gums; also honey and wax. British 
manufactures are imported to some extent. 
Estimated pop. 35,000. 

Angora Cat, the large and long-haired 
white varietv of the common cat, said to 
belong originally to Angora. It is a very 


dignified animal, and moves about with a 
grave solemnity that bears a great resem¬ 
blance to the stately march of a full 
plumed peacock conscious of admiring spec¬ 
tators. It has a superb coat of long silky 
hair and a long bushy tail. 



ANGORA CAT. 



Angora Goat, a variety of the common 
goat with long, silky hair. There are two 
or three varieties of the breed. The ani¬ 
mal’s coat is composed of two sorts of ma¬ 
terial — one hairy, short, and close to the 
skin; the other 
longer and 
wooly, farther 
from the skin. 

The latter is 
the most plen¬ 
tiful and most 
valuable. The 
annual export 
of wool from 
Angora is said 
to have a value 
of $1,000,000. 

Good goats are 
worth $250 or 
$300 apiece at 
Angora. Of 
t h i s g o a t’s 
hair, often 
called camel’s angora GOAT, 

wool, camlets 

are extensively manufactured here. Many of 
the animals in this region are characterized 
by the length and softness of their hair, 
especially the dogs, rabbits, and cats; but 
this peculiarity disappears in Europe. The 
Angora goat is bred for his hair, called 
mohair in the United States and in Cape 
Colony, and has also been introduced into 
Australia. 


Angostura, city and capital of the State 
of Bolivar, Venezuela; on the Orinoco river; 
263 miles S. E. of Caracas. It has consider¬ 
able export trade in cotton, indigo, coffee, 
tobacco, cattle, etc., and contains a college, 
a hospital, and a handsome hall made mem¬ 
orable by the assembly in it of the Congress 
of Angostura in 1819. Pop. 11,686. 







Angostura Bark 


Anhalt 


Angostura Bark, the aromatic, bitter 
medicinal bark obtained chiefly from gali- 
pea officinalis, a tree of 10 to 20 feet high, 
growing in the northern regions of South 
America; natural order rutacece. The bark 
is valuable as a tonic and febrifuge, and is 
also used for a kind of bitters. From this 
bark being adulterated, indeed sometimes 
entirely replaced, by the poisonous bark of 
strychnos nux vomica, its use as a medicine 
has been almost given up. 

Angouleme (an-go-lam'), the capital of 
the French Department of Charente, and 
formerly of the province of Angoumois, 
stands 220 feet above the winding Charente, 
83 miles N. E. of Bordeaux by rail. Its old 
town has narrow, crooked streets, and it 
contains a fine Romanesque cathedral 
(1136), and a striking hotel de ville, with 
which is incorporated the remnant of the 
ancient castle of Angouleme, where was born 
the celebrated Marguerite of Navarre, au¬ 
thor of the “ Heptameron.” Ravaillac was 
also a native. The old bastions have been 
converted into fine terrace walks. There 
are manufactures of machinery, paper, and 
wire, and a brisk trade in brandy. Pop. 
(1906) 37,507. The province of Angoumois 
was in early times a county; but in the 
14th century Philip the Fair took posses¬ 
sion of it, and it became an appanage of the 
younger branches of the royal family. It 
was made a duchy by Francis I., and was 
sometimes bestowed upon natural sons of 
the French kings, such as Charles de Valois 
(1573-1650), son of Charles IX., a distin¬ 
guished general in the reigns of Henry IV. 
and Louis XIII. It was given by Louis 
XIV. to the Due de Berri, after whose death 
(1714) the title was attached to the princes 
of the elder Bourbon line. 

Angouleme, Charles de Valois, Due d\ 

a French military ollieer; illegitimate son 
of Charles IX. and Marie Touchet, born in 
1573; was created Due d’ Angouleme in 
1619. He was imprisoned in the bastille in 
1605-1616 for conspiring with the Marquise 
de Verneuil ; directed the sieges of Soissons 
and La Rochelle; and won distinction at 
Arques and Ivry. He died in 1650. 

Angouleme, Louis Antoine de Bour¬ 
bon, Due d’, the eldest son of Charles X. 
of France, and Dauphin during his father’s 
reign, born at Versailles Aug. 6, 1775. At 
the Revolution he retired from France with 
his father, and after some years of military 
studies at Turin, and abortive military ope¬ 
rations at the head of a body of French 
emigres in 1792, he joined the other royal 
exiles, and lived with them at Holy rood, on 
the Continent, and latterly in England. In 
1799 he married his cousin, Marie Ther&se, 
the only daughter of Louis XVI. and Marie 
Antoinette. On the recall of his uncle, Louis 


XVIII., he was appointed Lieutenant-general 
of the kingdom; and, when Napoleon re¬ 
turned from Elba, he made a weak attempt 
to oppose him, but was soon deserted by his 
troops, and obliged to surrender. After the 
second restoration he was charged with the 
suppression of the disorders in the southern 
provinces, and in 1823 he led the French 
army of invasion into Spain. On the revo¬ 
lution in July, 1830, he signed, with his 
father, an abdication in favor of his nephew, 
the Due de Bordeaux; and when the Cham¬ 
bers declared the family of Charles X. to 
have forfeited the throne, he accompanied 
him into exile, to Holyrood, to Prague, and 
to Gorz, where he died June 3, 1844. 

Angra, the capital of the Azores, a sea¬ 
port at the head of a deep bay on the S. 
coast of the Island of Terceira. It is a sta¬ 
tion for ships between Portugal and Brazil 
and the East Indies; but the harbor is very 
much exposed. It is the seat of a bishop; 
is well built, but dirty; has fine churches, 
and is strongly fortified. Pop. (1900) 
10,843. There is a considerable export of 
wine, cheese, honey, and flax. Since 1834 
it has added to its name the words “ do 
heroismo,” for the conduct of its citizens in 
the struggle against Don Miguel (1830- 
1832.) 

Angra-Pequena (iin'gra-pe-ka'na), a bay 
on the S. W. coast of Africa. It gives name 
to the southern littoral of Great Namaqua- 
land, extending 200 miles from 26° S. 
lat. to the Orange river, or Cape Col¬ 
ony, and reaching 90 miles inland — a 
sandy, waterless region, but rich apparently 
in metals, and having a healthful climate. 
In 1883 Angra-Pequena was ceded by a 
Namaqua chieftain to Liideritz, a Bremen 
merchant; and next year it was taken un¬ 
der German protection, with all the coast to 
the N. as far as Cape Frio, except Walvisch 
Bay, which belongs to England. 

Angus, Richard Bladworth, a Canadian 

capitalist; born in Scotland, 1830; removed 
to Canada and engaged in banking in Mon¬ 
treal in 1867; became general manager of 
the St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba rail¬ 
way in 1879; and in 1880—1885 had personal 
charge of the construction of the Canadian 
Pacific railway. He is the owner of one of 
the most valued private collections of paint¬ 
ings in Canada, and is a liberal patron of 
art. 

Anhalt, a duchy of North Germany, ly¬ 
ing tartly in the p ai.ns of the Middle Eloe, 
and partly in the valleys and uplands of the 
Lower Harz, and almost entirely surrounded 
by Prussia; area, 906 square miles. All 
sorts of grain, wheat especially, are grown 
in abundance; also, flax, rape, potatoes, to¬ 
bacco, hops, and fruit. Excellent cattle are 
bred. The inhabitants are principally oc- 



Anhwei 


Animal 


cupied in agriculture, though there are some 
iron works and manufactures of woolens, 
linens, beet-sugar, tobacco, etc. The Dukes 
of Anhalt trace their origin to Bernaid 
(1170-1212), son of Albert the Bear, in 
time the family split up into numerous 
branches, and the territory was latterly held 
by three Dukes (Anlialt-Kbthen, Anhalt- 
Bernburg. and Anhalt-Dessau). In 18G3 
the Duke of Anhalt-Dessau became sole heir 
to the three duchies. The united principal¬ 
ity is now incorporated in the German 
Empire, and has one voice in theBundesrath 
and two in the Reichstag. Pop. (1905) 
328,029. The chief towns are Dessau, Bern- 
burg, Kothen, and Zerbst. 

Anhwei (awn'wha-e). See Ngan-Hwuy. 

Anhydride, or anhydrous acid, a chem¬ 
ical substance formed by the substitution of 
an acid radical for the whole of the hydro¬ 
gen in one or two molecules of water. 
(Graham’s “Chemistry,” 2d. ed., vol. ii, 
542.) By the action of water they are con¬ 
verted into acids. Anhydrides do not act 
on litmus or other vegetable colors. 

Anhydrite, a mineral classed by Dana 
under his celestite group. Its crystals are 
orthorhombic. The hardness is 3-3.5; the 
sp. gr. 2.899-2.985; the luster vitreous, 
or somewhat pearly; the color white, 
or brick-red. Composition. Sulphuric 
acid, 55.80 to 59.78; lime, 40.21 to 
43.06, with smaller portions of silica, 
sesquioxide of iron, and water. It is al¬ 
tered, by the absorption of moisture, into 
gypsum. It is divided by Dana into Var. 
1. Ordinary: (a) crystallized; (b) fib¬ 
rous; (c) fine granular; (d) scaly granular, 
under which is ranked vulpinite. Var. 2. 
Pseudomorphous. It occurs in various parts 
of Europe and in North America. 

Ani, the name given to the birds belong¬ 
ing to the genus crotophaga, and indeed to 
those ranked under the sub-family Croto- 
phagince, a division of the Guculidce, or 
cuckoos; the typical anis, those of the 
genus crotophaga, are found in South 
America, the West Indies and Florida. 
They are about the size of our blackbird. 

Anichini, Ludwig (an-e-ke'ne), a Vene¬ 
tian engraver of great celebrity. On seeing 
his pieces, Michael Angelo is said to have 
exclaimed that the art of engraving had 
reached the summit of perfection; time of 
his death not known. 

Aniline, a substance which has become of 
great importance, as being the basis of a 
number of brilliant and durable dyes.. Ani¬ 
line was first obtained by distilling indigo 
with caustic potash. It occurs in the heavy 
oils from coal-tar. It is prepared from ben¬ 
zene, C,FL, which is converted into nitro¬ 
benzene,' a.H 5 (N0 2 )', by the action of strong 
nitric ocid. The nitro-benzene is reduced 
to aniline by the action of acetic acid and 


iron filings, or by sulphide of ammonium. 
Aniline is the basis of most of the coal-tar 
colors. It is an oily, colorless, refractive, 
volatile liquid, boiling at 182°. Its specific 
gravity at 0° is 1.036. It solidifies at -8° 
to a crytalline mass; when exposed to the 
air and light it becomes brown. It is neariy 
insoluble in water, but dissolves in ether, 
alcohol, and benzene. It forms crystalline 
salts with acids. It does not turn red lit¬ 
mus paper blue. A slight trace of aniline 
gives a deep purple color with a solution of 
bleaching powder. Aniline combines with 
the iodides of alcohol radicals like amines. 
The atoms of H united to N in aniline can 
be replaced by alcohol radicals, as ethyl 
aniline — 

(C 0 H 5 
N - H 

( c 2 h 6 . 

The H in the benzol ring (C 6 H 5 ) can also 
be replaced by radicals forming substitu¬ 
tion compounds of aniline, of which, when 
one atom of II is replaced by an atom of Cl 
or a radical, there can be always three modi¬ 
fications ; thus, three modifications of nitro- 
aniline (C,-H 4 ) (NO.,) (NH 2 ) are known; also 
chloraniline, C c H 4 C1 (NIL), and bromaniline, 
GH 4 Br(NHo). M. Langorrois has found 
that the putrefaction and decomposition of 
animal matter can be prevented, even when 
it is exposed to the air, and in an elevated 
temperature, by the use of small quantities 
of aniline. 

Animal, an organized and sentient living 
being. Life in the earlier periods of natural 
history was attributed almost exclusively 
to animals. With the progress of science, 
however, it was extended to plants. In the 
case of the higher animals and plants there 
is no difficulty in assigning the individual 
to one of the two great kingdoms of organic 
nature, but in their lowest manifestations, 
the vegetable and animal kingdoms arc 
brought into such immediate contact that 
it becomes almost impossible to assign them 
precise limits, and to say with certainty 
where the one begins and the other ends. 
From form no absolute distinction can be 
fixed between animals and plants. Many 
animals, such as the sea-slirubs, sea-mats, 
etc., so resemble plants in external appear¬ 
ance that they were, and even yet popu¬ 
larly are, looked upon as such. 

Internal Structure .— With regard to in¬ 
ternal structure no line of demarkation 
can be laid down, all plants and animals 
being, in this respect, fundamentally sim¬ 
ilar; that is, alike composed of molecular, 
cellular, and fibrous tissues. Neither are 
the chemical characters of animal and 
vegetable substances -more distinct. Ani¬ 
mals contain in their tissues and fluids a 
larger proportion of nitrogen than plants, 
while plants are richer in carbonaceous 





Animal 


Animalcule 


compounds than the former. In some ani¬ 
mals, moreover, substances almost exclus¬ 
ively confined to plants are found. Thus 
the outer wall of sea-squirts contains cellu¬ 
lose, a substance largely found in plant- 
tissues; whilst chlorophyll, the coloring- 
matter of plants, occurs in hydra and many 
other lower animals. Power of motion, 
again, though broadly distinctive of ani¬ 
mals, cannot be said to be absolutely char¬ 
acteristic of them. Thus many animals, as 
oysters, sponges, corals, etc., in their mature 
condition are rooted or fixed, while the 
embryos of many plants, together with 
numerous fully developed forms, are en¬ 
dowed with locomotive power by means of 
vibratile, hair-like processes called cilia. 

Animals vs. Plants .— The distinctive 
points between animals and plants which 
are most to be relied on are those derived 
from the nature and mode of assimilation 
of the food. Plants feed on inorganic mat¬ 
ters, consisting of water, ammonia, carbonic 
acid, and mineral matters. They can only 
take in food which is presented to them in 
a liquid or gaseous state. The exceptions 
to these rules are found chiefly in the case 
of plants which live parasitically on other 
plants or on animals, in which cases the 
plant may be said to feed on organic mat¬ 
ters, represented by the juices of their hosts. 
Animals, on the contrary, require organized 
matters for food. They feed either upon 
plants or upon other animals. But even 
carnivorous animals can be shown to be 
dependent upon plants for subsistence. 
Animals, further, can subsist on solid food 
in addition to liquids and gases; but many 
animals (such as the tapeworms) live by 
the mere imbibition of fluids which are ab¬ 
sorbed by their tissues, such forms possess¬ 
ing no distinctive digestive system. Ani¬ 
mals require a due supply of oxygen gas 
for their sustenance, this gas being used in 
respiration. Plants, on the contrary, re¬ 
quire carbonic acid. The animal exhales 
or gives out carbonic acid as the part result 
of its tissue waste, while the plant taking in 
this gas is enabled to decompose it into its 
constituent carbon and oxygen. The plant 
retains the former for the uses of its econ¬ 
omy, and liberates the oxygen, which is thus 
restored to the atmosphere for the use of 
the animal. Animals receive their food into 
the interior of their bodies, and assimilation 
takes place in their internal surfaces. 
Plants, on the other hand, receive their food 
into their external surfaces, and assimila¬ 
tion is effected in the external parts, as are 
exemplified in the leaf surfaces under the 
influence of sunlight. All animals possess 
a certain amount of heat or temperature 
which is necessary for the performance of 
vital action. The only classes of animals 
in which a constantly elevated temperature 
is kept up are birds and mammals. Below 


birds animals are named “ cold-blooded,” 
this term meaning in its strictly physiologi¬ 
cal sense that their temperature is usually 
that of the medium in which they live, and 
that if varies with that of the surrounding 
medium. “ Warm blooded ” animals, on the 
contrary, do not exhibit such variations, 
but mostly retain their normal temperature 
in any atmosphere. The cause of the evo¬ 
lution of heat in the animal body is re¬ 
ferred to the union (by a process resembling 
ordinary combustion) of the carbon and 
hydrogen of the system with the oxygen 
taken in from the air in the process of 
respiration. 

Animal Chemistry, the. department of 

organic chemistry which investigates the 
composition of the fluids and the solids of 
animals, and the chemical action that takes 
place in animal bodies. There are four ele¬ 
ments, sometimes distinctively named or¬ 
ganic elements, which are invariably found 
in living bodies, viz.: carbon, hydrogen, oxy¬ 
gen, and nitrogen. To these may be added, 
as frequent constituents of the human body, 
sulphur, phosphorus, lime, sodium, potas¬ 
sium, chlorine, and iron. The four organic 
elements are found in all the fluids and 
solids of the body. Sulphur occurs in 
blood and in many of the secretions. Phos¬ 
phorus is also common, being found in 
nerves, in the teeth, and in fluids. Chlorine 
occurs almost universally throughout the 
body; lime is found in bone, in the teeth, 
and in the secretions; iron occurs in the 
blood, in urine, and in bile; and sodium, 
like chlorine, is of almost universal occur¬ 
rence. Potassium occurs in muscles, in 
nerves, and in the blood corpuscles. Minute 
quantities of ^opper, silicon, manganese, 
lead, and lithium are also found in the hu¬ 
man body. The compounds formed in the 
human organism are divisible into the or¬ 
ganic and inorganic. The most frequent of 
the latter is water, of which two-thirds (by 
weight) of the body are composed. The or¬ 
ganic compounds may, like the foods from 
which they are formed, be divided into the 
nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous. Of the 
former the chief are albumen (found in 
blood, lymph, and chyle), casein (found in 
milk), myosin (in muscle), gelatin (ob¬ 
tained from bone), and others. The non- 
nitrogenous compounds are represented by 
organic acids, such as formic, acetic, butyric, 
stearic, etc.; by animal sterches, sugars; 
and by fats and oils, as stearin and olein. 

Animalcule, a general name given to 
many forms of animal life from their min¬ 
ute size. We thus speak of the “ infusor¬ 
ian ” animalcules among the protozoa, of 
the rotifera or “ wheel animalcules/’ etc., 
but the term is not now used in zoology in 
any strict significance, nor is it employed 
in classification. 



Animal Electricity 

Animal Electricity. See Electricity, 
Animal. 

Animal Kingdom, one of the three great 
kingdoms of visible nature, the two other 
being the vegetable and the mineral king¬ 
doms. Cuvier divided the animal kingdom 
into four great sub-kingdoms: (1) Verte- 
brata; (2) mollusca; (3) articulata; (4) 
radiata. Prof. Owen, in his “ Paleontol¬ 
ogy,” adopts the following classification: 
Kingdom I., protozoa. Kingdom II., ani- 
malia. Sub-kingdom I., invertebrata: Prov¬ 
ince 1, radiata; 2, articulata; 3, mollusca. 
Sub-kingdom II., vertebrata. Prof. Huxley, 
writing, in 1869, said that in the then 
existing state of knowledge, the animal 
kingdom required to be divided into no 
fewer than eight distinct groups, which he 
arranged thus: 

Vertebrata. 

Mollusca. 

Molluscoida. 

CCELENTERATA. 

Protozoa. 

He could not, however, assert that all the 
eight groups were of equal value, or that 
the infusoria, the molluscoida, and the an- 
nuloida would ultimately stand. 

Animal Magnetism, a science, or art, so 
called because it was believed that it taught 
the method of producing on persons of sus¬ 
ceptible organization effects somewhat sim¬ 
ilar to those which a magnet exerts upon 
iron. 

Animal Worship, a practice found to 
prevail, or to have prevailed, in the most 
widely distant parts of the world, both the 
Old and the New, but nowhere to such an 
extent as in ancient Egypt. Nearly all the 
more important animals found in the coun¬ 
try were regarded as sacred in some part 
of Egypt, and the degree of reverence paid 
to them was such that throughout Egypt 
the killing of a hawk or an ibis, whether 
voluntary or not, was punished with death. 
The worship, however, was not, except in a 
few instances, paid to them as actual dei¬ 
ties. The animals were merely regarded as 
sacred to the deities, and the worship paid 
to them was symbolical. 

Anima Mundi, a term applied by some 
of the older philosophers to the ethereal es¬ 
sence or spirit supposed to be diffused 
through the universe, organizing and acting 
throughout the whole and in all its different 
parts; a theory closely allied to pantheism. 

Anime (an'i-me), a resin supposed to be 
obtained from the trunk of an American 
tree (hymenasa courbaril ). It is of a 
transparent amber color, has a light, agree¬ 
able smell, and is. soluble in alcohol. It 
strongly resembles copal, and, like it, is used 
in making varnishes. 

20 


Anjou 

Animism, the system of medicine pro¬ 
pounded by Stahl, and based on the idea 
that the soul (anima) is the seat of life. 
In modern usage the term is applied to ex¬ 
press the general doctrine of souls and other 
spiritual beings, and especially to the ten¬ 
dency, common among savage races, to ex¬ 
plain all the phenomena in nature not due 
to obvious natural causes by attributing 
them to spiritual agency. Among the be¬ 
liefs most characteristic of animism is that 
of a human apparitional soul, bearing the 
form and appearance of the body, ard living 
after death a sort of semi-human life. 

Anio, now Aniene or Teverone, a river 
in Italy, a tributary of the Tiber, which it 
enters from the E. a short distance above 
Rome, renowned for the natural beauties of 
the valley through which it flows, and for 
the remains of ancient buildings there situ¬ 
ated, as the villas of Maecenas and the Em¬ 
peror Hadrian. 

Anise, an umbelliferous plant, the pim- 
pinella anisum. It is cultivated in Malta 
and Spain for the sake of the seeds, which 
are imported into this and other countries. 
They are aromatic and carminative. Its 
scent tends to neutralize other smells. It is 
sometimes sown here for its leaves, which 
are used like fennel as a seasoning or gar¬ 
nish. 

Oil of anise is a solution of anise cam¬ 
phor, or anethol, Ci 0 H 12 O, in an oil like tur¬ 
pentine; it solidifies at 10°. It is the es¬ 
sential oil of pimpinella anisum. The cam¬ 
phor is obtained pure from alcohol by pres¬ 
sure and crystallization. In pharmacy it is 
used as a stimulant, aromatic, and carmina¬ 
tive; it relieves flatulency, and diminishes 
the griping of purgative medicines. 

Anjou (an-zho'), an ancient province of 
France, now forming the Department of 
Maine-et-Loire, and parts of the Depart¬ 
ments of Indre-et-Loire, Mayenne, and 
Sarthe; area, about 3,000 square miles. In 
1860 the province passed into the hands of 
the house of Gatinais, of which sprang 
Count Godfrey V., who, in 1127, married 
Matilda, daughter of Henry I. cf England, 
and so became the ancestor of the Planta- 
genet kings. Anjou remained in the pos¬ 
session of the English kings up to 1204, 
when John lost it to the French King, 
Philip Augustus. In 1226 Louis VIII. 
bestowed the province on his brother 
Charles; but in 1328 it was reunited to 
the French crown. John I. raised it to 
the rank of a ducal peerage, and gave it to 
his son Louis. Henceforth, it remained sep¬ 
arate from the French crown till 1480, when 
it fell to Louis XI. 

Anjou, or Beague, Battle of, between the 
English and French: the latter commanded 
bv the Dauphin of France, March 22, 1421. 
The English were defeated; the Duke of 
Clarence was slain by Sir Allan Swinton, a 


Annulosa. 
Annuloida . 
Infusoria. 



Anklam 


Annapolis 


Scotch knight, and 1,500 men perished on 
the field; the Earls of Somerset, Dorset and 
Huntingdon were taken prisoners. This 
was the first battle that turned the tide of 
success against the English. 

Anklam, a town of Prussia, province of 
Pomerania, on the Peene river, 4 miles 
from its mouth and 41 miles S. E. of Stral- 
sund. It has long been a place of commer¬ 
cial importance, having been a member of 
the Hanseatic League from the 14th to the 
16th century. It has manufactures of iron, 
sugar, and soap. During the Middle Ages, 
Anklam suffered sorely from fire and pes¬ 
tilence; and in the wars of the 17th and 
18th centuries it was again and again be¬ 
sieged and sacked. On the close of the Seven 
Years’ war in 1762, its fortifications were 
dismantled. There is a military school here. 
The town contains many interesting speci¬ 
mens of the Hanseatic architecture, very 
like the Flemish. Pop. (1900) 14,602. 

Ankobar, a former capital, kingdom of 
Shoa, in Abyssinia; is built 8,200 feet above 
sea level, and consists of 3,000 huts scat¬ 
tered over the summit and western slopes of 
a mountain. When the king was in residence 
the population increased from 6.000 to near 
15,000. Present capital, Adis Ababa. 

Ann, St., a name applied to a number 
of places in various parts of the world. The 
best known and most worthy of notice are 
(1) St. Ann Shoals, off the S. part of the 
coast of Sierra Leone, extending from Cape 
Shilling to Sherboro Island, a distance of 
between 30 and 40 miles. (2) St. Ann 
(Cape), the extreme N. W. point of Sher¬ 
boro Island, coast of Sierra Leone; lat. 7° 
34' N.; long., 12° 57' W.; having close 
by a group of islands called Turtle Islands. 
(3) St. Ann’s, a town, river, and bay, Ja¬ 
maica, on the N. coast; the latter in lat. 
18° 26' N.; long. 77° 13' W. (4) A cape 
or headland on the N. W. coast of Af¬ 
rica, about 35 miles S. S. E. of South Cape 
Blanco, near Arguin, and within the 
bank of that name; lat. 20° 30' N.; long. 
17° 0' W. (5) A lake, Upper Canada, 20 
miles long, and 20 broad, about 45 miles N. 
of Lake Superior, with which it has com¬ 
munication by the Nipigon river. (6) A 
harbor on the E. side of Cape Breton, Brit¬ 
ish America; lat. 46° 21' N.; long. 60° 
27' W. 

Anna, sister of Dido of Carthage; took 
refuge with iEneas in Italy, according to 
Vergil, after the self-immolation of her sis¬ 
ter. But Lavinia being jealous of her, she 
drowned herself in the Numicius. There 
was an old Latin naiad, called Anna Pe- 
renna, which Vergil thus identified with this 
legendary sister of the Queen of Carthage. 

Anna Comnena, daughter of Alexius 
Comnenus I., Byzantine emperor. She was 
born in 1083, and died in 1148. After her 


father’s death she endeavored to secure the 
succession to her husband, Nicephorus 
Briennius, but was baffled by his want of 
energy and ambition. She wrote (in Greek) 
a life of her father, Alexius, which, in the 
midst of much fulsome panegyric, contains 
some valuable and interesting information. 
She forms a character in Sir Walter Scott’s 
“ Count Robert of Paris.” 

Anna Ivanovna (-wan-o'na), Empress of 
Russia, born in 1693; the daughter of Ivan, 
the elder half-brother of Peter the Great. 
She was married in 1710 to the Duke of 
Courland, in the following year was left a 
widow, and, in 1730 ascended the throne of 
the Czars on the condition, proposed by the 
Senate, that she would limit the absolute 
power of the czars, and do nothing without 
the advice of the Council, composed of the 
leading members of the Russian aristocracy. 
No sooner, however, had she ascended the 
throne than she declared her promise null, 
and proclaimed herself autocrat of all the 
Russias. She chose as her favorite, Ernest 
John von Biren or Biron, who was soon all- 
powerful in Russia, and ruled with great 
severity. Several of the leading nobles were 
executed, and many thousand men exiled to 
Siberia. In 1737 Anna forced the Cour- 
landers to choose Biren as their duke, and 
nominated him at her death Regent of the 
Empire during the minority of Prince Ivan 
of Brunswick. Anna died in 1740. 

Annal, in the Roman Catholic Church, a 
mass said for an individual every day in 
the year, or annually on a particular day of 
each year. 

An annal is properly the record of his¬ 
torical events arranged chronologically, and 
divided into yearly portions. In this sense 
the record of the important events in the 
Roman State, said to have been made annu¬ 
ally for the first six centuries of its exist¬ 
ence by those who successively filled the 
high office of Pontifex Maximus, were an¬ 
nals. 

In more common usage, annals are records 
of historical events, or even of less import¬ 
ant incidents, although they may not be for¬ 
mally divided into yearly portions. There 
has been considerable dispute regarding the 
precise difference between annals and his¬ 
tory. Broadly speaking, annals are simple 
records or chronicles of events, in yearly 
portions or otherwise, without any effort to 
trace occurrences to their causes, to investi¬ 
gate the characters and motives of the chief 
actors, or to intercalate philosophical gen¬ 
eralizations. When these elements are su- 
peradded to the bare chronicle of incidents 
then annals become history. 

Annam. See Anam. 

Annapolis, city, port of entry, capital 
of the State of Maryland, and county-seat 
of Anne Arundel co. ; on the Severn river, 



Annapolis 


Anne 


near Chesapeake Bay, and several rail¬ 
roads ; 40 miles E. of Washington, D. C. It 
is in a fruit and berry-growing region; has 
oyster-packing plants, marine railway, glass 
factory, a national bank, daily, weekly, and 
other periodicals, and a property valuation 
of $3,000,000; and is widely known as the 
seat of the United States Naval Academy. 
The city also contains St. John’s College, 
several State buildings, convent, a house of 
Redemptorist Fathers, residences of many 
naval officers and of families of officers on 
sea duty, and bronze statues of General 
John de Kalb and Chief Justice Roger B. 
Taney. The city was founded in 1649; was 
first named Providence ; and received a city 
charter and its present name, in honor of 
Queen Anne, in 1708. The first Federal 
Constitutional Convention was held here in 
178G, and Washington surrendered his com¬ 
mission in the army in the Senate room of 
the State House. Pop. (1910) 8,690. 

Annapolis, The, a single-screw, compo¬ 
site gunboat of the United States navy; 
1,000 tons displacement; lengtn, 168 feet; 
breadth, 36 feet; mean draft, 12 feet; horse 
power, 1,227 ; main battery, six 4-inch rapid- 
fire guns; secondary battery, four 6-pounder 
and two 1-pounder rapid-fire guns; speed, 
12 knots; crew, 11 officers and 135 men; 
cost, $230,000. 

Ann Arbor, city and county-seat of 
Washtenaw co., Mich.; on the Huron river 
and the Michigan Central railroad: 38 

miles W. of Detroit. It is in an agricul¬ 
tural region; has a National bank, two 
home insurance companies, High School, 
manufactories of farming implements, 
woolen goods, furniture, carriages, and or¬ 
gans, several breweries, daily, weekly and 
monthly periodicals, and a property valua¬ 
tion of $7,000,000; and is the seat of the 
University of Michigan founded in 1837. 
Pop. (1900) 14,509; (1910) 14,817. 

Annates, a year’s income claimed for 
many centuries by the Pope on the death of 
any bishop, abbot, or parish priest, to be 
paid by his successor. In England they 
were at first paid to the Archbishop of Can¬ 
terbury, but were afterward appropriated by 
the popes. In 1532 the Parliament gave 
them to the crown; but Queen Anne re¬ 
stored them to the Church by applying them 
to the. augmentation of poor livings. 

Annato, or Arnotto, an orange-red color¬ 
ing matter, obtained from the pulp sur¬ 
rounding the seeds of bixa orcllana, a shrub 
native to tropical America, and cultivated 
in Guiana, St. Domingo, and the East In¬ 
dies. It is sometimes used as a dye for silk 
and cotton goods, though it does not pro¬ 
duce a very durable color, but it is much 
used in medicine for tinging plasters and 
ointments, and to a considerable extent by 
farmers for giving a rich color to cheese. 


Anne Boleyn. See Boleyn, Anne. 

Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip 
III. of Spain, was born at Madrid in 1602, 
and in 1615 was married to Louis XIII. of 
France. Richelieu, fearing the influence of 
her foreign connections, did everything he 
could to humble her. In 1643 her husband 
died, and she was left regent, but placed 
under the control of a council. But the 
parliament overthrew this arrangement, 
and intrusted her with full sovereign rights 
during the minority of her son, Louis XiV. 
She, however, brought upon herself the 
hatred of the nobles by her boundless con¬ 
fidence in Cardinal Mazarin, and was forced 
to flee from Paris during the wars of the 
Fronde. She ultimately quelled all opposi¬ 
tion, and was able, in 1661, to transmit to 
her son, unimpaired, the royal authority. 
She spent the remainder of her life in re¬ 
tirement, and died Jan. 20, 1666. 

Anne, Queen of Great Britain and Ire¬ 
land, was born at Twickenham, near Lon¬ 
don, Feb. 6, 1664; the second daughter of 
James II., then Duke of York, and Anne, 
his wife, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon. 
She was educated according to the principles 
of the English Church. In 1683 she was 
married to Prince George, brother to King 
Christian V. of Denmark. On the arrival 
of the Prince of Orange in 1688, Anne 
wished to remain with her father; but she 
was prevailed upon by Lord Churchill (af¬ 
terward Duke of Marlborough) and his wife 
to join the triumphant party. After the 



ANNE OF ENGLAND. 


death of William III., in 1702, she ascended 
the English throne. Her character was es¬ 
sentially weak, and she was governed first 
by Marlborough and his wife, and afterward 
by Mrs. Masham. Most of the principal 
events of her reign are connected with the 
War of the Spanish Succession. The only 
important acquisition that England made by 
it was Gibralter, which was captured in 
1704. Another very important event of this 
reign was the union of England and Scot¬ 
land, under the name of Great Britain, 












Annealing 


Annexation 


which was accomplished in 1707. She seems 
to have long cherished the wish of securing 
the succession to her brother James, but 
this was frustrated by the internal dissen¬ 
sions of the cabinet. Grieved at the disap¬ 
pointment. of her secret wishes, she fell into 
a state of weakness and lethargy, and died, 
July 20, 1714. The reign of Anne was dis¬ 
tinguished not only by the brilliant successes 
of the British arms, but also on account of 
the number of admirable and excellent writ¬ 
ers who nourished at this time, among whom 
were Pope, Swift, and Addison. 

Annealing, a process to which many arti¬ 
cles of metal and glass are subjected after 
making, in order to render them more tena¬ 
cious, and which consists in heating them 
and allowing them to cool slowly. When 
the metals are worked by the hammer, or 
rolled into plates, or drawn into wire, they 
acquire a certain amount of brittleness, 
which destroys their usefulness, and has to 
be remedied by annealing. The tempering 
of steel is one kind of annealing. Annealing 
is particularly employed in glass-houses, and 
consists in putting the glass vessels, as soon 
as they are formed and while they are yet 
hot, into a furnace or oven, in which they 
are suffered to cool gradually. The tough¬ 
ness is greatly increased by cooling the ar¬ 
ticles in oil. 

Annelida, a class of animals belonging to 
the sub-kingdom articulata, the annulosa 
of some naturalists. They are sometimes 
called red blooded worms, being the only in- 
vertebrated animals possessing this charac¬ 
ter. They are soft bodied animals, mostly 
living in the water, sometimes in moist 
earth, but never parasitically within the 
bodies of other animals; the higher ones 
possessing limbs, though of a rudimentary 
character, which makes them resemble centi¬ 
pedes; while the lower ones, like the leeches, 
are wholly destitute of these appendages. The 
respiration is effected by external branchiae, 
by internal vesicles, or by the skin itself. 
Contractile vessels supply the place of a 
heart. The nervous system consists of a 
single or double ventral cord, furnished with 
ganglia at intervals, and surrounding the 
oesophagus above. Cuvier divided them into 
three orders — tubicola, dorsibranchia, and 
abranchia; Milne-Edwards into suctoria, 
terricola, tubicola, and crrantes; Prof. Hux¬ 
ley into chcetopliora and discophora; and 
Griffith and Henfrey into turbellaria, suc¬ 
toria {apoda) , and chcetopoda (setigera ). 

Annenkoff, Michel (an'en-kof), a dis¬ 
tinguished Russian military engineer and 
son of the famous general of the same name, 
born in St. Petersburg, in 1838; became 
colonel for services in the Polish insurrec¬ 
tion in 1866; was four years in the imme¬ 
diate service of the imperial administration; 
took part in the Merv campaign under Gen. 
Skobeleff; was assigned to the construc¬ 


tion of strategic railways; and completed 
the great Trans-Caspian line. He died in 
St. Petersburg, Jan. 22, 1899. 

Annesley, Arthur, Earl of Anglesea, 

an English statesman, born in 1614; suc¬ 
ceeded to his father’s title of Lord Mont- 
morris and Viscount Valentia in 1660; cre¬ 
ated Earl of Anglesea in 1661. He was a 
member of Cromwell’s Parliament in 1658, 
and President of the State Council in 1660; 
but aided the restoration of King Charles. 
He died in 1686. 

Annesley Bay, Ghubbet Daknu, or 
Zulu Bay, a bay running 30 miles S. on the 
W. side of the Red Sea, a little to the S. of 
Massaua. Several easy passes lead up from 
its shores to the Abyssinian tableland, and 
in ancient times under the Ptolemies, the 
Bay was the starting point of a brisk trade 
carried on by Greeks with Axum. 

Annexation, a national acquisition of ter¬ 
ritory. When the United States began its ex¬ 
istence as a nation, its territory comprised 
all its present possessions between the At¬ 
lantic on the E., the Mississippi on the W., 
British America on the N., and latitude 
31° N., on the S., with a few slight differ¬ 
ences owing to subsequent rearrangements 
of boundary lines. From that time till 
1867 six additions were made to its terri¬ 
tory. The first was what then bore the 
name of the Province of Louisiana, owned 
by France, and comprising, E. of the Mis¬ 
sissippi, the territory S. of latitude 31° N., 
and as far E. as the Perdido river, and, W. 
of the Mississippi, the whole of the present 
Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Ne¬ 
braska, Dakotas, Montana, Idaho, Oregon, 
and Washington, that part of Minnesota 
W. of the Mississippi, Wyoming and Colo¬ 
rado E. of the Rocky Mountains and N. of 
the Arkansas river, and all but a small 
southwestern section of Kansas, and the 
narrow northwestern strip of Indian Terri¬ 
tory. By the Treaty of Paris of 1763, 
which closed the French and Indian War, 
the French territory E. of the Mississippi 
passed to England, and that W. of the Mis¬ 
sissippi to Spain. By the Treaty of Paris 
of 1783, England gave Florida back to 
Spain. Trouble arose between the United 
States and Spain because the latter would 
not allow free navigation of the Mississippi, 
and in 1795 a treaty was negotiated with 
Spain by which this desire was granted, 
and the right to use New Orleans as a 
place of deposit. In 1803 a treaty was 
made, by which the United States became 
possessed of the whole of the Province of 
Louisiana on the payment to France of 
$15,000,000. This purchase increased the 
territory of the United States by 1,186,752 
square miles. The next acquisition was 
that of Florida, purchased from Spain in 
1819 for $5,000,000, which added to the pub¬ 
lic domain 59,267 square miles. In 1836 



Anniston 


Anniversaries 


the region known as Texas, and under the 
Mexican Government, declared its inde¬ 
pendence and a short war followed, Santa 
Ana, the Mexican president, being the com¬ 
mander on the one side, and Gen. Sam. 
Houston, leader of the Texan forces, on the 
other. Santa Ana was defeated at the bat¬ 
tle of San Jacinto and agreed to a treaty 
which recognized the independence of Texas. 
This was not ratified by Mexico, but in 
1837 the independence of the Republic of 
Texas was recognized by the United States 
and soon after by England, France and 
Belgium. Texas applied for admission to 
the Union and on Dec. 29, 1845, became 
one of the States. In the same year a 
dispute arose between Texas and Mexico 
in regard to a boundary line, and in the 
spring of 1846 a war was begun between 
Mexico and the United State. This was 
brought to a close by the capture, on Sept. 
14, 1846, of the City of Mexico, by the 
United States troops under Gen. Winfield 
Scott. By the annexation of Texas 167,- 
865.600 acres were acquired. 

The next acquisition was by cession from 
Mexico, in 1848, of the States of California 
and Nevada, a part of Colorado, and the 
Territories of Utah, Arizona, and New Mex¬ 
ico. By this transaction there was added 
to the public domain 522,568 square miles, 
at a cost of $15,000,000. Disputes still re¬ 
mained with reference to those portions of 
Arizona and New Mexico S. of the Gila 
river, and Mexican troops were sent thither. 
Trouble was averted, however, by the Gads¬ 
den treaty, Dec. 30, 1853, by which the 
United States obtained the disputed terri¬ 
tory, paying therefor $10,000,000. 

The next addition was that of Alaska, 
containing 572,500 square miles, purchased 
from Russia for $7,200,000 in 1867. Then 
came the annexation of the Hawaiian Isl¬ 
ands in 1898, by which 7,629 square miles 
were added. By the peace protocol between 
the United States and Spain, Aug. 12, 1898, 
it was provided that Porto Rico and other 
Spanish islands in the West Indies, and an 
island in the Ladrones should be ceded to 
the United States, and that a treaty of 
peace should determine the future control 
of the Philippines. The peace treaty, signed 
at Paris, Dec. 10, 1898, provided for the 
cession to the United States of the Philip¬ 
pine Islands in addition to those named in 
the protocol. The area of the Philippines 
is 150,000 square miles and that of Porto 
Rico, 3,520 square miles. The island 
(Guam) in the Ladrones, and the small 
Spanish islands in the West Indies, contain 
about 8,100 square miles, making about 
162,000 square miles of territory acquired 
by the United States as a result of the 
war of 1898. 

Anniston, a city in Calhoun co., Ala.; on 
the Louisville and Nashville, and Southern 


railroads, and trolley connecting with sub¬ 
urbs; 12 miles S. of Gadsden. It is in one 
of the most important coal and iron mining 
regions of the country; is a trade center for 
cotton and agricultural products; and is 
noted for its manufactures of iron and steel, 
cotton goods, bricks, cordage, and other 
articles. Anniston is the seat of the South¬ 
ern Female College and the Noble Female 
Institute; is a popular summer and winter 
resort; and has two national banks, more 
than 20 churches, daily and weekly periodi¬ 
cals, and a property valuation of $5,500,000. 
Pop. (1900) 9,695; (1910) 12,794. 

Annius of Viterbo, Nannius, or Gio¬ 
vanni Nanni, a Dominican (1432—1502), a 
literary impostor. His work, entitled “ An- 
tiquitates Variae,” professes to contain se¬ 
lections from Berosus, Manetho, Megas- 
thenes, Archilocus, Myrsiles, Fabius Pictor, 
Sempronius, Cato, etc., but are, for the 
most part, mere fabrications. 

Anniversaries, the yearly recurrence of 
the date upon which any past event, of his¬ 
torical or personal interest, has taken place. 

Jan. 1, 1863, Emancipation Proclamation, 
by Lincoln. 

Jan. 8, 1815, Battle of New Orleans. 

Jan. 17, 1706, Franklin born. 

Jan. 17, 1781, Battle of the Cowpens, 
S. C. 

Jan. 19, 1807, Robert E. Lee born. 

Jan. 27, 1859, German Emperor born. 

Feb. 12, 1809, Abraham Lincoln born. 

Feb. 15, 1898, battleship “ Maine ” blown 
up. 

Feb. 22, 1732, George Washington born. 

Feb. 22-23, 1847, Battle of Buena Vista. 

March 5, 1770, Boston massacre. 

March 15, 1767, Andrew Jackson born. 

April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered at Ap- 
pomatox. 

April 12, 1861, Fort Sumter fired upon. 

April 12, 1777, Henry Clay born. 

April 13, 1743, Thomas Jefferson born. 

April 14, 1865, Lincoln assassinated. 

April 19, 1881, Primrose Day in England, 
Lord Beaconsfield died. 

April 19, 1775, Battle of Lexington and 
Concord. 

April 30, 1789, Washington was inaugu¬ 
rated first President. 

May 1, 1898, Dewey destroyed the Span¬ 
ish fleet at Manila. 

May 13, 1607, first English settlement in 
America, at Jamestown. 

May 13, 1783, the Society of the Cincin¬ 
nati was organized by officers of the Revo¬ 
lutionary army. 

May 20, 1775, Mecklenburg, N. C., Decla¬ 
ration of Independence. 

May 24, 1819, Queen Victoria born. 

June 14, 1777, American flag adopted by 
Congress. 

June 15, 1215, King John granted Magna 
Charta at Runnymede. 



Anno Domini 


Annuity 


June 17, 1775, Battle of Bunker Hill. 

June 18, 1815, Battle of Waterloo. 

June 28, 1776, Battle of Fort Moultrie, 
Charleston, S. C. 

July 1, Dominion Day in Canada. 

July 1-2, 1898, general assault on Santi¬ 
ago de Cuba. 

July 1-3, 1863, Battle of Gettysburg. 

July 3, 1898, Cervera’s fleet destroyed off 
Santiago. 

July 4, 1776, Declaration of Independence. 

July 14, 1789, the Bastile was destroyed. 

July 16, 1898, Santiago surrendered. 

July 21, 1861, Battle of Bull Run. 

Aug. 13, 1898, Manila surrendered to the 
Americans. 

Aug. 16, 1777, Battle of Bennington, Vt. 

Sept. 1, 1870, capitulation of Sedan. 

Sept. 8, 1781, Battle of Eutaw Springs, 
S. C. 

Sept. 10, 1813, Battle of Lake Erie, 
Perry’s victory. 

Sept. 11, 18i4, Battle of Lake Champlain, 
McDonough’s victory. 

Sept. 12, 1814, Battle of North Point, near 
Baltimore. 

Sept. 13, 1847, Battle of Chapultepec. 

Sept. 14, 1847, City of Mexico taken by 
United States troops. 

Sept. 17, 1862, Battle of Antietam. 

Sept. 19-20, 1863, Battle of Chickamauga. 

Sept. 20, 1870, Italians occupied Rome. 

Oct. 7, 1780, Battle of King’s Mountain, 
N. C. 

Oct. 8-11, 1871, great fire of Chicago. 

Oct. 12, 1492, Columbus discovered Amer¬ 
ica. 

Oct. 17, 1777, Burgovne surrendered at 
Saratoga. 

Oct. 19, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered at 
Yorktown. 

Nov. 5, 1604, Guy Fawkes Day in Eng¬ 
land, the gunpowder plot discovered. 

Nov. 9, 1872, great fire of Boston. 

Nov. 10, 1483, Martin Luther born. 

Nov. 25, 1783, British evacuated New 
York. 

Dec. 2, 1805, Battle of Austerlitz. 

Dec. 14, 1799, Washington died. 

Dec. 16, 1773, Boston “ Tea Party.” 

Dec. 16, 1835, the great fire in New York. 

Dec. 22, 1620, Mayflower pilgrims landed 
at Plymouth Rock. 

Dec. 25-26, 1776, Battle of Trenton, N. J. 

Anno Domini, A. D., the year of Our 
Lord, of grace, of the incarnation, of the 
circumcision, and of the Saviour’s cru¬ 
cifixion. The Christian era began Jan. 
1, in the middle of the fourth year of 
the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd year of the 
buidding of Rome, and in 4714 of the Julian 
period. This era was invented by a monk, 
Dionysius Exiguus, about 532. It was in¬ 
troduced into Italy in the 6th century, and 
ordered to be used by bishops by the Coun¬ 
cil of Chelsea, in 816, but was not generally 
employed for several centuries. Charles III. 


of Germany was the first who added “ in 
the year of our Lord” to his reign, in 879. 

Annonay (an-o-nfi), a town in Southern 
France, department of Ardeche, 37 miles 
S. S. W. of Lyons, in a picturesque situa¬ 
tion. It is the most important town of 
Ardeche, manufacturing paper and glove 
leather to a large extent, also cloth, felt, 
silk stuffs, gloves, hosiery, etc. There is an 
obelisk in memory of Joseph Montgolfier of 
balloon fame, a native of the town. Pop. 
(1901) 17,490. 

Annual, in botany, a plant that springs 
from seed, grows up, produces seed, and 
then dies, all within a single year or sea¬ 
son. 

Annual, in literature, the name given to 
a class of publications which at one time 
enjoyed an immense yearly circulation, and 
were distinguished by great magnificence 
both of binding and illustration, which ren¬ 
dered them much sought after as Christmas 
and New Year presents. Their contents 
were chiefly prose tales and ballads, lyrics, 
and other poetry. The earliest was the 
“ Forget-me-not,” started in 1822, and fol¬ 
lowed next year by the “ Friendship’s Offer¬ 
ing.” The “ Literary Souvenir ” was com¬ 
menced in 1824, and the “Keepsake” in 
1827. Among the names of the editors oc¬ 
cur those of Alaric A. Watts, Mrs. S. C. 
Hall, Harrison Ainsworth, Lady Blessing- 
ton, Mary Howitt, etc. The popularity of 
the annuals reached its zenith about 1829, 
when no less than 17 made their appear¬ 
ance; in 1856 the “Keepsake,” the last of 
the series, ceased to exist. In the United 
States several large publishing houses issue 
annual reviews of the year, distinct from 
the almanacs. Of these the “ Annual 
Cyclopaedia ” is the oldest, the first issue 
being for the year 1861. The “Interna¬ 
tional Year Book ” was started in 1898. Of 
English annuals the best known are the 
“ Statesman’s Year-Book ” and “ Hazell’s 
Annual.” The “ Almanach de Gotha” is 
more of an annual review than an almanac. 

Annuity, a fixed sum of money paid 
yearly. In the United States the granting 
of annuities is conducted by private com¬ 
panies or corporations. The following are 
the approved rates of the best managed 
companies: In consideration of $1,000 paid 
to a company the annuity granted to a 
person aged 40 would be $52.75; aged 45, 
$58.10; aged 50, $64.70; aged 55, $73.50; 
aged 60, $86.20; aged 65, $100; aged 70, 
$123.45; aged 75, $145.95; aged 80, $180.15. 
The purchase of annuities, as a system, has 
never gained much foothold — the endow¬ 
ment plan of life insurance, by which, after 
the lapse of a term of years, the insured re¬ 
ceives a sum in bulk, being preferred. 

Under the Roman law annuities were 
sometimes granted by will, the obligation of 




Annuloida 


Anointing 


pfiying them being imposed upon the heir. 
Borrowers in the Middle Ages were fre¬ 
quently obliged to grant annuities in lieu 
of interest, the exaction of which by cred¬ 
itors was forbidden as usury; and the prac¬ 
tice received the papal sanction in the 15th 
century. 

Annuloida, in Huxley’s classification, one 
of the eight primary groups into which he 
divides the animal kingdom. He places it 
between the annulosa and the infusoria. 
He includes under it (1) the tremaioaa, 
or flukes; (2) the tceniada, or tape-worms 
and bladder-worms; (3) the turbellaria; 

(4) the acanthocephala ; (5) the nema- 

toidea, or thread-worms; and (G) the roti- 
fera, or wheel animalcules. But he thinks 
it not improbable that the annuloida will 
require ultimately to be merged in the mol- 
lusca. 

Annulosa, a sub-kingdom of the animal 
kingdom, corresponding with Cuvier’s ar- 
ticulata. The word articulata, signifying 
jointed, is not a sufficiently distinctive term, 
for the vertebrated animals are also jointed. 
Annulosa, signifying ringed, is decidedly bet¬ 
ter, for the animals ranked under this sub¬ 
kingdom have their skeleton, which is ex¬ 
ternal, composed of a series of rings. They 
are divided into chaetognatha, annelida, 
Crustacea, arachnida, myriapoda, and in¬ 
sect a, these classes being ranged in an as¬ 
cending order. The last four are further 
grouped together under the designation 
arthropoda. 

Annunciation, the declaration of the 
angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary informing 
her that she was to become the mother of 
our Lord. Annunciation or Lady Day is a 
feast of the Church in honor of the Annun¬ 
ciation, celebrated on the 25th of March. 
The Italian order of Knights of the Annun¬ 
ciation was instituted by Amadeus VI., 
Duke of Savoy, in 13G0. The king is al¬ 
ways Grand Master. The knights must be 
of high rank, and must already be members 
of the Order of St. Mauritius and St. Laz¬ 
arus. The decoration of the Order consists 
of a golden shield suspended to a chain or 
collar of roses and knots, the letters F. E. 
R. T. being inscribed on the roses, and 
standing for fortitudo ejus Rhodurn tenuit 
(its bravery held Rhodes). There are two 
orders of nuns of the Annunciation, one or¬ 
iginally French, founded in 1501 by Joanna 
of Valois; the other Italian, founded in 1004 
by Maria Vittoria Fornari of Genoa. 

Armunzio, Gabriele d’. See D’ Annun- 
zio. 

Annus Mirabilis (-me-rab'H-is), the 
year of wonders, 16G6, memorable for the 
great fire of London and the successes of 
British arms over the Dutch. Dryden has 
written a poem with this title, in which he 
describes both these events. 


Anoa, a sub-genus of ruminating animals 
provisionally placed by Hamilton Smith 
under antelope. The typical species is the 
A. dcpressicornis, a quadruped resembling a 
small buffalo, found gregarious in the moun¬ 
tains of the Island of Celebes. 

Anobium, a genus of beetles belonging 
to the family Ptinidce. It contains the well 
known death watch insects, A. striatum, A. 
tessclatum, etc. 

Anode, the name given by Faraday to 
what is called by Daniell the zincode, and 
by various other writers the positive pole 
of an electric battery; or, more precisely, 
the “ way ” or path by which the electric 
current passes out and enters the electro¬ 
lyte on its way to the other pole. It is a 
platinum plate occupying the same place in 
the decomposing cell that a zinc plate does 
in an ordinary cell of a battery. The other 
plate corresponding to the second platinum 
one in an ordinary cell is called by Faraday 
the cathode or kathode, by Daniell the 
platinode, and by many other writers the 
negative pole. At the positive pole appears 
one element of the decomposed body, called 
anione, and at the negative the other ele¬ 
ment, termed katione. 

Anodyne, a medicine which alleviates 
pain, though, if given in too large doses, 
it induces stupor. Garrod arranges ano¬ 
dynes with narcotics and soporifics together, 
thus: Class II. Medicines whose principal 
effects are upon the nervous system. Sub¬ 
class I. Medicines acting especially upon 
the brain proper; but probably also upon 
other portions of the central nervous sys¬ 
tem. Order 1. Exhilarants. Order 2. Nar¬ 
cotics, anodynes, and soporifics. Order 3. 
Anaesthetics. Opium is soporific and ano- 
dyne; while belladonna is anodyne and anti- 
spasmodic. 

Anointing, rubbing the body or some part 
of it with oil, often perfumed. From time 
immemorial the nations of the East have 
been in the habit of anointing themselves 
for the sake of health and beauty. The 
Greeks and Romans anointed themselves 
after the bath. Wrestlers anointed them¬ 
selves in order to render it more difficult 
for their antagonists to get hold of them. 
In Egypt it seems to have been common to 
anoint the head of guests when they en¬ 
tered the house where they were to be en¬ 
tertained. In the Mosaic law a sacred char¬ 
acter was attached to the anointing of the 
garments of the priests and things belong¬ 
ing to the ceremonial of worship. The Jew- 
ish priests and kings were anointed when 
inducted into office, and were called the 
anointed of the Lord, to show that their 
persons were sacred and their office from 
God. In the Old Testament also the prophe¬ 
cies respecting the Redeemer style him 
Messias, that is. the Anointed, which is also 



Anomalurc 


AnquetiNDuperron 


the meaning of his Greek name Christ. The 
custom of anointing still exists in the Ro¬ 
man Catholic Church in the ordination of 
priests and the confirmation of believers 
and the sacrament of extreme unction. The 
ceremony is also frequently a part of the 
coronation of kings. 

Anomalure, a genus of rodent animals 

inhabitating the W. coast of Africa, resem¬ 
bling the flying-squirrels, but having the un¬ 
der surface of the tail “ furnished for some 
distance from the roots with a series of 
large horny scales, which, when pressed 
against the trunk of a tree, may subserve 
the same purpose as those instruments with 
which a man climbs up a telegraph pole to 
set the wires.” They are called also scale 
tails, or scale tailed squirrels, but some au¬ 
thorities class them with the porcupines 
rather than the squirrels. There are several 
species of them, but little is known of their 
habits. 

Anomaly, in astronomy, the angle which 
a line drawn from a planet to the sun has 
passed through since the planet was last 
at its perihelion or nearest distance to the 
sun. The anomalistic year is the interval 
between two successive times at which the 
earth is in perihelion, or 365 days 6 hours 
13 minutes 45 seconds. In consequence of 
the advance of the earth’s perihelion among 
the stars in the same direction as the 
earth’s motion and of the precession of the 
equinoxes, which carries the equinoxes back 
in the opposite direction to the earth’s mo¬ 
tion, the anomalistic year is longer than the 
sidereal year, and still longer than the 
tropical or common year. 

Anomura, a sub-order of decapod crusta¬ 
ceans, intermediate between macrura and 
brachyura, differing from the former in the 
absence of an abdominal fan-shaped fin, as 
also of natatorv feet: and from the latter 
in generally possessing appendages attached 
to the penultimate segment of their abdo¬ 
men. The sub-order is divided into the fam¬ 
ilies paguridw, hippidce, raninidce, liomo- 
lidce, and dromiidce. Its best known repre¬ 
sentatives are the hermit crabs ( paguridce ). 

Anona, a genus of plants, the type of the 
natural order anonacece. A. squamosa 
(sweet sop) grows in the West Indian isl¬ 
ands, and yields an edible fruit having a 
thick, sweet, luscious pulp. A. muricata 
(sour sop) is cultivated in the West and 
East Indies; it produces a large pear- 
shaped fruit, of a greenish color, containing 
an agreeable, slightly acid pulp. The genus 
produces other edible fruits, as the common 
custard apple or bullock’s heart, from A. 
reticulata, and the cherimoyer of Peru, 
A. cherimolia. 

Anonaceae, an order of exogenous plants 
classed by Lindley under his ranales, or 
ranal alliance. They have six petals, hypo- 


gvnous stamina generally indefinite in num¬ 
ber, numerous ovaries, and a many carpeled, 
succulent, or dry fruit, and alternate sim¬ 
ple leaves without stipules. They are trees 
or shrubs occurring in the tropics of both 
hemispheres. In 1846 Lindley estimated 
the known species at 300. Most have a pow¬ 
erful aromatic taste and smell, and the 
flowers of some are highly fragrant. Some 
have a succulent and eatable fruit. 

Anonymous, literally “ without name,” 
applied to anything which is the work of a 
person whose name is unknown or who 
keeps his name secret. Pseudonym is a 
term used for an assumed name. The 
knowledge of the anonymous and pseudo¬ 
nymous literature is indispensable to the 
bibliographer, and large dictionaries giving 
the titles and writers of such works have 
been published. 

Anoplotherium, an extinct genus of the 
ungulata or hoofed quadrupeds, forming 
the type of a distinct family, which were in 
many respects intermediate between the 
swine and the true ruminants. These ani¬ 
mals were pig-like in form, but possessed 
long tails, and had a cleft hoof, with two 
rudimentary toes. Some of them were as 
small as a guinea-pig, others as large as an 
ass. Six incisors, two canines, eight pre¬ 
molars, and six molars existed in each jaw, 
the series being continuous, no interval ex¬ 
isting in the jaw. A. commune, from the 
eocene rocks, is a familiar species. 

Anoplura, an aberrant order of insects, 
sometimes termed, from their parasitic 
hapits, parasitica or epizoa. They have six 
legs, no wings, and either two simple eyes 
or none. They undergo no proper meta¬ 
morphosis, though there is a certain semi¬ 
transformation when they shed their skins. 
They are parasitic upon mammals and birds, 
and are generally termed lice. There are 
two sub-orders: (1) Uaustellata, or rhyn- 
cota, having a mouth with a tubular, very 
short, fleshy haustellum, and (2) mandibu- 
lata, or mallophaga, in which the mouth is 
provided with two horny mandibles. 

Anosmia, a disease consisting in a di¬ 
minution or destruction of the power of 
smelling, sometimes constitutional, but most 
frequently caused by strong and repeated 
stimulants, as snuff, applied to the olfactory 
nerves. 

AnquetiLDuperron, Abraham Hya= 
cinthe (ank-tel-dii-par-Cn'), a French ori¬ 
entalist, born in 1731. He studied theology 
for some time, but soon devoted himself to 
the study of Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian. 
His zeal for the oriental languages induced 
him to set out for India, where he prevailed 
on some of the Parsee priests to instruct him 
in the Zend and Pehlevi and to give him 
some of the Zoroastrian books. In 1762 he 
returned to France with a valuable collec- 



Anselm of Canterbury 


Ansonia 


tion of MSS. In 1771 he published his 
“ Zend-Avesta,” a translation of the “ Ven- 
didad,” and other sacred books, which ex¬ 
cited great sensation. Among his other 
works are “ L'Inde en Rapport avec l’Eu- 
rope ” (1790), and a selection from the 
“Vedas.’’ He died in 1305. 

Anselm of Canterbury, a Christian phi¬ 
losopher and theologian; regarded by some 
as the founder of scholasticism; born in 
Aosta. Piedmont, between April 21, 1033, 
and April 21, 1034. He belonged by birth to 
the Teutonic, or ruling class of society, his 
father being a Lombard, and his mother, a 
Burgundian. Two of his mother’s broth¬ 
ers were canons, and it was doubtless 
through them that the boy received the 
best mental training which the time and 
place could give. After his mother’s death 
lie quarreled with his father, who had re¬ 
fused to permit him to become a monk, and, 
leaving Aosta in 1057, crossed Mont Cenis, 
to disappear for nearly three years in Bur¬ 
gundy and France. In the autumn of 1059, 
while still a layman, he arrived at Le Bee 
in Normandy, attracted by the fame of Lan- 
franc’s scholarship. In 1000, he entered the 
Benedictine order, and became a monk in 
the monastery of Le Bee, where, three years 
later, he was promoted to the office of friar, 
and in 1079 was consecrated abbot. It was 
while he was prior and abbot at Le Bee 
that Anselm produced the writings — the 
“ Monologium ” and the “ Proslogium ” — 
which caused him to be recognized as the 
leader of a new movement in thought. Hith¬ 
erto Augustine had dominated all the the¬ 
ology of the Western Church, and a citation 
from him had sufficed to close discussion. In 
the latter half of the lltli century, however, 
Europe was beginning to awake from its in¬ 
tellectual sleep, and men were beginning to 
inquire into the dogmas they had long been 
content to accept. Anselm, for his part, 
showed himself impatient of the dualism 
which Augustine had never overcome. He 
was not content till he had erased every 
trace of dualism from his doctrine. 

Anselm remained at Le Bee till 1092, 
when he went to England on business con¬ 
nected with his convent. In the following 
year he was nominated by William Rufus 
Aichbishop of Canterbury, and was conse¬ 
crated on Dec. 4, 1093. He died in Canter¬ 
bury, April 21, 1109; was canonized in 
1494; and his name was placed on the list 
of church authorities by Clement XI. in 
1720. The most important work performed 
by this Italian primate of all England was 
the compromise of the investiture question, 
which resulted in the concordat with the 
papacy. Under this compromise the King 
of England retained the power of nominat¬ 
ing or presenting to a bishopric, but his 
candidate had to obtain from the Pope the 
staff and ring which were the symbols of 


spiritual authority. It may be thought 
that, by this compromise, the English sov¬ 
ereign got the substance and the papacy the 
shadow. But it is one thing to present a 
candidate where his election must be rati¬ 
fied and quite another to present him where 
the body which confers upon him final au¬ 
thority has the power to refuse that au¬ 
thority. The indebtedness of Englishmen 
to Anselm will be evident if we recall the 
fact that he secured the agreement between 
the papacy and the civil power without 
bloodshed, whereas Germany had to pass 
through a hideous war before the question 
between Church and State could be de¬ 
termined by a similar compromise. 

Ansgar, or Anshar, called the Apostle of 
the North, was born in 801 in Picardy, and 
he took the monastic vows in boyhood. In 
the midst of many difficulties he labored as 
a missionary in Denmark and Sweden; dy¬ 
ing in 864 or 865, with the reputation of 
having undertaken, ;jC not the first, the most 
successful, attempts for the propagation of 
Christianity in the North. 

Anson, George, Lord, a celebrated Eng¬ 
lish navigator, born in 1697; entered the 
navy at an early age and became a com¬ 
mander in 1722, and captain in 1724. He 
was for a long time on the South Carolina 
station. In 1740 he was made commander 
of a fleet sent to the South sea, directed 
against the trade and colonies of Spain. 
The expedition consisted of five men-of-war 
and three smaller vessels, which carried 
1,400 men. After much suffering and many 
stirring adventures he reached the coast of 
Peru, made several prizes, and captured and 
burned the city of Paita. His squadron was 
now reduced to one ship, the “ Centurion,” 
but with it he took the Spanish treasure 
galleon from Acapulco, and arrived in Eng¬ 
land in 1744, with treasure to the amount 
of £500,000, having circumnavigated the 
globe. His adventures and discoveries are 
described in the well known “ Anson’s Voy¬ 
age,” compiled from materials furnished by 
Anson. A few days after his return he was 
made rear-admiral of the blue, and not long 
after rear-admiral of the white. His vic¬ 
tory over the French admiral, Jonquiere, 
near Cape Finisterre in 1747, raised him to 
the peerage, with the title of Lord Anson, 

Baron of Soberton. Four vears afterward 

«/ 

he was made first lord of the admiralty. 
In 1758 he commanded the fleet before Brest, 
protected the landing of the British at St. 
Malo, Cherbourg, etc., and received the re¬ 
pulsed troops into his vessels. Finally, in 
1761, he was appointed to convey the Queen 
of George III. to England. He died in 1762. 

Ansonia, a city in New Haven co., 
Conn.; on the Naugatuck river and the New 
York, New Haven and Hartford railroad; 
10 miles W. of New Haven. It is widely 
noted for its extensive manufactures of 





Ansted 


Ant 


clocks, and brass, copper, and woolen goods; 
and has a national and a savings bank, 
Young Men’s Christian Association and me¬ 
morial libraries, daily and weekly news¬ 
papers and a property valuation of nearly 
$5,000,000. Pop. (1910) 15,152. 

Ansted, David Thomas, an English geol¬ 
ogist, born 1814; became Professor of Geol¬ 
ogy at King’s College, London, and Assist¬ 
ant Secretary to the Geological Society, 
whose “ Quarterly Journal ” he edited for 
many years. His writings on geology were 
standard authorities. He died in 1880. 

Anster, John, Professor of Civil Law in 
the University of Dublin, born in County 
Cork, 1793; published a volume of poems, 
and was a frequent contributor to “ Black¬ 
wood’s Magazine,” the “ Dublin University 
Magazine,” the “ North British Review,” 
etc., but is chiefly known by his fine transla¬ 
tion of Goethe’s “ Faust ” (1835-1864). He 
died in 1867. 

Anstett, Johann Protasius von, a Rus¬ 
sian diplomatist, born in 1766; signed the 
treaty with Prussia at Kalish, assisted in 
arranging the subsidy treaty between Rus¬ 
sia, Prussia, and England at lteichenbach, 
and represented Russia in the Congress of 

Prague, all in 
1813; and was 
Ambassador to 
the German Con¬ 
federation in 
1815-1835. He 
died in 1835. 

A n s t e y, 
C h r i s t o= 
pher, an Eng¬ 
lish poet, born 
1724; was au¬ 
thor of “ The 
New Bath 
Guide,” a hu¬ 
morous and sa¬ 
tirical produc¬ 
tion describing 
CHRISTOPHER anstey. fashionable life 

at Bath in the 
form of a series of letters in different 
varieties of meter, which had a great repu¬ 
tation in its day, but is now almost forgot¬ 
ten. He died in 1805. 

Anstey, F., pseudonym of Thomas An¬ 
stey Guthrie, an English humorist, born in 
Kensington in 1856; graduated from Cam¬ 
bridge in 1875, was called to the bar in 1880, 
and joined “ Punch ” staff in 1887. He is 
the author of “Vice Versh ” (1882) : “The 
Giant’s Robe ” (1883) ; “ The Black Poodle ” 
(1884); “The Tinted Venus” (1885) ; “The 
Pariah” (1889); “ Voces Populi ” (1890); 
“Mr. Punch’s Pocket Ibsen” (1893); “Pup¬ 
pets at Large” (1897), and “The Brass 
Bottle” (1900. 

Ant, the name applied to various genera 
of hymenopterous or membranous-winged 


insects, belonging to the section Aculeata , 
family Formicidce. This race of insects, 
celebrated from all antiquity for singular 
instincts, industry, and foresight, would re¬ 
quire a volume for the enumeration of all 
the curious and interesting circumstances 
observed by various naturalists in connec¬ 
tion with them. To the works of Swammer¬ 
dam, Reaumur, Kirby and Spence, Huber, 
Sir John Lubbock, etc., we must refer those 
who desire to be particularly informed on 
the subject. The observant Huber has in 
his work on ants rivalled his father’s justly 
celebrated treatise on bees; while more re¬ 
cent works, such as Belt’s “ Naturalist in 
Nicaragua,” and Bates’s “Naturalist on the 
Amazons,” give many interesting details re¬ 
garding the life and habits of tropical spe¬ 
cies. Most of the species live in large com¬ 
panies or societies, composed of three sorts 
of individuals — males, females, and neu¬ 
ters. The males and females have long 
wings, which are not so much veined as 
in other insects of the same section, and are 
only temporary; the neuters, which are sim¬ 
ply females with imperfectly developed re¬ 
productive organs, are smaller than the 
males and females, and are destitute of 
wings. The males and females are found in 
the vicinity of their habitation for a short 
time only, as they speedily mount into the 
air, where their sexual connection is con¬ 
summated, after which the males perish, 
while the impregnated females, alighting on 
the ground, detach their wings by the aid 
of their feet, and commence the great work 
of their existence — the deposition of their 
eggs for the continuance of the species. 
The males are much smaller than the fe¬ 
males, and have larger eyes, though the 
head and mandibles are proportionally 
smaller. The neuters have neither wings 
nor smooth eyes; their heads are large, 
their jaws strong, and their thorax com¬ 
pressed. 

In some ant colonies, and particularly in 
the case of the white ants or termites 
(which, however, belong to a different order 
of insects from the common ants), the neu¬ 
ters exhibit a division into common or or¬ 
dinary neuters, and soldiers — the latter 
provided with strong jaws, adapting them 
for protecting the community against the 
attacks of enemies. The neuters perform all 
the labors of the ant-hill; they excavate the 
galleries, procure food, and wait upon the 
larvae till they are fit to leave their cells, 
appearing always industrious and solici¬ 
tous. They are apparently endowed with 
the power of communicating to each other, 
probably through the antennae or feelers, 
the result of their searches after food, and 
thus obtain the cooperation of several where 
the strength of an individual would be in¬ 
sufficient. They feed the larvae or young 
ants, which are destitute of organs of mo¬ 
tion, with materials which they disgorge 







Ant 


Ant 


from their own mouths, and which seem to 
have undergone some preparation in their 
stomachs. In line weather they carefully 
convey them to the surface for the benefit 
of the sun’s heat, and as attentively carry 
them to a place of safety either when bad 
weather is threatened or the ant-hill is dis¬ 
turbed. In like manner they watch over 
the safety of the nymphs or pup® about 
to acquire their perfect growth, some of 
which are in cocoons and some uncovered. 
When the time arrives at which the former 
are to undergo the final change they tear 
open the cocoons to permit them to escape. 
If the weather be unfavorable they detain 
those which have acquired their wings till 
a suitable opportunity offers, and then aid 
them to gain their liberty by the easiest 
route. 

There is a very considerable variety in 
the size and form of ant-hills or nests, ac¬ 
cording to the peculiar nature or instinct 
of the species. The greater number make 
their nests in the earth, under buildings, 
etc., where they excavate extensive galler¬ 
ies for the reception of their young, such 
dwellings being almost entirely concealed. 
But others (as in the case of the termites) 
build their hills or nests of various sub¬ 
stances, and form cones or domes of con¬ 
siderable size above ground. Some, again, 
prefer the trunks of old trees, in which 
they form the most singular labyrinths 
leading to the cells where the progeny are 
to be reared. These nests, whether above 
or under ground, have commonly a strong 
and acrid odor, which arises from the acid 
secreted by some of them from glands 
placed near the anal opening. This acid is 
known by the name of formic acid. It is 
not confined to the ant, but is found also in 
the poison of bees and wasps, in nettles, 
and may also be produced artificially. One 
among the most curious circumstances con- 
nected with the general history of ants is 
the exception to the general rule relative to 
the occupants of nests being individuals of 
the same species. Huber first observed, 
and his observations have since been amply 
confirmed, that the European red ant (Form¬ 
ica son guinea) resorts to violence to obtain 
working ants of other species for their own 
use, thus actually making slaves of those 
they carry off to their nests. The neuters of 
these amazons regularly about the same 
hour, when the heat of the day begins to 
diminish, and for several successive days, 
advance in a dense mass toward the ant¬ 
hill they design to plunder; there, in spite 
of all the opposition made, they enter, seize 
on the larv® and nymphs peculiar to this 
species, and carry them off to their own 
nest, where other neuters of the same spe¬ 
cies, but of full growth, take care of these 
kidnaped individuals as well as of the off¬ 
spring of their vanquishers. Polycrgus ruf- 
escens is also a slave-making species, and 


Latreille observes of this species that from 
the form of the jaws these ants are unable 
to procure food or to build habitations for 
themselves. 

Another exceedingly curious fact in rela¬ 
tion to ants is the subserviency of the little 
insects called aphides or plant lice to their 
necessities. The aphides are remarkable 
for ejecting from little prominences on the 
posterior part of their bodies drops of lim¬ 
pid and sweet-tasting fluid. Not only do the 
ants profit by this when it is found on the 
leaves, but they know how to obtain 
it from the aphides at will. An ant 
approaches the aphis and begins very gently 
to touch it with his antenna over the sides 
and back as if caressing it. In a very short 
time the aphis raises its hinder limbs slight¬ 
ly, and from the orifices on its back a small 
clear drop exudes, which is speedily drunk 
up by the ant, which repeats the same treat¬ 
ment to several plan:, lice till his hunger 
is entirely sated. These aphides have been 
appropriately called the cows of the ants, 
which in fact seem to regard them as their 
peculiar property, not only taking great 
care of them, but fighting for their posses¬ 
sion. So fully sensible are they of their 
great value that some ants are said to car¬ 
ry the eggs of the aphides into their nests, 
where they take care of them till they are 
hatched. Some species of ants keep their 
aphides altogether underground, or at least 
during bad seasons, where they feed on the 
roots of plants; others build with clay small 
galleries from the ant-hills up trees, and 
even to the branches, upon which the 
aphides abound. Mr. Darwin has noted the 
interesting fact that when the plant lice 
were stroked by any filament such as a 
hair they did not emit the sweet liquid, 
but on being stroked afterward by the an- 
tenn® of ants they emitted the secretion. 

“ When we see an ant-hill, tenanted by 
thousands of industrious inhabitants, ex¬ 
cavating chambers, forming tunnels, mak¬ 
ing roads, guarding their homes, gathering 
food, feeding the young, tending their do¬ 
mestic animals, each one fulfilling its duties 
industriously and without confusion, it is 
difficult altogether to deny them the gift of 
reason,” or escape the conviction “ that 
their mental powers differ from that of 
men, not so much in kind as in degree.” 
(Lubbock.) 

Male and female ants survive, at most, 
till autumn, or to the commencement of 
cool weather, though a very large propor¬ 
tion of them cease to exist long previous to 
that time. The neuters pass the winter in 
a state of torpor, and of course require no 
food. This well-ascertained fact proves that 
their remarkable foresight has no other ob¬ 
ject than the continuance of the species by 
perfecting and securing their habitations. 
The only time when they require food is 
during the season of activity, when they 



Ant 


Antananarivo. 


have a vast number of young to feed. It 
would be well for mankind if ants derived 
all their nourishment from the aphides or 
from the dead bodies of other insects, small 
birds, etc. Unfortunately they are but too 
celebrated in most countries for their de¬ 
structive operations among the grain, in gar¬ 
dens, pantries, and conservatories. Their 
larvae and nymphs are in some parts of the 
world collected for the purpose of feeding 
pheasants and young turkeys. The bodies 
of small animals, skinned, and secured near 
an ant-hill, are soon converted by the ants 
into very neatly-cleaned skeletons. The 
pupae of many species resemble grains of 
corn in appearance, and these pupae, which 
are tended with great care by the ants, have 
undoubtedly in many cases been mistaken 
for grain carefully husbanded by the in¬ 
sects. The zoological characters of the ant 
family, which includes the familiar ants, 
are found in the females being of larger 
size than the males; in the sexes being 
winged, while the neuters are wingless; 
and in the antennae possessing a long basal 
joint. The genus Formica possesses no 
sting and distinctly developed eyes. The 
red ant (F. sanguinea ) is a good example 
of this genus, as also are the F. rufa, or 
wood ant, and the brown ant ( F. fusca ). 
The genus Myrmecia (which are 
typically represented by the 
if. fortificata, etc.) possesses a 
sting, and the footstalk of the ab¬ 
domen is double jointed. The 
giant ant (P oner a grandis) also 
possesses a sting, but the neuters 
of this species have no eyes. 

In the little cemetery at the 
St. Vincent Monastery, Latrobe, 
Westmoreland Co., Pa., over the 
peaceful graves of the departed 
Benedictine monks, there has for 
more than 15 years waged a curi¬ 
ous war, the outcome of which 
is watched with interest by the 
fathers of the institution, one of 
whom at least, Father Jerome, is 
known widely as an entomologist 
of repute. In the cemetery proper 
there is a colony of “ slave-taking 
ants,” the boundaries of whose 
home are definitely marked near 
the borders of the burial ground. 

Just over the hill from this is a 
colony of the common red ants that are 
of larger size, and between these two com¬ 
munities, for more than a decade and a half 
the battles have been frequent and fu¬ 
rious. As a natural consequence the red 
ants being constantly depleted of their 
“ neuters,” or workers, are becoming less 
and less numerous, while the black ants, 
living in luxury and ease, are waxing more 
powerful in numbers each year. The out¬ 


come will probably be that in the end the 
slave-taking ants will exterminate the red 
ants, when the former will be compelled to 
move elsewhere for serfs. Exhaustive study, 
under the microscope, has been made of the 
two colonies and their bellicose relations 
by Father Jerome and other priests at the 
monastery. The black ants have construct¬ 
ed, with the help of their serfs, immense 
galleries in the cemetery, which are con¬ 
stantly being enlarged by the addition of 
new colonies sent out from the mother 
house, and the extending of these by in¬ 
creased population. 

Antacid, an alkali, or any remedy for 
acidity in the stomach. Dyspepsia and 
diarrhoea are the diseases in which antacids 
are chiefly employed. The principal ant¬ 
acids in use are magnesia, lime, and their 
carbonates, and the carbonates of potash 
and soda. 

Antaeus (an-te'us), the giant son of 
Poseidon ( Neptune), and Ge (the earth), 
who were invincible so long as he was in 
contact with the earth. Heracles (Her¬ 
cules) grasped him in his arms and stifled 
him suspended in the air. 

Antalcidas, a Spartan politician, chiefly 
known by the celebrated treaty concluded 





VIEW OF ANTANANARIVO. 

with Persia at the close of the Corinthian 
war in 387 n. c. 

Antalkali, a substance which neutralizes 
an alkali, and is used medicinally to coun¬ 
teract an alkaline tendency in the system. 
All true acids have this power. 

Antananarivo, the capital of Madagas¬ 
car, situated in the central Province of Im- 
erina; of late years almost entirely rebuilt, 
its old timber houses having been replaced 






Antar 


Antarctic Ocean 


by buildings of sun dried brick on European 
models. It contains two royal palaces, im¬ 
mense timber structures, one of which is 
surrounded with a massive stone veranda 
with lofty corner towers. It has manu¬ 
factures of metal work, cutlery, silk, etc., 
and exports sugar, soap, and oil. Pop. 
about 100,000. (See Madagascar.) 

Antar, an Arabian warrior and poet of 
the 6th century, author of one of the seven 
Moallakas hung up in the Kaaba at Mecca; 
hero of a romance analogous in Arabic lit¬ 
erature to the Arthurian legend of the Eng¬ 
lish. The romance of Antar, which has 
been called the “ Iliad of the Desert,” is com¬ 
posed in rhythmic prose interspersed with 
fragments of verse, many of which are at¬ 
tributed to Antar himself, and has been gen¬ 
erally ascribed to Asmai (born 740 a. d. ; 
died about 830 a. d.), preceptor to Harun- 
al-Raschid. 

Antarctica, one of the names given to the 
great continent believed to lie around the 
South Pole, for which the name Magellanica 
has also been proposed; while some would 
extend the name Victorialand, given to a 
part of it, to the whole. Recent discussions 
at geographical societies and congresses — 
notably at the Geographical Congress in Lon¬ 
don in 1895 — have conferred on the world 
the importance of a regular scientific ex¬ 
pedition to solve the innumerable problems, 
physical, geographical, geological, and biol¬ 
ogical, hidden under Antarctic snow and ice. 
Magnetic science might especially be ex¬ 
pected to benefit by such a systematic ex¬ 
pedition, to which the Australian govern¬ 
ments are favorably disposed. Recent voy¬ 
ages have been mainly those of whalers, ill 
equipped for observations, such as that of 
the “Antarctic” in 1894-1895, described 
by Borchgrevink at the Geographical Con¬ 
gress of 1895, when a latitude of 74° S. was 
reached, landings made, and rocks and vege¬ 
tation brought back. The rocks dredged at 
various times in coastal waters seem to 
prove that the land is continental, not a 
mere archipelago. 

* Antarctic Ocean, the ocean situated about, 
or within, the Antarctic circle. The great 
Southern Ocean is that part of the ocean 
which surrounds the world in one continu¬ 
ous band between the latitude of 40° S. and 
the Antarctic Circle. This band is only 
partially interrupted by the southern pro¬ 
longation of South America. The northern 
portions of this band are often called the 
South Atlantic, South Indian, and South 
Pacific, while the southern portions are 
usually called the Antarctic Ocean. The 
average depth of the continuous ocean 
surrounding the South Polar land is about 
2 miles; it gradually shoals toward Ant¬ 
arctic Land, which in some places is met with 
a short distance within the Antarctic Circle. 
The “ Challenger ” found 1,800 fathoms near 


the Antarctic circle S. of Kerguelen, but 
Ross records a much greater depth in the 
same latitude S. of the Sandwich group. 
Only three navigators, Cook, Weddell, and 
Ross, have crossed the 70th parallel S. 
Of several other expeditions that have 
crossed the Antarctic circle, the most no¬ 
table was the “ Challenger,” in 1874, the 
only steam vessel that had visited these 
seas. The majority of Antarctic voyagers 
have discovered land S. of the 60th par¬ 
allel, Cook in 71° S. and 107° W. Belling¬ 
shausen discovered Peter island and Alex¬ 
ander Land; D’Urville discovered Adelie 
Land. Wilkes found land extending from 
the 100th to the 160th meridian of E. lon¬ 
gitude between the parallels of 65° and 67° 
S. Ross discovered Victoria Land, and in 
February, 1841, sailed along its coasts 
within sight of the high mountain ranges, 
7,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea, as far 
as 78° S. The mountain range here ter¬ 
minated in an active volcano, Mount Erebus, 
12,000 feet in height. His farther pro¬ 
gress was stopped by an icy barrier 150 to 
200 feet in height, along which he sailed to 
the E. for 300 miles. The depth off this ice- 
barrier was 260 fathoms, so that it was just 
in the condition to generate those large, 
flat topped, tabular icebergs which are the 
characteristic feature of the Antarctic re¬ 
gions. Where the coast is steep and high, 
there is no true ice barrier, the ice being 
only 6 or 10 feet above the sea, extending 
many miles from the shore. Till 1895, Ross 
and D’Urville alone succeeded in setting 
foot on land within the Antarctic Circle. 
This land was of volcanic origin; but there 
is no doubt a large extent of continental 
land around the South Pole, for the “ Chal¬ 
lenger ” dredged up granitites, mica-schists, 
sandstones, and other continental rocks close 
to the ice barrier. Dr. Murray estimates 
the extent of the Antarctic continent at 
3,000.000 square miles. Vegetation was 
found on it in 1895; land animals have not 
been seen. Whales, grampuses, seals, pen¬ 
guins, petrels, albatrosses, and other oceanic 
birds abound. Diatoms are very abundant 
in the surface-waters, and their dead frus- 
tules form a pure white deposit called 
diatom ooze, about the latitude of 60°, out¬ 
side the blue muds which surround the con¬ 
tinent. Life is abundant in the surface- 
waters, and at the bottom of the ocean. 
The mean temperature both of the air and 
sea, S. of 63° S., is even in summer below 
the freezing point of sea water. Between 
60° and 63° S., a sensible rise takes 

place, temperature as high as 38° F. be¬ 
ing recorded both of sea and air in March. 
The “ Challenger ” found a cold layer of 
water sandwiched between a warm one on 
the surface and a warm one at the bottom; 
the surface layer was 37.2°; the cold layer 
at 80 fathoms was 32.5°; the temperature 


* For Map, see North Polar Expeditions. 






Ant=eater 


Antelope 


of the warm bottom layer was not accu¬ 
rately determined, but it was probably 
about 33° F. It is remarkable that the 
bottom temperature at 50° S. (33° 5' F.) 
is little different from the bottom water 
all over the Indian and other oceans. 
The return currents of dense, warm, trop¬ 
ical water from the Indian, Atlantic, and 
Pacific Oceans, which run southward along 
the .eastern shores of America, Africa, and 
Australia, sink on reaching a latitude of 
from 45° to 56° S., and flow 1ST. at the bot¬ 
tom to supply the loss in the tropics by 
surface currents and evaporation, and S., to 
supply the place of the ice cold water 
drifted northward. The barometric pressure 
within the Antarctic regions appears to be 
low, considerably under 29.000 inches. The 
winds blow cyclonically in toward the Pole 
from the Southern Ocean, carrying with them 
much moisture. The fall of rain and snow 
is estimated as about equal to a rainfall of 
30 inches annually. All our knowledge of 
the Antarctic is confined to the summer 
months of December, January, and Febru¬ 
ary. Of late, geographical societies have 
insisted on the desirableness of svstematie 
Antarctic exploration. 

The first effort in this direction was the 
expedition of Carsten Egeburg Borchgrevink, 
the Norwegian explorer, which left Hobart, 
Tasmania, in the steamer “ Southern Cross,” 
Dec. 19, 1898. On Dec. 30, the vessel struck 
the ice pack; on Jan. 14, 1899, the snow- 
clad Balleny Island was sighted; on Feb. 
17, Robertson Bay was entered; and on 
March 1, the British Union Jack was hoisted 
on Victoria Land. A number of expeditions 
were made on the ice, and for the first time, 
so far as known, human beings wintered 
on the Antarctic Continent. The furthest 
point reached was lat. 78° 50' S.; long. 195° 
50' E., the most southerly point ever 

reached by man; and the lowest tempera¬ 
ture recorded was —52° F. The expedition 
returned in April, 1900. Sufficient scientific 
information was acquired to whet the ap¬ 
petite for further research in this interest¬ 
ing locality. 

Ant=eater, a genus of mammalia, be¬ 
longing to the order Edentata. This pe¬ 
culiar group of animals is exclusively found 
in the S. part of the American continent, 
where they aid in diminishing the numbers 
of immense hordes of ants, which desolate 
the country in the vicinity of their dwell¬ 
ings. The whole head is remarkably elon¬ 
gated. The jaws are destitute of teeth, and 
the mouth is furnished with a very nar¬ 
row, long, smooth tongue, by the aid of 
which they gather their prey. The saliva of 
the mouth is of a glutinous description, and 
also assists in the capture of the insects. 
Their limbs, especially the anterior, are 
very robust, and furnished with long, com¬ 


pressed, acute nails, admirably adapted for 
breaking into the hillocks containing their 
appropriate food. The most remarkable of 
the species whose habits are best known is 
the Myrmecophaga jubata, or great ant-eat¬ 
er, sometimes called ant-bear. This animal 
is four or five feet long, exclusive of the tail, 
which is about three. The head and an¬ 
terior extremities are covered with a brown¬ 
ish hair, which is mixed with white on the 
trunk and tail, the predominant color be¬ 
ing brown. The hair is flat at the end, and 
round for the rest of its length, somewhat 
resembling the hair of the deer. The fore 
feet have four digits, with very strong 
claws, and the hind feet five. The great 
ant-eater leads a harmless and solitary life. 
In feeding it either thrusts its long narrow 
tongue, covered with the glutinous saliva, 
into the ant heap, whence it withdraws it 
covered with the insects, or else, having par¬ 
tially demolished the hill by means of its 
fore limbs, it transfers with wonderful cel¬ 
erity the alarmed inhabitants to its stomach 
by repeated and rapid extensions and re¬ 
tractions of the tongue. Two other species 
have been long known, both of which have 
naked, scaly, and prehensile tails. These 
are the Tamandua tetradactyla (about three 
feet in length, with a tail 1G inches long), 
and the little ant-eater ( Cyclothurus didac- 
tylus), the latter (which is 15 inches in 
length) possessing only two toes on the 
front feet and four on the hinder feet. These 
latter species are adapted for climbing trees 
and for preying upon ants which make their 
nests in such situations. All the ant-eaters 
are slow in their movements. 

Antediluvian, before the flood or deluge 
of Noah’s time; relating to what happened 
before the deluge. In geology the term 
has been applied to organisms, traces of 
which are found in a fossil state in forma¬ 
tions preceding the diluvial, particularly to 
extinct animals such as the paleotherium, 
the mastodon, etc. 

Antelope, the name given to the mem¬ 
bers of a large family of ruminant 
ungulata or hoofed mammalia, closely 
resembling the deer in general ap¬ 
pearance, but essentially different in 
nature from the latter animals. They 
are included with the sheep and oxen 
in the family of the cavicornia or “ hollow¬ 
horned ” ruminants. Their horns, unlike 
those of the deer, are not deciduous, but are 
permanent; are never branched, but are 
often twisted spirally, and may be borne by 
both sexes. They are found in greatest 
number and variety in Africa. Well known 
species are the chamois (European), the 
gazelle, the addax, the eland, the koodoo, 
the gnu, the springbok, the sasin or Indian 
antelope, and the prongbuck of America. 





Antennas 


Antheunis 


Antennae, the name given to the mov¬ 
able jointed organs of touch and hearing at¬ 
tached to the heads of insects, myriapods, 
etc., and commonly called horns or feelers. 
They present a very great variety of forms. 
The small antennae of the lobster bear ol¬ 
factory bristles, and have an ear lodged at 
the base. And, in short, there are numerous 
observations to justify the general state¬ 
ment that in many cases the antennae are 
sensitive to smell, sound, and probably taste. 
Deprived of its antennae, an ant, for in¬ 
stance, is peculiarly helpless. 

Anterior (an-te'nor), in Greek legends, 
a Trojan noted for his wisdom, was the 
father of Acamas, Agenor, and many other 
sons. He advised the Trojans to restore 
Helen to her husband. He has been accused, 
by writers of little authority, of a design 
to betray Troy to the Greeks. Vergil says 
that he removed with his sons from Troy 
to Thrace, and thence, with the Heneti, to 
Italy, where he founded Patavium, now 
Padua. He had entertained Ulysses and 
Menelaus in Troy, and his house was not 
disturbed in the sack of the city. 

Antenor, a Grecian sculptor, who lived 
at Athens about 500 b. c. He made bronze 
statues of Harmodius and Aristogiten, 
which were carried away by Xerxes in 480 
b. c. 

Antequera (an-te-ka'ra j, a city of An¬ 
dalusia in Spain, in the Province of Ma¬ 
laga, a place of some importance under the 
Romans, with a ruined Moorish castle. 
Manufacturers of woolens, leather, soap, 
etc. Pop. 27,070. 

Anteros, in Greek mythology, the god of 
mutual love. According to some, however, 
Anteros is the enemy of love, or the god 
of antipathy; he was also said to punish 
those who did not return the love of 
others. 

Anteversion, a displacement forward of 
any organ. The term is particularly ap¬ 
plied to a change of position of the uterus, 
in which the organ is bodily displaced in the 
pelvic cavity, so that the fundus is directed 
against the bladder, and the cervix toward 
the sacrum. 

Anthelion, a luminous ring, or rings, 
seen by an observer, especially in Alpine and 
polar regions, around the shadow of his 
head projected on a cloud or fog bank, or on 
grass covered with dew, 50 or 00 yards dis¬ 
tant, and opposite the sun when rising or 
setting. It is due to the refraction of 
light. 

Anthem, originally a hymn sung in al¬ 
ternate parts; in modern use, a sacred tune 
or piece of music set to words taken from 
the Psalms or other parts of the Scrip¬ 
tures, first introduced into church service 
in Elizabeth’s reign; a developed motet. 


The anthem may be for one, two or any 
number of voices, but seldom exceeds five 
parts, and may or may not have an organ 
accompaniment written for it. 

Anthemis, a genus of plants belonging 
to the order astcracccc , or composites. 
It contains the common chamomile (A. no- 
bilis). The flower buds constitute the 
chamomile of the shops. Cattle eat it with 
avidity. As a medicine it is tonic and 
stimulating. A warm infusion of it excites 
vomiting. The true chamomile plant has a 
fine smell, in this differing from another 
common species of anthemis, the anthemis 
cotula, or stinking chamomile. The lat¬ 
ter plant, moreover, is erect, whereas the 
former is prostrate. 

Anthemius (an-them'e-us), a Roman 
emperor of the West (407-472) ; son of 
Procopius and son-in-law of Marcian, Em¬ 
peror of the East. He was nominated em¬ 
peror by Leo, the Emperor of the East, and 
became the father-in-law of Ricimer. Sub¬ 
sequently Ricimer became his enemy, and, 
in a war between them, Anthemius was 
killed. 

Anthemius, a Greek mathematician and 
architect of Lydia; designed the Church of 
St. Sophia at Constantinople, and is cred¬ 
ited with the invention of the dome; died 
a. d. 544. 

Anther, an organized body constituting 
part of a stamen, and generally attached 
to the apex of the filament. As a rule, it is 
composed of two parallel lobes or cells; 
sometimes, however, there are four, and 
sometimes only one. The cells are united 
by the connective, and contain pollen. When 
the time for shedding it arrives, the an¬ 
thers burst generally by a longitudinal 
fissure from the base to the apex, but 
in some plants in other ways. The an¬ 
ther is the theca of Grew, the capsula 
of Malpighi, the apex of Ray, the testi- 
culus or testis of Vaillant, the capitulum 
of Jungius, and the spermatocystidium of 
Hedwig. 

Anther dust, the pollen from an anther. 
It constitutes a yellow dust, which, when it 
falls from the atmosphere, has often been 
mistaken for a shower of sulphur. It is 
very copious in the Coniferce. 

Anthesteria, an annual Greek festival 
held in honor of all the gods, more particu¬ 
larly of Bacchus or Dionysus, and to cele¬ 
brate the beginning of spring, and the season 
when the wine of the previous vintage was 
considered tit for use. 

Antheunis, Gentil Theodoor (iin'te-nes), 
a Flemish poet, born at Oudenaarde, Sept. 9, 
1840. At first a teacher in his native place 
and at Dendermonde, he afterward became 
a justice of the peace in Brussels. His 
lyrics, excelling in euphony and tender sen- 



Anthocyanin 


Anthony 


timent, have frequently been set to music. 
They appeared in collections: “From the 
Heart” (1875); “Songs and Poems” 
(1874); “Life, Love and Song” (1879). 

Anthocyanin, the blue color of flowers, 
a pigment obtained from those petals of 
flowers which are blue by digesting them 
in spirits of wine. 

Anthology, the name given to several 
collections of short poems which have come 
down from antiquity. The first who com¬ 
piled a Greek anthology was Meleager, a 
Svrian, about GO b. c. He entitled his 
collection, which contained selections from 
40 poets besides many pieces of his own, the 
“Garland;” a continuation of this work 
bv Philip of Thessalonica in the age of Ti¬ 
berius was the first entitled “ Anthology.” 
Later collections are that of Constantine Ce- 
phalas, in the 10th century, who made much 
use of the earlier ones, and that of Maxi¬ 
mus Planudes, in the 14th century, a monk of 
Constantinople, whose anthology is a taste¬ 
less series of extracts from the “ Anthol¬ 
ogy ” of Cephalas, with some additions. The 
treasures contained in both, increased with 
fragments of the older poets, idyls of the 
bucolic poets, the hymns of Callimachus, 
epigrams from monuments and other works, 
have been published in modern times as the 
Greek “ Anthology.” There is no ancient 
Latin anthology, the oldest being that of 
Scaliger (1573). There are also Arabic, 
Persian, Turkish and other anthologies, in¬ 
cluding several by authors of the United 
States. 

Anthon, Charles, an American classical 
scholar, born in New York city, Nov. 19, 
1797. He was for many years Professor of 
Ancient Languages at Columbia College. A 
beautiful edition of Horace first made him 
famous among scholars. His best known 
work was an edition of Lempriere’s 
“Classical Dictionary” (1841). He was 
also the editor of over 50 classical text¬ 
books. He died Julv 29, 1807. 

«/ * 

Anthony, Henry Brown, an American 
legislator, born in 1815: was graduated at 
Brown University in 1833; became editor 
and publisher of the “ Journal,” in Provi¬ 
dence, R. I.; elected Governor of Rhode 
Island in 1849 and 1850; United States 
Senator from 1859 till his death: and was 
elected President pro tcm. of the United 
States Senate in 1803, 1871, and 1884. He 
died in 1884. 

Anthony, St., the founder of monastic 
institutions, born near Heraclea, in Upper 
Fgypt, a. d. 251. Giving up all his prop¬ 
erty, he retired to the desert, where he was 
followed by a number of disciples, who thus 
formed the first community of monks. He 
died at the age of 105. As a saint of the 
Roman Catholic Church, he is much es¬ 


teemed. Prayer for his intercession was in¬ 
tended, particularly, to preserve from St. 
Anthony's Fire, so called from him, a 
disease of the Middle Ages that dried up 
and blackened every limb it attacked, as if 
it were burnt. 

Anthony, St., Falls of, a noted fall in 
the Mississippi river, now within the city 
limits of St. Paul, Minn. The perpendicu¬ 
lar fall is 17 feet, with a rapid below of 
58 feet. An island divides the river into 
two parts. The entire descent of the stream 
for three-quarters of a mile is 05 feet. The 
falls and surrounding scenery, especially 
during the spring floods, are exceeding pic¬ 
turesque. 

Anthony, Susan Brownell, an American 

reformer, born in South Adams, Mass., Feb. 
15, 1820: was of Quaker parentage; educated 
at a Friends’ school in Philadelphia, and 
taught school in New York in 1835-1850. 
In 1847 she first spoke in public, taking part 
in the temperance movement and organizing 
societies. In 1852, she assisted in organizing 
the Woman’s New York State Temperance 
Society; in 1854-1855 she held conventions, 
in each county in 
New York, in be¬ 
half of female 
suffrage. In 1857 
she became a lead¬ 
er in the anti- 
slavery movement, 
and in 1858 ad¬ 
vocated the coed¬ 
ucation of the 
sexes. She was 
influential in se¬ 
curing the pas¬ 
sage by the New 
York Legislature, 
in 18G0, of the act 
giving married 

women the pos- stjsan b. Anthony. 
session of their 

earnings, and guardianship of their child¬ 
ren. In 1S08. with Mrs. E. C. Stanton 
and Parker Pillsbury, she began the publi¬ 
cation of the “ Revolutionist,” a paper de¬ 
voted to the emancipation of woman. In 
1872 she cast ballots at the State and 
Congressional election in Rochester, N. 
Y., to test the application of the 14tli 
and 15th Amendments of the United States 
Constitution. She was indicted for illegal 
voting, and fined, but the fine was never ex¬ 
acted. Her last public appearance of note 
was as a delegate to the International Coun¬ 
cil of Women, in London, England, in 1899. 
In 1900 her birthday was celebrated by an 
affecting popular demonstration in Wash¬ 
ington, D. C., and she retired from the 
presidency of the National American 
Woman Suffrage Association, which she had 
held for several vears. Died March 13, 1900. 





Anthracene 


Anthropometry 


Anthracene, a substance obtained in the 
distillation of coal-tar. Although long 
known to chemists, it is as the source of 
artificial alizarin that it has become of 
commercial value. By a process of oxida¬ 
tion with bichromate of potash, it is 
changed into anthraquinone, which in turn 
is treated first with sulphuric acid, and 
then with potash, the alizarin being sep¬ 
arated by the addition of hydrochloric acid. 
Conversely, anthracene is readily obtained 
from alizarin by heating that substance 
with zinc dust — a mixture of metallic zinc 
with oxide and hydrate of zinc — when, by 
the absorption of hydrogen, anthracene is 
formed. When perfectly pure, it forms 
white pearly scales, melting at about 410° 
F. (210° C.), and at a higher temperature 
distilling without decomposition. It is in¬ 
soluble in water, but readily dissolves in 
boiling alcohol, ether or turpentine. When 
viewed by a ray of sunlight, it exhibits a 
fine blue fluorescence, if pure. The com¬ 
mercial article, dissolved in benzene, gives 
a green fluorescence. By prolonged expos¬ 
ure to light, it is changed into an isomeric 
body, paranthracene, which again, on fusion, 
yields anthracene. Anthracene gives rise to 
a large number of compounds, formed by 
replacing part of the hydrogen which it con¬ 
tains With chlorine, alcohol radicals, etc., 
and accordingly named chloranthracene, 
methyl-anthracene, and so on. 

Anthracite, glance, or blind coal, a non- 
bituminous coal of a shining luster, ap¬ 
proaching to metallic, and which burns with¬ 
out smoke, with a weak or no flame, and 
with intense heat. It consists of, on an 
average, 90 per cent, carbon, 3 hydrogen and 
5 ashes. It has some of the properties of 
coke or charcoal, and, like that substance, 
represents an extreme metamorphism of 
coal under the influence of heat or of vol¬ 
canic disturbance. It is found in England, 
Scotland and Ireland, and in large quanti¬ 
ties in the United States, chiefly in Penn¬ 
sylvania. See Pennsylvania, Mineralogy. 

Anthrax (Greek, a carbuncle), the name 
now generally used of a widely-distributed 
and very destructive disease, most common 
among sheep and cattle. Besides its practi¬ 
cal importance, it has special theoretical in¬ 
terest, because it was the first infectious 
disease proved to be due to the presence of 
microscopic vegetable organisms, and be¬ 
cause it has been more fully studied than 
any other analogous disease. Cattle and 
sheep are most commonly attacked by an¬ 
thrax. In the most acute (apoplectiform) 
cases, the animal falls as if it had received a 
severe blow and goes into convulsions; the 
pulse is quickened, the breathing becomes 
rapid and labored, and death follows in a 
few minutes or hours. In less acute cases, 
the animal loses its appetite, becomes 
thirsty and feverish, and often has bloody 

21 


diarrhoea; may appear to recover, only to 
have a more severe seizure after a short in¬ 
terval ; and in a fatal case dies with great 
enfeeblement, convulsions, and labored 
breathing, usually within two days of the 
first symptoms. Anthrax does not readily 
attack man, and is very rarely communi¬ 
cated by one human being to another. It 
occurs in those whose occupations bring 
them into contact with diseased animals or 
their hides, wool, etc. 

Anthropoid, resembling man; a term 
applied especially to the apes, which ap¬ 
proach the human species in the following 
order: 1st (most remote), the gibbons; 

2d, the orangs; 3d, the chimpanzee; and, 
4th (nearest), the gorilla. 

Anthropolatry, the worship of man, a 
word always employed in reproach; ap¬ 
plied by the Apollinarians, who denied 
Christ’s perfect humanity toward the or¬ 
thodox Christians. 

Anthropology, the science of man in the 
widest sense of the term. The word anthro¬ 
pology has been variously defined as “ The 
doctrine of anatomy; the doctrine of the 
form and structure of the body of man.” 
“ A discourse or description of a man or of 
a man's body.” Kant gave a much wider 
range than this to the subject in his “ An- 
thropologie,” published about the year 
1798, as he had previously done orally in 
his university lectures. Finally, its aim is 
“ to study man in all his leading aspects, 
physical, mental and historical; to investi¬ 
gate the laws of his origin and progress; to 
ascertain his place in nature, and his re¬ 
lation to the inferior forms of life.” In 
this sense, ethnology is a department of 
anthropology. 

The word is also applied to the science 
which investigates the relation in which 
man stands to the inferior animals. In 
this sense ethnology is a cognate science 
to anthropology. 

Anthropometry, the measurement of the 
human body to discover its exact dimen¬ 
sions and the proportions of its parts, for 
comparison with its dimensions,at different 
periods, or in different races or classes. 
Cranial measurements have long been 
adopted by anthropologists as the basis of 
their classifications of races; but the con¬ 
formation of the skull and the relation of its 
height to its breadth vary so much within 
the same tribe as not to be, of themselves, 
sufficient data on which to rest generaliza¬ 
tions. M. Quetelet defined the general types 
of mankind by measuring, with reference 
to such particular qualities as height, 
weight, complexion, and the like, a certain 
number of men, and selecting as the stand¬ 
ard the most numerous group on both sides 
of which the groups decrease in number as 
they vary in type, he arrives at the typical 



Anthropomorphism 


Antietam 


mean man of a population. As a basis of 
comparison, this is infinitely more valuable 
than an average which may be calculated 
from a few individuals, and those frequently 
exceptional rather than normal types. (See 
Quetelet’s “ Anthropometrie,” Brussels, 
1871.) The French anthropologists depend 
much more on anthropometry than the Eng¬ 
lish, and have adopted a form of schedule 
containing as many as 102 different observa¬ 
tions of a single individual. Dr. Bene Col- 
lignon reduced these for practical use to 
about 20, and with five simple instruments 
made a series of anthropometric observa¬ 
tions of 280 French recruits from the dif¬ 
ferent provinces of France, which he read 
before the Society of Anthropology at Paris 
in June, 1883 — an excellent example of the 
value of this method. The anthropometric 
committee of the English Anthropological 
Society distributed the average stature of 
British adult males into racial elements as 
follows: Early British, 66.6 inches; Saxon, 
67.2; Scandinavian, 68.3; Anglian, 68.7. 
Similar detailed anthropometric measure¬ 
ments will be seen in the special anthropo¬ 
logical journals, French, English and Ger¬ 
man, and in the more scientific of recent 
books of travel. The French police syste¬ 
matically employ anthropometric methods 
for the identification of criminals, carefully 
recording for future use the various meas¬ 
urements. See Bertillon System. 

Anthropomorphism, the attributing of 
a human form to God. When this is really 
done it is a gross degradation of the Divin¬ 
ity, and is condemned in Scripture. But 
when the only anthropomorphism is the use 
of metaphorical phrases, such as the arm 
of the Lord (Ps. lxxvii: 15), or His eyes 
(Ps. xi: 4), or His ears (Ps. xxxiv: 15), 
to make abstract ideas more readily con¬ 
ceivable, the practice has the countenance of 
Scripture itself. There are thus in this 
sense a legitimate and an illegitimate an¬ 
thropomorphism. 

Antichrist, a denier or an opponent of 
Christ; one who refuses to make confession 
that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh, or 
who, leaving the Church, pretends to be the 
Christ (or Messiah), and thus becomes a 
rival and enemy of Jesus, the true Christ. 
In a special sense, one who should pre¬ 
eminently stand forth as the antagonist of 
Christ, and should be a sufficiently prom¬ 
inent personage to become the theme of 
prophecy; or if anti be held to mean in¬ 
stead of, then the characteristic of Anti¬ 
christ will be a supersession of Christ, not 
an avowed antagonism to Him. If, when 
St. John says, “Ye have heard that Anti¬ 
christ shall come,” he refers to the rival and 
opponent of God described by St. Paul in II 
Thessalonians, ii. then Antichrist is to be 
identified as the “ man of sin.” “ the son of 
perdition, and that Wicked,” of verses 


3, 8. Protestants, from Luther down, have 
sometimes identified Antichrist with the 
papacy, while some Catholics have applied 
the term to Luther himself. 

Anticlinal Line or Axis, in geology, the 
ridge of a wavelike curve made by a series 
of superimposed strata, the strata dipping 
from it on either side as from the ridge of a 
house: a synclinal line runs along the 
trough of such a wave. 

Anticosti, an island in the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence, which it divides into two chan¬ 
nels, with lighthouses at different parts of 
the coast, and about 140 miles long, and 
30 miles broad in the center. The hills in 
the interior rise to about 600 feet. Anti¬ 
costi has two good havens, one at Ellice 
bay, near the W. end, and the other at 
Fox bay, in the N. W. The climate is 
severe; while the surface is an alternation 
of rocks and swamps. It is visited by fish¬ 
ermen in the summer, but there are hardly 
any inhabitants save lighthouse keepers and 
a few officials. The island, which is at¬ 
tached to the Canadian province of Quebec, 
has considerable salmon, trout, cod and 
herring fisheries, and is a resort for seal 
and bear hunting. Extensive peat deposits 
are found in Anticosti. Marl also occurs. 
In 1882 Anticosti was in the market for 
sale, and, in 1886, attempts were made by 
an English company at its colonization and 
settlement. In 1895, the island was pur¬ 
chased by M. Henri Menier, of France, who 
had much litigation over the rights of some 
settlers. A decision in his favor was made 
in 1900. 

Anticyclone, a phenomenon presenting 
some features opposite to those of a cyclone. 
It consists of a region of high barometic 
pressure, the pressure being greatest in the 
center, with light winds flowing outwards 
from the center, and not inwards as in the 
cyclone, accompanied with great cold in 
winter and with great heat in summer. 

Anticyra (an-te-sl'ra), the name of two 
towns of Greece, the one in Thessaly, the 
other in Phocis, famous for hellebore, which, 
in ancient times, was regarded as a specific 
against insanity and melancholy. Hence 
various jocular allusions in ancient writers. 

Antietam, a small river in Pennsylvania 
and Maryland which empties into the Po¬ 
tomac six miles N. of Harper’s Ferry. On 
Sept. 17, 1862, a battle was fought on its 
banks near Sharpsburg, between a Federal 
army of 87.164 men, under General McClel¬ 
lan, and a Confederate army variously re¬ 
ported at from 40,000 to 97,000 men, under 
General Lee. The Federal casualties ag¬ 
gregated 12,469, and the Confederate, from 
12,000 to 25,000. General Lee recrossed the 
Potomac on the following day, and the gen¬ 
eral consensus is that the battle was other¬ 
wise indecisive. 



Antifebriu 


Antimony 


Antifebrin, a neutral chemical product 
derived from acetate of uniline at an ele¬ 
vated temperature by a dialytic action in 
which water is set free. It is readily solu¬ 
ble in alcohol, ether, brandy and strong 
wines, in 160 parts of cold, and in 25 parts 
of boiling water. It has been employed 
with excellent results as a pain-reliever in 
neuralgic and rheumatic affections, as a 
sedative febrifuge and antipyretic. It is 
given in doses of 2 to 8 grains, in powder, 
tablet or capsule form, or in wine. It is 
four times as strong as antipyrine, the ef- 
fe^+s of which medicine are very similar. 

Anti=Federalists, members of a political 
party, in the United States, which opposed 
the adoption and ratification of the consti¬ 
tution, and failing in this, strongly favored 
the strict construction of it. The strength¬ 
ening of the National government at the ex¬ 
pense of the States was also opposed. Soon 
after the close of Washington’s first ad¬ 
ministration (1793) the name Anti-Federal 
went out of use, the term Republican, and 
afterward Democratic-Republican and Non- 
Democratic, alone taking its place. 

Antifriction Metal, a name given to 
various alloys of tin, zinc, copper, antimony, 
lead, etc., which oppose little resistance to 
motion, with great resistance to the effects 
of friction, so far as concerns the wearing 
away of the surfaces of contact. Babbitt’s 
metal (50 parts tin, 5 antimony, 1 copper) 
is one of them. 

Antigone (an-tig'o-ne), in Greek myth¬ 
ology, the daughter of CEdipus and Jocasta, 
celebrated for her devotion to her father 
and to her brother Polynices, for burying 
whom against the decree of King Creon she 
suffered death. She is heroine of Sophocles’ 
“ CEdipus at Colonus ” and his “ Antigone; ” 
also of Racine’s tragedy, “ The Hostile 
Brothers.” 

Antigonous (an-tig'o-nus), one of the 
generals of Alexander the Great, born about 
382 b. c. After the death of Alexander, 
Antigonus obtained Greater Phrygia, Lycia, 
and Pamphylia as his dominion. Ptolemy, 
Cassander and Lysimachus, alarmed by his 
ambition, united themselves against him; 
and a long series of contests ensued in 
Syria, Phoenicia, Asia Minor, and Greece, 
ending in 301 B. c. with the battle of Ipsus 
in Phrygia, in which Antigonus was de¬ 
feated and slain. 

Antigua (an-te'ga), one of the British 
West Indies, the most important of the Lee¬ 
ward group; 28 miles long, 20 broad; area, 
108 square miles; discovered by Columbus, 
1493. Its shores are high and rocky; the 
surface is varied and fertile. The capital, 
St. John, the residence of the governor of 
the Leeward Islands, stands on the shore of 
a well sheltered harbor in the N. W. part 
of the island. The staple articles of export 


are sugar, molasses, rum. Pop., including 
Barbuda, (1901) 34,971. 

Antilegomena, a term borrowed from 
Eusebius, and still in use for those books 
of Scripture which were not at first univer¬ 
sally received throughout the Churches. The 
Antilegomena were the Epistle to the He¬ 
brews, James, II Peter, 2 and 3, John, Jude 
and Revelation. The term is opposed to 
Homologoumena. 

Antilles (an-til'ez), another name for the 
West Indian Islands. Subdivided into 
Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles. 

Antilochus, in Greek legend, the son of 
Nestor, who fell at the siege of Troy by the 
hand of Memnon. 

Antimachus (an-tim'a-kus), a Greek epic 
and elegiac poet; flourished about 400 b. c. 
He was called “ The Colophonian,” from 
Colophon, his native place. His chief works 
were the epic “ Theba’fs,” and an elegy on 
his dead love Lyde. The Alexandrian crit¬ 
ics greatly admired him, esteeming him next 
to Homer. 

Anti-Masonic Party, a political organi¬ 
zation in opposition to Freemasonry. In 
1826 William Morgan, a Freemason, liv¬ 
ing in Batavia, N. Y., was suspected of 
being in league with other Masons in pre¬ 
paring a revelation of Masonic secrets. The 
report that Morgan, who had disappeared 
suddenly, had been abducted and drowned 
caused much excitement, which finally gave 
rise to a political party. In 1828 this party 
polled 33,000 in New York State; in 1829, 
about 70,000; and in 1830, about 128,000. 
By 1832 the party had spread to other 
states and William Wirt was nominated for 
President, and Amos Ellmaker for Vice- 
President. This ticket was carried in Ver¬ 
mont only. In 1832 the party nearly elected 
Joseph Ritner Governor of Pennsylvania, 
and, in 1835, through a split in the Demo¬ 
cratic Party, did elect him. 

Anti-Mission Baptists, a sect of hyper- 
Calvinistic Baptists in the United States 
who also called themselves “ Old School 
Baptists,” founded about 1835. They do not 
believe in Sunday schools, colleges or theo¬ 
logical seminaries, holding that the salva¬ 
tion of men does not depend upon human 
instrumentalities, but upon divine grace 
only. 

Antimony, in chemistry, a triad metal¬ 
lic element, but in some less staple com¬ 
pounds it appears to be pentad. Sym¬ 
bol, Sb.; atomic weight, 122; sp. gr., 6.8; 
melting point, 450°. It can be distilled, 
but takes fire when strongly heated in the 
air, forming Sb,.0 3 . Antimony is a bright 
bluish-white, brittle, easily pulverized metal, 
which occurs as Sb 2 S 3 , and as cervanite, 
Sh.0 4 ; also as valentinite and senarmonite, 
Sb 2 O s . The metal is obtained by heating 
the sulphide with half its weight of metal- 



Antimony 


Antinomianism 


lie iron, or with potassium carbonate. It 
is oxidized by nitric acid, forming Sb 2 0 5 . 
Type metal is an alloy of lead with 20 per 
cent, of antimony. Finely powdered anti¬ 
mony takes fire when thrown into chlorine 
gas. It forms three oxides: (1) Antimony 

trioxide, or antimonious oxide; (2) anti- 
monic tetroxide, or antimonoso antimonic 
oxide; and (3) antimonic oxide. Antimony 
also forms bases with alcohol radicals, as 
trimethylstibine, Sb(CH 3 ) 3 . Salts of anti¬ 
mony are used in medicine; in large doses 
they are poisonous. Antimony is detected 
by the properties of its sulphide, chloride, 
and of SbII 3 . It is precipitated by metallic 
zinc and iron from its solutions as a black 
powder. Copper is covered by a metallic 
film. Antimony salts, when fused on char¬ 
coal with Na 2 C0 3 , give a white incrustation 
and a brittle metallic bead, converted by 
nitric acid into a white oxide soluble in a 
boiling solution of cream of tartar. Anti¬ 
mony is precipitated by hydric sulphide, 
ITS, as an orange-red powder, sulphide of 
antimony, SbS 3 , which is soluble in sulphide 
of ammonium, again precipitated by hy¬ 
drochloric acid. With potash the solution 
of trichloride of antimony gives a white pre¬ 
cipitate of the trioxide, soluble in large ex¬ 
cess. Ammonia gives the same precipitate, 
which is insoluble in large excess; but if 
tartaric acid is present these precipitates 
dissolve easily. A liquid containing anti¬ 
mony salts, treated by zinc and dilute sul¬ 
phuric acid, yields antimoniuretted hydro¬ 
gen, SbH 3 , which burns with a bluish tinge. 
A deposit of antimony takes place on a 
cold porcelain plate held in the flame. This 
metallic film may be destroyed from ar¬ 
senic by dissolving it in aqua regia, and the 
solution treated with ITS, which gives the 
characteristic orange sulphide. Or moisten 
the metallic film with nitric acid, evaporate 
the acid without boiling, a white deposit of 
trioxide of antimony remains, which gives 
a black spot with ammonio-nitrate of silver. 
A film of arsenic treated in the same way 
gives either a yellow precipitate of arsenite 
or a red-brown precipitate of arseniate of 
silver. 

In mineralogy, antimony occurs native, 
occasionally alloyed ivith a minute portion 
of silver, iron, or arsenic. Its crystals are 
rhombohedral; hardness, 3-3*5; specific 
gravity, 6*62 to 6*72; its luster is metallic; 
its color and streaks tin-white. It is very 
brittle. It occurs in Sweden, Germany, Aus¬ 
tria, France, Borneo, Chile, Mexico, Canada, 
and New Brunswick. 

In pharmacy, black antimony consists of 
native sulphide of antimony fused and af¬ 
terward powdered. It is not itself used as 
a drug, but is employed in preparing tartar 
emetic, sulphurated antimony, and terchlor- 
ide of antimony. It is given to horses as 
an alterative powder: two parts of sulphur, 


one of saltpeter, and one of black antimony. 
It is used in the preparation of Bengal sig¬ 
nal lights; six parts of saltpeter, two of 
sulphur, and one of black antimony. Chlor¬ 
ide of antimony (SbCl 3 ), is a solution used 
as a caustic and eseharotic; it is never 
given internally. Sulphurated antimony 
consists of a sulphide of antimony with a 
small admixture of oxide of antimony. It 
enters into the composition of compound 
calomel pills. 

Antinomianism (Greek, anti, ‘‘against,” 
and nomos , “law”), the doctrine or opin¬ 
ion that Christians are freed from obliga¬ 
tion to keep the law of God. It is generally 
regarded, by advocates of the doctrine of 
justification by faith, as a monstrous abuse 
and perversion of that doctrine, upon which 
it usually professes to be based. From sev¬ 
eral passages of the New Testament, as 
Romans vi and II Peter, ii: 18, 19, it 
would seem that a tendency to antinomian¬ 
ism had manifested itself even in the apos¬ 
tolic age; and many of the Gnostic sects 
were really antinomian, as were probably 
also some of the heretical sects of the Middle 
Ages: but the term was first used at the 
time of the Reformation, when it was ap¬ 
plied by Luther to the opinions advocated 
by Johann Agricola. Agricola had adopted 
the principles of the Reformation; but in 
1527 he found fault with Melanchthon for 
recommending the use of the law, and par¬ 
ticularly of the 10 commandments, in order 
to produce conviction and repentance, which 
he deemed inconsistent with the Gospel. 
Ten years after, he maintained in a dis¬ 
putation at Wittenberg that, as men are 
justified simply by the Gospel, the law is in 
no way necessary for justification or for 
sanctification. The Antinomian controversy 
of this time, in which Luther took a very 
active part, terminated in 1540, in a re¬ 
tractation by Agricola; but views more ex¬ 
treme than his were afterward advocated 
by some of the English sectaries of the 
period of the Commonwealth; and without 
being formally professed by a distinct sect, 
antimonianism lias been from time to time 
reproduced with various modifications. It 
ought, however, to be borne in mind that the 
term has no reference to the conduct, but 
only to the opinions, of men; so that men 
who practically disregard and violate the 
known law of God are not, therefore, an- 
tinomians; and it is certain enough that 
men really holding opinions more or less 
antinomian have in many cases been men 
of moral life. It is also to be observed 
that the term has been applied to opinions 
differing very much from each other. In 
its most extreme sense, it denotes the re¬ 
jection of the moral law as no longer bind¬ 
ing upon Christians; and a power or privi¬ 
lege is asserted for the saints to do what 
they please without prejudice to their sane* 



Antinomy 


Antiochus 


tity; it being maintained that to them 
nothing is sinful; and this is represented 
as the perfection of Christian liberty. But 
besides this extreme antinomianism, than 
which nothing can be more repugnant to 
Christianity, there is also sometimes desig¬ 
nated by this term the opinion of those who 
refuse to seek or to see in the Bible any 
positive laws binding upon Christians, and 
regard them as left to the guidance of gos¬ 
pel principles and the constraint of Chris¬ 
tian love. Antinomianism usually originates 
in mistaken notions of Christian liberty, or 
in confusion of views as to the relation be¬ 
tween the moral law and the Jewish law 
of ceremonial ordinances. 

Antinomy, the opposition of one law or 
rule to another law or rule; in the Kantian 
philosophy, that natural contradiction which 
results from the law of reason, when pass¬ 
ing the limits of experience, we seek to 
conceive the complex of external phenomena, 
or nature, as a world or cosmos. 

Antinous (an-tin'o-us), a young Bithyn- 
ian whom the extravagant love of Hadrian 
lias immortalized. He drowned himself in 
the Nile in 122 A. n. Hadrian set no 
bounds to his grief for his loss. lie gave 
his name to a newly-discovered star, erected 
temples in his honor, called a city after 
him, and caused him to be adored as a god 
throughout the empire. Statues, busts, etc., 
of him are numerous. 

Antioch (ancient, Antiochia), a famous 
city of ancient times; the capital of the 
Greek kings of Syria; on the Orontes; about 
21 miles from the sea. It was founded by 
Seleucus Nicator, in 300 b. c., and was 
named after his father Antiochus. The 
first inhabitants were brought from Anti- 
gonia, founded by Antigonus in 307. It was 
famed for the number and splendor of its 
public buildings, the Seleucid monarchs hav¬ 
ing vied with each other in embellishing 
their metropolis, and the Roman emperors 
having also done much to adorn it. It was 
called the “ Queen of the East ” and “ The 
Beautiful,” and it was advantageously sit¬ 
uated for trade, being easily approached by 
the caravans of the East, and through its 
port Seleucia having maritime communica¬ 
tion with the West. Antioch is frequently 
mentioned in the New Testament, and it 
was here that the disciples of our Saviour 
were first called Christians (Acts xi: 26). 
Few places have undergone so many calami¬ 
ties as Antioch. Earthquakes repeatedly 
visited it, and on one or two occasions al¬ 
most destroyed it. In 64 b. c., on the break¬ 
ing up of the kingdom of Syria, it was cap¬ 
tured by Pompey; in 266 it was captured 
by the Persians under Sapor; and in 538 it 
was thrown into a heap of ruins by the Per¬ 
sians under Chosroes. It was restored by 
the Emperor Justinian, but never quite re¬ 


covered from this last blow. In the first half 
of the 7th century it was taken by the Sar¬ 
acens, and remained in their possession for 
upward of 300 years, when it was recovered 
by the Greek Emperor Nicephorus Phocas. 
In 1084 it was again taken by the Saracens, 
and remained with them till 1098, when it 
was taken by the Crusaders. They estab¬ 
lished the principality of Antioch, of which 
the first ruler was Bohemond, and which 
lasted till 1268, when it was taken by the 
Mameluke Sultan of Egypt. In 1516 it 
passed into the hands of the Turks. The 
modern Antioch or Antakieh occupies but a 
small portion of the site of the ancient An¬ 
tioch. It is a poor place, with narrow, 
dirty streets, and houses mostly of one 
story. It has some manufactures of silk 
stuffs, leather, and carpets, and has some 
trade in these articles and in goats’ wool, 
beeswax, etc. The population is estimated 
at 10,000. 

Antioch College, a co-educational (non¬ 
sectarian) institution in Yellow Springs, 
()., organized in 1852; has grounds and 
buildings valued at over $300,000; endow¬ 
ment, over $100,000; income, over $13,000; 
volumes in the library, 9,000; professors and 
instructors, about 20; students, including 
summer school, about 275. 

Antiochus (an-ti'o-kus), a name of sev¬ 
eral Graeco-Syrian kings of the dynasty of 
the Seleucidae. 

Antiochus I., called Soter (saviour), was 
a son of Seleucus, general of Alexander the 
Great, and founder of the dynasty. He was 
born about B. c. 324, and succeeded his 
father in B. c. 280. During the greater 
part of his reign he was engaged in a pro¬ 
tracted struggle with the Gauls, who had 
crossed from Europe, and by whom he was 
killed in battle b. c. 261. 

Antiochus II., surnamed Theos (god), 
succeeded his father, lost several provinces 
by revolt, and was murdered in b. c. 246 
by Laodice, his wife, whom he had put away 
to marry Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy. 

Antiochus III., surnamed the Great, 
grandson of the preceding, was born b. c. 
242, succeeded in b. c. 223. 

The early part of his reign 
embraced a series of wars 
against revolted provinces 
and neighboring kingdoms, 
his expeditions extending 
to India, over Asia Minor, 
and latterly into Europe, 
where he took possession 
of the Thracian Chersonese. 

Here he encountered the antiochus 

Romans, who had con- THE great. 

quered Philip V. of Mace- 
don, and were prepared to resist his further 
progress. Antiochus gained an important 
adviser in Hannibal, who had fled for 







Antiochus 


Antipope 


refuge to his court; but he lost the op¬ 
portunity of an invasion of Italy while the 
Romans were engaged in war with the 
Gauls, of which the Carthaginian urged 
him to avail himself. The Romans defeated 
him by sea and land, and he was finally over¬ 
thrown by Scipio at Mount Sipylus, in 
Asia Minor, b. c. 190, and very severe terms 
were imposed upon him. He was killed 
while plundering a temple in Elymais to 
procure money to pay the Romans. 

Antiochus IV., called Epiphanes, young¬ 
est son of the above, is chiefly remarkable 

for his attempt to extir¬ 
pate the Jewish religion, 
and to establish in its 
place the polytheism of 
the Greeks. This led to 
the insurrection of the 
Maccabees, by which the 
Jews ultimately recovered 
their independence. He 
died b. c. 164. 

Antioquia (an-te-o-ke'a), 
a town of South America, 
in Colombia, on the river 
Cauca; founded in 1542. 
Pop. 10,000. It gives name to a department 
of the republic; area, 22,316 square miles; 
pop. (1892) 560,000. Capital, Medellin; 
pop. 40,000. 

Antipaedobaptist, one who is opposed 
to the doctrine of infant baptism. 

Antiparos (an-tip'ar-os), one of the Cy¬ 
clades (islands), in the Grecian Archipelago, 
containing a famous stalactitic grotto or 
cave. It lies S. W. of Paros, from which it 
is separated by a narrow strait, and has an 
area of 10 square miles, and about 500 in¬ 
habitants. Its grotto is not alluded to by 
any Greek or Roman writer, but lias been 
well known since 1673. The entrance forms 
a wide natural portico on the S. W. side 
of a mountain, from which the visitor 
reaches the first spacious vault by means of 
ropes and ladders. To go farther is still 
more difficult. At a depth of 918 feet un¬ 
der the entrance, the chief chamber is 
reached. It is 312 feet long, 98 wide, and 
82 high, and is covered everywhere with 
the most wonderful stalactite and stalag¬ 
mite formations. 

Antipater (an-tip'a-ter), a general and 
friend of Philip of Macedon, father of Alex¬ 
ander the Great. On the death of Alex¬ 
ander, in 323 B. c., the regency of Mace¬ 
donia. was assigned to Antipater, who suc¬ 
ceeded in establishing the Macedonian rule 
in Greece on a firm footing. He died in b. 
c. 317, at an advanced age. 

Antipater, procurator of Judea for the 
Romans from 47 to 43 b. c. He received 
the appointment from Julius Cresar; and 
died from poison in the last mentioned year. 
He was the father of Herod the Great. 


Antipathy, a special dislike exhibited by 
individuals to particular objects or persons, 
usually resulting from physical or nervous 
organization. An antipathy is often an un¬ 
accountable repugnance to what people in 
general regard with no particular dislike, 
as certain sounds, smells, articles of food, 
etc., and it may be manifested by fainting 
or extreme discomfort. 

Antiperiodics, medicines which prevent 
or relieve the paroxysms of certain diseases 
which exhibit a periodic character. Their 
mode of action is unknown. The chief ones 
are cinchona bark and its alkaloids — qui¬ 
nine, cinchonine, quinidine, and cinchoni- 
dine; bebeeru bark and its active principle, 
bebeerine; salicine, salicylic acid and its 
salts; eucalyptus globulus, arsenic, and io¬ 
dine. 

Antiphlogistic (an-te-flog-is'tik), a term 
applied to medicines or methods of treat¬ 
ment that are intended to counteract in¬ 
flammation, such as blood letting, purga¬ 
tives, diaphoretics, etc. 

Antiphon (an'te-fon), a Greek orator, 
born near Athens: founder of political ora¬ 
tory in Greece. His orations are the oldest 
extant, and he is said to have been the first 
who wrote speeches for hire. He was put 
to death for taking part in the revolution 
of b. c. 411, which established the oligarchic 
government of the Four Hundred. 

Antiphony, opposition or contrariety of 
sound; also the alternate chanting or sing¬ 
ing in a cathedral, or similar service by the 
choir, divided into two parts for the pur¬ 
pose, and usually sitting upon opposite sides. 
It is sometimes' used also when the parts 
are repeated instead of sung. Antiphony 
differs from symphony, for in the latter case 
the whole choir sing the same part. It also 
differs from responsorium, in which the 
verse is spoken or sung by only one person 
instead of many. 

Antipodes (an-tip'o-dez), the name given 
relatively to the people or places on op¬ 
posite sides of the earth, so situated that 
a line drawn from one to the other passes 
through the center of the earth and forms 
a true diameter. The longitudes of two 
such places differ by 180°. The difference 
in their time is about 12 hours, and their 
seasons are reversed. 

Antipodes Islands, a group of small un¬ 
inhabited islands in the South Pacific Ocean, 
about 460 miles S. E. by E. of New Zealand; 
so called from being nearly antipodal to 
Greenwich, England. 

Antipope, a pontiff elected in opposition 
to one canonically chosen. The first anti¬ 
popes were Felix, during the pontificate of 
Liberius (352-366); Ursinus, against Da- 
masus (366-384); and Laurentius, against 
Symmachus (498-514). During the Mid¬ 
dle Ages several emperors of Germany set 



ANTIOCHUS 

EPIPHANES. 



Antipope 


Anti=Rent Party 


up popes against those whom the Romans 
had elected without consulting them. Otlio 
the Great displaced successively two Bish¬ 
ops of Rome; and when the rival Pope, Syl¬ 
vester III., had expelled the simoniacal and 
profligate Benedict IX. (1033-1045), the lat¬ 
ter was brought back by the German King, 
and soon afterward sold his dignity to 
Gregory VI. There were now, consequently, 
three popes, but their claims were all set 
aside at a council convened at Sutri by the 
Emperor, Henry III., and a new Pope elected 
as Clement II. in 1046. Shortly after, Pope 
Alexander II. found a rival in Honorius II., 
the nominee of the Emperor; but his claim 
was ratified by a council convened at Man¬ 
tua. In 1080 the same unseemly spectacle 
was witnessed, when the Emperor, Henry 
IV., elevated to the papal chair Guibert of 
Ravenna, under the title of Clement III., in 
opposition to his own implacable adversary, 
Gregory VII. But after the death of Greg¬ 
ory (1085), Clement was himself opposed 
successively by Victor III. (1086-1088) and 
Urban II. (1088-1099). Innocent II. (1130- 
1143) triumphed over the Antipope Ana- 
cletus II. by the help of St. Bernard; and 
Alexander III., during his pontificate (1159- 
1181), had to contend with no fewer than 
four successive antipopes, the election of 
only one of whom, however, Victor V., in 
1159, has any canonical validity. After a 
long contest, Clement V. was elected in 
1305, and four years later he transferred his 
seat to Avignon, where his successors 
reigned for nearly 70 years, losing the while, 
by their subjection to French influences, the 
sympathies of Germany and England. The 
election of Urban VI. in 1378 occasioned 
“the great schism of the West,” which di¬ 
vided the Church for 50 years. He was 
elected by the Romans, who demanded an 
Italian Pope after the death of Gregory XI. 
The French cardinals, then a majority in 
the curia, on the plea that they had elected 
the Pope only under intimidation, withdrew 
to Provence, and elected a new Pope under 
the name of Clement VII., who was recog¬ 
nized by France, Spain, Savoy, and Scot¬ 
land; while Italy, Germany, England, and 
the whole North of Europe, supported Ur¬ 
ban VI. For 38 years Christian Europe was 
scandalized by the spectacle of two Popes, 
one at Geneva, another at Rome, in turn 
hurling the most awful anathemas of the 
Church at each other, like “ two dogs snarl¬ 
ing over a bone,” in Wyclif’s phrase. At 
the beginning of the 15th century, an at¬ 
tempt was made to prevail on both the ri¬ 
vals, Gregory XII. at Rome, and Benedict 
XIII. at Avignon, to renounce their claims 
with a view to promote union, but both 
evaded this as long as possible. At length, 
however, the cardinals attached to either 
court agreed to summon a general council, 
which met accordingly at Pisa in 1409. The 


council deposed both Popes, and constituted 
the separate bodies of cardinals into one 
conclave which elected Alexander V. to the 
papal chair. The Council of Basel (1431- 
1447), in its struggle with Pope Eugenius 

IV. (1431-1447) for supremacy, attempted 
to arrogate to itself the papal functions, 
and proceeded to elect Amadeus of Savoy 
Pope, as Felix V. The attempt, however, 
failed; the Popes Eugenius IV. and Nicholas 

V. (1447-1455), secured their authority, 
the ambitious council finally dissolved itself, 
and Felix V. resigned his empty dignity, 
and was raised to the rank of cardinal by 
the magnanimous Pope himself. This was 
the last occasion on which the faithful were 
distracted by the sight of a rival pontiff 
within Christendom. 

Anti=Poverty Society. See Single Tax. 

Antipyretics, medicines which reduce 
the temperature in fever. The principal 
agents used as antipyretics are cold baths, 
cold applications, ice, diaphoretics, alcohol, 
quinine, salicylic acid and its salts, eucal- 
vptol, essential oils, aconite, digitalis, verat- 
ria, antifibrine (acetanilide), antipyrine, 
benzanilide, thalline, kairine, purgatives, 
and venesection. 

r 

Antipyrine, an alkaloid extensively used 
in medicine as an antipyretic, and possessing 
the valuable property of materially reduc¬ 
ing the temperature of the body without the 
production of any distressing bodily symp¬ 
toms. Hence, it is much resorted to in 
fevers, pneumonia, acute rheumatism, 
phthisis, and erysipelas. To produce a more 
rapid action the drug is often injected hy¬ 
podermically. 

Antiquaries, those devoted to the study 
of ancient times through their relics, as old 
places of sepulcher, remains of ancient hab¬ 
itations; early monuments, implements or 
weapons, statues, coins, medals, paintings, 
inscriptions, books, and manuscripts, with 
the view of arriving at a knowledge of the 
relations, modes of living, habits, and gen¬ 
eral condition of the people who created or 
employed them. Societies or associations of 
antiquaries have been formed in all civilized 
countries. In Great Britain, the Society of 
Antiquaries of London was founded in 1572. 
The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland was 
founded in 1780, and has the management 
of a large national antiquarian museum in 
Edinburg. The American Antiquarian So¬ 
ciety was organized in 1812, and has its 
headquarters in Worcester, Mass. 

Antiques, a term specifically applied to 
the remains of ancient art, as statues, paint¬ 
ings, vases, cameos, and the like, and more 
especially to the works of Grecian and Ro¬ 
man antiquity. 

Anti=Rent Party, a party which gained 
some political influence in New York, and 




Antirrhinum 


Antispasmodics 


which had its origin in the refusal of ten¬ 
ants, who were dissatisfied with the patroon 
system in vogue in 1839, to pay rent. The 
matter was settled by compromise in 1850. 

Antirrhinum (an-ti-ri'num), a genus of 
annual or perennial plants of the natura 
order Scrophulariacece, commonly known as 
snapdragon, on account of the peculiarity 
of the blossoms, which, by pressing between 
the finger and thumb, may be made to open 
and shut like a mouth. 

Antisana, a volcano in the Andes of 
Ecuador, 35 miles S. E. by E. of Quito. 
Whymper, who ascended it in 1880, makes 
its height 19,200 feet. 

Antiscorbutics. See Scurvy. 

Anti-Semitism, a movement against 
Jews in Russia, Rumania, Austria-Hungary, 
Germany, France, etc., the countries in 
which that persecuted race has multiplied, 
especially in the middle class of the popula¬ 
tion, and where their wealth and influence 
have excited alarm, jealousy, and abuse. 
The movement known as Anti-Semitism 
may be defined as a religious, political, and 
social agitation against the Jews on account 
of the dominant position they achieved 
among certain peoples after their emancipa¬ 
tion in the middle of the nineteenth century. 
During the last two decades of that century 
this reaction played an important part in 
the political struggles of Europe. Even in 
the enlightened capital of the German em¬ 
pire it raged hotly, and an Anti-Semitic 
League was formed in 1881 to restrict the 
liberty of Jews in Germany. Persecution in 
Russia assumed a more brutal character 
than elsewhere, and thousands of the op¬ 
pressed people fled to the United States and 
other countries to save not only their lib¬ 
erty and property, but even their lives. 
Violent anti-Jewish riots occurred in vari¬ 
ous parts of Hungary, which were not 
quelled till martial law was proclaimed. 
The case of Alfred Dreyfus (q. v.) in 
France aroused an intense anti-Semitic 
feeling. Russia and Rumania have within 
their territory some 6,000,000 Jews who 
have been systematically degraded and sub¬ 
jected to such outrages as the bloody mas¬ 
sacres in Russia in 1905. The periodic 
persecutions of this race have led many 
among them to undertake active measures of 
protection. One is the movement known as 
Zionism {q. v .), which aims at a Jewish 
nationalism and the restoration of the Holy 
Land to the Hebrews. It has found 
numerous supporters in all parts of the 
world. Many Russian and Rumanian Jews 
have emigrated to Palestine and have there 
become husbandmen. The late Baron de 
Hirsch promoted a colossal scheme for the 
transplanting of persecuted Jews to new 
countries where they might be free from 
molestation. 


Antisepsis, the exclusion of microbes or 
bacteria from wounds, etc., by the use of 
antiseptics or other means in order to pre¬ 
vent putrefaction, infection, or blood-pois¬ 
oning. The antiseptic treatment usually is 
as follows: The wound is first cleaned with 
soap and water, and an antiseptic mixture 
consisting of bichloride of mercury solution 
1-4000, mixed with carbolic acid solution 
1-200, is applied. Iodoform gauze is then 
put on, then plain gauze, cotton, and the 
bandage. 

Antiseptic, a substance which has the 
effect of counteracting the tendency to pu¬ 
trefaction. Garrod makes disinfectants 
and antiseptics the second order of his 
“Division III. Chemical agents used for 
other than their medicinal properties.” An¬ 
tiseptics prevent chemical change by de¬ 
stroying the putrefactive microbes or bac¬ 
teria, the chemical composition of the body 
still in many cases remaining the same; 
while disinfectants decompose and remove 
the infectious matter itself. Antiseptics 
are called also colytics. Among them may 
be named carbolic acid, alcohol, sulphurous 
acid, chloride of sodium (common salt), 

e ^ c - George E. Sternberg. 

Antiseptic Surgery, treatment to kill 
germs in accidental wounds and surgical 
operations. The use of antiseptic dressings 
in surgery has become universal. The 
deaths caused by wounds of all kinds have 
greatly decreased. In wounds received on 
the battle-field, the treatment has been es¬ 
pecially successful. As is known, the dan¬ 
ger lies in inflammation and pus formation, 
which is caused chiefly by two varieties of 
germs, the Staphylococcus pyogenes, so 
called because it is found in bunches, and 
the Streptococcus pyogenes, so called because 
it is found in chains. The germ itself does 
not do the harm, but it secretes a poison 
which causes inflammation and suppura¬ 
tion. By preventing the entrance of these 
germs into bullet wounds by the applica¬ 
tion of first-aid dressings, which soldiers 
carry with them and use as soon as they 
are wounded, and by the thorough anti¬ 
septic treatment of such wounds by sur¬ 
geons, the inflammation and suppuration 
which formerly took so many lives have been 
most effectively prevented, and, unless the 
wounded man dies from the immediate ef¬ 
fect of his injury—such as a wound in a 
vital spot, or from hemorrhage—his chances 
of recovery are very bright. 

Antispasmodics, medicines which pre¬ 
vent or allay spasms. Among them may be 
mentioned valerian, asafoetida, camphor, 
ammonia, alcohol, ether, chloroform, amyl 
nitrate, pyridine, nitro-glycerine, bromides, 
conium, lobelia, opium, gelsemium, India 
hemp, belladonna, the essential oils. In 
such convulsive diseases as epilepsy, laryn- 



Antisthenes 


Antlers 


gismus stridulus, and infantile convulsions 
bromide of potassium is the most powerful 
of antispasmodics; in hysteria, va lerian, 
asafoetida, and the bromides; in chorea, ar¬ 
senic, copper, conium, and zinc; in spas¬ 
modic asthma, lobelia, stramonium, mor¬ 
phia; in spasm of the blood vessels, amyl 
nitrite, pyridine, and nitro-glycerine. In all 
spasmodic diseases, cold baths or sponging, 
sun-baths, moderate exercise, and a plain 
but nutritious diet should be employed; late 
hours, a close atmosphere, exhausting emo¬ 
tions, or excessive mental or bodily work 
should be avoided. 

Antisthenes (an-tis'the-nez), a Greek 
philosopher and the founder of the school 

of Cynics, born at 
Athens about B. 
c. 444. He was 
first a disciple of 
Gorgias and then 
of Socrates, at 
whose death he 
was present. His 
philosophy was a 
one sided develop¬ 
ment of the So- 
cratic teaching. 
He held virtue to 
consist in com¬ 
plete self denial 
and disregard of 
riches, honor, or 
pleasure of every 
kind. He himself 
lived as a beggar. 
He died in Athens at an advanced 
age. 

Antithesis, a sharp opposition of con¬ 
trast between word and word, clause and 
clause, sentence apd sentence, or sentiment 
ind sentiment, especially designed to impress 
the listener or reader. Macaulay’s writ¬ 
ings are full of antliitheses, of which the 
following may serve as examples: as, “ He 
had covertly shot at Cromwell, he now 
openly aimed at the Queen” (“ History of 
England”, chap. v.). “But blood alone did 
not satisfy Jeffreys; he filled his coffers by 
the sale of pardons” (Ibid, chap. xvii.). 
Lessing, in reviewing a book, said, “ This 
book contains much that is good, and much 
that is new; only it is a pity that the good 
is now new, and the new is not good,” a 
happy antithesis. 

Antitoxine, the name given to a new 
remedy for diphtheria. The diphtheritic 
toxine produced by cultivating the bacillus 
of diphtheria in broth, in the presence of 
air, is injected in increasing amounts into 
an animal, preferably the horse, until it is 
immunized, or rendered insusceptible to 
diphtheria. The serum of the animal thus 
rendered immune may then be injected into 
the system of a person suffering from diph¬ 


theria, with generally successful results. 
The decrease of deaths from this disease 
since the introduction of this remedy is re¬ 
markable, and in most large cities it is pro¬ 
vided free to all unable to pay for the xnedi- 
cine. Among the eminent medical men who 
have spent years of research, resulting in 
the discovery of this great boon to human¬ 
ity, are Prof. Emil Behring, M. D., of 
Berlin; Dr. Carl Frankel, and Dr. E. Roux, 
of the Pasteur Institute, Paris. Several 
other antitoxines have been discovered dur¬ 
ing the past few years, among them the anti¬ 
toxine of tetanus and the antitoxine of snake 
poison. George E. Sternberg. 

Anti=Trade, a name given to any of the 
upper tropical winds which move northward 
or southward in the same manner as the 
trade-winds which blow beneath them in the 
opposite direction. These great aerial cur¬ 
rents descend to the surface after they have 
passed the limits of the trade-winds, and 
form the S. W. or W. S. W. winds of the 
N. temperate, and the N. W. or W. N. W. 
winds of the S. temperate zones. 

Antitrinitarians, all who do not receive 
the doctrine of the Divine Trinity, or the 
existence of three persons in the Godhead; 
especially applied to those who oppose such 
a doctrine on philosophical grounds, as con¬ 
trasted with Unitarians, who reject the doc¬ 
trine as not warranted by Scripture. 

Antitype, that which is correlative to a 
type; by theological writers the term is em¬ 
ployed to denote the reality of which a type 
is the prophetic symbol. 

Antium, a maritime city of Latium, now 
Porto d’Anzio, near Rome; after a long 
struggle for independence, became a Roman 
colony, at the end of the great Latin war, 
340-338 b. c. It is mentioned by Horace, 
and was a favorite retreat of the emperors 
and wealthy Romans, who erected many 
villas in its vicinity. The treasures depos¬ 
ited in the Temple of Fortune here were 
taken by Octavius Caesar during his war 
with Antony, 41 b. c. 

Antlers, bony outgrowths from the 
frontal bones of almost all the members of 
the deer family. Except in the reindeer, 
they are restricted to the males, and are 
secondary sexual characters used as weapons 
in fighting for possession of the females. 
They appear as a pair of knobs covered with 
dark skin, from which the bony tissue is 
developed. In the year after that of birth, 
the antlers remain unbranched conical 
“ beams.” In the following spring, the pre¬ 
vious growth having been meanwhile shed, 
the antlers grow to a larger size, and from 
their first branch or “ brow.” Year by year 
the number of branches or tines in¬ 
creases, and more than 60 have been counted 
on some magnificent heads. The soft, hairy 



ANTISTHENES. 









Antlia 


Antoinette 


skin which secures their rapid annual 
growth is known as the “ velvet,” and its 
accidental injury affects the development of 
the antlers. Growth ceases when the blood- 
supply is cut off by the development of a 
tubercled burr at the base, and the deer then 
rub off the dry skin and leave the bone bare. 
The antlers are shed, in many cases at least, 
annually, after the breeding period. The 
various types of antlers are used as conven¬ 
ient characters in distinguishing the differ¬ 
ent genera. 

Antlia or Antlia Pneumatica, one of 

the 14 southern constellations placed in the 
heavens by Lacaille in connection with his 
work at the Cape of Good Hope in 1751— 
1752. It is situated between Vela, Pyxis, 
Hydra, and Centaurus. 

Ant Lion, the larva of an insect (myrme- 
leon obsoletus, etc.), of the order of neurop- 
tera, remarkable for its ingenious methods of 
capturing ants and other insects, on which 
it feeds, by making pitfalls in the sand. 
Some species are common in North America. 
The perfect insect is about an inch long, and 
has a general resemblance to a dragon-fly. 
It feeds upon the juices of insects, especially 
ants, in order to obtain which it cleverly ex¬ 
cavates a funnel-shaped pitfall in sandy 
ground, and lies in wait at the bottom, often 
with all but its mandibles buried in the 
sand. When insects approach too near to 
the edge of the hole, the loose sand gives 
way, so that they fall down the steep slope. 
If they do not fall quite to the bottom, but 
begin to scramble up again, the ant-lion 
throws sand upon them by jerking its head, 
and thus brings them back. It employs its 
head in the same way to eject their bodies 
from its pit, after their juices have been 
sucked, and casts them to a considerable 
distance; and, by the same means, throws 
away the sand in excavating its hole, first 
ploughing it up with its body, and then 
placing it upon its head by means of one of 
its forelegs. 

Antofagasta, a province in Northern 
Chile, extending the whole width of the 
country. Next to the sparsely inhabited 
territory of Magellan in the extreme south, 
it is the largest province in the country, 
covering an area of 40,597 square miles. 
It was ceded by Bolivia to Chile in 
1884. Much of its territory lies in the 
rocky desert of Atasama, a feature 
which makes it generally unsuitable for 
agriculture. It is, however, one of the 
richest sections of the world in the ores 
of precious metals. Pop. (1907) 113,777. 
Antofagasta, its capital and principal sea¬ 
port, is the terminus of a railroad that ex¬ 
tends to the rich mining sections in the 
northeast, it also ships much ore, nitrate 
of soda, and bullion, and contains silver¬ 
smelting works. Pop. (1907) 32,490. 


, Antoinette, Marie (Marie Antoinette 
Joseph Jeanne de Lorraine), Archduchess 
of Austria and Queen of France; the young¬ 
est daughter of the Emperor Francis I. and 
of Maria Theresa; born in Vienna, Nov. 2, 
1755. Her education appears to have been 
somewhat narrow. Metastasio and Gluck 
are mentioned among her teachers, and after 
her betrothal she was put under the charge 
of the Abbe de Vermond, who retained his 
influence till 1789, when he was dismissed. 
The choice of Marie Antoinette by the Due 
de Choiseul as the wife of the dauphin was 
unpopular in France, where Austria was 
then regarded witl a keen jealousy, in¬ 
creased by the reputation of Maria Theresa. 
This national prejudice laid the foundation 
of a popular antipathy to Marie Antoinette, 
which was significantly conveyed in the 
epithet “ L’Autrichienne.” On May 16, 
1770, Marie Antoinette, was married to the 
dauphin Louis. Her progress through 
France was a continual fete, and splendid 
fetes were prepared in her honor at Paris 
and Versailles. On May 30 these celebra¬ 
tions were attended by an accident to a 
scaffolding, by which many people were 
killed. The manners of Marie Antoinette 
were ill suited to the French court, and she 
made many enemies among the highest fami¬ 
lies by her contempt for its ceremonies, 
which excited her ridicule. The freedom of 
her own manners, even after she became 
queen, was also a cause of scandal. She ap¬ 
pears at first to have enjoyed little of her 
husband’s confidence; she selected her own 
society apart, and not very judiciously; so 
that on the disgrace of Choiseul the anti- 
Austrian party were not without some 
grounds, as it is alleged from Louis’s papers, 
for anticipating a divorce. The accession 
of Louis XVI. (May 10,; 1774) did not at 
first make much change in the position or 
conduct of the queen. She had two favor¬ 
ites, the Princess de Lamballe and the 
Duchess of Polignac, who shared in the scan¬ 
dals attributed to her, and afterward in her 
unpopularity. About 1777 she began to ac¬ 
quire the confidence and love of the king, 
and to take an interest in public affairs, 
and the serious side of her character rap¬ 
idly developed. In 1778 she gave birth to a 
daughter, in 1781 to the first dauphin (died 
1789), in 1785 to the second dauphin, in 
1786 to another daughter, who died the fol¬ 
lowing year. Her interference in public af¬ 
fairs, almost necessitated by the king’s 
weakness of character, produced violent 
jealousies. It was in vain that she strove 
by private charity to remove the prejudices 
against her conduct. When the Revolution 
had begun its course she became the center 
of all reactionary influences. Her advice 
was followed so far as to prevent Louis from 
saving himself by implicit submission, but 
not far enough to give him any chance of 
saving himself by resolute resistance. On 



Antommarchi 


Antoninus Pius 


Oct. 5 and 6, 1789, after the celebrated sup¬ 
per to the guards, the mob assailed the 
palace with the express design of assassinat¬ 
ing the queen. Her courage in showing 
herself alone at the window when called for 
saved her. The assembly having ordered 
the royal family to be brought to Paris, 
they were conducted thither by the mob 
amid frightful insults, the heads of two 
guards killed in their defense being carried 
on poles beside the royal carriage. Treated 
as prisoners at the Tuileries the royal fam¬ 
ily could not take cordially to the Revolu¬ 
tion, and the queen’s relations with foreign 
courts and with the emigrants were the sub¬ 
ject of just suspicion to her keepers. The 
king used his constitutional veto against 
the law of the civil constitution of the 
clergy. This earned the queen, to whom 
every resolute action was attributed, the 
soubriquet of Madame Veto. After the 
abortive flight of June 20-21, 1792, the de¬ 
tails of which were organized by the queen, 
the royal family were kept under stricter 
surveillance. After swearing to the consti¬ 
tution of Sept. 14, 1791, the king was rein¬ 
stated in his functions. Marie Antoinette 
appears, notwithstanding, to have kept up 
an incessant correspondence with the powers 
in hostility with France, and the rapid 
course of events and the constraint to which 
all her actions were subjected may form 
some apology for any duplicity with which 
her conduct may be charged. On June 20, 
the Tuileries were invaded by the mob, and 
the queen subjected to new insults. On 
Aug. 10, the last day of royalty, she strenu¬ 
ously resisted the resolution of the king to 
take refuge in the assembly. The king and 
queen were now separated, and Louis was 
executed on Jan. 21, 1793. The dauphin, 
who afterward perished miserably in con¬ 
finement, was next separated from the 
queen, and on Aug. 2, 1793, Marie Antoi¬ 
nette was transferred to the Conciergerie to 
be brought before the Revolutionary tri¬ 
bunal. The act of accusation was completed 
on Oct. 14. She was condemned at 4 A. M. 
on Oct. 16, 1793, and at 11 a. m. was led 
from the Conciergerie to the place of execu¬ 
tion. The procession was circuitous, pass¬ 
ing through the most populous parts of the 
town and lasting several hours. She died 
with the firmness that became her character. 

Antommarchi, Carlo Francesco 

(-mar'ke), an Italian physician, born in 
Corsica in 1780; was Professor of Anatomy 
at Florence when he offered himself as phy¬ 
sician of Napoleon at St. Helena. Napoleon 
at first received him with reserve, but soon 
admitted him to his confidence, and testi¬ 
fied his satisfaction with him by leaving 
him a legacy of 100,000 francs. On his re¬ 
turn to Europe he published the “ Derniers 
Moments de Napoleon” (2 vols., 1823). 
He died in 1838. 


Antonelli, Giacomo, Cardinal, born 

1806; was educated at the Grand Seminary 
of Rome, where he attracted the attention of 
Pope Gregory XVI., who appointed him to 
several important offices. On the accession 
of Pius IX., in 1846, Antonelli was raised 
to the dignity of cardinal-deacon; two years 
later he became president and minister of 
foreign affairs, and, in 1850, was appointed 
Secretary of State. During the sitting of 
the CEcumenical Council (1869-1870) he 
was a prominent champion of the papal in¬ 
terest. He strongly opposed the assumption 
of the united Italian crown by Victor Em¬ 
manuel. He died in 1876. 

Antonello (of Messina), an Italian 
painter who died in the end of the 16th cen¬ 
tury, and is said to have introduced oil 
painting into Italy (at Venice), having been 
instructed in it by John Van Eyck. 

Antoninus (an-to-nl'niis), Wall of, a bar¬ 
rier erected by the Romans across the isth¬ 
mus between the Forth and the Clyde, in 
the reign of Antoninus Pius. Its western 
extremity was at or near Dunglass Castle, 
its eastern at Carridon, and the whole 
length of it exceeded 27 miles. It was con¬ 
structed a. d. 140 by Lollius Urbicus. the 
imperial legate, and consisted of a ditch 40 
feet wide and 20 feet deep, and a rampart 
of stone and earth on the S. side 24 feet 
thick and 20 feet in height. It was 
strengthened at each end and along its 
course by a series of forts and watch towers. 
It may still be traced at various points, and 
is commonly known as Graham’s Dyke. 

Antoninus Pius (Titus Aurelius Ful- 
vus), of a family originally from Nemausus 
(now Ntmes), in Gaul; was born in La- 
vinium, in the neighborhood of Rome, a. d. 
86. His father, Aurelius Fulvus, had en¬ 
joyed the consulship, and, A. d. 120, he suc¬ 
ceeded to the same dignity. He was one of 
the four persons of consular rank among 
whom Hadrian divided the supreme admin¬ 
istration of Italy. He then went as pro- 
consul to Asia, and after his return to Rome 
became more and more the object of Ha¬ 
drian’s confidence. He had four children. 
They all died but Faustina, who afterward 
became the wife of Marcus Aurelius. In 
a. d. 138 he was adopted by Hadrian, for 
which reason he in his turn adopted L. 
Verus and M. Annius Verus (Marcus Aure¬ 
lius). The same year he ascended the 
throne, and under him the empire enjoyed 
tranquillity and happiness. Temperate and 
simple in his private life, ever ready to 
assist the necessitous, an admirer of virtue 
and wisdom, he was truly the father of his 
people. His wise frugality enabled him to 
diminish the taxes. The persecutions of the 
Christians he speedily abolished. He car¬ 
ried on but a few wars, namely, in Britain, 




Antonio 


Antonius 


where he extended the Roman dominion s 
and by raising a new wall put a stop to the 
desolating invasions of the Piets and Scots. 
The senate gave him the surname Pius, that 
is, remarkable for filial affection, because, 
to keep alive the memory of Hadrian, his 
second father, he had built a temple in 
honor of him. Conflagrations, floods, and 
earthquakes spread desolation in many 
places during his reign, but his generosity 
did much to mitigate the consequences of 
these unhappy events. He died a. d. 161. 
His remains were deposited in the tomb of 
Hadrian. His adopted sons built a pillar 
to his memory, the fragments of which were 
found at Rome in 1705. The whole king¬ 
dom lamented him, and the following em¬ 
perors assumed him name as an honor to 
themselves. 

Antonio, Nicolao, a Spanish bibliogra¬ 
pher; born in Seville, Spain, in 1617. He 
was educated at Salamanca, returning to 
Seville where he devoted several years to 
his “ Bibliotheca Hispanica.” The first part 
of this great work was published in 1696 
by Cardinal d’Aguirre; a revised edition 
was issued in 1783-1788 by Bayer at Ma¬ 
drid. This work is regarded as an author¬ 
ity. He w r as also well-known as a critic. 
He died in Madrid, April 13, 1684. 

Antonius, Marcus (Mark Antony), 

Roman triumvir, born 83 b. c., ^vas con¬ 
nected with the family of Cfesar by his 
mother. Debauchery and prodigality marked 
his youth. To escape his creditors he went 
to Greece in 58, and from thence followed 
the Consul Gabinius on a campaign in Syria 
as commander of the cavalry. He served in 
Gaul under Cfesar in 52 and 51. In 50 he 
returned to Rome to support the interests 
of Cfesar against the aristocratical party 
headed bv Pompey, and was appointed tri¬ 
bune. When war broke out between Cfesar 
and Pompey, Antony led reinforcements to 
Cfesar in Greece, and, in the battle of Phar- 
salia he commanded the left wing. He af¬ 
terward returned to Borne with the appoint¬ 
ment of master of the horse and governor 
of Italy (47). In b. c. 44 he became Cfe- 
sar’s colleague in the consulship. Soon af¬ 
ter Cfesar was assassinated, and Antony 
would have shared the same fate had not 
Brutus stood up in his behalf. Antony, by 
the reading of Ccesar’s will, and by the ora¬ 
tion which he delivered over his body, ex¬ 
cited the people to anger and revenge, and 
the murderers were obliged to flee. After 
several quarrels and reconciliations with 
Octavianus, Cfesar’s heir (see Augustus), 
Antony departed to Cisalpine Gaul, which 
province had been conferred upon him 
against the will of the senate. But Cicero 
thundered against him in his famous Phi¬ 
lippics; the senate declared him a public 
enemy, and intrusted the conduct of the war 
against him to Octavianus and the consuls 


Hirtius and Pansa. After a campaign of 
varied fortunes Antony fled with his troops 
over the Alps. Here he was joined by Lepi- 
dus, who commanded in Gaul, and through 
whose mediation Antony and Octavianus 
were again reconciled. It was agreed that 
the Roman world should be divided among 
the three conspirators, who were called tri¬ 
umvirs. Antony was to take Gaul; Lepidus, 
Spain; and Octavianus, Africa and Sicily. 
They decided upon the proscription of their 
mutual enemies, each giving up his friends 
to the others, the most celebrated of the 
victims being Cicero the orator. Antony 
and Octavianus departed in 42 for Mace¬ 
donia, where the united forces of their ene¬ 
mies, Brutus and Cassius, formed a power¬ 
ful army, which was, however, speedily de¬ 
feated at Philippi. Antony next visited 
Athens, and thence proceeded to Asia. In 
Cilicia he ordered Cleopatra, Queen of 
Egypt, to apologize for her insolent behavior 
to the triumviri. She appeared in person, 
and her charms fettered him forever. He 
followed her to Alexandria, wfliere he be¬ 
stowed not even a thought upon the affairs 
of the world, till he was aroused by a report 
that hostilities had commenced in Italy be¬ 
tween his own relatives and Octavianus. A 
short war followed, which was decided in 
favor of Octavianus before the arrival of 
Antony in Italy. A reconciliation was ef¬ 
fected, which was sealed by the marriage 
of Antony with Octavia, the sister of Octa¬ 
vianus. A new division of the Roman do¬ 
minions was now made (in 40), by which 
Antony obtained the East, Octavianus the 
West. After his 
return to Asia 
Antony gave him¬ 
self up entirely 
to Cleopatra, as¬ 
suming the style 
of an Eastern des¬ 
pot, and so alien¬ 
ating many of his 
adherents and em¬ 
bittering public 
opinion against 
him at Rome. At 
length war was de¬ 
clared against the 
Queen of Egypt, 
and Antony was 
deprived of his 
consulship and 
government. Each party assembled its forces, 
and Antony lost, in the naval battle at Ac- 
tium (b. c. 31), the dominion of the world. 
He followed Cleopatra to Alexandria, and, on 
the arrival of Octavianus his fleet and cav¬ 
alry deserted, and his infantry was defeated. 
Plutarch says that Antony commanded his 
slave Eros to slay him, but the slave killed 
himself instead. Moved by this exhibition 
of heroic affection and deceived by a false 



MARC ANTONY. 









Antony of Padua 


Antwerp 


report which Cleopatra had disseminated of 
her death, he fell upon his own sword (b. 
c. 30). On being told that Cleopatra was still 
alive, he caused himself to be carried into her 
presence, that he might die in her arms. 

Antony of Padua, St., was born at 
Lisbon, Aug. 15, 1105, and, on his father’s 
side, was related to Godfrey of Bouillon. 
He was at first an Augustinian monk; but 
in 1220 he entered the Franciscan order, and 
became one of its most active propagators. 
He preached in the S. of France and 


Upper Italy, and died at Padua, June 13, 
1231. He was canonized by Gregory IX. in 
the following year. He himself practiced 
the most severe asceticism, and opposed vig¬ 
orously the movement for mitigating the 
severity of the Franciscan rule led by Elias 
cf Cortona. According to legend, he 
preached to the fishes when men refused to 
hear him; hence he is the patron of the 
lower animals, and is often represented as 
accompanied by a pig. His monument, a 


fine work of statutary, is in the church 
which bears his name at Padua. 

Antraigues, Emanuel Delaunay, Comte 

d’ (an-trag'), a French politician, born 
at Villeneuve de Berg, in the Department 
of Ardeche, in 1755. His talents were 
first displayed in his “ Memoirs sur les 
Etats-generaux ” (1788). This book, full 
of daring assertions of liberty, was one of 
the first sparks of the fire which afterward 
rose to such height in the French Revolu¬ 
tion. In 1789, when Antraigues was chosen 
as a deputy, he defended the 
privileges of the hereditary 
aristocracy, ranked himself 
with those who opposed the 
union of the three estates, 
and maintained that the 
royal veto was an indis¬ 
pensable part of good gov¬ 
ernment. After leaving the 
Assembly in 1790, he was 
employed in diplomacy at 
St. Petersburg and Vienna, 
where he defended the cause 
of the Bourbons. In 1803 
he was employed under Alex¬ 
ander of Russia in an em¬ 
bassy to Dresden, where he 
wrote against Bonaparte a 
brochure, entitled “ Frag¬ 
ment du XVIII. Livre de 
Polybe, trouve sur le Mont 
Athos.” He afterward came 
to England, and acquired 
great' influence with Can¬ 
ning. On July 22, 1812, he 
was murdered, with his 
wife, at his residence near 
London, by an Italian ser¬ 
vant. 

Ant Thrush, a name given 
to certain passerine or perch¬ 
ing birds having resem¬ 
blances to the thrushes and 
supposed to feed largely on 
ants. They all have longish 
legs and a short tail. The 
ant thrushes of the Old 
World belong to the genus 
pitta. They inhabit South¬ 
ern and Southeastern Asia 
and the Eastern Archipelago, 
and are birds of brilliant 
plumage. The New World 
ant-thrushes belong to South America, 
and live among close foliage and bushes. 
Some of them are called ant-shrikes 
and ant-wrens. They belong to several 
genera. 

Antwerp, the chief port of Belgium, and 
the capital of a province of the same name, 
on the Scheldt, about 50 miles from the open 
sea. It is strongly fortified, being com¬ 
pletely surrounded on the land side by a 
semicircular inner line of fortifications, the 



CATHEDRAL OF ANTWERPo 




























Antwerp 


Anus 


defenses being completed by an outer line 
of forts and outworks. The cathedral, with 
a spire 400 feet high, one of the largest and 
most beautiful specimens of Gothic archi¬ 
tecture in Belgium, contains Rubens’ cele¬ 
brated masterpieces, the “ Descent from the 


Cross,” the “ Elevation of the Cross,” and 
“ The Assumption.” The other churches of 
note are St. James’, St. Andrew’s, and 
St. Paul’s, all enriched with paintings by 
Rubens, Vandyke, and other masters. 
Among the other edifices of note are the ex¬ 
change, the town hall, the palace, theater, 
academy of the fine arts, picture and sculp¬ 
ture galleries, etc. The harbor accommoda¬ 
tion is extensive and excellent, new docks 
and quays having been completed in 1877 at 
a cost of of $20,000,000. The shipping trade 
has greatly advanced in recent times, and 
is now very large, the goods being largely 
in transit. There are numerous and varied 
industries. Antwerp is mentioned as early 
as the 8th century, and in the 11th and 12th 
it had attained a high degree of prosperity. 
In the 16th century it is said to have had 
a population of 200,000. The wars between 


the Netherlands and Spain greatly injured 
its commerce, which was almost ruined by 
the closing of the navigation of the Scheldt 
in accordance with the Peace of Westphalia 
(1648). It is only in the 19th century that 
its prosperity has revived. A Universal Ex¬ 
position was held here 
between May 5 and Oct. 
2, 1894, to which the 
United States, Great 
Britain, France, Ger¬ 
many, India, and the 
Kongo Free State sent 
exhibits. Pop. (1909), 
314,135. The province 
consists of a fertile plain 
1,093 square miles in 
area; pop. (1901), 819,- 
159. 

Anubis (an-o-bis), one 
of the deities of the an¬ 
cient Egyptians, the son 
of Osiris by Isis. The 
Egyptian sculptures rep¬ 
resent him with the 
head, or under the form, 
of a jackel, with long, 
pointed ears. His office 
was to conduct the souls 
of the dead from this 
world to the next, and 
in the lower world he 
weighed the actions of 
the deceased previous to 
their admission to the 
presence of Osiris. 

Anura, or Anoura, an 

order of batrachians 
which lose the tail when 
they reach maturity, 
such as the frogs and 
toads. 

Anus, the opening 
at the lower or posterior 
extremity of the alimen¬ 
tary canal through which 
the excrement or waste products of diges¬ 
tion are expelled. With regard to its an¬ 
atomy, it is sufficient to state that it is 
kept firmly closed on ordinary occasions by 
the external and internal sphincter muscles, 
the former of which contracts the integu¬ 
ment around the opening, and, by its at¬ 
tachment to the coccyx behind, and to a ten¬ 
dinous center in front, helps the levator 
ani muscle in supporting the aperture dur¬ 
ing the expulsive efforts that are made in 
the passage of the faeces or intestinal evac¬ 
uations ; while the latter, or internal sphinc¬ 
ter, is an aggregation of the circular mus¬ 
cular fibers of the lowest part of the rec¬ 
tum. and acts in contracting the extremity 
of the tube. The integument around the 

o 

anus lies in radiating plaits, which allow 
of its stretching without pain during the 
passage of the faeces; and the margin is 



STREET ARCHITECTURE IN ANTWERP. 





































Anvil 


Aoudad 


provided with a number of sebaceous glands, 
which, in some of the lower animals, secrete 
strongly odorous matters. 

Infants are occasionally born with an 
imperforate anus, or congenital closure of 
the rectum. In the simplest and most com¬ 
mon form of this affection, the anus is 
merely closed by thin skin, which soon be¬ 
comes distended with the meconium and 
can easily be divided. Spasm of the sphinc¬ 
ter ani is characterized by violent pain of 
the anus, with difficulty in passing the 
faeces. Ulceration occurring as a breach 
of surface at one or more points around the 
anus, but not extending within the orifice, 
is sometimes met with; but more common 
and important is fissure of the anus, a 
term applied to a crack, or superficial ulcer¬ 
ation, between the folds of the skin and 
mucous membrane at the verge of the anus, 
and extending within the rectum. Pruritus 
ani, which simply means intense itching 
and irritation of this part, is usually a 
symptom of morbid changes rather than a 
special disorder; but sometimes occurs 
alone, and is often a very distressing and 
obstinate affection. The other principal 
affections of the anus are fistula, piles, and 
prolapsus. 

Anvil, an instrument on which pieces of 
metal are laid for the purpose of being ham¬ 
mered. The common smith’s anvil is gener¬ 
ally made of seven pieces, namely, the core 
or body; the four corners for the purpose of 
enlarging its base; the projecting end 
which contains a square hole for the recep¬ 
tion of a set or chisel to cut off pieces of 
iron; and the beak or conical end, used for 
turning pieces of iron into a circular 
form. Those pieces are each separately 
welded to the core and hammered so as to 
form a regular surface with the whole. 
When the anvil has received its due form, 
it is faced with steel, and is then tempered 
in cold water. The smith’s anvil is gener¬ 
ally placed loose upon a wooden block. The 
anvil for heavy operations, such as the forg¬ 
ing of ordnance and shafting, consists of a 
huge iron block deeply embedded, and rest¬ 
ing on piles of masonry. 

Anville, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d’ 
(an-veT), a French geographer and map 
maker, born in Paris July 11, 1697; de¬ 
voted himself to mathematical and geo¬ 
graphical studies with such zeal and success 
that in 1719 he was appointed geographer 
to the king. He published in all 211 maps; 
the most notable collections were the “ Atlas 
General e ” (1737-1780), and the “ Atlas An- 
tiquus Major,” with its accompanying three 
volumes of “ Geographie Ancienne ” (1769). 
He died Jan. 28, 1782. 

Anwari, a Persian poet who flourished 
during the 12th century, was born in 
Khorassan, and became a favorite of the 


Seljukide Sultan, Sanjar. His poems con¬ 
sist chiefly of lengthy panegyrics and 
shorter lyrical effusions. The latter (ghaz- 
els) are characterized by simplicity, ease, 
and naturalness; but the kasidas, long 
poems mainly in praise of his patron, are 
disfigured by extravagant imagery and his¬ 
torical conceits. They abound in keen sar¬ 
casm against others. Anwari, who was also 
one of the most notable astrologers of his 
time, died between 1191 and 1196. 

Aonia (a-6'ne-a), in ancient geography a 
name for part of Boeotia in Greece, contain¬ 
ing Mount Helicon and the fountain Aga¬ 
nippe, both haunts of the muses. 

Aorist, the name given to one of the 
tenses of the verb in some languages (as the 
Greek) which expresses indefinite past 
time. 

Aorta, the largest artery in the human 
body, and the main trunk of the arterial 
system itself. It takes its departure from 
the upper part of the left ventricle of the 
heart, whence it runs upward and to the 
right, at that part of its progress being 
called the ascending aorta; then it turns to 
the left, passes the spinal column, and bend¬ 
ing downward forms the arch of the aorta. 
Continuing its course along to the left of the 
spine, it is called the descending aorta. 
Passing through the aperture in the dia¬ 
phragm into the abdomen, it becomes the 
abdominal aorta. Finally, it bifurcates 
about the fourth pair of lumbar vertebrae, 
and forms the two primitive iliac arteries. 
Upward from the heart the ramifications 
are numerous and exceedingly important. 
The aorta has three valves called the sig¬ 
moid or semi-lunar valves, to prevent the 
reflux of the blood into the heart. 

Aosta (a-os'ta), a cathedral city of Italy, 
on the Dora Baltea, 19 miles from the open¬ 
ing of the great St. Bernard Pass, and 80 
miles N. N. W. of Turin by rail. It is sur¬ 
rounded by rich orchards, vineyards, and 
almond plantations, but the town itself is 
gloomy and irregular. It is the ancient 
Augusta Pretoria; and several monuments 
of the Roman times still remain. St. Ber¬ 
nard was Archdeacon of Aosta; and here 
Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, was 
born. Near by are the celebrated baths and 
mines of St. Didier, and the scenery in the 
neighborhood is remarkably picturesque. 
The beautiful valley of Aosta, between the 
Graian and Pennine Alps, is rich in woods, 
pastures, and minerals, and mineral wells 
(including Courmayeur). Cretinism pre¬ 
vails to a lamentable extent, and few per¬ 
sons are altogether free from goitre. French 
is the language generally spoken. 

Aoudad, the ammotrogus tragclaphus, a 
remarkable species of sheep, with certain 
affinities to the goats. It is of a reddish- 



Apaches 


Ape 


brown color, with much long hair hanging 
down from the front of the neck and the 
base of the forelegs. It has long, powerful 
horns, and is fierce in character. It inhabits 
mountainous regions in Abyssinia and Bar¬ 
bary. 

Apaches (ap-a'chez), a tribe of North 
American Indians, formerly very fierce and 
numerous, living in portions of Texas, New 
Mexico, and Arizona, and belonging to the 
Athabascan family. They were long the 
scourge of the frontiers, and resisted obsti¬ 
nately every attempt to civilize them. Long 
after the annexation of their territory by 
the United States they continued their raids 
in spite of severe defeats. An attempt made 
by the United States Government to confine 
the Apaches within a reserved territory in 
Arizona led to bloodshed in 1871. The num¬ 
bers of the Apaches proper within the 
United States may be put at nearly 7,000. 

Apartment House, a structure built to 
accommodate a number of families each in 
its own set of rooms, which form a separate 
dwelling with an entrance of its own. The 
term is chiefly used in the United States, 
where such dwellings are of comparatively 
recent introduction; but houses of this kind 



AMERICAN APARTMENT HOUSE. 


have long been built in Europe. In New 
York and other American cities there are 
now great blocks of such houses, which pro¬ 
vide excellent and commodious dwellings at 
a lower rent than if each were a separate 
building. 

Apatite, a translucent but seldom trans¬ 
parent mineral, which crystallizes in a regu¬ 


lar six-sided prism, usually terminated by 
a truncated six-sided pyramid. It passes 
through various shades of color, from white 
to yellow, green, blue, and occasionally red, 
scratches fluor-spar but is scratched by feld¬ 
spar, and has a sp. gr. of about 3.5. It is 
a compound of phosphate of lime with 
fluoride and chloride of calcium. It occurs 
principally in primitive rocks and in veins, 
extensive deposits being found in all parts 
of the world. It is now largely utilized as 
a source of artificial phosphate manures. 

Ape, a common name of a number of quad- 
rumanous animals inhabiting the Old World 
(Asia and the Asiatic islands, and Africa), 
and including a variety of species. The 
word ape was formerly applied indiscrimi¬ 
nately to all quadrumanous mammals; but 
it is now limited to the anthropoid or man¬ 
like monkeys. The family includes the 
chimpanzee, gorilla, orang-outang, etc., and 
lias been divided into three genera, troglo¬ 
dytes, simia, and hylobates. 

Anthropoid Apes. —- The highest and most 
man-like monkeys, including gorilla, chim¬ 
panzee, orang-outang, gibbon, and several 
other species. They are technically de¬ 
scribed by the Linnsean title antliropomor- 
pha, and readily distinguished, as tailless, 
semi-erect, and long-armed, from the dog¬ 
like apes (cynomorpha) , which have also a 
narrow partition between the nostrils 
(catarrhini) , and also inhabit the Old 
World. With the decidedly lower, flat¬ 
nosed New World monkeys, or platyrrhini, 
there is no possibility of confusion. The 
anthropoid apes are all arboreal, and in¬ 
habit Africa, Southeastern Asia, and the 
Malay Archipelago. In all, about a dozen 
species have been described with more or 
less definiteness. The family is of special 
interest and importance in connection with 
the views held by evolutionists as to the de¬ 
scent of man. It is recognized by anato¬ 
mists that all the attempts to establish a 
fundamental distinction, on anatomical 
grounds, between the physical structure of 
the higher apes and that of man are futile. 
Generic differences, indeed, there are in 
abundance, but these establish only a differ¬ 
ence of degree, and not of kind. Thus, in 
man, the great toe is not opposable to the 
others for grasping purposes, the angle be¬ 
tween the face and the top of the skull does 
not exceed 120°, the teeth form an uninter¬ 
rupted series, and so on; while the strong 
spines on the back of the gorilla’s neck, the 
very marked eye-brow ridges in gorilla and 
chimpanzee, the especially long arms of the 
gibbon, and the protruding jaws of all the 
anthropoids, are equally characteristic adap¬ 
tations to different ways of life. Even in 
the minutiae of blood vessels, muscles, 
nerves, and brain convolutions, impartial 
observers have demonstrated the closest re¬ 
semblance. The differences of structure be- 


































Apega 


Aperture 


tween the lowest monkeys and the higher 
are far greater than those between man and 
any anthropoid ape, the resemblances being 
especially obvious when young forms are 
compared. In their expressions of cerebral 
activity, whether intellectual or emotional, 
the anthropoids come in some respects very 
near the lower human tribes. 

On the other hand, while it is impossible 
to establish any fundamental distinction in 
physical structure between homo and the 
the anthropomorpha, there is among evo¬ 
lutionists an equal consensus of opinion as 
to the impossibility of regarding an ape of 
any existing anthropoid species as in the 
direct line of human ancestry. As regards 
brain structure, the most man-like ape is 
the orang, while the chimpanzee has the 
most closely related skull, the gorilla the 
most human feet and hands, the gibbon the 
most similar chest. In 1895 Dr. Eugene 
Dubois took to Europe the fossil remains 
of a man like ape, found in Java, which 
Professor Hseckel pronounced to be the 
“ missing link ” between man and the ape. 
The subject of the “ missing link ” was dis¬ 
cussed at the congress of anthropologists 
in Paris, in 1900, but no conclusions were 
reached. 

Apega (ap-a'ga), the wife of Nabis, tyrant 
of Sparta, who invented an infernal machine 
which he called after his wife, “ Apega.” 
It was a box exactly resembling his wife in 
her royal apparel, but inside it was full 
of spikes which wounded the victim in¬ 
closed in almost every part of the body. 
The “ Iron Virgin ” was a similar instru¬ 
ment of torture employed by the Inquisition. 
It represented a woman of Bavaria, and the 
spikes were so arranged as to pierce the 
least vital parts in order to prolong the suf¬ 
ferings of the victim inclosed. 

Apelles (a-pel'ez), the most famous of 
the painters of ancient Greece and of an¬ 
tiquity, was born in the 4th century b. c., 
probablv at Colophon. Ephorus of Ephesus 
was his first teacher, but, attracted by the 
renown of the Sicyonian school, he went and 
studied at Sicvon. In the time of Philip he 
went to Macedonia, and there a close friend¬ 
ship between him and Alexander the Great 
was established. The most admired of his 
pictures was that of Venus rising from the 
sea and wringing the water from her drip¬ 
ping locks. His portrait of Alexander with 
a thunderbolt in his hand was no less cele¬ 
brated. His renown was at its height about 
B. c. 330, and he died about the end of the 
century. 

Apennines (ap'en-ins), a prolongation 
of the Alps, forming the “ backbone ^ of 
Italy.” Beginning at Savona, on the Gulf 
of Genoa, the Apennines traverse the whole 
of the peninsula and also cross over into 
Sicily, the Strait of Messina being regarded 
merely as a gap in the chain. The average 

22 


height of the mountains composing the 
range is about 4,000 feet, and nowhere do 
they reach the limits of perpetual snow, 
though some summits exceed 9,000 feet in 
height. Monte Corno, called also Gran 
Sasso d’ltalia (Great Rock of Italy), which 
rises among the mountains of the Abruzzi, 
is the loftiest of the chain, rising to the 
height of 9,541 feet, Monte Majella (9,151) 
being next. Monte Gargano, which juts out 
into the Adriatic from the ankle of Italy, 
is a mountainous mass upward of 5,000 
feet high, completely separated from the 
main chain. On the Adriatic side the moun¬ 
tains descend more abruptly to the sea than 
on the W. or Mediterranean side, and the 
streams are comparatively short and rapid. 
On the W. side are the valleys of the Arno, 
Tiber, Garigliano, and Volturno, the largest 
rivers that rise in the Apennines, and the 
only ones of importance in the peninsular 
portion of Italy. They consist almost en¬ 
tirely of limestone rocks, and are exceedingly 
rich in the finest marbles. On the S. slopes 
volcanic masses are not uncommon. Mount 
Vesuvius, the only active volcano on the 
continent of Europe, is an instance. The 
lower slopes are well clothed with vegeta¬ 
tion, the summits are sterile and bare. 

Apepi (ap-a'pe), in heathen mythology, 
the Great Serpent or Typhon, the embodi¬ 
ment of evil. 

Aperient, a medicine which, in moderate 
doses, gently but completely opens the 
bowels; examples, castor-oil, Epsom salts, 
senna, etc. 

Aperture, in anatomy, zoology, botany, 
etc.: (a) The aperture of a univalve shell 
is the opening or mouth. In mollusks 
which feed on vegetable matter it is entire; 
while in those which are animal feeders it 
has a notch or canal. In some families it 
has an operculum or cover. The margin of 
the aperture is called the peristome, (b) 
Any other opening. 

In optics, the diameter of the object-glass 
of a refracting telescope, or the speculum 
or mirror of a reflector. The larger the 
aperture ( i. c., the area of the surface 
through which the light is transmitted, or 
from which it is reflected), the greater is 
the power of the telescope to penetrate into 
space and consequently bear higher magni¬ 
fying powers. The apertures of Sir W. Her- 
schel’s celebrated reflecting telescopes were 
7, 12, 18, and 48 inches; while those of the 
Earl of Rosse are 3 and 6 feet. Very pow¬ 
erful refracting telescopes with large aper¬ 
tures have been recently constructed, the 
great refractor at the United States Ob¬ 
servatory at Washington being 26 inches. 
Within the last few years silvered-glass 
parabolic mirrors of the Newtonian form 
have been constructed with large apertures 
and short focal length, thus rendering these 





Ape’s Hill 


Aphrodite 


instruments exceedingly convenient for use. 
Sir W. Herschel’s 18-inch metallic speculum, 
used for examining the nebulae and Milky 
Way, had a focal length of 20 feet; modern 
telescopes, with silvered-glass mirrors, have 
been constructed of the same aperture, but 
with a focal length of not more than seven 
feet. Thus a larger aperture is now a 
more valuable feature in a telescope than 
great focal length, the unwieldy tubes form¬ 
erly used being entirely dispensed with. 

“ ‘ Aperture 5 always means the clear 
space which receives the ligdit of the ob¬ 
ject; the diameter of the object-glass in 
achromatics, or the large speculum in re¬ 
flectors, exclusive of its setting. 5 ’ (Webb’s 
“Celestial Objects,” 3d ed., 1873, p. 1.) 

Angular aperture (in microscopes), the 
amount of light transmitted by the objective, 
and, consequently, the distinctness of the 
image afterward magnified by the lenses 
forming the eye piece. When an objective 
of the largest angular aperture"is employed, 
the more delicate markings of the object 
under examination, invisible when objectives 
of less angular aperture are used, are 
seen with great distinctness. 

Ape’s Hill ( Arabic, Jebel Zatut), the 
ancient Abyla, the extremity of a mountain 
range in the N. of Morocco, opposite Gibral¬ 
tar ; one of the “ Pillars of Hercules.” 

Aphaniptera (af-an-ip'ter-a), an order 
of wingless insects, called by De Geer suc- 
toria, and by Leach siphonaptera. They 
have a sucker of three pieces, and a true 
metamorphosis. The thorax is distinctly 
separated from the abdomen, and two horny 
plates mark the spots where in the higher 
insects wings would be. It contains the 
pulicidce, or fleas. 

Aphasia, in pathology, a symptom of cer¬ 
tain morbid conditions of the nervous sys¬ 
tem, in which the patient loses the power of 
expressing ideas by means of words, or loses 
the appropriate use of words, the vocal or¬ 
gans the while remaining intact and the 
intelligence sound. There is sometimes an 
entire loss of words as connected with ideas, 
and sometimes only the loss of a few. In 
one form of the disease, called aphemia, the 
patient can think and write, but cannot 
speak; in another, called agraphia, he can 
think and speak, but cannot express his 
ideas in writing. In a great majority of 
cases, where post mortem examinations have 
been made, morbid changes have been found 
in the left frontal convolution of the brain. 

Aphelion, that part of the orbit of the 
earth or any other planet in which it is 
at the point remotest from the sun. 

Aphis (a'fis), a genus of insects, the 
typical one of the family aphidce. It con¬ 
tains those soft pulpy little animals, winged 
or wingless, and with long antennae, which 
are seen beneath the leaves, or in curled-up 


leaves, or in the axils of many plants, or 
even on the roots of some. Sometimes, as in 
the case of the elm, their destructive 
operations upon a leaf raise a gall of con¬ 
siderable size. The species are very numer¬ 
ous, and are generally called after the plants 
on which they feed, as A. rosce, the aphis of 
the rose; A. fabce, the bean aphis; A. bras- 
sicce, the cabbage fly; A. humuli, the hop 
fly. They are exceedingly prolific, but are 
kept within bounds by various insects, es¬ 
pecially by the coccinellidce, or lady birds, 
of which they are the appropriate food. 
They drop a fluid called honey-dew, which 
is so grateful to the ants that the latter, 
to receive it, tend them like milch cows. 
The mode of propagating their race is the 
abnormal one described as alternation of 
generations, metagenesis, and partheno¬ 
genesis. The winged aphides, confessedly 
perfect insects, bring forth a wingless race, 
apparently mere larvae, and which, there¬ 
fore, it might be thought, would be incapa¬ 
ble, while thus immature, of bringing forth 
young. In certain cases they do it, how¬ 
ever, and their offspring are winged, and as 
perfect as their grandparents. This alter¬ 
nation of generations, or metagenesis, with 
its attendant partheno-genesis (or birth 
from virgins) in every second generation, 
goes on for nine or ten generations, by which 
time the season is over. The last aphides 
of the year are fully formed and winged, 
and deposit eggs, which are hatched in 
spring. 

Aphonia, in pathology, the greater or less 
impairment, or the complete loss of the 
power of emitting vocal sound. The slight¬ 
est and less permanent forms often arise 
from extreme nervousness, fright, and 
hysteria. Slight forms of structural 
aphonia are of a catarrhal nature, resulting 
from more or less congestion and tumefac¬ 
tion of the mucous and sub-mucous tissues 
of the larynx and adjoining parts. Se¬ 
verer cases are frequently occasioned by 
serous infiltration into the sub-mucous tis¬ 
sue, with or without inflammation of the 
mucous membrane of the larynx and of its 
vicinity. The voice may also be affected in 
different degrees by inflammatory affections 
of the fauces and tonsils; by tumors in 
these situations; by morbid growths press¬ 
ing on or implicating the larynx or trachea; 
by aneurisms; and most frequently by 
chronic laryngitis and its consequences, 
especially thickening, ulceration, etc. 

Aphrodite (af-ro-di'te), one of the chief 
divinities of the Greeks, the goddess of love 
and beauty, so called because she was 
sprung from the foam ( aphros ) of the sea. 
She was the wife of Hephaestus, but she 
loved besides, among gods, Ares and Dion¬ 
ysus, and among mortals, Anchises and 
Adonis. The chief places of her worship in 
Greece were Cyprus and Cythera. Aphrodite 




Aphtha 


Apiary and Apiculture 


not only surpassed all other goddesses in 
beauty, but she had the power of granting 
irresistible beauty and attractiveness to 
others, especially to wearers of her magic 
girdle. The sparrow, the dove, and the 
swan were sacred to her, as also the myrtle, 
the rose, and the poppy. In the later poets, 
Eros is her son and her constant companion. 
Only such sacrifices as flowers and incense 
were made to Aphrodite. In earlier times 
the patroness of marriage and maternity, 
she became later the ideal of graceful wo¬ 
manhood, and was spiritualized by Plato 
as Aphrodite Urania. By others she was 
degraded in Aphrodite Pandemos to be the 
patroness of mere sensual love. Mysteries 
of an impure kind formed part of the cere¬ 
monial of the aphrodisia, or festivals held 
in her honor. The worship of Aphrodite 
was undoubtedly of Eastern origin, and she 
was originally a symbol of the fructifying 
powers of nature. Her cult was introduced 
by the Phoenicians into Cyprus, and soon 
spread over all Greece. She was originally 
identical with Astarte, the Ashtoretli of the 
Hebrews. By the Homans she was identi¬ 
fied with Venus, hitherto one of the least 
important Roman divinities (see Venus). 
Aphrodite has had the most important place 
in the history of art as the Greek ideal of 
feminine grace and beauty. Her most fa¬ 
mous statue in antiquity was that of Praxit¬ 
eles at Cnidus; her most famous picture, 
the Aphrodite Anadyomene of Apelles. The 
finest statues of the goddess that still exist 
are those of Melos (Milo) at Paris, of Capua 
at Naples, and of the Medici at Florence. 

Aphtha (plural Aphthae), one of the nu¬ 
merous white looking specks or vesicles 
which sometimes appear on the tongue and 
palate, whence they gradually diffuse them¬ 
selves over the mouth and fauces. There 
are three varieties: (1) The aphtha in¬ 
fantum, or milk-thrush ; (2) the A. maligna; 
and (3) the A. chronica. The first variety 
is an idiopathic disorder, chiefly attacking 
infants brought up by hand ; the second and 
third are symptomatic of other diseases. 
The aphthae which frequently appear in the 
mouth in advanced stages of consumption 
generally precede dissolution by about a 
week or a fortnight. The term aphtha 
anginosa is sometimes applied to a variety 
of sore throat. 

Apia (a'pe-a), the principal town and 
commercial emporium of the Samoan Isl¬ 
ands in the South Pacific Ocean; on the N, 
coast of the island of Upolu, about midway 
between the E. and W. extremities of the 
island. It has a small harbor, which is 
usually a safe one. In March, 1889, a hur¬ 
ricane swept the harbor; wrecked the 
United States war vessels “ Trenton ” (flag¬ 
ship) and “ Vandalia,” and the German 
men-of-war, “ Eber,” “ Adler,” and “ Olga ; ” 
and drove the United States steamer ‘ Nip- 


sic ” ashore, greatly injured. The British 
ship “ Calliope ” was the only man-of-war in 
the harbor that succeeded in escaping to sea. 
The town and its vicinity were again 
brought to public attention in the early 
part of 1899 by a series of fatal riots and 
other illegal proceedings, growing out of the 
struggle of Mataafa and Malietoa Tanus 
for the kingship. Several American and 
British naval officers were killed or 
wounded, April 1, while trying to subdue 
the native mob. See Samoa. 

Apiary and Apiculture. In the article 

Bee we give a short sketch of the natural 
history of the honey or hive bee (Apis melli- 
fica) ; here we intend to treat briefly of the 
management of bees, the position and ar¬ 
rangement of the apiary, etc. One of the 
first things which demand the consideration 
of the bee-keeper is the situation of the 
apiary. It should be well sheltered from 
strong winds, either naturally or by the 
erection of walls or fences; as, if not suffi¬ 
ciently protected, the bees will not readily 
leave the hive, or when returning heavily 
laden with pollen and honey they are blown 
to the ground, or dashed against trees, build¬ 
ings, etc., and thus many are lost. It 
should also afford the bees shelter against 
moisture, sudden changes of temperature, 
and the extremes of heat and cold. It should 
not be situated near large sheets of water, 
lest the bees, overcome by cold or fatigue, 
should be forced to alight on them, or be 
carried down on them by the winds, and so 
perish. The hives should face the S. or 
S. E. They should be placed in a straight 
line, on shelves two feet above the ground, 
and about the same distance from each 
other; some skillful apiarians, however, 
raise the platform of the hive only two or 
three inches from the ground, as fewer of 
the chilled or tired bees that miss the hive 
in returning and alight near it are lost, the 
flight of the issuing swarms is lower, and 
there is less exposure to strong winds. The 
apiary should be so situated that it could 
be conveniently watched during swarming 
time; and should be at some distance from 
roads where there is much traffic, and from 
the grazing places of cattle, so as to prevent 
all possible means of disturbance and annoy¬ 
ance to its inhabitants. If grass surrounds 
the hives it should be frequently mowed, 
and the ground kept clean, to prevent too 
much dampness, and to destroy the lurking 
places of noxious insects and vermin. As 
to the form of the hives, and the materials 
of which they should be constructed, there 
are great differences of opinion among apia¬ 
rians. The old dome-shaped straw skep is 
still in general use among the cottagers of 
Great Britain, although almost entirely 
abandoned by those who practise bee-keep¬ 
ing systematically. Its cheapness and sim¬ 
plicity of construction are in its favor, while 
it is excellent for warmth and ventilation; 




Apocalypse 


Apocrypha 


but it has the disadvantage that its interior 
is closed to inspection, and the fixity of its 
combs prevents many manipulations which 
the skillful bee-keeper sees necessary to per¬ 
form. To remedy this latter defect these 
hives have been fitted with movable bars 
from which the bees build their combs, 
which still, however, adhere to the sides of 
the hive, and have to be cut away, much to 
the annoyance of the inmates. In the early 
autumn it is the custom of many of the bee¬ 
keepers of the Lowlands of Scotland to dis¬ 
patch their hives in spring carts of easy 
motion, or on hand barrows, to the blooming 
heather of the moors and mountains, where 
they are allowed to remain until the heather 
is out of bloom. The honey is obtained 
from the bar-frame hives by simply lifting 
out the frames; it can only be got from the 
ordinary skep by stupefying the bees with 
the smoke of the common puff-ball or chloro¬ 
form, or by fumigating the hive with sul¬ 
phur, which entails the destruction of the 
swarm. When their stores of honey are 
removed the bees must be fed during the 
winter and part of spring with syrup, or 
with a solution consisting of two pounds 
loaf sugar to a pint of water, and it must 
be borne in mind that to stint the bees in 
food is very bad economy. In the early 
spring slow and continuous feeding (a few 
ounces of syrup each day) will stimulate 
the queen to deposit her eggs, by which 
means the colony is rapidly strengthened, 
and throws off early swarms. New swarms 
may make their appearance as early as May 
and as late as August, but swarming usu¬ 
ally takes place in the intervening months. 
The swarms are usually hived, when they 
alight in any convenient spot, by placing 
above them a clean hive rubbed inside with 
honey or sugar and water, or if they alight 
on a branch that can be cut off they may be 
gently shaken into the hive. When they 
collect where they cannot be shaken off, or 
where the hive cannot be placed near, they 
may be brushed quickly into a gauze sack, 
and carried to the hive. 

Apocalypse (a-pok'a-lips), the name fre¬ 
quently given to the last book of the New 
Testament, in the English version called 
the Revelation of St. John the Divine. It 
is generally believed that the Apocalypse 
was written by the apostle John in his old 
age (95-97 a. d. ) in the Isle of Patmos, 
whither he had been banished by the Roman 
Emperor Domitian. Anciently its genuine¬ 
ness was maintained by Justin Martyr, 
Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, 
and many others; while it was doubted by 
Dionysius of Alexandria, Cyril of Jerusa¬ 
lem, Chrysostom, and, nearer our own times, 
by Luther and a majority of the eminent 
German commentators. The Apocalypse 
has been explained differently by almost 


every writer who has ventured to interpret 
it, and has furnished all sorts of sects and 
fanatics with quotations to support their 
creeds or pretensions. The modern inter¬ 
preters may be divided into three schools 
— namely, the historical school, who hold 
that the prophecy embraces the whole his¬ 
tory of the Church and its foes from the 
time of its writing to the end of the world; 
the prseterists, who hold that the whole or 
nearly the Avhole of the prophecy has been 
already fulfilled, and that it refers chiefly 
to the triumph of Christianity over pagan¬ 
ism and Judaism; and the futurists, who 
throw the whole prophecy, except the first 
three chapters, forward upon a time not 
yet reached by the Church — a period of no 
very long duration, which is immediately to 
precede Christ’s second coming. 

Apocalyptic Number, the mystic num¬ 
ber 666 found in Rev. xiii: 18. As early 
as the 2d century ecclesiastical writers 
found that the name Antichrist was in¬ 
dicated by the Greek characters expressive 
of this number. By Irenceus the word 
lateinos was found in the letters of the 
number, and the Roman empire was, there¬ 
fore, considered to be Antichrist. Protest¬ 
ants generally believe it has reference to 
the papacy, and, on the other hand, Catho¬ 
lics connect it with Protestantism. 

Apocalyptic Writings, writings such as, 
like the prophecies of Daniel, their proto¬ 
type, set forth in a figurative and pictorial 
manner the future progress and comple¬ 
tion of the world’s history, especially in its 
religious aspects. The two apocalyptic 
books received into the canon of Scripture 
are the books of Daniel and the Apocalypse 
especially so-called, the Revelation of St. 
John. But Jewish and early Christian liter¬ 
ature produced numerous apocalypses from 
about 170 b. c. to 130 a. d. Most of them 
were attributed to famous men of old by 
their authors. They deal largely with tho 
increasing troubles and trials of God's peo¬ 
ple, and their final redemption and salva¬ 
tion by God’s mighty works or Christ’s spe¬ 
cial appearance again. The Book of Enoch 
is the best known of the non-canonical Jew¬ 
ish apocalypses; it dates from the later 
Maccabee period; another is the apocalypse 
of Ezra. The “ Shepherd of Hernias ” is the 
most important Christian work of this 
kind. 

Apocrypha (a-pok'rif-a), in the early 
Christian Church, (1) books published 
anonymously; (2) those suitable for pri¬ 

vate rather than public reading; (3) those 
written by an apostle or other inspired au¬ 
thor, but not regarded as part of Scripture; 
(4) the works of heretics. 

In English now, the following 14 books: 
I, 1 Esdras; II, 2 Esdras; III, Tobit; 



Apocynace® 


Apollo 


IV, Judith; V, Additions to Esther; VI, 
The Wisdom of Solomon; VII, Ecclesiasti- 
cus, called also the Wisdom of Jesus, the 
son of Sirach; VIII, Baruch; IX, The Song 
of the Three Holy Children; X, The History 
of Susanna; XI, Bel and the Dragon; XII, 
The Prayer of Manasseh, King of Judah; 
XIII, 1 Maccabees; and XIV, 2 Maccabees. 
Most of the above-mentioned books were 
composed during the two centuries imme¬ 
diately preceding the birth of Christ, though 
some were penned, or at least interpolated, 
at a later period. They were written not in 
Hebrew or Aramaean, but in Greek; and the 
Jews never accorded them a place in the 
Okl Testament canon. They were inserted 
in the Septuagint, and thence passed to the 
Latin Vulgate. The Christian fathers were 
divided in sentiment as to their value and 
the relation they stood to the canonical Old 
Testament books; Jerome dealing with them 
in a free, enlightened, and discriminating 
manner; while Augustine and others were 
much less independent. The question 
whether or not they were inspired remained 
an open one till the Deformation. Wyclif, 
whose mind was cast in what we should now 
call a wonderfully Protestant mold, was 
against them; so was Luther; and yet more 
strongly, Calvin, with his followers. To 
uphold their waning authority, the Council 
of Trent, on April 8, 1546, placed them 
on an equal level with Scripture, anathe¬ 
matizing all who held the contrary opinion. 
Portions of them are in the New as well 
as in the Old Lectionary of the English 
Church; but the sixth of the 39 Articles 
explains that “the other books” (the 
14 enumerated), “as Hierome saith, the 
Church doth read for example of life and 
instruction of manners, but yet doth it not 
apply them to establish any doctrine.” The 
Westminster Confession of Faith, the formu¬ 
lated creed of the Presbyter ion Church, re¬ 
gards them as simply human writings, and 
denies them all authority. The several 
apocryphal books are of unequal merit. 
I Maccabees is a highly valuable history; 
while Bel and the Dragon is a monstrous 
fable. Taking them as a whole, they throw 
much light on the religious opinions and 
the poltical state of the Jews before the ad¬ 
vent of Christ, and explain not a little which 
else would be obscure in the New Testa¬ 
ment. The Greek Church prohibits their 
use. 

Apocynace® (ap-o-sin-as'o-i), an order 
of plants, the English dog-banes. Bindley 
places them under his gentianal alliance, 
and the asclepiadacecv, or asclepiads, under 
his solanal one, thus separating two orders 
which in nature are closely akin. Both 
have monopetalous corollas, with five sta¬ 
mens, the fruit in follicles, and the juice 
milky; but they differ in the details of the 
sexual apparatus. In 1846, Bindley esti¬ 


mated the known species of apocynacece at 
566, since increased to about 600. Of 100 
known genera only one, vinca, is found in 
England; the rest are to be found in warmer 
countries. 

Apoda, in zoology (1) Aristotle’s third 
section of zootoka, or air-breathing vivi- 
para. It included the whales, which the 
Stagirite, with remarkable scientific ac¬ 
curacy, ranked with the warm-blooded 
quadrupeds; (2) the second order of the 

class amphibia, or batrachia. The body is 
like that of an earthworm, and is quite des¬ 
titute of feet. The order contains but one 
family, the cccciliadce; (3) according to 
Prof. Max Muller, a group of fishes belong¬ 
ing to the sub-order physostomata. It is 
so called because the ventral fins are want¬ 
ing. It contains three families, the mu- 
rccnidce, or eels, the gymnotidce, and the 
symbranchidcp. 

Apodal Fishes, the name applied to such 
malacopterous fishes as want ventral fins. 
They constitute a small natural family, of 
which the common eel is an example. 

Apodosis, in grammar, the latter mem¬ 
ber of a conditional sentence (or one be¬ 
ginning with if, though) dependent on the 
condition or protasis; as, “If it rain (pro¬ 
tasis) I shall not go” (apodosis). 

Apogee, that point in the orbit of the 
moon or a planet where it is at its greatest 
distance from the earth; properly this par¬ 
ticular part of the moon’s orbit. 

Apollinarians, a sect of Christians who 
maintained the doctrine that the Logos (the 
Word) holds in Christ the place of the ra¬ 
tional soul, and consequently that God was 
united in him with the human body and 
the sensitive soul. Apollinaris, the author 
of this opinion, was, from A. d. 362 till at 
least A. d. 3S2, Bishop of Laodicea, in 
Syria, and a zealous opposer of the Aryans. 
As a man and a scholar he was highly es¬ 
teemed, and was among the most popular 
authors of his time. He formed a congrega¬ 
tion of his adherents at Antioch, and made 
Vitalis their bishop. The Apollinarians, or 
Vitalians, as their followers were called, soon 
spread their sentiments in Syria and the 
neighboring countries, established several 
societies, with their own bishops, and one 
even in Constantinople; but the sect was 
suppressed in 428 by imperial edict. 

Apollinaris Water, a natural aerated 
water, belonging to the class of acidulated 
soda waters, and derived from the Apolli- 
narisbrunnen, a spring in the valley of the 
A hr, near the Rhine, in Rhenish Prussia, 
forming a highly esteemed beverage. 

Apollo, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and 
T.eto (Latona), who being persecuted by the 
jealousy of Hera (Juno), after tedious wan¬ 
derings and nine days’ labor, was delivered 
of him and his twin sister, Artemis (Di- 



Apollo 


Apollonius of Tyre 


ana), on the Island of Delos. Skilled in 
the use of the bow, he slew the serpent 
Python on the fifth day after his birth; 
afterward, with his sister Artemis, he 
killed the children of Niobe. He aided Zeus 
in the war with the Titans and the giants. 
He destroyed the Cyclopes, because they 
forged the thunderbolts with which Zeus 
killed his son and favorite, Asklepios 
(Aesculapius). According to some tra¬ 
ditions he invented the lyre, though this is 
generally ascribed to Hermes (Mercury). 
Apollo was originally the sun-god; and 
though in Homer he appears distinct from 
Helios (the sun), yet his real nature is 
hinted at even here by the epithet Phoebus, 
that is, the radiant or beaming. In later 
times the view was almost universal that 
Apollo and Helios were identical. From 



being the god of light and purity in a physi¬ 
cal sense he gradually became the god of 
moral and spiritual light and purity, the 
source of all intellectual, social, and politi¬ 
cal progress. He thus came to be regarded 
as the god of song and prophecy, the god 
that wards off and heals bodily suffering 
and disease, the institutor and guardian of 
civil and political order, and the founder 
of cities. His worship was introduced at 
Rome at an early period, probably in the 
time of the Tarquins. Among the ancient 
statues of Apollo that have come down to 
us, the most remarkable is the one called 
the Apollo Belvidere, from the Belvidere 
gallery in the Vatican at Rome. This 
statue was found in the ruins of Antium in 


1503, and was purchased by Pope Julian II. 
It is now supposed to be a copy of a Greek 
statue of the 3d century b. c., and dates 
probably from the reign of Nero. 

Apollodorus, a famous Athenian painter, 
about B. c. 408. Pliny records two of his 
pictures; one of a priest of Apollo at the 
altar, and the other representing the ship¬ 
wreck of Ajax. 

Apollodorus, born in Damascus, and 
lived in the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. 
His fame as an architect caused the former 
to employ him in building a great stone 
bridge over the Danube, and other works. 
Apollodorus subsequently falling into dis¬ 
grace with the Emperor Hadrian, was put 
to death by his command. 

Apollodorus, a Greek writer who flour¬ 
ished 140 b. c. Among the numerous 
works he wrote on various subjects, the only 
one extant is his “ Bibliotheca,” which con¬ 
tains a concise account of the mythology of 
Greece down to the heroic age. 

Apollonius, a Pythagorean philosopher, 
born at Tyana, about' the beginning of the 
Christian era. Applying himself to philo¬ 
sophic studies, he adopted the system intro¬ 
duced by Pythagoras, and traveled through 
the East, professing miraculous powers; in¬ 
ducing some to consider him as a rival to 
the founder of Christianity. His asceticism 
of life, the miracles and prophecies attrib¬ 
uted to him, and the wisdom exhibited in 
his discourses, brought to him many follow¬ 
ers, who erected statues and temples in his 
honor. Died at Ephesus about A. d. 97. 
His life has been written by Philostratus. 

Apollonius of Perga, Greek mathema¬ 
tician, called the “ Great Geometer,” flour¬ 
ished about 240 B. C., and was the author 
of many works, only one of which, a treatise 
on “ Conic Sections,” partly in Greek and 
partly in an Arabic translation, is now ex¬ 
tant. 

Apollonius of Rhodes, a Greek,poet, born 
in Egypt, but long residing at Rhodes, where 
he founded a school of rhetoric. He after¬ 
ward became keeper of the famous library 
of Alexandria, b. c. 149. He wrote a poem, 
called “ Argonautica,” which is still ex¬ 
tant. 

Apollonius of Tyre, the hero of a Greek 
metrical romance, very popular in the Mid¬ 
dle Ages. It relates the romantic adven¬ 
tures of Apollonius, a Syrian prince, as 
well as those of his wife who was parted 
from him by apparent death, and his daugh¬ 
ter, and closes with the happy reunion of the 
whole family. The original no longer ex¬ 
ists; but there are three very early Latin 
versions, of which one was published by 
Welser (Augsburg, 1595) ; another is to be 
found in the “ Gesta Romanorum; ” and 
the third in the “ Pantheon ” of Gottfried 















Apollos 


Apostate 


of Viterbo. From this Latin source have 
proceeded the Anglo-Saxon version of the 
11th century (edition by Thorpe, 1834), the 
Spanish version of the 13th century, and 
several French and Italian versions in prose 
and verse of the 14th and 15th centuries. 
Shakespeare treated the subject in his 
drama of “ Pericles,” mainly following the 
version of Gower in his “ Confessio Aman- 
tis,” itself based on the “ Pantheon ” of 
Gottfried of Viterbo. The romance was 
rendered into German, probably from the 
“ Gesta Eomanorum,” by a Vienna phy¬ 
sician, Heinrich von der Neuenstadt, 
about the year 1300,. in a poem of 20.000 
lines. A hitherto unknown Middle German 
prose version of the story was edited by 
Schroter in 1872. 

Apollos, a Jew of Alexandria, who 
learned the doctrines of Christianity at 
Ephesus from Aquila and Priscilla, became 
a preacher of the gospel in Achaia and Cor¬ 
inth, and an assistant of Paul in his mis¬ 
sionary work. Some have regarded him as 
the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews. 

Apollyon (a-pol'e-on) a name used in 
Rev. ix: 11 for the angel of the bottomless 
pit. 

Apologetics, the department of theology 
which treats of the establishment of the evi¬ 
dences and defense of the doctrines of a 
faith. Christian apologetics, generally 
called simply apologetics, treats of the evi¬ 
dences of Christianity, and seeks to establish 
the truth of the Bible and the doctrines 
educed from it. 

Apologue, a story or relation of fictitious 
events intended to convey some useful 
truths. It differs from a parable in that 
the latter is drawn from events that pass 
among mankind, whereas the apologue may 
be founded on supposed actions of brutes or 
inanimate things. Aesop’s fables are good 
examples of apologues. 

Apology, a term at one time applied to a 
defense of one who is accused, or of certain 
doctrines called in question. Of this nature 
are the Apologies of Socrates, attributed 
respectively to Plato and Xenophon. The 
name passed over to Christian authors, who 
gave the name of apologies to the writings 
which were designed to defend Christianity 
against the attacks and accusations of its 
enemies, particularly the pagan philoso¬ 
phers, and to justify its professors before 
the emperors. Of this sort were those by 
Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Tertullian, 
Tatian, and others. 

Aponeurosis, in anatomy, a name of cer¬ 
tain grayish-white shining membranes, com¬ 
posed of interlacing fibers, sometimes con¬ 
tinuous with the muscular fiber, and differ¬ 
ing from tendons merely in having a flat 
form. They serve several purposes, some¬ 
times attaching the muscles to the bones, 


sometimes surrounding the muscL and pre¬ 
venting its displacement, etc. 

Apophyge (ap-of'e-ge or ap'o-fig), in 
architecture, the small curve at the top of 
a column by which its shaft joins its capital. 
It is sometimes called the spring of the 
column. Originally it was the ring which 
bound the extremities of wooden pillars to 
keep them from splitting, imitated in stone¬ 
work. The same name is given to the cor¬ 
responding concavity connecting the bottom 
of a pillar with the fillet at its base. 

Apophyllite (ap-of'il-It), a tetragonal 
mineral, called also ichthyophthaimite, 
classed by Dana as the type of an 
apophyllite group of unisilicates. The 
hardness is 4.5 to 5; the specific gravity 
2.3 to 2.4; the luster of the face of 
the crystal terminating the low prism, 
pearly; that of the sides, vitreous. Color, 
white or grayish; occasionally with green¬ 
ish, yellowish, rose-red or flesh-red tint. 
It is generally transparent; is brittle, and 
has feeble double refraction. It is “ hy¬ 
drated calceopotassic silicate; ” its compo¬ 
sition being—silica, 51.60 to 52.€9; lime, 
24.71 to 25.86; potassa, 4.75 to 5.75; water, 
15.73 to 16.73; and fluorine, 15.73 to 16.67. 
It occurs chiefly in amygdaloid, though oc¬ 
casionally in granite and gneiss. It is found 
at Ratho, near Edinburg, and in Fife, Dum¬ 
barton and Inverness-shires. It occurs in 
Europe, in India, in Siberia, in America, in 
Australia and elsewhere. Dana subdivides 
it into Ordinary (1) Oxhaverite; (2) Tes- 
selite; (3) Leucocyclite; and places with it 
also Xylochlore. 

Apoplexy, a serious malady, coming on 
so suddenly and so violently that anciently 
anyone affected by it was said to be attoni- 
tus (thunderstruck), or sideratus (planet- 
struck ). When a stroke of apoplexy takes 
place, there is a loss of sensation, voluntary 
motion, and intellect or thought, while res¬ 
piration and the action of the heart and 
general vascular system still continue. The 
disease now described is properly called cere¬ 
bral apoplexy, the cerebrum or brain being 
the part chiefly affected. Another malady 
has been called not very happily pulmonary 
apoplexy. It is the pneumo-hemorrhage of 
Andral, and consists of an effusion of blood 
into the parenchymatous substance of the 
lung, like that into the substance of the 
brain in cerebral apoplexy. 

Apostate, literally designates anyone who 
changes his religion, whatever may be his 
motive; but, by custom, the word is always 
used in an injurious sense, as equivalent to 
one who, in changing his creed, is actuated 
by unworthy motives. In early Christian 
times, the word was applied to those who 
abandoned their faith in order to escape from 
persecution; but it was also applied to such 
as rejected Christianity on speculative 




Apostle 


Apostolic 


grounds (the Emperor Julian, for instance). 
The apostates in times of persecution were 
styled variously sacrificati, thurificati, etc., 
according to the modes in which they pub¬ 
licly made known their return to heathen¬ 
ism, by offering sacrifices or incense to the 
gods of Rome. Controversies arose in the 
early Church as to the readmission of those 
who had so lapsed. The Roman Catholic 
Church at one period imposed severe penal¬ 
ties on apostasy. The apostate was nat¬ 
urally excommunicated; but sometimes also 
his property was confiscated, and he himself 
banished, or even put to death. The term 
is also applied, not only to those who be¬ 
come perverts to Mohammedanism, usually 
called renegades, but to such as exchange 
the Roman Catholic for the Protestant faith, 
and vice versa. It has often had great in¬ 
fluence on the fortunes of a nation that a 
prince has apostatized. The most renowned 
instance in modern history is that of Henry 
IV., who became a Roman Catholic for 
peace's sake. 

Apostle, one who is sent off or away from; 
one sent on some important mission; a mes¬ 
senger ; a missionary. The name given, in 
the Christian Church, to the 12 men whom 
Jesus selected from His disciples as the best 
instructed in His doctrines, and the fittest 
instruments for the propagation of His re¬ 
ligion. Their names were as follows: Si¬ 
mon Peter (Greek for Caiphas, the rock), 
and Andrew, his brother; James the greater, 
and John, his brother, who were sons of 
Zebedee; Philip of Bethsaida, Bartholomew, 
Thomas, Matthew: James, the son of Al- 
pheus, commonly called James the less; Leb- 
beus, his brother, who was surnamed Thad- 
deus, and was called Judas, or Jude; Si¬ 
mon the Canaanite, and Judas Iscariot. Of 
this number, Simon Peter, John, Janies the 
greater, and Andrew were fishermen; and 
Matthew, a publican or tax-gatherer. When 
the apostles were reduced to 11 by the sui¬ 
cide of Judas, who had betrayed Christ, 
they chose Matthias by lot, on the proposi¬ 
tion of St. Peter. Soon after, their number 
became 13, by the miraculous vocation of 
Saul, who, under the name of Paul, became 
one of the most zealous propagators of the 
Christian faith. The Bible gives the name 
of apostle to Barnabas also, who accompan¬ 
ied Paul on his missions (Acts, xiv: 13), 
and Paul bestows it also on Andronicus 
and Junia, his relations and companions 
in prison. Generally, however, the name is 
used, in a narrower sense, to designate those 
whom Christ selected Himself while on 
earth, and Paul, whom He afterward called. 
In a still wider sense, preachers who first 
taught Christianity in heathen countries, 
are sometimes termed apostles; e. g., St. 
Denis, the apostle of the Gauls; St.Boniface, 
the apostle of Germany; the monk Augus¬ 
tine, the apostle of England; the Jesuit 


Francis Xavier, the apostle of the Indies; 
Adalbert of Prague, the apostle of Prus¬ 
sia proper. Paul was the only apostle who 
had received a scientific education; the 
others were mechanics. Peter, Andrew, and 
John are called in the Scriptures (Acts iv: 
13), homines sine literis, idiotce. Peter em¬ 
ployed his disciple St. Mark in writing the 
Gospel which bears his name. During the 
life of the Savior, the apostles more than 
once showed a misunderstanding of the ob¬ 
ject of His mission; and, during His suffer¬ 
ings, evinced little courage and firmness of 
friendship for their great and benevolent 
Teacher. After His death, they received the 
Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost, that 
they might be enabled to fulfill the im¬ 
portant duties for which they had been 
chosen. Of their subsequent lives, all that 
we know will be found under their respective 
names. 

Apostles’ Islands, or The Twelve Apos= 
ties, a group of 27 islands in Lake Superior. 
They belong to Wisconsin. The principal 
islands of the group are lie au Chene, Stock- 
ton, Bear, Madeline, and Outer. They have 
an area of 200 square miles. Brown sand¬ 
stone is exported and the islands are cov¬ 
ered with a rich growth of timber. The 
cliffs have been worn into strange forms by 
the action of the waves. La Pointe, on 
Madeline island, formerly the county-seat of 
Ashland county, Wis., was settled by the 
French in 1680. Several missions were es¬ 
tablished very early on the islands by the 
Jesuits. 

Apostolic, or Apostolical, pertaining or 

relating to the apostles. 

Apostolic Church. — The Church in the 
time of the apostles, constituted according 
to their design. The name is also given 
to the four churches of Rome, Alexandria, 
Antioch, and Jerusalem, and is claimed by 
the Roman Catholic Church, and occasion¬ 
ally by the Episcopalians. 

Apostolic Constitutions and Caiions. — A 
collection of regulations attributed to the 
apostles, but generally supposed to be spuri¬ 
ous. They appeared in the 4th century; 
are divided into eight books, and consist 
of rules and precepts relating to the duty 
of Christians, and particularly to the cere¬ 
monies and discipline of the Church. 

Apostolic Delegate. — A permanent repre¬ 
sentative of the Pope in a foreign country. 
It is sometimes confounded with the word 
ablegate, the latter meaning a temporary 
representative of the Pope for some special 
function. 

Apostolic Fathers. — The Christian writers 
who, during any part of their lives, were 
contemporary with the apostles. There are 
five — Clement, Barnabas, Hernias, Ignatius, 
Polycarp. 

Apostolic King. — A title granted by the 
Pope to the Kings of Hungary, first con- 



Apostolics 


Apothecary 


ferred on St. Stephen, the founder of the 
royal line of Hungary, on account of what 
he accomplished in the spread of Christian¬ 
ity. 

Apostolic Sec. — The see of the Popes or 
Bishops of Rome; so called because the 
Popes profess themselves the successors of 
St. Peter, its founder. 

Apostolic Succession. — The uninterrupted 
succession of bishops, and, through them, of 
priests and deacons (these three orders of 
ministers being called the apostolical or¬ 
ders), in the Church by regular ordination 
from the first apostles down to the present 
day. All Episcopal churches hold theoreti¬ 
cally, and the Roman Catholic Church and 
many members of the English Church 
strictly, that such succession is essential to 
the officiating priest, in order that grace may 
be communicated through his administra¬ 
tions. 

Apostolics, Apostolici, or Apostolic 
Brethren, the name given to certain sects 
who professed to imitate the manners and 
practice of the apostles. The last and most 
important of these sects was founded about 
1200 by Gerhard Segarelli of Parma. They 
went barefooted, clothed in white, with long 
beard, disheveled hair, and bare heads, ac¬ 
companied by women called spiritual sis¬ 
ters, begging, preaching, and singing, 
throughout Italy, Switzerland, and France; 
announced the coming of the kingdom of 
heaven and of purer times; denounced the 
papacy, and its corrupt and worldly church; 
and inculcated the complete renunciation 
of all worldly ties, of property, settled abode, 
marriage, etc. This society was formally 
abolished (128G) by Honorius IV. In 1300 
Segarelli was burned as a heretic, but an¬ 
other chief apostle appeared — Dolcino, a 
learned man of Milan. In self defense they 
stationed themselves in fortified places 
whence they might resist attacks. After 
having devastated a large tract of country 
belonging to Milan, they were subdued, a. 
d. 1307, by the troops of Bishop Raynerius, 
in their fortress Zebello, in Vercelli, and 
almost all destroyed. Dolcino was burned. 
The survivors afterward appeared in Lom¬ 
bardy and in the south of France as late 
as 1368. 

Apostrophe. (a) In the forms apostrophe 
and apostrophy: 

In rhetoric, a figure of speech by which, 
according to Quintilian, a speaker turns 
from the rest of his audience to one per¬ 
son, and addresses him singly. Now, how¬ 
ever, the signification is wider, and is made 
to include cases in which an impassioned 
orator addresses the absent, the dead, or 
even things inanimate, as if they were pres¬ 
ent and able to hear and understand his 
words. When Jesus, in the midst of an 
address to His apostles in general, suddenly 
turned to Peter and said, “ Simon, Simon, 


behold, Satan hath desired to have you, that 
he may sift you as wheat ” (Luke xxii: 
24-37), the apostrophe was in the Quin¬ 
tilian sense. 

(b) In the forms apostrophe and apos- 
trophus: 

1. In grammar, the substitution of a mark 
like this (’) for one or more letters omitted 
from a word, as tho’ for though, ’twas for it 
was, king’s for kinges. 

2. The mark indicating such substitution, 
especially in the case of the possessive. The 
old possessive singular was es, and the 
apostrophe stands for the omitted e. Thus 
Chaucer has the “ Knightes,” “ Monkes,” 
and the “ Clerkes ” Tales, for what now 
would be written the “ Knight's,” “ Monk's,” 
and “ Clerk’s ” Tales. The old spelling is 
preserved in the word Wednesday = Wodenes 
day = Woden’s day. The name apostrophe 
is given also to the mark in the possessive 
plural, as brethren’s, assassins’. 

Apothecary, the name formerly given in 
England and Ireland to members of an in¬ 
ferior branch of the medical profession. The 
apothecary was in England a licentiate of 
the Apothecaries’ Society of London; in Ire¬ 
land, a licentiate of the Apothecaries’ Hall 
of Ireland. Up to a comparatively recent 
period, however, no inconsiderable propor¬ 
tion of those who practiced as apothecaries, 
at any rate in England, were persons prac¬ 
ticing without any license. The licensed 
apothecary frequently kept a shop in which 
he sold drugs and made up medical prescrip¬ 
tions, in this respect competing with the 
chemist and druggist. But he was entitled 
to attend sick persons, and prescribe for 
them; and though it was the almost uni¬ 
versal practice of apothecaries to charge 
their patients only for medicines supplied, 
they had the alternative of charging for 
their attendances, but could not charge for 
both. The term apothecary has been long 
in disuse, though, no doubt, it is still a legal 
description for licentiates of the Apothe¬ 
caries’ Society of London, or of the Apothe¬ 
caries’ Hall of Ireland; and such licentiates 
are now, as licentiates in medicine before 
the law, on a par with the graduates of uni¬ 
versities. 

Anciently, the apothecaries were not dis¬ 
tinguishable from the grocers (the surgeons 
being, in like manner, undistinguishable 
from the barbers) ; and it was not till 1617, 
in the 13th year of James I., that these bod¬ 
ies were formed into two distinct corpora¬ 
tions. A statute of 1815 enacted that no 
person should practice as an apothecary, or 
act as an assistant to an apothecary, in any 
part of England or Wales, unless he had 
been examined by a court of examiners, and 
had received therefrom a certificate; and 
any person practicing without such certifi¬ 
cate was disabled from recovering his 
charges, and for every such offense was. 



Apothecium 


Apparition 


moreover, rendered liable to a penalty of 
£20. An act of 1874 amended the act of 
1815, and gave the Apothecaries’ Society 
power to co-operate with other medical li¬ 
censing bodies in granting licenses. 

Apothecium, the scutella or shields con¬ 
stituting the fructification of some lichens. 
They are little colored cups or lines with a 
hard disk, surrounded by a rim, and con¬ 
taining asci or tubes filled with sporules. 

Also the cases in which the organs of 
reproduction in the algaccce, or sea weeds, 
are contained. 

Apotheosis, a deification; the placing of 
a prince or other distinguished person among 
the heathen deities. It was one of the doc¬ 
trines of Pythagoras, which he had borrowed 
from the Chaldees, that virtuous persons, 
after their death, were raised into the or¬ 
der of the gods. And hence the ancients 
deified all the inventors of things useful to 
mankind, and who had done any important 
service to the commonwealth. The Romans, 
for several centuries, deified none but Ro¬ 
mulus, and first initiated the Greeks in the 
fashion of frequent apotheosis after the time 
of Augustus Coesar. From this period, 
apotheosis was regulated by the decrees of 
the senate, and accompanied with great 
solemnities. It became at last so frequent 
as to be an object of contempt. The period 
of the Roman emperors, so rich in crime 
and folly, offers the most infamous instances 
of apotheosis. After Cajsar, the greater 
part of the Roman emperors were deified. 
The same hand which had murdered a 
predecessor often placed him among the 
gods. The savage Nero deified the beautiful 
Poppaea, after having killed her by a kick 
when she was pregnant. Constantinus had 
the double advantage of being deified by 
the religion which lie had persecuted, and 
canonized by that which he supported. 

Apotheosis of Augustus, the largest 
cameo in the world, carved in a sardonyx 
almost a foot wide. There are 26 figures 
in all, among them Augustus, yEneas, Julius 
Csesar, Tiberius, and Caligula. It was made 
in Rome, and is now in the Cabinet des 
Medailles, Paris. 

Appalachian Mountains (ap-pa-la'- 
che-an), also called Alleghanies, a vast 
mountain range in North America, extend¬ 
ing for 1,300 miles from Cape Gasp6, on 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, S. W. to Alabama. 
The system has been divided into three great 
sections: the northern (including the Ad- 
irondacks, the Green mountains, the White 
mountains, etc.), from Cape Gasp6 to New 
York; the central (including a large por¬ 
tion of the Blue Ridge, the Alleghanies 
proper, and numerous lesser ranges), from 
New York to the valley of the New river; 
and the southern (including the continua¬ 
tion of the Blue Ridge, the Black mountains, 
the Smoky mountains, etc.), from the New 


river southward. The chain consists of sev¬ 
eral ranges generally parallel to each other, 
the altitude of the individual mountains in¬ 
creasing on approaching the South. The 
highest peaks rise over 0,600 feet (not one 
at all approaching the snow level),.but the 
mean height is about 2,500 feet. Lake 
Champlain is the only lake of great im¬ 
portance in the system, but numerous rivers 
of considerable size take their rise here. 
Magnetite, hematite, and other iron ores oc¬ 
cur in great abundance, and the coal meas¬ 
ures are among the most extensive in the 
world. Gold, silver, lead, and copper are 
also found, but not in paying quantities, 
while marble, limestone, fire clay, gypsum, 
and salt abound. The forests covering many 
of the ranges yield large quantities of val¬ 
uable timber, such as sugar maple, white 
birch, beech, ash, oak, cherry tree, white 
poplar, white and yellow pine, etc., while 
they form the haunts of large numbers of 
bears, panthers, wild cats, and wolves. 

Appalachicola (-chi-co-la), a river of the 
United States, formed by the Chattahoochee 
and Flint rivers, which unite near the 
northern border of Florida; length, about 
100 miles; flows into the Gulf of Mexico, and 
is navigable. 

Appanage, properly, lands assigned as 
portions to the younger sons, or sometimes 
the brothers of the French king, who in 
general took their titles from the appanages 
which they held. Under the first two dy¬ 
nasties of French kings, the sons of the 
monarch divided his dominions among them. 
Afterward the kingdom was assigned to the 
eldest, and appanages to the others. Then 
the dominant power of the latter princes 
was so circumscribed that their appanages 
could not be willed away to anyone, or de¬ 
scend to females, but, on the failure of male 
issue, were made to revert to the crown; 
and finally, on Nov. 22, 1790, the power 
hitherto possessed by the crown of granting 
appanages was taken away, and provision 
made for the younger sons of the royal fam¬ 
ily by grants from public funds. During 
the earlier period of the existence of French 
appanages, they were divided into royal and 
customary; the former being those granted; 
to the king’s brothers, and not allowed to be* f 
possessed by, or descend to, females; and : 
the latter granted to the king’s sisters, and 
consequently under no such restriction. 

Apparition, according to a belief held by 
some, a disembodied spirit manifesting it¬ 
self to mortal sight; according to the com¬ 
mon theory an illusion involuntarily gen¬ 
erated, by means of which figures or forms, 
not present to the actual sense, are neverthe¬ 
less depictured with a vividness and intens¬ 
ity sufficient to create a temporary belief 
of their reality. Such illusions are now 
generally held to result from an overex¬ 
cited brain, a strong imagination, or some 



Appeal 


Appendicitis 


bodily malady. In perfect health, the mind 
not only possesses a control over its powers, 
but the impressions of the external objects 
alone occupy its attention, and the play of 
imagination is consequently checked, except 
in sleep, when its operations are relatively 
more feeble and faint. But in the unhealthy 
state of the mind, when its attention is 
partly withdrawn from the contemplation 
of external objects, the impressions of its 
own creation, or rather reproduction, will 
either overpower or combine themselves with 
the impressions of external objects, and thus 
generate illusions which in the one case 
appear alone, while in the other they are 
seen projected among those external objects 
to which the eyeball is directed. This theory 
explains satisfactorily a large majority of 
the stories of apparitions; still there are 
some which it seems insufficient to account 
for. In recent times, though the belief in 
ghosts of the old and orthodox class may 
be said to have almost died out, a new and 
kindred faith has arisen, that of Spiritual¬ 
ism. 

Appeal, an application for the transfer 
of a cause or suit from an inferior to a 
superior court or judge. It differs from a 
writ of error in two respects: (1) That 

an appeal may be brought on any interlocu¬ 
tory matter, but a writ of error only on a 
definite judgment. (2) That on writs of 
error, the superior court pronounces the 
judgment, while on appeals it gives direc¬ 
tions to the court below to rectify its de¬ 
cree. (Blackstone’s “ Commentaries,” book 
iii, ch. 4.) 

In the United States, the distinction be¬ 
tween an appeal, which originated in the 
civil law, and a writ of error, which is of 
common law origin, is that the former car¬ 
ries the whole case for review by the higher 
court, including both the facts and the law; 
while the latter removes only questions of 
law. An act of Congress of 1875 provides 
that the judgments and decrees of the Cir¬ 
cuit Courts of the United States shall not 
be re-examined in the Supreme Court unless 
the matter in dispute shall exceed the sum 
or value of $5,000, exclusive of costs. No 
judgment, decree, or order of a circuit or 
district court, in any civil action at law or 
in equity, shall be reviewed in the Supreme 
Court on writ of error or appeal, unless the 
writ of error is brought, or the appeal is 
taken, within two years after the entry of 
such judgment, decree, or order; save in the 
case of infants, insane persons, and impris¬ 
oned persons, when the period is two years, 
exclusive of this term of disability. An ap¬ 
peal from a district court to a circuit 
court of the United States must be taken 
within one year. An appeal from the dis¬ 
trict court in admiralty to the circuit court 
must be made immediately after the decree, 
in open court, before the adjournment sine 


die; and it should be taken to the next suc¬ 
ceeding circuit court. An appeal may be 
taken from the State courts to the Supreme 
Court of the United States, in cases involv¬ 
ing the validity of a treaty or statute of, or 
authorized under, the United States; on the 
ground of repugnance to the constitution, 
etc. 

Appendicitis, a disease caused by inflam¬ 
mation, suppuration, and consequent gan¬ 
grene in the tissue of the vermiform ap¬ 
pendix, usually due to insufficient circula¬ 
tion of blood in the part itself. The in¬ 
terior of the appendix is big enough to ad¬ 
mit only a medium sized darning needle. 
The interior caliber of the appendix is, how¬ 
ever, often found dilated and containing 
foreign material. That most commonly 
found is a small hardened mass of fcecal 
matter in size from that of a grape seed 
to a date pit, and so resembling these seeds 
as to sometimes be mistaken for them. The 
common belief that appendicitis is caused 
by the introduction of a grape or orange 
seed or some other seed into the appendix 
is practically erroneous, since such causes 
are so extremely rare as to form exceptions 
to the general rule. It is true, nevertheless, 
that occasionally seeds, bits of bone, small 
shot, gallstones, beans, pins, and other ob¬ 
jects have caused fatal perforation of the 
appendix. Rheumatism and gout have both 
been observed to affect the appendix and to 
cause rheumatic or gouty inflammation of 
the part. Blows over the region of the ap¬ 
pendix aiid inflammation of adjacent struc¬ 
tures, such as the head of the caecum (the 
portion of the bowel from which the ap¬ 
pendix springs), are frequent causes of the 
disease. Adhesions on bands resulting from 
peritonitis are sometimes found to have 
bound the appendix to such an unnatural 
position as to occlude the blood supply to 
the part or to prevent the secretions from its 
interior discharging into the bowel, thus 
causing gangrene or abscess. 

The appendix is an organ which appears 
to have no actual use in the present ma¬ 
chinery of man, but in the earlier stages of 
man’s development it is believed to have 
been a large pouch which played an import¬ 
ant part in the digestive operations of the 
human system. By ages of disuse it has 
gradually shrunk to its present dimensions, 
and is known to science as a vestigral organ, 
one which is only a remnant of its former 
self and possessing but a vestige of its or¬ 
iginal functions. It is one of the most deli¬ 
cate and vital parts of the body, in the peri¬ 
toneal cavity, usually to the right of the 
center of the abdomen, but in rare instances 
it has been found on the left side, and, still 
more rarely, otherwise placed. This dis¬ 
covery, made very recently, has caused the 
surgeons to be extremely careful to locate 
the trouble before using the knife. 



Appendicitis 


Appius 


Until a comparatively recent period the 
frequent and fatal part played by the ver¬ 
miform appendix in peritoneal disorders, 
and especially in septic peritonitis, has not 
been understood by the medical profession. 
That was the reason that septic peritonitis 
was generally succeeded by the death of the 
sufferer soon after the symptoms were well 
established. When it was once proved that 
the poison which produced septic peri¬ 
tonitis came from the breaking down and 
consequent perforation or from abscess of 
the appendix the very root of one of man’s 
worst ailments was laid bare. Further 
practice established beyond a doubt that in 
a large majority of cases the appendix could 
be removed by a single surgical operation 
and the patient restored to vigorous health 
if the disease was discovered in time and 
correctly diagnosed. The surgeons now re¬ 
gard the operation itself as one of the most 
simple, but to obtain the best results it 
should take place within a few hours after 
the patient begins to suffer from the di¬ 
sease. In fact the sooner the operation is 
had the better are the chances of recovery, 
while if the knife is not resorted to death is 
apt to ensue very promptly. The symptoms 
are so plain and unmistakable to the sur¬ 
geon of to-day that any sufferer may know 
them himself: 


1. The attack is nearly always sudden. 
It comes on when the person is apparently 
in the best of health, and without the slight¬ 
est warning. 

2. A sharp pain is felt in the very center 
of the abdomen. This is almost always the 
case, whether the appendix be in its correct 
place on the right side or displaced to the 
left. 

3. A sore or tender spot, very painful to 
the touch, is located about where the incis¬ 
ion must be made to find the appendix. 

These are the three plain symptoms which 
have been found in thousands of cases with 
scarcely a variation. Thus it is that many 
sudden deaths occur to persons in robust 
health. They are thought to have colic, 
when the truth is that useless little organ, 
the appendix, has met with some kind of an 
accident. 

Appendicitis usually occurs between the 
ages of 10 and 50 years. It is rare above 
or below those ages. It is more frequently 
among males than females, the exact pro¬ 
portion being unknown. The probable cause 
of this difference is of very recent discovery 
and is not even known generally among the 
medical profession. Dr. Clado, a French 
surgeon and investigator, sought an expia¬ 
tion of the comparative immunity of the 
female sex from the malady and discovered 
that the appendix in woman has an extra 
blood vessel (a small branch of the ovarian 
artery) that does not exist in man. This 
discovery was not only a bit of new knowl¬ 


edge of great value, but was an additional 
proof of the theory that disease of the ap¬ 
pendix is often due in part to its want of 
vital resistance. Cyrus Edson. 

Appendix Vermiformis, a worm-like, 

rudimentary process, which hangs from the 
caecum or first part of the large intestine. 
It is from three to six inches in length, the 
upper end opening into the caecum and the 
lower end being closed. It lies in the ab¬ 
dominal cavity just above the right groin 
and its functions are unknown. 

Apperception, a psychological term de¬ 
noting the mental act and faculty of writ¬ 
ing or relating ideas or other mental states 
in groups or larger wholes of any sort. A 
particular object or idea is said to be ap- 
perceived when it is taken up into an earlier 
complex mental state and put into appropri¬ 
ate connection with its parts. It goes fur¬ 
ther than Association of Ideas (q. v.), 
since it recognizes the fact that the mind 
proceeds according to a more or less syste¬ 
matic plan and selects its materials — re¬ 
jecting what is not fitting—and thus in¬ 
volves constructive imagination; while as¬ 
sociation deals with a more or less mechani¬ 
cal revival of ideas, according to their ac¬ 
cidental contiguities and resemblances. The 
term apperception has become important in 
theories of education, since true education 
aims at training the pupil to select and to 
construct for himself. J. Mark Baldwin. 

Appiani, Andrea (ap-e-an'e), a painter 
born at Milan in 1754. As a fresco-painter 
he excelled every contemporary painter in 
Italy. He displayed his skill particularly 
in the cupola of Santa Maria di S. Celso at 
Milan, and in the paintings representing 
the legend of Cupid and Psyche, prepared 
for the walls and ceiling of the villa of 
the Archduke Ferdinand at Monza (1795) 
Napoleon appointed him royal court painter, 
and portraits of almost the whole of the im¬ 
perial family were painted by him. He died 
in 1817. 

Appian Way, the great Roman highway 
constructed by the below-mentioned Appius 
Claudius, from Rome to Capua, and after¬ 
ward extended to Brundusium, and finished 
b. c. 312. It was built of stones four or 
five feet long, carefully joined to each other, 
covered with gravel, furnished with stones 
for mounting and descending from horse¬ 
back, with milestones, and with bouses at 
which to lodge. 

Appius, Claudius (ap'e-ns), surnamed 
Csecus, or the Blind, an ancient Roman, 
elected censor b. c. 312, which office he held 
four years. While in this position he made 
every effort to weaken the power of the 
plebs, and constructed the road and aqueduct 
named after him. He was subsequently 
twice consul, and once dictator. In his old 
age he became blind, but in b. c. 280 he 




Appius 


Appleton 


made a famous speech in which he induced 
the senate to reject the terms of peace fixed 
by Pyrrhus. He is the earliest Roman 
writer of prose and verse whose name we 
know. 

Appius, Claudius Crassinus, a Roman 
decemvir (451 to 449 b. c.). Being pas¬ 
sionately in love with Virginia, daughter of 
Virginius, a respectable plebeian absent with 
the army, he persuaded M. Claudius, his 
client, to gain possession of her, under the 
pretense that she was the daughter of one 
of his slaves. The people compelled him to 
set her at liberty ; but Claudius summoned 
her before the tribunal of Appius, who de¬ 
cided that the pretended slave should be 
given up to her master. A fearful disturb¬ 
ance arose, and the decemvir was compelled 
to leave Virginia in the hands of her family; 
but he declared that he would pronounce 
his decision the next day. Virginius, hur¬ 
riedly recalled from the army by his friends, 
appeared and claimed his daughter; but, 
after another mock trial, she was again ad¬ 
judged to be the property of Marcus Claud¬ 
ius. To save his daughter from dishonor, 
the unhappy father seized a knife and slew 
her. The popular indignation excited by the 
case was headed by the senators Valerius 
and Horatius, who hated the decemvirate. 
The army returned to Rome with Virginius, 
who had carried the news to them, and the 
decemviri were deposed. Appius Claudius 
died in prison, by his own hand (as Livy 
states), or was strangled by order of the 
tribunes. Alfieri has written a tragedy on 
the death of Virginia. 

Apple, the fruit of the pyrus malus, a 
species of the genus pyrus. All the dif¬ 
ferent kinds of apple trees now in cultiva¬ 
tion are usually regarded as mere varieties 
of the one species which, in its wild state, 
is known as the crab-tree, pyrus acerba. 
This plant is found in woods and waysides 
in most of the temperate parts of the north¬ 
ern hemisphere. Its fruit is austere and un¬ 
palatable, but is sometimes gathered for 
the sake of its acid juice, which, when fer¬ 
mented, forms the liquid called verjuice, 
used in cookery and for purifying wax. The 
Romans are said to have had 22 varieties of 
the pyrus malus, or cultivated apple tree. 
At the present time it is, perhaps, the most 
widely-diffused and valuable of all fruit- 
trees; and the varieties, which are adapted 
to almost every soil, situation and climate 
in the temperate zone, have become exceed¬ 
ingly numerous. About 1.000 varieties are 
cultivated in the United States. The apple- 
tree seldom reaches a greater height than 
30 feet, but its large round head makes up 
for the want of height; and, altogether, it 
is a noble looking tree, especially when in 
full blossom. The flowers grow in bunches, 
and have a very fragrant odor. They are 
white inside, and have a delicate tinge of 


pink externally. The tree is not always al¬ 
lowed to ramify in a natural manner, but is 
sometimes trained as an espalier, or as a 
wall tree. New varieties are being continu¬ 
ally developed; and as they are generally 
propagated by grafting, the old ones gradu¬ 
ally die out. The variety that produced the 
costard, or custard, which was at one time 
a favorite kind of apple, does not now exist, 
though the name of costermongers (costard- 
mongers) is stiy retained for itinerant vend¬ 
ors of apples. The apple is usually grafted 
on apple or crab stocks; but sometimes haw¬ 
thorn stocks are used. For producing dwarf- 
trees, stocks of the paradise-apple, a very 
diminutive variety, are usually employed. 
The apple (alluding now to the fruit, and 
not to the tree producing it) varies greatly 
in form, size and color. It is regarded by 
botanists as the type of the kind of fruit 
to which they have applied the term pome . 
The eatable part has a more or less aro¬ 
matic, sweet, or sub-acid taste, and contains 
starch, grape-sugar, and malic acid. Apples 
are commonly divided into dessert, baking 
and cider-making fruits; the first being 
highly flavored, the second such as become 
soft in baking or boiling, and the third 
those which are hard and austere. Apples 
are also classed under the general names of 
Pippins, Pearmains, Rennets, Colvilles, Rus¬ 
sets, Codlins, etc. The uses of the apple for 
culinary and conserving processes are suf¬ 
ficiently well known. Cider, the fermented 
juice of the apple, is a favorite drink in 
many parts of England and France, and in 
some places of the United States. Malic 
acid, extracted from the apple, has long been 
used in medicine, and has latterly been 
largely employed as a mordant in dyeing. 

Apple of Discord, in Greek mythology, 
the golden apple thrown into an assembly of 
the gods by the goddess of discord (Eris), 
bearing the inscription “ For the fairest.” 
Aphrodite (Venus), Hera (Juno), and Pal¬ 
las (Minerva) became competitors for it, 
and its adjudication to the first by Paris 
so inflamed the jealousy and hatred of Hera 
to all of the Trojan race (to which Paris 
belonged) that she did not cease her mach¬ 
inations till Troy was destroyed. 

Apple of Sodom, a fruit described by 
old writers as externally of fair appearance, 
but turning to ashes when plucked; prob¬ 
ably the fruit of solarium sodomcum. 

Appleton, city and county-seat of Outa¬ 
gamie co., Wis., on the Fox river and the 
Chicago and Northwestern and the Chicago, 
Milwaukee and St. Paul railroads; 25 miles 
S. W. of Green Bay. It is at the head 
of navigation on Lake Winnebago and on 
the Green Bay waterway, on a plateau 70 
feet above the river, and near the Grand 
Chute rapids, whence it derives excellent 
power for manufacturing. The principal in- 




Appleton 


Apprenticeship 


dustry is the manufacture of farm imple¬ 
ments, furniture, paper, flour, pulp, ma¬ 
chinery, and woolen and knit goods. It is 
the seat of Lawrence University (Methodist- 
Episcopal ), and has university and public- 
school libraries, three National banks, daily 
and weekly newspapers, and a property 
valuation of over $3,500,000. Pop. (1890) 
11,809; (1900) 15,085; (1910) 16,776. 

Appleton, Daniel, founder of the Amer¬ 
ican publishing house of D. Appleton & Co., 
was born at Haverhill, Mass., in 1785; he be¬ 
gan business as a retail dealer; afterward 
settled in New York, and built up one of 
the largest businesses of its kind. He re¬ 
tired in 1848, leaving the business to four 
sons and their descendants. The success of 
the firm justified it in beginning, previous 
to 1857, the “ New American Cyclopaedia,” 
under the editorship of George Ripley and 
Charles A. Dana, which was completed in 
1863, in 16 volumes. A revised edition 
was published in 1872-1876. The same firm 
has issued many scientific and educational 
works. 

Appleton, John Howard, an American 
chemist, born in 1844; was graduated at 
Brown University in 1803; was instructor 
in chemistry there in 18G3-1868; and in 
the last year became professor of that de¬ 
partment. Among his numerous publica¬ 
tions are “ The Young Chemist,” “ Quanti¬ 
tative Chemical Analysis,” “ Qualitative 
Chemical Analysis,” “ Chemistry of the Non- 
metals,” “ The Metals of the Chemist,” “ The 
Carbon Compounds,” etc. 

Appleton, Nathan and Samuel, Amer¬ 
ican merchants and philanthropists, broth¬ 
ers, born in 1779 and 1766 respectively; en¬ 
gaged in the manufacture of cotton goods; 
were founders of the citv of Lowell, Mass.; 
and widely known for their active benevo¬ 
lence. Nathan set up the first power loom 
ever used in the United States, in his Wal¬ 
tham mill. Nathan died in 1861; Samuel in 
1853. 

Appoggiatura, in music, a small addi¬ 
tional note of embellishment preceding the 
note to which it is attached, and taking 
away from the principal note a portion of 
its time. 

Appold, John George, an English 
mechanician and inventor of automatic ma¬ 
chinery, born in 1800. lie invented a cen¬ 
trifugal pump and a break which was used 
in laving the Atlantic cable. He died Aug. 
31, 1865. 

Appomattox Court House, a village in 
Appomattox county, Va., 20 miles E. of 
Lynchburg. Here, on April 9, 1865, General 
Lee surrendered to General Grant, and thus 
virtually concluded the Civil War. 

Apportionment Bill, a bill adopted by 
the United States Congress every 10 years, 
and directly after the completion of the 


Federal census, which determines the num¬ 
ber of members that each State is entitled 
to send to the National House of Representa¬ 
tives, and provides for the necessary re¬ 
organization of the Congressional electoral 
districts. The apportionment based on the 
census of 1890 was one member to 173,901 
population; census of 1900, one to 194,182. 

Apprenticeship, in law, a contract by 
which a person who understands some art, 
trade, or business, and called master, un¬ 
dertakes to teach the same to another per¬ 
son, commonly a minor, and called the ap¬ 
prentice, who, on his part, is bound to serve 
the master, during a definite period of time, 
in such art, trade, or business. At com¬ 
mon law, an infant may bind himself ap¬ 
prentice by indenture, because it is for his 
benefit. But this contract, on account of its 
liability to abuse, has been regulated by 
statute in the United States, and is not 
binding upon the infant unless entered into 
by him with the consent of the parent or 
guardian, or by the parent or guardian for 
him, with his consent. The contract need 
7iot specify the particular trade to be 
taught, but is sufficient if it be a contract to 
teach such manual occupation or branch of 
business as shall be found best suited to the 
genius or capacity of the apprentice. This 
contract must generally be entered into by 
indenture or deed. The duties of the 
master are, to instruct the apprentice by 
teaching him the knowledge of the art 
which he had undertaken to teach him, 
though he will be excused for not making a 
good workman, if the apprentice is incapa¬ 
ble of learning the trade, the burden of prov¬ 
ing which is on the master. He must not 
abuse his authority, either by bad treat¬ 
ment, or by subjecting his apprentice to 
menial employments unconnected with the 
business he has to learn; but he may cor¬ 
rect him with moderation for negligence 
and misbehavior. He cannot dismiss his ap¬ 
prentice except by consent of all the parties 
to the indenture. He cannot remove the 
apprentice out of the State under the laws 
of which he was apprenticed, unless such 
removal is provided for in the contract, or 
may be implied in its nature; and if he 
do so remove him, the contract ceases to be 
obligatory. An infant apprentice is not 
capable in law of consenting to his own dis¬ 
charge. After the apprenticeship is at an 
end, the master cannot retain the apprentice 
on the ground that he has not fulfilled his 
contract, unless especially authorized by stat¬ 
ute. An apprentice is bound to obey his 
master in all his lawful commands, take 
care of his property, and promote his in¬ 
terests, endeavor to learn his trade or busi¬ 
ness, and perform all the covenants in his 
indenture not contrary to law. He must 
not leave his master’s service during the 
term of the apprenticeship. 



Appropriation 


Apsides 


Appropriation, a specific sum set apart 
by the legislative power for a designated 
purpose. In the United States, no money can 
be drawn from the Treasury, excepting by 
appropriations made by law (Constitution, 
art. I). Under this clause it is necessary 
for Congress to appropriate money for the 
support of the Federal government, and in 
payment of claims against it. All bills for 
appropriating money originate in the House 
of Representatives; but may be amended in 
the Senate. The same procedure is observed 
in the several States. 

Approximation, a term used in mathe¬ 
matics to signify a continual approach to a 
quantity required, when no process is known 
for arriving at it exactly. Although, by 
such an approximation, the exact value of a 
quantity cannot be discovered, yet, in prac¬ 
tice, it may be found sufficiently correct; 
thus the diagonal of a square whose sides 
are represented by unity, is V2, the exact 
value of which quantity cannot be obtained; 
but its approximate value may be substi¬ 
tuted in the nicest calculations. 

Apraxin, Feodor Mateievitch (ap- 
rax'in), a Russian admiral, born in 1671. 
He may be considered as the creator of the 
Russian navy, and was the most powerful 
and influential person at the court of Peter 
the Great, who made him chief-admiral. In 
1708, he defeated the Swedish general Lli- 
becker, in Ingermannland, and saved the 
newly built city of St. Petersburg from de¬ 
struction. In 1713, he took Helsingfors and 
Borgo, and defeated the Swedish fleet. He 
was twice charged with embezzlement, tried, 
and condemned to pay a fine; but being too 
useful to be dispensed with, Peter, in both 
instances, neutralized the effects of the con¬ 
demnation, by conferring upon him ad¬ 
ditional riches and dignities. He died in 
1724. 

Apricot, a fruit, that of the prunus 
armeniaca; also the tree on which it grows. 
It is not settled that it came, as the Latin 
specific name would imply, from Armenia. 
It is wild in Africa and in the Caucasus, 
where the mountains in many places are cov¬ 
ered with it; it is found also in China and 
some other countries. It is esteemed only 
second to the peach. 

April, the fourth month of the year. It 
was called Ooster, or Easter month by the 
Anglo-Saxons, and Grass month by the 
Dutch. 

April-fools’ Day .— The first day of April, 
so called from the old custom of sending 
any one, on this day, upon a bootless errand. 
This strange custom of April fools’ day ex¬ 
ists throughout Europe, and in those parts 
of the United States where the traditions of 
the mother-country prevail. One of the ex¬ 
planations of the custom is as follows: In 
the Middle Ages, scenes from Biblical history 


were often represented by way of diversion, 
without any feeling of impropriety. The 
scene in the life of Jesus, where He is sent 
from Pilate to Herod, and back again from 
Herod to Pilate, was represented in April, 
and may have given occasion to the custom 
of sending on fruitless errands, and other 
tricks practiced at this season. The phrase 
of “ sending a man from Pilate to Herod ” 
is common in Germany, to signify sending 
about unnecessarily. The reason of choosing 
the first of April for the exhibition of this 
scene was, that the feast of Easter fre¬ 
quently falls in this month, and the events 
connected with this period of the life of 
Jesus would naturally afford subjects for 
the spectacles of the season. The tricks of 
the first of April may, however, be the re¬ 
mains of some Roman custom derived from 
the East, and spread over Europe, like so 
many other customs, by these conquerors. 
It is certain that the Hindus practice pre¬ 
cisely similar artifices at the time of the 
Huli feast, on the 31st of March. One of the 
best tricks of this description is that of Ra¬ 
belais, who, being at Marseilles without 
money, and desirous of going to Paris, filled 
some vials with brick-dust or ashes, la¬ 
belled them as containing poison for the 
royal family of France, and put them where 
he knew they would be discovered. The bait 
took, and he was conveyed as a traitor to 
the capital, where the discovery of the jest 
occasioned universal mirth. In France, the 
unlucky party who may be fooled is called 
un poisson (fish) d’Avril; in Scotland, 
a gowk (cuckoo) ; in England and the 
United States, an April-fool. 

Apron, a platform of plank at the en¬ 
trance of a dock. The apron in ship-build¬ 
ing is a piece of curved wood placed behind 
the lower part of the stem, and above the 
foremost end of the keel, to strengthen the 
stem. The apron also formerly was a piece 
of sheet lead used in covering the vent of a 
cannon. This word, as a part of wearing 
apparel, being termed “ breeches ” in the 
Geneva Bible of 1509 (See Gen. iii: 7), 
gave to that edition the popular name of 
“ The Breeches Bible.” 

Apse, a portion of any building forming 
a termination or projection semicircular or 
polygonal in plan, and having a roof form¬ 
ing externally a semi-dome or semi-cone, or 
having ridges corresponding to the angles 
of the polygon; especially such a semi-cir¬ 
cular or polygonal recess projecting from 
the eastern end of the choir or chancel of a 
church, in which the altar is placed. The 
apse was developed from the somewhat simi¬ 
lar part of the Roman basilicse, in which 
the magistrate (prcetor) sat. 

Apsides, the plural of Apse or Apsis; in 
astronomy, the two points in the elliptic or¬ 
bit of a planet where it is at the greatest 



Apsley Strait 


Apulia 


and at the least distance respectively from 
the body around which it revolves. The 
moon moving in an elliptic orbit around the 
earth, which is situated in one of the foci, 
is at what was anciently called its higher 
apse when it is in apogee, and at its lower 
one when it is in perigee. Similarly, the 
primary planets, including the earth and 
comets, moving in elliptic orbits around the 
sun, which is situated in one of the foci, 
pass through their higher apse when they 
are in aphelion, and their lower one when in 
perihelion. It is the same with the satel¬ 
lites of Jupiter when they are in apojove 
and perijove. 

The line of the apsides is the line 
connecting the two apsides of a primary 
or secondary planet. Were it not for a 
motion of the apsides, it would exactly coin¬ 
cide with the major or longer axis of the 
ellipse. 

The progression of the moon’s apsides is 
a slow movement in the position of the ap¬ 
sides of the moon, produced by the perturb¬ 
ing attraction of other heavenly bodies. It 
is about three degrees of angular motion, in 
one revolution of the moon, and in the same 
direction as her progression in her orbit. 
The apsides of the primary planets are also, 
to a certain extent, perturbed. 

The revolution of the moon’s apsides is the 
movement of the apsides around the entire 
circumference of the ellipse, which takes 
place in 3,232.5753 mean solar days, or 
about nine years. 

A libration in planetary apsides is a 
movement sometimes forward and sometimes 
backward in the apsides of Venus and Mer¬ 
cury, from perturbations caused by other 
heavenly bodies. 

Apsley Strait, a narrow channel between 
Melville and Bathurst Islands, off the N. 
coast of Australia. It is about 40 miles 
in length, with a breadth varying from 2 
to 5 miles. The land is low on either side, 
and the shores from one end of the strait 
to the other bordered by a broad belt of im¬ 
penetrable mangroves, and indented by nu¬ 
merous salt-water creeks, which present the 
appearance of rivers. Alligators of enor¬ 
mous size abound in the Straits, many of 
them measuring from 14 to 17 feet in 
length. A settlement was formed in 1824, 
on the Melville Island side of the channel, 
about 8 or 10 miles from its N. entrance, but 
was subsequently abondoned. 

Apteryx, a genus of birds, the typical one 
cf the family apterygidce. Two species are 
known — the A. australis and A. mantelli, 
both from New Zealand. The natives call 
the former, and probably also the latter, 
Kiwikiwi, which is an imitation of their pe¬ 
culiar cry. The A. australis is somewhat 
less in size than an ordinary goose. It runs 
when nursued, shelters itself in holes, and 


defends itself with its long bill; but unable 
as it is to fly, its fate, it is to be feared, will 
soon be that of the dodo — it is now almost 
extinct. 



Apuleius, Lucius (ap-u-le'us), a famous 
Latin satirist and writer of fiction; lHed in 
the 2d century, and was a native of North- 
ern Africa. Having in¬ 
herited an ample fortune, 
he devoted himself to 
study and travel; attend¬ 
ing first the schoolsof Car¬ 
thage, then the Athenian 
schools of philosophy. His 
principal work is “ Meta¬ 
morphosis ” or “The Gold¬ 
en Ass,” which includes 
the charming epilogue of 
“Cupid and Psyche;” 
well known also is his 
witty “Apology,” a de¬ 
fense against a charge of sorcery brought 
by the sons of a widow twice his age whom 
he had married. Herder calls the episode 
of Pysche, in the “Golden Ass,” the most 
tender and diversified of all romances. 

Apulia (ap-u'le-a), formerly a part of Sapv- 
gia (so called from Sapyx, son of Dtedalus), 
including the modern Southeastern provinces 
of Capitanata, Terra di Bari, Terra d'Ot- 
ranto, etc. In the most ancient times, three 
distinct nations dwelt here — the Messapi- 
ans, or Sallentines, the Peucetians and the 
Dauni, or Apulians. The Peucetians were 
in the southern part, as far as the Aufidus; 
the Dauni in the northern, as far as Mount 
Garganus. The old Latin traditions speak 
of Daunus, a King of the Apulians, who was’ 
expelled from Illyria, and retired to this part 
of Italy. According to the tradition which 
conducts the wandering heroes of the Trojan 
war to Italy, Diomed settled in Apulia, was 
supported by Daunus in a war with the 
Messapians, whom he subdued, and was af¬ 
terward treacherously killed by his ally, who 
desired to monopolize the fruits of the vic¬ 
tory. Roman history informs us of no other 
Apulian Kings, but mentions Arpi, Lu- 
ceria and Canusium as important cities. 



APULEIUS. 














Apure 


Aquatic Animals 


Aufulus, a river of Apulia, has been cele¬ 
brated by Horace, who was born at Venusia, 
in this territory. The second Punic War was 
carried on for years in Apulia. Cannae, 
famous for the defeat of the Romans, is in 
this region. Puglia, the modern name, is 
only a melancholy relic of the ancient 
splendor which poets and historians have 
celebrated. It now supports more sheep 
than men, and has no political meaning, be¬ 
ing merely the name of a geographical dis¬ 
trict. Area 7,370 square miles; pop. (1898) 
1,910,799. 

Apure (a-po'ra), a navigable river of 
Venezuela, formed by the junction of several 
streams which rise in the Andes of Colom¬ 
bia ; it falls into the Orinoco. 

Apurimac (a-po-re-mak'), a river of South 
America, which rises in the Andes of Peru; 
and being augmented by the Vilcamayu and 
other streams forms the Ucayale, one of the 
principal headwaters of the Amazon. 

Apus, in zoology, a genus of entomos- 
tracans, the typical one of the family apo- 
(lidcc. They have the carapace of one piece, 
and completely enveloping the anterior part 
of the animal. Though the name implies 
that they are footless, yet they have about 
GO pairs of feet. 

In astronomy, one of Lacaille’s 27 south¬ 
ern constellations. Its English name is 
the Bird of Paradise, that animal being 
once erroneously supposed to be destitute 
of feet. 

Aqua, a word much used in pharmacy 
and old chemistry. Aqua fortis {= strong 
water), a weak and impure nitric acid. It 
has the power of eating into steel and cop¬ 
per, and hence is used by engravers, etchers, 
etc. Aqua marina , a fine variety of beryl. 
Aqua regia, or aqua regal is, a mixture of 
nitric and hydrochloric acids, with the power 
of dissolving gold and other noble metals. 
Aqua Tofana, a poisonous fluid made about 
the middle of the 17th century by an Italian 
woman, Tofana or TofTania, who is said to 
have procured the death of no fewer than 
GOO individuals by means of it. It con¬ 
sisted chiefly, it is supposed, of a solution 
of crystallized arsenic. Aqua vitce (= water 
of life), or simply aqua, a name familiarly 
applied to the whisky of Scotland, corre¬ 
sponding in meaning with the usquebaugh of 
Ireland, the eau-de-vie (brandy) of the 
French. 

Aquamarine, a name given to some of the 
finest varieties of beryl of a sea-green or 
blue color. Varieties of topaz are also so 
called. 

Aquarians, or Aquarii, Christians in 
the primitive Church who used water in¬ 
stead of wine in the Lord’s Supper. Some 
of them did so from holding sentiments like 
those now entertained by total abstainers, 
while others, employing wine at the even¬ 

23 


ing communion, used water in the morning 
one, lest the smell of wine might betray their 
assemblies to persecuting foes. 

Aquarium, an artificial tank, pond, or 
vessel, filled with salt or fresh water, and 
used, in the former case chiefly for the pur¬ 
pose of keeping alive marine animals in cir¬ 
cumstances which render it easy to study 
their habits, and in the latter for cultivat¬ 
ing aquatic plants. The most wonderful 
aquarium in the world was that of the Fish¬ 
eries Department of the World’s Columbian 
Exposition, in Chicago in the summer of 
1893. 

Aquarius, in astronomy (1) the 11th of 
the 12 ancient zodiacal constellations, now 
generally called signs of the Zodiac. It is 
generally quoted as “ Aquarius, the Water- 
bearer.” (2) A division of the ecliptic — 
that between 300° and 330° of longitude, 



AQUARIUS. 

which, on account of the precession of the 
equinoxes, has gradually advanced from the 
constellation Aquarius, once within those 
limits. The sun enters this part of his 
course about the 21st of January, at which 
time there are generally copious rains in 
Italy, whence the name Aquarius = the 
water-bearer or waterman. (Herschel's 
“Astronomy,” §§ 380, 381.) It is marked 
thus w. 

Aquatic Animals, animals living in or 
about water. Apart from any speculations 
as to the more or less watery nook where 
the first forms of life were cradled, it is 
worth noting that the home of almost all 
the simpler animals is distinctly and neces¬ 
sarily aquatic. While a few of the protozoa, 
such as one of the amoebae, occur in damp 
places on land, or within other organisms, 
the vast majority live freely in the water, 
and the same is true of the sponges, coelen- 
terates, and echinoderms. Among worms, 
howevei, more emphatic exceptions occur, 
such as the earthworm, where the structure 




Aquatic Animals 


Aquatic Plants 


and hub it of the animal has become dis¬ 
tinctly adapted to terrestrial life. While 
the great majority of crustaceans again are 
aquatic, a few, such as the wood-louse and 
the land crab, are modified for life ashore. 
The crowd of insects, spiders, and myriapods 
are of course terrestrial or aerial, though 
here also the habits of some adult forms, 
and the life of some of the young, are dis¬ 
tinctly aquatic. Among mollusks also there 
is an equally familiar occurrence of both 
aquatic and terrestrial habit, while numer¬ 
ous forms illustrate the transition from the 
former to the latter. The ascidians are ex¬ 
clusively marine. Some fishes have a lim¬ 
ited power of life out of the water, the 
double-breathing dipnoi being in this 
connection especially instructive. Among 
many amphibians, the transition from water 
to terra firma is seen in the individual life- 
history, when the fish-like gilled tadpole 
becomes the lunged gill-less frog; while in 
a few exceptional cases, such as the black 
salamander of the Alps, the life is terres¬ 
trial from first to last, and even the young 
dispense with their preliminary swim as 
tadpoles, although a brief recapitulation of 
their aquatic life is still represented by a 
gilled stage within the body of the parent. 
The instance of the gilled axolotl be¬ 
coming, in the absence of sufficient water, 
the gilless amblystoma, forcibly illustrates 
the importance of the medium as a factor 
in evolution. Among reptiles there are nu¬ 
merous aquatic forms — chelonians, lizards, 
snakes, and crocodiles, though the absence of 
any gill respiration marks the progressive 
general adaptation to terrestrial life. While 
an emphatically terrestrial amphibian like 
the tree frog seeks a waterv hole for the 
rearing of the young gill-breathing tadpoles, 
the habit is reversed in such reptiles as the 
sea turtle, which, having returned to the 
more primitive aquatic home, yet revisits 
the land for egg laying purposes. The cradle 
of the young in both cases indicates the an¬ 
cestral habit of the parent. Among the em¬ 
phatically aerial birds, there are cases like 
that of the penguin, where the structure has 
become adapted to an almost exclusively 
aquatic life. And so among mammals, the 
sea cow, the seal, and the whale are famil¬ 
iar illustrations of very different types 
which have returned to the primeval watery 
home and aquatic habit, with consequent 
change of structure. 

To sum up the adaptations to aquatic life 
would obviously be to attempt to compress 
a large department of comparative physiol¬ 
ogy. It is more important simply to note 
the general fact that, in the water, animals 
are subjected to influences somewhat differ¬ 
ent in detail from those which mold their 
congeners ashore. Even contact with a dif¬ 
ferent medium, varying in composition, in 
currents, in pressure, in contained food and 


oxyoen, and the like, obviously involves a 
great diversity in structure. Modes of mo¬ 
tion, from the swimming bell of a medusoid 
contracting and expanding in the tide, to 
that of the lowest vertebrates as illustrated 
in the pelagic tunicates, or from the pad¬ 
dling of worm and crustacean to that of 
fish and frog, duck and seal, are at once fa¬ 
miliar adaptations to, and necessary results 
of aquatic life. Similarly, the smooth and 
frequently fish-like form, especially of ac¬ 
tively locomotive water-animals, is a very 
noticeable adaptive result of the conditions 
of life. In the more thoroughly aquatic 
animals, which have remained in the prim¬ 
itive environment, and have not merely re¬ 
turned to it, the blood is usually purified 
by being spread out on feathery gills which 
catch the oxygen dissolved in the water; 
while in terrestrial forms which have be¬ 
taken themselves to an aquatic life, the or¬ 
dinary direct “air breathing” is still ac¬ 
complished at the surface of the water, or 
in some isolated cases of insects and spiders, 
by means of the air entangled in their hairs, 
or even conveyed into their submerged 
homes. The aquatic respiration of some 
larval insects, the power that some crus¬ 
taceans and fishes have of keeping up a 
respiration on land with a minimum of 
water about their gills, and above all, the 
cases of the double breathing fishes or dip¬ 
noi, and of amphibians already referred to, 
are especially instructive in regard to the 
problem of transition from one medium to 
the other. The genuinely aquatic animals 
are known to have a body temperature not 
much higher than that of the surrounding 
medium, and often survive even the freezing 
of the water; while in the higher warm¬ 
blooded vertebrates which have returned to 
an aquatic habit, various modifications, such 
as thick fur and plumage, u r aterproof var¬ 
nish, formation of blubber, serve as protec¬ 
tions against the cold. 

Aquatic Plants, plants growing in or be¬ 
longing to water. The presence of v r ater is 
not only essential to the active life of all 
organisms, but is peculiarly necessary for 
plants which are for the most part de¬ 
pendent for food supply on matter dissolved 
in water, as w r ell as on the carbonic anhy¬ 
dride mingled with the surrounding medium. 
Numerous plants are, moreover, in the strict 
sense of the word aquatic, having never ac¬ 
quired or having lost all direct connection 
with the soil. The simplest plants or algae 
are almost all aquatic, though many occur 
in damp situations on land, or on other or¬ 
ganisms, while others remain for long pe¬ 
riods quiescent in comparative dryness. 
Many algae are absolutely isolated in the 
water, while others are more or less inti¬ 
mately fixed to some solid substratum. 
Fungi are very seldom found in water, and 
lichens are also emphatically terrestrial. 



Aquatint 


Aqueduct 


Some liverworts, again, occur floating in 
lakes, but the majority grow in very damp 
places, and mark the transition to the gen¬ 
erally terrestrial life of mosses and ferns. 
Some rhizocarps, such as salvinia, are 
aquatic, with leaves rising to the surface, 
while others are land or marsh plants, like 
the higher horse-tails and club-mosses. 

Among the flowering plants, or phanero¬ 
gams, a return to aquatic life is exhibited 
by numerous, though exceptional cases, while 
a very large number grow in moist situa¬ 
tions, and have a semi-aquatic habit. The 
simple monocotyledons, known as helobice 
or marsh lilies, are more or less strictly 
water-plants. The arrow head (sagitaria ), 
and other alismaccce; the butomis of the 
marshes; hydrocharis, with floating kidney¬ 
shaped leaves; the water soldier ( stratiotes ), 
with narrow submerged leaves; and the 
Canadian pond weed (anacharis) , which, 
though entirely flowerless in Europe, threat¬ 
ens to choke some canals and lakes, are fa¬ 
miliar representatives. The little duck weed 
( lemna ) floating on the surface of stagnant 
pools, is one of the commonest aquatic mono¬ 
cotyledons: and the pond weeds ( potamece) 
found both in fresh and salt water; the 
lattice plant (ouvirandra) , with its skele¬ 
ton leaves; various estuarine and fresh 
water naiadaceous plants, e. g., zostesa 
and naias, are also common instances, 
while those growing in marshy ground are 
much too numerous to mention. Among 
dicotyledons, the white water buttercup 
(ranunculus aquatilis) , with its slightly di¬ 
vided floating, and much dissected sub¬ 
merged leaves; the yellow and white water- 
lilies ( nymphcea ) ; the sacred lotus flower 
of the Ganges and Nile ( nelumbium ) ; the 
gigantic Victoria regia of tropical South 
America; and the insectivorous bladderwort 
or utricularia, are among the most familiar 
aquatic forms. 

Aquatint, a method of etching on copper 
by which a beautiful effect is produced, re¬ 
sembling a fine drawing in sepia or Indian 
ink. The special character of the effect is 
the result of sprinkling finely powdered 
resin or mastic over the plate, and causing 
this to adhere by heat, the design being pre¬ 
viously etched, or being now traced out. The 
nitric acid ( aqua fortis) acts only in the 
interstices between the particles of resin or 
mastic, thus giving a slightly granular ap¬ 
pearance. 

Aqua Tofana (ak'wa to-fa'na), or 
Aquetta, a poisonous liquid which excited 
extraordinary attention at Naples, at the 
end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th 
centuries. Tofana, a Sicilian woman, was 
strangled after having murdered with it 
many hundreds of men. The strangest sto¬ 
ries, with regard to its composition, have 
gone abroad. The drink is described as 
transparent, tasteless water, of which five or 


six drops are fatal, producing death slowly, 
without pain, inflammation, convulsions, or 
fever. Gradual decay of strength, disgust of 
life, want of appetite, and constant thirst, 
were its more immediate effects, speedily 
causing entire and rapid consumption. We 
believe it to be useless to give the different 
formulae which have been suggested for the 
composition of this substance. It was prob¬ 
ably the same poison as that notoriously 
used in Italy during the 15th and 10th cen¬ 
turies, of which Pope Alexander VI. died 
in 1503, and so fearfully celebrated in his¬ 
tory as the “ Wine of the Borgias.” 

Aqueduct, an artificial channel or con¬ 
duit for the conveyance of water from one 
place to another; more particularly applied 
to structures for conveying water from dis¬ 
tant sources for the supply of large cities. 
Works for supplying communities with 
water must have been constructed at a very 
early period. In China there are said to be 
aqueducts dating back to prehistoric times. 
In Persia and Assyria there are structures, 
the remains of which indicate that they were 
used for aqueducts, but their history is not 
clear. Recent excavations at Jerusalem have 
laid bare wells and channels cut in the solid 
rock, and indicate that the water supply 
of the city was brought from the neighbor¬ 
hood of Bethlehem and Hebron. These chan¬ 
nels seem to have been composed of earthen 
pipes incased in stones, and covered with 
rough rocks cemented together. It is sup¬ 
posed that King Solomon built aqueducts; 
others are ascribed to Ramses the Great, in 
Egypt, and to Semiramis in Assyria. There 
are also early remains at Palmyra in the 
wilderness. In the Island of Samos have 
recently been discovered remains of a tun¬ 
nel nearly a mile long and containing water 
pipes about 9 inches in diameter. These 
may have been built in 687 b. c., bv 
Eupalinos of Megara. Water was brought 
to Athens from Mt. Hymettos and Mt. 
Pentelikon; Thebes, Megara, Pharsalos, 
and other places also had aqueducts. In 
Patara, a city of Lycia, in Asia Minor, 
there is a very ancient aqueduct, consisting 
of an embankment of rough stone 250 feet 
high and 200 feet long, with an archway 
at the center of the valley, allowing the 
stream to pass through it underneath. The 
channels for the water consist of cubical 
stone blocks about a yard in dimension, with 
a hole 13 inches in diameter, the blocks be¬ 
ing closely connected and cemented together. 

The Aqueducts at Rome .— For 442 years 
Rome was satisfied with water from the 
Tiber, from wells and from the abundant 
springs which gushed forth within its pre¬ 
cincts. The first aqueduct was the joint 
work of Appius Claudius Cjecus and Caius 
Plautius Venox, censors in 312 n. c. Ap¬ 
pius Claudius built the conduit, Venox dis¬ 
covered the springs. The entire length of 



Aqueduct 


Aqueduct 


the aqueduct was 10,445 meters, or about 
10 miles, and it furnished 115,303 cubic 
meters a day. The second aqueduct was be¬ 
gun in 272 b. c., by Manius Curius Den- 
tatus, and was finished three years later. 
Its length was 03,704 meters, or about 45 
miles, and it furnished 277,800 cubic meters 
a day; it was not used for urinking, but for 
irrigating gardens and flushing drains. In 
144 b. o. the Senate determined to repair 
the two old aqueducts and build a new one. 
This work was begun by Quintus Marcius 
Rex. The Marcian aqueduct brought the 
water from 30 miles away in the territory 
of Arsoli, and fed water to the highest plat¬ 
form of the capitol. It was restored in 33 

b. c., and Augustine 
doubled the supply 
of water in 5 b. c. 
In 79 a. n., Titus 
repaired it; in 19G 
Septimus Severus 
brought in a new 
supply for his baths; 
in 212-213 Caracal- 
la cleaned out the 
springs, added a new 
AQUEDUCT OF Claudius, one and restored the 

aqueduct, building a 
branch 4 miles in length for his baths; in 



305-300 Diocletian performed the same ser¬ 
vice. The viaducts and bridges by which it 
crossed the highlands are magnificent. 
There are seven bridges, some of them car¬ 
rying four aqueducts. The Marcian reaches 
Rome at the Porta Maggiore, where no less 
than 10 water supplies met. It was re¬ 
stored as recently as 1809, and brings a 
water supply from the Sabine Mountains. 
The noble arches which stretch across the 


Campagna for some 0 miles on the road to 
Frascati, are a portion of this aqueduct. 
The Aqua Tepula and Aqua Julia, combined 
by Agrippa in 33 b. c., had a length, the 
one of 17,745 meters, or 10 miles, the other 
of 22,853 meters, or about 12 miles, and a 
combined flow of 104,300 cubic meters a day. 
Of the nine aqueducts which brought water 
to ancient Rome, three still supply the mod¬ 
ern city, viz., the Aqua Virgo, now Acqua 
Vergine, finished by Agrippa, 27 b. c., and 
restored by Pope Nicholas V. in 1453; the 
Aqua Trajana, now Acqua Paolo; and the 
Aqua Marcia. 

The Romans also constructed important 
aqueducts for the cities throughout their 
empire. In 120 A. d., the Emperor Hadrian 
constructed the aqueduct of Saghuan, which 
supplied Carthage with water, bringing it 
by arched bridges of stone or concrete about 
60 miles. This aqueduct still supplies Tunis 
with water. Hannibal is said to have erected 
an aqueduct at Martorell, in Spain. The 
aqueduct of Alcantara, also in Spain, 
stretches over the Tajo, and is 125 feet high, 
with a span of over 100 feet. There are 


other Spanish aqueducts at Chelves, at 
Merida, over the A1 bareges, three stories 
high, and the aqueduct at Segovia, originally 
built by the Romans, which has in some 
parts two tiers of arcades 100 feet high, is 
2,921 feet in length, and is one of the most 
admired works of antiquity. The one at 
Evora, in Portugal, is still in excellent con¬ 
dition. One of the finest aqueducts in Eu¬ 
rope is the Pont du Gard, built in the 3d 
or 4th century, or possibly by Agrippa, 19 
b. c., at Nimes, in Southern France. It 
is still in a good state of preservation. It is 
higher than any about Rome itself, being 
fully 180 feet in height, and the length of 
its highest arcade is 873 feet. The bridge 
is composed of three tiers of arches, each 
less wide than the one below. It is ad¬ 
mirably constructed of large stones, and no 
cement was used except for the canal on 
the top. There is an aqueduct at Paris, 
built by Julian in 300 a. d. ; also a very 
important aqueduct at Constantinople, built 
by Hadrian and restored by Theodosius. 
Since 1885 the water has been furnished the 
city by an aqueduct built by a French com¬ 
pany, taking the supply from Lake Derkos, 
whence the water is pumped 358 feet into a 
reservoir. The ruins of an aqueduct exist 
at Mayence, and of another near Metz, Ger¬ 
many,. The aqueduct at Spoleto, Italy, is 
attributed by some to the East Gothic King 
Theodoric, in 500 a. n., and by others to 
Theodelapius, the third Duke of Spoleto, 
004 a. d. It is built of brick and rests be¬ 
tween two steep cliffs on 10 arches, and is 
290 feet in height and 231 yards in length. 
The ground plan is apparently Roman, while 
the pointed arches indicate a restoration in 
the 14th century. A window midway affords 
a view. 

There are many other important aque¬ 
ducts. One of the most remarkable is that 
constructed by Louis NIV., in 1084, to con¬ 
vey the waters of the Eure from Point Gouin 
to Versailles. Troops to the number of 
40,000 were employed in this great under¬ 
taking. Thousands of these men died dur¬ 
ing the progress of the work, which was in¬ 
terrupted during the war of 1088 and never 
resumed. The bridge at Maintenon, form¬ 
ing part of this aqueduct, even in its incom¬ 
plete state, is, in point of magnitude, the 
grandest structure of the kind in the world. 
The remains consist of 47 arches, each 42 
feet wide and 83 feet high. The piers are 
25 feet G inches thick. 

The first important aqueduct in England 
was built in 1013, to conduct the waters of 
the New river to London, over a distance of 
20 miles. Wooden aqueducts were first used, 
but were replaced by embankments. Very 
large works were constructed during nine 
yqars, ending in 1877, to bring water from 
Longdendale, between Sheffield and "Manches¬ 
ter, to the latter city. In this instance the 

















Aqueduct 


Aquila 


aqueducts consist for the most part of tun¬ 
nel and covered conduit, but for 8 miles the 
water is conveyed in large cast iron pipes 
laid along or under the public roads. Before 
the Longdendale works were finished, the 
question of a greater supply had to be consid¬ 
ered. This led to the adoption of the scheme 
for bringing water from Lake Thirlmere in 
Cumberland to Manchester. The length of the 
line is nearly 100 miles, and the works were 
carried out in 1885-1804. A tunnel, about 3 
miles in length and 270 feet below the sur¬ 
face, forms the first part of the aqueduct. 
The distance is close on 100 miles (95% to 
Prestwich reservoir)—13% in tunnels, 38 
in shallow tunnels cut from the surface, and 
44% miles in siphon pipes of 40 inches’ diam¬ 
eter. The aqueduct passes under Dunmail 
Raise, N. of Grasmere, Ambleside, Winder- 
mere, and Kendal, to the E. of Lancaster 
and Preston, across the rivers Lune and 
Ribble, past Chorley, and W. of Bolton. 
The ultimate supply is 50,000,000 gallons 
daily; the cost, $21,500,000. 

In Scotland, the Loch Katrine aqueduct 
supplies Glasgow with water coming from 
a distance of 26 miles. An aqueduct was 
built in 1738, conducting water for a dis¬ 
tance of about 9 miles into the city of Lis¬ 
bon. For a part of the way it is under¬ 
ground, but near the city is carried over a 
deep valley for a distance of 2,400 feet, on 
several arches, the largest of which has a 
span of 115 feet, and is 250 feet high. The 
aqueduct of Caserta was built in 1573, by 
Vanvitelli, by order of Charles III. and his 
son, for the purpose of supplying the gar¬ 
dens of Caserta with water from Monte 
Taburno, a distance of 25 miles. It now con¬ 
ducts the water to Naples and crosses 20 
valleys; the last 15 miles the water is 
carried in iron pipes. The Canal de Mar¬ 
seilles, 57 miles in length, conveys water 
from the River Burance to Marseilles, and 
is a magnificent specimen of French en¬ 
gineering. It was finished in 1847. At 
Roquefavour, it crosses a valley on a bridge, 
the length of which is 1,290 feet; its height 
is 270 feet. The Vienna aqueduct is nearly 
60 miles long, and was finished in 1873. At 
several places in its course there are ex¬ 
tensive aqueduct-bridges, built either en¬ 
tirely of stone or stone and brick. This 
aqueduct supplies 20,000,000 gallons of 
water per day. 

There are a number of important aque¬ 
ducts in America. For 125 years, the city 
of Otumba, in Mexico, received its supply 
of water through the aqueduct of Zem- 
poala, which, however, has not been used 
since 1700, though the aqueduct is said to 
be in almost perfect condition. It is 27 
miles long. New York is supplied with 
water from Croton river, which falls into 
the Hudson above Sing Sing. The first 
aqueduct was constructed between the 


years 1837 and 1842, is 38 miles long, with 
a general declivity of 13% inches to the 
mile, and is 8 feet 5 inches in height, and 7 
feet 8 inches in greatest breadth. Stone 
brick, and cement are used for the encasing 
masonry. When the conduit reaches the 
Harlem river, the water is conveyed in iron 
pipes over a splendid bridge, 150 feet above 
the river. 

An aqueduct for supplying Boston with 
water was first built in 1846-1848, and ex¬ 
actly 30 years later a new aqueduct was 
built from the Sudbury river to Boston, and 
was carried across the Charles river and 
Waban valley by two fine bridges. As the 
supply of water did not prove sufficient for 
the growth of the city, a large reservoir was 
built, taking a large part of the town of 
Boylston, Mass., so that it was supposed the 
supply of water, when the valley was filled, 
would suffice for many years to come. 

Aqueous Humor, the limpid watery fluid 
which fills the space between the cornea and 
the crystalline lens in the eye. 

Aqueous Rocks, mechanically formed 
rocks, composed by matter deposited by water. 
Called also sedimentary or stratified rocks. 

Aquifoliaceae (ak-we-fo-le-as'e-I), holly- 
worts, an order of monopetalous plants, 
ranked by Bindley under his gentianal al¬ 
liance. It consists of trees or shrubs with 
coriaceous leaves, small axillary flowers, and 
fleshy indehiscent fruit with from two to 
six seeds. The common holly, ilex aqui- 
folium, is the type of the order. In 1846 
Bindley estimated the number of known 
species at 110. 

Aquifoliaceae, a natural order of plants; 
the holly tribe. The species consist of trees 
and shrubs, and the order includes the com¬ 
mon holly (ilex aquifolium ) and the I. 
Paraguay ensis, or Paraguayan tea tree. 

Aquila (ak-weda), a town of Italy, on the 
Pescara river, near the Apennines, 58 miles 
N. E. of Rome; is the capital of the prov¬ 
ince of Aquila, and is strongly fortified. It 
is noted for its manufactures of wax, linen, 
paper, and its trade in saffron, which is 
largely cultivated in the adjacent territory. 
Here are several chuiv^os of much interest. 
The town suffered much injury by earth¬ 
quakes in 1688, 1703, and 1706. It has a 
citadel, constructed in 1534. Emperor Fred¬ 
erick II. built Aquila on or in the vicinity 
of the ancient site of Amiternum, about 
1240. Pop. 19,027. 

Aquila, a. native of Pontus, flourished 
about 130 A. n., celebrated for his exceed¬ 
ingly close and accurate translation of the 
Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. 

Aquila, Kaspar, a German Protestant 
theologian, born in Bavaria, Aug. 7, 1488; 
assisted Luther in the translation of the 
Old Testament; became pastor at Saalfeld 
in 1527; was outlawed by Charles V. in 




Aquileja 


Aquinas 


1548; fled the country; and after 1552 re¬ 
turned to Saalfeld, -where he died Nov. 15, 
1560. 



Aquileja (ak-il-a'ya), Aglar, or Aqui= 
leia, an old town of Austria, 22 miles W. 
N. W. of Trieste. It is in the shore prov¬ 
inces, near the Gulf of Venice. Before the 
fall of the Homan empire, it was the great 
emporium of trade between the north and 
south of Europe, and was often called the 
“ Second Rome.” Caesar Augustus frequently 
resided here, and several councils of the 
Church, the first in 381, were held here. In 
the 6th century, the title of Patriarch was 
taken by the bishops of Aquileja, who as¬ 
sumed second rank to the Pope. The town 
was destroyed by Attila in 452, when the in¬ 
habitants numbered 100,000. Pop. about 
2 , 000 . 

Aquinas,Thomas (ak-wl'nas,) or Thomas 
of Aquino, the prince of scholastic theol¬ 
ogians, was of the family of the Counts of 
Aquino, and was born about 1226, in the 
castle of Rocca Secca, near Aquino, a small 
town half-way between Rome and Naples. 
He received the rudiments of his education 
from the Benedictine monks of Monte- 
Casino, and completed his studies at the 
University of Naples. A strong inclination 
to solitude and the religious life determined 
him, against the will of his family, to enter 
(1243) the order of Preaching Friars 
founded by St. Dominic, who had been dead 
22 years. In order to frustrate the attempts 
of his mother to remove him from the con¬ 
vent, he was sent away from Naples, first 
to Rome and then to Paris; but his brothers 
took him by force from his conductors, and 
carried him to the paternal castle. Here he 
was guarded as a prisoner for two years, 
when, by the help of the Dominicans, he con¬ 
trived to escape, and went through France 
to the Dominican Convent at Cologne, in 
order to enjoy the instructions of the fa¬ 
mous Albertus Magnus. According to 
another account, he owed his release from 
confinement to the interference of the Em¬ 


peror and the Pope. At Cologne he pursued 
his studies in such silence that his com¬ 
panions gave him the name of the “ Dumb 
Ox.” But Albert is said to have predicted 
“ that this ox would one day fill the world 
with his bellowing.” In 1248, being 22 years 
of age, he was appointed by the general 
chapter of his order to teach at Cologne, to¬ 
gether with his old master, Albert. He 
now began to publish his first works, com¬ 
mentaries on the ethics and the philosophy 
of Aristotle. In 1252 he was sent to Paris. 
His masterly application of this philosophy 
to the systematizing of theology, soon pro¬ 
cured him a distinguished reputation. It 
was not, however, till 1257 that Aquinas 
and his friend St. Bonaventura, the Fran¬ 
ciscan, obtained their degree of doctor, as 
the University of Paris, under the influence 
of William de St. Amour, was hostile to the 
mendicant friars. He vindicated the prin¬ 
ciples of these orders in an important work; 
and, in a disputation in presence of the Pope, 
procured the condemnation of the books of 
his adversaries. He continued to lecture 
with great applause in Paris, till Urban IV., 
in 1261, called him to Italy to teach in 
Rome, Bologna, and Pisa. It was at this 
time he composed most of his great works. 

Even during his life, Aquinas enjoyed the 
highest consideration in the Church. His 
voice carried decisive weight with it; and 
his scholars called him the “ Angel of the 
Schools,” or “ Angelic Doctor.” A general 
chapter of Dominicans in Paris made it 
obligatory on the members of the order to 
defend his doctrines. Both Urban IV. and 
his successor, Clement IV., who were much 
attached to Aquinas, pressed upon him 
the highest ecclesiastical dignities in vain. So 
great was his modesty, and his love of pov¬ 
erty and study, that he refused the Arch¬ 
bishopric of Naples. The works of Aquinas 
are all written in Latin. The most impor¬ 
tant of them is the “ Summa Theologiae,” 
which, though only professing to treat of 
theology, is in reality designed to form a 
complete and systematic summary of the 
knowledge of the time. As all things pro¬ 
ceeded from God, every branch of knowledge 
was regarded by Aquinas and the school¬ 
men generally as a part of the knowledge of 
God. which man can not hope to compre¬ 
hend completely. 

Like most of the other scholastic theolo¬ 
gians, he had no knowledge of Greek or He¬ 
brew, and was almost equally ignorant of 
history; but his numerous writings display 
an intellectual power of the highest order. 
He gave a new and scientific foundation to 
many doctrines of his Church, especially 
that of transubstantiation. He also treated 
Christian morals according to an arrange¬ 
ment of hjs own, and with a comprehensive¬ 
ness that procured him the title of the 
“ Father of Moral Philosophy.” The defi- 






Aquinas 


Arabella Stuart 


mteness, clearness, and completeness of his 
method of handling theology were such that 
his “ Summa Theologiae,” which may be said 
to be the first attempt at a complete theol¬ 
ogical system, remains to this day substan¬ 
tially the standard authority in the Roman 
Church. Another important work of 
Aquinas is his “ Summa Contra Gentiles,” 
which deals chiefly with the principles of 
natural religion. His commentaries on 
Scripture and devotional treatises also have 
a high reputation. His influence on the 
theological thought of succeeding ages was 
immense. At the Council of Trent, the 
“ Summa ” was honored with a place on the 
table by the side of the Bible. It was at 
Bologna that he began this, his greatest work, 
by which his name will always be connected, 
but which he never lived to complete. A 
legend tells how, when engaged in fervent 
prayer, regarding this book, he heard the 
words from his crucifix: “Thou hast writ¬ 
ten well of Me, Thomas: what reward dost 
thou ask?” and he answered, “None other 
but Thyself, 0 Lord.” On Dec. G, 1273, he 
was writing at Naples the 90th question of 
the third part of the “ Summa,” when weak¬ 
ness of health compelled him to break off 
his studies. But Gregory X., who had called 
a general council to effect the union of the 
Greek and Latin Churches, summoned 
Aquinas to defend the papal cause at Lyons, 
where the council was to meet on May 1, 
1274. He set out, though suffering from 
fever, and was surprised by death on the 
road at the Cistercian abbey of Fossa-Nuova, 
March 7, 1274. All Europe mourned his 
loss. Miracles were said to be wrought at 
his funeral. Universities, religious orders, 
and princes contended for the honor of pos¬ 
sessing his body. It was finallv bestowed by 
the Pope on Toulouse, where it was received 
by 150,000 persons, headed by Louis, Duke 
of Anjou. Aquinas was canonized by John 
XXII. in 1323, and proclaimed a “Doctor 
of the Church,” by Pius V. in 1507. 

The only scholastic theologian who in any 
degree rivaled Aquinas in his own age, was 
the so called “ Subtle Doctor,” Duns Scotus, 
of the order of St. Francis. The Franciscans 
naturallv followed Scotus, and the Domin- 
icans Thomas, and henceforward medieval 
theologians were divided into two schools, 
Scotists and Thomists. The divergencies 
which penetrate more or less every branch 
of doctrine depend upon the different sys¬ 
tems of metaphysics or scholastic philosophy 
upon which the theologies were based. The 
differences concerned the idea of God, the 
operations of grace and of justification, the 
mode in which the sacraments take effect, 
etc. Popularly, Scotism is best known for 
its advocacy of the Immaculate Conception 
of Mary, and for the doctrine, with which 
it is remotely connected, that the Incarna¬ 
tion would have taken place (though of 


course without suffering or death) if Adam 
had not sinned. The more recondite pecu¬ 
liarities of Scotist theology and philosophy 
are now almost entirely confined to the the¬ 
ologians of the Franciscan order. On the 
other hand, Thomism represents, with few 
exceptions, the general teaching of the Cath¬ 
olic Church. The school is now not so much 
opposed by the Scotists as by the eclectic 
school of Jesuit theology. The first com¬ 
plete edition of Aquinas’ works was pub¬ 
lished in 17„ volumes folio, at Rome, in 1570. 
They have been frequently reprinted, the 
latest and best edition having been begun in 
1883, under the auspices of Leo XIII. The 
most convenient edition of the “Summa” 
is that of Migne (four volumes). St. 
Thomas was the author of the famous 
“ Pange Lingua,” and other eucharistic 
hymns of the Roman Breviary. (See the 
“ Life of St. Thomas of Aquin,” by the Very 
Rev. R. B. Vaughan, O. S. B., and works by 
Otten, Lecoultre, and Eucken.) 

Aquitania (ak-we-ta'nera), later Aqui= 
taine, a Roman province in Gaul, which 
comprehended the countries on the coast 
from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and from 
the sea to Toulouse. It was brought into 
connection with England by the marriage of 
Henry IT. with Eleanor, daughter of the 
last Duke of Aquitaine. The title to the 
province was for long disputed by England 1 
and France, but it was finally secured by 
the latter (1453). 

Arabah, a deep, rocky valley or depres¬ 
sion in Northwestern Arabia, between the 
Dead Sea and Gulf of Akabali, a sort of con¬ 
tinuation of the Jordan Valley. 

Arabella Stuart, commonly called the 
Lady Arabella, was the only child of Charles 
Stuart, Earl of Lennox, younger brother to 
Henry, Lord Darnley, the husband of Mary. 
Queen of Scots. She was, therefore, cousin- 
german to James I., to whom, previously 
to his having issue, she was next in the line 
of succession to the crown of England, being 
the granddaughter of Henry VII. by the 
second marriage of his eldest daughter Mar¬ 
garet. Her proximity to the throne was the 
source of her misfortune. Elizabeth, for 
some time before her decease, held the Lady 
Arabella under restraint, and refused the 
request of the King of Scotland to give her 
in marriage to the Duke of Lennox, with a 
view to remove her from England. The de¬ 
tection of a plot of some English nobles to 
set aside James in favor of Arabella, of 
which she was altogether innocent, ulti¬ 
mately proved her destruction; for, although 
left at liberty for a time, when it was after¬ 
ward discovered that she was secretly mar¬ 
ried to the grandson of the Earl of Hertford, 
both husband and wife were committed to 
the Tower. After a year’s imprisonment, 
they contrived to escape, but the unhappy 
lady was retaken. Retoanded to the Tower, 




Arabesque 


Arabia 


the remainder of her life was spent in close 
confinement. She died in 1G15, aged 38 
years. 

Arabesque (ar-a-besk'), a style of orna¬ 
mentation in which are represented men, 
animals (the latter consisting of mythic as 
well as actual forms) ; plants, with leaves, 
flowers, and fruit; mathematical figures, 
etc.; the whole put together in a whimsical 
way, so that, for instance, the animals not 
merely rest upon the plants, but grow out of 
them like blossoms. There are three kinds 



ARABESQUE ARCHWAY. 

of arabesque: (1) (and oldest), that of 
the Romans, without the animals. They oc¬ 
cur in the mural paintings at Pompeii, Her¬ 
culaneum, and other places. (2) That of 
the Arabs, also without the animals. This 
is well seen in the Alhambra. (3) The 
Christian arabesque, with the figures intro¬ 
duced. It appears in illuminated medieval 
manuscripts and elsewhere. 

Arabia, the extreme S. W. part of Asia, 
called by the natives Jeziret el Arab, that 
is, the Peninsula of the Arabs; and by the 
Turks and Persians, Arabistan. Arabia is 
encompassed on three sides by the sea, 
namely, on the N. E. by the Persian Gulf, 
on the S. E. by the Indian Ocean, and on 
the S. W. by the Red Sea. Its extreme S. 
point, Ras-Arah (the Cape St. Anthony of 
some maps), lies in lat. 12° 35' N.; Ion. 44° 
4' E. Thirty miles to the W. of it are the 
Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. The extreme E. 
point of Arabia, Ras-el-Had, stands in lat. 
22° 23' N.; Ion. GO 0 5' E. A line drawn 
from the head of the Gulf of Suez to that of 
the Persian Gulf, and marking the limits 
of the Arabian peniusula on the N., will be 
found to run nearly in the 30th parallel of 
N. latitude, but a portion of what is con¬ 
sidered Arabia extends N. of this. Arabia 
includes also the peninsula of Sinai, be¬ 
tween the Gulf of Suez and that of Akabah. 
The whole area of the vast country thus de¬ 
scribed does not probably fall much short of 
1,000,000 square miles. 


Divisions .— According to Ptolemy, an¬ 
cient Arabia consisted of Arabia Petraea, 
Arabia Deserta, and Arabia Felix, a divi¬ 
sion which has likewise been followed in 
modern times, but which is both founded 
on erroneous principles, and unwarranted 
by the example of the inhabitants of the 
country. The name of Arabia Felix, or 
Arabia the Happy, is derived from an incor¬ 
rect translation of the word Yemen, which 
does not signify happy, but the country 
lying to the right of Mecca, in the same 
manner as the Arabic term for Syria, Al- 
Sham, denotes the country lying to the left 
of that city. Arabia Petraea likewise has 
been erroneously translated Stony Arabia, 
the epithet Petraea having been bestowed on 
it by Ptolemy, from the once flourishing 
city of Petra. 

The first of the divisions met with in 
proceeding down the Red Sea is Hejaz, 
which, as it includes the sacred cities Mecca 
and Medina, is always set forth conspicu¬ 
ously by Arab geographers. It extends a 
short way within the mountain barrier, and 
terminates in the S. in about lat. 20° N. 
Next comes Yemen, which, according to 
some writers, embraces the whole of South 
Arabia; but the name is now generally used 
in a confined sense, Yemen proper occupy¬ 
ing the S. W. part of the peninsula, and 
comprising a Tehama or maritime lowland 
on the shores of the Red Sea, with an ele¬ 
vated inland district of considerable 
breadth. It contains the towns of Sana and 
Mocha. Appertaining to Y 7 emen is Aden, 
now a free port in the hands of tne British. 
Next Yemen, on the E., is Hadramaut, the 
\V. portion of which is a desert five days’ 
journey in length. The limits of this prov¬ 
ince are, however, variously assigned by au¬ 
thors, some extending the name to almost 
the whole of the S. E. coast, while others 
confine it to a district only 100 miles in 
length. Beyond Hadramaut, in the latter 
narrower sense, lies Mahrah, beyond which 
again extends the principality of Shejer or 
Shehr, at the E. termination of which, near 
the coast, is the populous district of Dhofar, 
which has occasionally figured as an inde¬ 
pendent State. At the E. angle of the 
peninsula is situated Oman. On ‘ the S. 
shores of the Persian Gulf is Bahrein, from 
which, toward the head of the gulf, extends 
the maritime district of Ha jar, while at a 
short distance S. W. in the interior lies the 
fertile district of El-Ahsa, the name of 
which is sometimes also given to the coast. 
The interior of Arabia, from Hejaz and 
Yemen across to the vicinity of the Persian 
Gulf, is comprised oy Arab geographers, 
under the single name of Nejed. Toward 
the N. W. and N. are the deserts of Sinai, 
and those of Sham, Jezireh, and Irak 
(Syria, Mesopotamia, and Babylon). The 
two most populous districts are Yemen and 
Oman. 


































Arabia 


Arabia 


Climate. — The climate of Arabia resem¬ 
bles that of Africa. The mountains ob¬ 
struct the mitigating influence of the sea 
breeze; scorching aridity and barrenness 
characterize both high and low grounds, 
and the date palm is often the only represen¬ 
tative of vegetable existence. There are 
even districts which in the course of the 
year are refreshed by only one shower of 
rain, while a sky almost perpetually un¬ 
clouded overspreads the sterile plains. The 
short rainy season, which, in consequence 
of the shifting winds prevailing in the Red 
Sea, visits the W. coasts in our summer 
months, fills with water, but only periodic¬ 
ally, the depressions in the surface or wadis, 
and a winter marked by slight frosts oc¬ 
curs in the table-lands of the interior and 
N. E. The simoom occasionally blows dur¬ 
ing the hot season, though only in the N. 
districts. 

Productions .— Arabia is destitute of 
large forests, and extensive plains of green 
turf have their place supplied by steppe-like 
tracts, which, however, covered with aro¬ 
matic herbs, afford excellent pasture to 
noble breeds of horses. The terrace portions 
of the country, which enjoy a more tem¬ 
perate climate, exhibit a greater luxuriance 
of vegetation. Here the date and cocoanut 
palms and various excellent sorts of fruit 
flourish along with durra (a species of mil¬ 
let which is here generally cultivated in¬ 
stead of European corn), the finest coffee 
in the world (the staple commercial product 
of the country), and many aromatic plants 
and substances, such as gum-arabic, benzoin, 
mastic, balsam, aloes, myrrh, frankincense, 
etc. There are also cultivated in different 
parts of the peninsula, according to the 
nature of the soil and climate, beans, rice, 
lentils, tobacco, melons, saffron, coiocynths, 
poppies, olives, the kath bush (Catha or 
Celastrus edulis ), the leaves of which are 
in general use, like those of the coca in 
Peru, as an excitant, sesame, the castor oil 
plant, etc. In its fauna also, as correspond¬ 
ing with the desert nature of the country, 
Arabia presents much of an African type. 
Sheep, goats, and oxen supply man’s imme¬ 
diate domestic and personal wants; the 
horse and camel are his faithful attendants 
on his wide peregrinations; asses and mules, 
of a stronger make and better appearance 
than those of Europe, are common in the 
mountainous districts;, the desert is in¬ 
habited by gazelles and ostriches hurrying 
rapidly from oasis to oasis; and the lion, 
panther, hyena, and jackal crouch in ambush 
for the passing prey. Monkeys, pheasants, 
and doves are the peaceful occupants of the 
fertile districts, in which, however, locusts 
frequently commit tremendous havoc. There 
are several species of serpents and lizards, 
and scorpions and poisonous spiders are nu¬ 
merous. Fish and turtles abound on the 
coasts, and pearl oysters in the Persian 


Gulf. Among mineral products may be 
mentioned saltpeter, mineral pitch, and pe¬ 
troleum, which are found in the interior 
highlands, salt, sulphur (in Hadramaut), 
and several precious stones, as the car- 
nelian, agate, and onyx. Iron, copper, and 
lead are far from abundant, and the country 
is also poor in the precious metals. 

Population .— The population of Arabia 
has been estimated by some at 12,000,000, 
by others at no more than 4,000,000. The 
former number is certainly too high, and 
it is believed that between 5,000,000 and 
G,000,000 is near the truth. The Arabs 
present, as a nation and as individuals, 
much that is peculiar both in their mental 
and physical development. They are of mid¬ 
dle stature, of a powerful make, and have a 
skin of a brownish color. Their features 
express dignity and pride; they are natur¬ 
ally active, intelligent, and courteous; and 
their character is marked by temperance, 
bravery, and hospitality, along with a 
strong propensity for poetry. On the other 
hand, they are revengeful in their disposi¬ 
tion and predatory in their habits. The 
women have the entire education of the chil¬ 
dren in their early years. The most for¬ 
tunate events in the estimation of an Arab 
are the birth of a camel, a mare of noble 
breed bringing forth a foal, or a triumph 
achieved by a poet. The first religion of 
the Arabs, the worship of the stars, was sup¬ 
planted by the doctrines of Mohammedan¬ 
ism, which succeeded rapidly in establishing 
itself throughout Arabia. Besides the two 
principal sects of Islam, the Sunnites (the 
most numerous) and the Shiites (on the E. 
coast), there also exists, in very consider¬ 
able numbers, a third sect, the Wahabees, 
which arose in the latter half of the 18th 
century, and to which the Bedouins of Nejed 
belong. There are also numerous Jews, who 
dwell among the Arabians, and are chiefly 
employed in trade. 

The whole of the W. coast, comprising 
the districts of Hejaz and Yemen, and in 
quite recent times part of the E. coast, 
namely the republic of Koweit at the head 
of the Persian Gulf, and the district of El 
Ahsa, are more or less under the suzerainty 
of the Turks. The area of the W. strip is 
about 200,000 square miles in extent, and 
has a population of about 1,130,000; while 
the E. strip has an area of about 31,000 
square miles and a population of about 200,- 
000. Even in these districts, however, the 
chief offices of government are performed 
by the chieftains of the small territories 
into which the districts are subdivided. 
The most extensive districts politically 
united in the rest of Arabia are the king¬ 
doms of Oman and Nejed, the former with 
an area of 81,000 square miles, and a popu¬ 
lation of 1,598,000; the latter (the kingdom 
of the Wahabees) with an area of perhaps 




Arabia 


Arabia 


200,000 square miles, and a population of 
about 1,219,000. 

The mode of life of the Arabs is either 
nomadic or settled, or in other words, they 
either live in tents and derive their sub¬ 
sistence from the rearing of cattle, wherever 
sufficient pasture is obtainable, and from 
the transport of caravans through the 
desert; or from the pursuits of agriculture 
and commerce. The nomadic tribes in Ara¬ 
bia are termed Bedouins, Beduins, or Be- 
dawins; those following settled occupations, 
Hadji and Fellahs. A considerable trade, 
partly overland, partly maritime, is carried 
on, chiefly in coffee, dates, figs, spices, and 
aromatic substances of various kinds, 
though the present amount of traffic is 
scarcely a shadow of what it was in the 
times previous to the discovery of the 
passage by the Cape of Good Hope. Com¬ 
merce is partly in the hands of foreigners, 
among whom the Jews and Banians are the 
most numerous. The latter are a tribe of 
Indian merchants, who, however, only re¬ 
main long enough in the country to enable 
them to return with wealth to their own 
land. At present the trade of Arabia is 
almost exclusively confined to exports of 
raw material or imports of foreign manu¬ 
factures, domestic industry being scarcely 
able to supply the most necessary articles of 
consumption, and the inhabitants are thus 
rendered dependent on foreign nations for 
the greater portion of their manufactured 
commodities. The period of intellectual de¬ 
velopment among the Arabs is now indeed 
long past its zenith, but it does not appear 
yet to have sunk so low as is often assumed. 
Even in the desert children are taught to 
read, write, and cipher, and in the towns 
there are higher schools for satisfying the 
taste for scientific pursuits. The political 
constitution of the Arabs is patriarchal, and 
is based on a love of freedom. The titles 
of the chiefs of the tribes are emir, sheikh, 
or imam, whose functions appear in general 
to be limited to tbe command of the army 
in war, the collection of tribute, and the ad¬ 
ministration of law by the cadis or judges. 

History .— The history of the Arabs prev¬ 
ious to Mohammed is obscure, and owing 
to their slight connection with the rest of 
the world of little interest. The evidence 
of language, tradition, and other things, 
establishes the fact that Arabia must have 
been settled at a very early date by two 
branches of one race. One of these branches 
inhabits the S. and E. of the peninsula 
(Yemen, Hadramaut, and Oman), and con¬ 
siders itself as forming the “ pure ” Arabs, 
while the other branch it gives the name of 
Mostareb, or “ Arabified.” The oldest tradi¬ 
tions regarding the origin of the former 
branch point to an immigration from Africa, 
which took place about the S. W. corner of 
the peninsula, and the physical appearance 
and structure of the Southern Arabs, the 


remnants of their dialect (which is now 
superseded by that of the N. branch), and 
various institutions and customs prevailing 
in the parts of Arabia inhabited by them, 
all confirm the notion that they were origi¬ 
nally identical with the nearest inhabitants 
of Africa. The 1ST. branch, on the other 
hand, though bearing an unmistakable af¬ 
finity with the S., shows (in its language 
and other respects) more traces of Asiatic 
than African influence. 

The Arabs of the S. branch were the first 
to attain to any considerable political 
power. A kingdom belonging to this branch 
is said to have existed in the S. for upward 
of 2,000 years, embracing when in a flourish¬ 
ing condition, the whole of the S. half of the 
peninsula, and sometimes extending its 
boundaries by conquest very much farther. 
There is no doubt that there actually was 
such a kingdom, called the kingdom of 
Yemen, and having its capital first (it is 
said) at March, and afterward at Sana, 
both in the district of that name; but how 
long that kingdom subsisted cannot be de- 
termined. Its kings belonged to the Him- 
yarite dynasty, but this designation Him- 
yarite is sometimes applied by Arab writers 
to the ruling classes of the S. branch, and 
sometimes to the whole branch. The /emen- 
ite kingdom was rendered subject by the 
Abyssinians for upward of 70 yeais in the 
0th century of the Christian era, during 
which period Christianity was proclaimed 
in the land. Ultimately the heir to the 
throne of the Himyarite dynasty was re¬ 
stored through the assistance of Chosroes, 
King of Persia (605 A. D.). but about 30 
years later the kingdom was finally over¬ 
thrown by the followers of Mohammed. An¬ 
other Himyarite kingdom was that of Hira 
on the W. shore of the Lower Euphrates. 
It seems also to have extended at times to 
the region between the Euphrates and the 
Tigris, so as to give the name of Irak Arabi 
to that district. The dates given for the 
foundation of this kingdom are widely dif¬ 
ferent. Its overthrow is placed in the 5th 
century of our era. In the 1st century of 
the Christian era the Himyarite kingdom of 
Ghassan was founded in Lower Syria and 
Hejaz. It lasted till the time of Moham¬ 
med. The last Himyarite kingdom that need 
be mentioned is that of Kindeh, which de¬ 
tached itself from that of Hira early in the 
3d century, and lasted about 100 years. Its 
sway extended over Northern Nejed. The 
divided forces of the Arabs could not always 
successfully resist the Roman arms, and 
though their country was never completely 
reduced to the condition of a province, yet 
the princes in the N. at least lived in a 
state of dependence on the Roman emperors, 
and were regarded as their viceroys. In 
the S. the Romans had no influence. An 
expedition was fitted out against Yemen in 
the reign of Augustus (24 b. c.), but it 



Arabia 


Arabia 


completely miscarried. With the decline of 
the Roman empire Arabia made vigorous 
struggles for independence, which could 
easily have been brought about by a union 
of the various tribes. But the Arabian peo¬ 
ples continued dispersed and broken, and 
passed many centuries in internal conflicts, 
during which the central highlands (Nejed) 
became the theater of those chivalrous con¬ 
tests so celebrated by the native poets. 
Christianity early gained many adherents 
in Arabia, though it did not succeed in en¬ 
tirely banishing the ancient worship of the 
stars. Several Christian bishoprics were 
established, subject to the metropolitan at 
Bozra, in Palestine. The town of Elhira, 
near the Euphrates, contained many Ara¬ 
bian Christians and convents, and the reign¬ 
ing king, Ennoman-ben-el-mondsir, became a 
convert to Christianity not long before the 
time of Mohammed. The conflict of the 
Arabs with Roman despotism was more es¬ 
pecially the cause of attracting to their 
country numbers of Christian sects, among 
others the Monophysites and Nestorians, 
who sought a refuge from the persecutions 
to which they were subjected by the main- 
tainers of orthodoxy throughout the East. 
Jews also were very numerous in Arabia 
after the destruction of Jerusalem, and even 
made s.ome proselytes, chiefly in Yemen. 
The wide differences between the various 
sects produced in the minds of many an in¬ 
difference to all the existing religions, and 
was probably one of the principal causes 
that the doctrines of Mohammed found so 
speedy an acceptance in Arabia. 

With Mohammed a new phase commences 
in the history of the Arabian peoples, who 
are wont to designate respectively the pe¬ 
riods before and after the appearance of the 
prophet as those of ignorance and knowl¬ 
edge. Mohammed belonged to the Mostareb, 
and among them to the tribe of Koreysh, 
which had occupied a position of great in¬ 
fluence in Arabia since the beginning of the 
5th century, when it managed by craft to 
obtain possession of the city of Mecca, which 
was not only a city of great commercial 
importance, but was regarded as sacred by 
the Arabs on account of its containing the 
Kaaba. 

During the whole of the 6th century 
the Mostareb generally were increasing in 
power, and by the beginning of the 7th, 
when Mohammed had grown to manhood, 
Tiey had absorbed the kingdom of Kindeh, 
ind had extended their sway at the expense 
of those of Yemen, Hira, and Ghassan. By 
the time of Mohammed’s death, in 632, his 
religion had acquired a firm hold in Arabia, 
and after that event his successors, acting 
on the commands of the Koran, began to 
spread it by force of arms beyond the bounds 
of the peninsula. The nation, now for the 
first time acting as a body, played for sev¬ 
eral centuries aii important part on the 


stage of the world’s history, and advanced 
in a career of victory beyond its natural 
frontiers, to found empires in three quarters 
of the globe. The brilliant period of Ara¬ 
bian history, indeed, as regards foreign 
countries, came to a termination in Asia 
in 1258, on the fall of the caliphate of Bag¬ 
dad, as also about the same time in Africa 
and Europe, in the latter of which the Moor¬ 
ish dominion was finally overthrown (in the 
kingdom of Granada in Spain) in the last 
decade of the 15th century; yet the epoch 
of the Arab sway must ever occupy a distin¬ 
guished place in the intellectual history of 
mankind. The internal history of the coun¬ 
try during its foreign conflicts presents 
little more than unimportant accounts of 
some Bedouin tribes, and the fortunes of 
the caravans, which made the annual pil¬ 
grimage to Mecca. In 1517 Turkey sub¬ 
jected ITejaz and Yemen, and received the 
nominal submission of the tribes inhabiting 
the rest of Arabia. The subjection of Hejaz 
has continued down to the present day, with 
a brief interval in the latter half of the 
16th century, and another longer interval 
in the 19th century, when the Pasha of 
Egypt was dominant in Arabia; but Yemen 
achieved its independence in 1630, and main¬ 
tained it till 1871, when the territory again 
fell into the hands of the Turks. In 1839 
Aden, in Yemen, was occupied by the Brit¬ 
ish. 

In the E. Oman became virtually inde¬ 
dependent of the caliphs in the middle of 
the 8th century, and grew into a well-or¬ 
ganized kingdom. In 1507, however, its 
capital, Mask'at or Muscat, was occupied by 
the Portuguese, who were not driven out 
till 1651. Oman was temporarily subju¬ 
gated by the Persians under Nadir Shah in 
the first half of the 18tli century. They 
were expelled by Saood, who was made 
Imam of Oman, and under whom it extended 
its sway over part of the opposite coast of 
Persia as well as the islands lying between 
and over the coast of Zanzibar. Since 1867 
the kingdom of Oman has been again con¬ 
fined to the mainland of Arabia. The ap¬ 
pearance of the Wahabees about the middle 
of the 18th century is the first event since 
the time of Mohammed that affected Arabia 
generally. The moral effects of this event 
exercise still a powerful influence; the po¬ 
litical were soon effaced by the ruler of 
the neighboring country of Egypt. Mehemet 
Ali, Pasha of Egypt, subdued the coast of 
Hejaz, as also several places on that of 
Yemen, and in 1818, by means of a great 
victory gained by Ibrahim Pasha, and the 
destruction of their capital city Derreyeh, 
put a stop to the further extension of the 
Wahabite power. He also expended large 
sums in the maintenance of his sway in Ara¬ 
bia, which secured to him the trade of the 
Red Sea, The events of 1840, however, in 




Arabia 


Arabia 


Syria, compelled him to concentrate his 
forces, and he soon found himself obliged, 
as thwarting the European line of policy, 
to renounce all claims to the territories ly¬ 
ing beyond a line drawn from the Dead Sea 
to the Gulf of Akabah. The Hejaz thus 
again became immediately subject to Turk¬ 
ish sway. Turkey has since extended its 
rule not only over Yemen as already men¬ 
tioned, but also over the district of El Ahsa 
on the Persian Gulf; but the extreme weak¬ 
ness of the Turkish empire scarcely war¬ 
rants the expectation that its tenure of 
power in Arabia will last very many years 
longer. 

Language .— The Arabic language belongs 
to the Semitic dialects, among which it is 
distinguished for its richness, softness, and 
high degree of development. By the spread 
of Islam it became the sole written language 
and the prevailing speech in all Southwest¬ 
ern Asia, and Eastern and Northern Africa, 
and for a time in Southern Spain, in Malta, 
and in Sicilv; and it is still used as a 
learned and sacred language wherever Islam 
is spread among people who in daily life 
speak Indian, Persian, or other languages. 
The study of Arabic is important not only 
on account of the wide area over which it is 
still spoken and the extensive literature it 
contains, but also because it is almost an 
indispensable preliminary to the study of 
some of the other languages of the East. 
Almost a third part of the Persian vocab¬ 
ulary consists of Arabic words, and there 
is the same proportion of Arabic in Turkish. 
A scientific treatment of the Hebrew lan¬ 
guage first became possible through compar¬ 
ing it with the Arabic. The characters origi¬ 
nally used in writing the Arabic language 
were borrowed from the old Syrian Estran- 
gelo alphabet, which, however, was very in¬ 
adequate for the purpose, having only 1G 
signs for the 28 Arabic consonants. This 
alphabet is now superseded by the Neski. 
As in all Semitic languages (except the 
Ethiopic) it is read from right to left. There 
are valuable Arabic grammars by Erpen 
(1613), De Sacy (1831), Ewald, Caspari, 
Wolff (2d ed. 1867) ; and in English by 
Wright (based on that of Caspari, but prac¬ 
tically a new work, London, 1874-1875), 
and Palmer (London, 1874). The great 
standard Arabic-English dictionary is that 
of Ed. W. Lane (continued by his nephew, 
Lane Poole, a most extensive work). Other 
valuable works are Richardson’s “ Persian- 
Arabic-English Dictionary”; Newman’s 
“Dictionary of Modern Arabic” (1871); 
Badger’s “ English-Arabic Dictionary ” 
(1881); and Salmone’s “Arabic-English 
Dictionary” (1890). 

Literature .— Of the first cultivation of 
the literature of this country we have but 
few accounts. That poetry early flourished 
in Arabia may be inferred from the charac¬ 
ter of the inhabitants, who are at the pres. 


ent day much given to poetry. In the fairs 
of Mecca and (from the 5th century after 
Christ) at Okadh, poetical contests were 
held, and the poems to which the prize was 
awarded were written on byssus in letters 
of gold, whence they were called Modsah- 
habat (gilt), and hung up on the wall of 
the sacred temple containing the kaaba at 
Mecca, on which account they also got the 
name of Moallakat (hungup). The collec¬ 
tion of the Moallakat contains seven poems 
by seven authors — Amr-ul-kais, Tarafa, 
Zohair, Lebid, Antar, Amr-ben-Ivelthum, 
and Hareth. They are distinguished by 
deep feeling, lofty imagination, richness of 
imagery and sentiment, national pride and 
love of freedom. Many other poems belong¬ 
ing to the time before Mohammed, some of 
equal age with those of the Moallakat, are 
also preserved in collections. The influ¬ 
ence of Mohammed gave a new direction to 
Arab poetry. The rules of faith and life 
which he laid down were collected by Abu- 
bekr, first caliph after his death, corrected 
and published by Othman, the third caliph, 
and constitute the Koran. The warlike 
times of Mohammed and the first caliphs, 
however, were not favorable to the cultiva¬ 
tion of literature. The progress of the Arabs 
in the arts and sciences may be said to have 
begun with the government of the caliphs 
of the family of the Abassides, a. d. 750, at 
Bagdad. 

Here Haroun al Rashid (786-808) in¬ 
vited learned men from all countries and 
paid them princely salaries. He caused 
the works of the most famous Greek writers 
to be translated into Arabic and spread 
abroad by numerous copies. Under the gov¬ 
ernment of Al Mamum (813-833) excellent 
schools were established at Bagdad, Bassora, 
Bokhara, Cufa, and large libraries at Alex¬ 
andria, Bagdad, and Cairo. The Caliph 
Motassem, who died a. d. 842, was of the 
same disposition, and while literature was 
thus favored by the dynasty of the Abas¬ 
sides in Bagdad, it received not less en¬ 
couragement from that of the Ommiades in 
Spain. t\ hat Bagdad was for Asia the uni¬ 
versity at Cordova was for Europe, where, 
particularly in the 10th century, the Ara¬ 
bians were the chief pillars of literature. 
At a time when learning found scarcely 
anywhere else a place of rest and encourage¬ 
ment, the Arabians employed themselves in 
collecting and diffusing it in the three great 
divisions of the world. In Spain were es¬ 
tablished numerous academies and schools, 
which were visited by students from other 
European countries; public libraries were 
collected, one of them said to contain 600,- 
000 volumes; and important works were 
written on geography, history, philosophy, 
medicine, physics, mathematics, and espe¬ 
cially on arithmetic, geometry, and astron¬ 
omy. There are a number of terms still in 
use, such as almanac, algebra, alcohol. 



Arabia 


Arabia 


azimuth, zenith, nadir, which were borrowed 
originally from the Arabs. 

Most of the geography in the Middle Ages 
is the work of the Arabians. Among their 
chief writers on geographical subjects are 
El-Istakhri (“Liber Climatum,” edited by 
Moller, Gotha, 1839), Abu-Ishak-al-Faresi, 
Ibn-Haukal, who wrote about 815, “ El- 
Edrisi,” 1150 (French translation published 
by Jaubert in 1830 at Paris), Yakuti, who 
died in 1249, and Abulfeda; and much that 
the most renowned among them, Abulfeda 
and Edrisi, have written, is still useful and 
important in regard to historical geography. 
Even more important than the geographical 
text-books are the descriptions of countries 
which were written by Arab travelers; such 
as those by Ibn-Foslan, who traveled in 
Russia in the 9th century; by Mohammed 
ibn-Batuta, who traveled in Africa, India, 
China, Russia, etc., in the 13th century; 
and by Leo Africanus, who traveled in 
Africa and Asia in the 15th century. 

The Arabian historians since the 8th cen¬ 
tury have been very numerous, though they 
have not yet been long enough known to 
European scholars to enable them to derive 
full advantage from them. The oldest 
known historian is Hesham Ben-Mohammed 
Al-Kelbi (died 819). Several other histo¬ 
rians lived in the same century. Masudi, 
the Persians Tabari and Hamsa of Ispahan, 
and the Christian patriarch Ibn el Batrik 
or Eutychius of Alexandria, were the first 
that attempted universal histories. These 
were followed by Abulfaraj and George El- 
makin, both Christians, Abulfeda, Nuvairi, 
Alfachri, and others. Native historians 
wrote on the history of the Arabs in Spain 
and in Mauretania; others, such as Abdul- 
latif and Makrisi, wrote on the history of 
Egypt; others compiled biographical dic¬ 
tionaries or wrote lives of individuals. The 
style of most of the historians is simple 
and void of ornament. Indeed their histo¬ 
ries are little more than voluminous chron¬ 
icles. 

The philosophy of the Arabians was of 
Greek origin and derived principally from 
that of Aristotle, who through them became 
known in Spain and thence in all the W. of 
Europe, having been translated from Arabic 
into Latin. Hence the origin of the scho¬ 
lastic philosophy may be traced to the 
Arabians. The Arabians seem to have be¬ 
come acquainted with the works of the 
Greek philosophers in Bagdad, where a 
knowledge of them w T as disseminated by the 
Nestorian Christians who had been expelled 
from Syria in the 5th century and found 
refuge and patronage in Persia. During the 
8th and 9th centuries numerous versions of 
the principal works of Aristotle were made 
into Syriac and thence into Arabic; and 
once Aristotle had been introduced to their 
knowledge the Arabian philosophers both in 
the E. and the W, did little else than ad¬ 


vance nearer and nearer to a faithful in¬ 
terpretation of that master. Of their phil¬ 
osophical authors the most celebrated are 
Alfarabi (died 950), who wrote on the prin¬ 
ciples of nature; Ibn Sina, or Avicenna, 
who w r as born about 980 and died A. d. 1037, 
and, besides other philosophical writings, 
was the author of a treatise on logic, phys¬ 
ics, and metaphysics, and of a commentary 
on the works of Aristotle; Alghazzali 
(1058-1111), who wrote a work attacking 
all heathen philosophical systems; and in 
Spain Avicebron (died 1070), a Jew, the 
same w r ith Solomon ben Gebirol; Ibn Badja, 
known to Europeans as Avempace (died 
1138) ; Ibn Tofail (died 1190) ; and (one of 
the greatest of them all) Ibn Roslid, or Aver- 
roes (1126-1198). Of these, Avicenna was 
by far the most important, and his influence 
on Western thought was considerable. 

Nearly all the Arabian philosophers were 
at the same time physicians; for the phys¬ 
ical sciences, including medicine, were not 
then separated from philosophy. At Jondis- 
abur, Baguad, Ispahan, Firuzabad, Bokhara, 
Cufa, Bassora, Alexandria, and Cordova, 
from the 8tli to the 11th century medical 
schools were instituted, and with the de¬ 
voted study bestowed on this branch of 
science the nation could not .'ail of mak¬ 
ing important advances in it, though, in 
reality, they were here also dependent on 
the Greeks. Anatomy made no progress 
among them, because the Koran expressly 
prohibited dissections. To their famous 
writers on medicine belong Aharun (who 
first described the smallpox), Jahiah Ben 
Serapion, Jacob Ben Isliak Alkendi, John 
Mesve, Rhazes, Ali Ben Abbas, Avicenna 
(who published the “Canon of Medicine,” 
for a long time the best work of the kind), 
Ishak Ben Soleiman, Abulcasim, Ibn Zo- 
har, Averroes (the author of “A Compen¬ 
dium of Physic”). 

Mathematics the Arabians enriched, sim¬ 
plified, and extended. Mohammed Ben Musa 
and Thabet Ben Korrah particularly dis¬ 
tinguished themselves in this department. 
Nassireddin translated the “ Elements ” of 
Euclid. Jeber Ben Afla wrote a commen¬ 
tary on the “ Trigonometry ” of Ptolemy. 
Astronomy was especially cultivated, there 
being famous schools and observatories at 
Bagdad and Cordova. As early as a. d. 
812 Alhazen and Sergius had translated 
into Arabic the “ Almagest ” of Ptolemy, 
the first regular treatise on astronomy. 
Albatani, in the 10th century, noted the 
advance of the line of the earth’s apsides 
and the obliquity of the ecliptic. Alpetra- 
gius wrote a theory of the planets. Geogra¬ 
phy was treated scientifically, in connec¬ 
tion with mathematics and astronomy, 
particularly by Abulfeda. 

The Arabian scholars devoted much time 
to grammar and rhetoric, much attention 



Arabian Architecture 


Arachis 


being paid to expounding the Koran, and in 
preparing works dealing with it. 

Much as the severer sciences were culti¬ 
vated the genius of the people for poetry 
was not fettered. After the 9th century 
the Oriental peculiarities of Arabian poetry 
became more and more strong; the tone 
grew mystical and extravagant and the 
language lost its purity. Motenabbi de¬ 
serves to be noticed for his tender elegies 
in a classic style; Abu Ismael Tograi, vizier 
of Bagdad, for his elegies and poems; Ha¬ 
riri for his history of an unscrupulous but 
amusing vagabond in his work entitled “ Me- 
kammat,” admirably translated into Ger¬ 
man by Riickert, into English by Chapellon 
and Preston; Ibn-Arabshah for his narra¬ 
tive tales, etc.; Asmai for his great heroic 
romance, “ Life of Antar.” The dramatic 
excepted there is no sort of poetry which 
the Arabians have left unattempted. There 
is no doubt that they had by this means a 
powerful effect on modern European poetry, 
for no small share of the romantic poetry 
of the Middle Ages belonged to the Arabians. 
The tales of fairies, genii, enchanters, and 
sorcerers in particular, passed from the 
Arabians to the Western poetry. Some of 
the books most widely read in the Middle 
Ages, such as “The Seven Wise Masters” 
and the “ Fables of Pilpay,” found their 
way into Europe through the instrumental¬ 
ity of the Arabs. To this rich and many- 
sided intellectual life among the Arabs in 
the Middle Ages the intellectual poverty of 
the 19th and past two or three centuries 
offers a striking contrast. Arab literature 
now scarcely offers anything worthy of no¬ 
tice. Learning is chiefly confined to the 
production of commentaries and scholia, dis¬ 
cussions on points of dogma and jurispru¬ 
dence, and grammatical works on the clas¬ 
sical language. Among authors who have 
written to a certain extent under the influ¬ 
ence of European culture, we must mention 
Michael Sabbagh of Syria (“The Carrier 
Pigeon,” Arabic and French, Paris, 1805) ; 
Sheikh Refaa of Cairo (“ The Broken Lyre,” 
Paris, 1827; “Manners and Customs of the 
Europeans,” Cairo, 1834) ; Nasif-Effendi of 
Beyrout, who produced a work of the same 
character as that of Hariri (Beyrout, 
1856) ; and Ahmed Faris (died, 1887), jour¬ 
nalist and miscellaneous writer. Transla¬ 
tions of modern European works (Jules 
Verne’s and others) are numerous. A num¬ 
ber of periodicals are published in Arabic. 

Arabian Architecture. See Archi¬ 
tecture. 

Arabian Nights’ Entertainments, or 
“ The Thousand and One Nights,” a 

celebrated collection of Oriental tales, which 
have, since their introduction to the civil¬ 
ized world, become the delight of all who 
peruse them. This collection, which had 
long been famous throughout the East, was 


brought to the notice of Europeans by the 
translation of Antoine Galland, a great 
French Orientalist, in 1704. It speedily be¬ 
came translated into the other principal 
European languages, fixed popular admira¬ 
tion, and to this day retains its place in 
popular lierature. The scheme of its con¬ 
ception is so well known that it would be 
needless here to relate it. These tales, 
though fabulous in substance, possess in the 
most eminent degree the characteristic im¬ 
agery and poetical versatility of the Orien¬ 
tals. Numerous imitations have at times 
appeared, which but feebly compare with 
the original; perhaps the best of modern 
paraphrases is that of Oehlenschlager’s 
“ Aladdin,” which is founded on one of the 
well known tales of the original series. The 
best editions are by Lane, the English Ori¬ 
entalist, and Burton. 

Aracacha, or Arracacha (ar-a-ka'cha), 
a genus of umbelliferous plants of Southern 
and Central America. The root of A. escu- 
lenta is divided into several lobes, each of 
which is about the size of a large carrot. 
These are boiled like potatoes and largely 
eaten in South America. 

Aracan (ar-a-kan'), the most northern 
division of Lower Burma, on the Bay of 
Bengal; area, 14.526 square miles; pop. 
(1891) 669,540. It was ceded to the Eng¬ 
lish in 1826, as a result of the first Bur¬ 
mese war. 

Aracari, the name given in Brazil to sev¬ 
eral scansorial birds ranked as aberrant 
members of the rhamphastidee, or toucan 
family. They are placed under pteroglossus 
and its allied genera. They have smaller 
bills than the toucans proper, and are of 
brighter colors, being generally green, with 
red or yellow on their breasts. 

Araceae (ar-as'e-T), an order of endogen¬ 
ous plants having for their inflorescence a 
spadix placed within a spathe. They have 
neither calyx nor corolla. The leaves are 
frequently cordate. The fruit is succulent, 
with many seeds. They are acrid in char¬ 
acter, and often poisonous. The cal odium 
sequinum, or dumb cane of the West In¬ 
dies and South America, when chewed, 
causes the tongue so to swell as to cause 
temporary dumbness. In 1847, Dr. Lindley 
estimated the known genera at 26, and the 
species at 170. There is one species known 
as the arum maculatum. 

Arachidic Acid (C 20 H 40 O 2 = C, g H 39 ?COOH), 
a monatomic fatty acid, obtained by the 
saponification of the oil of the earth nut 
(arachis hypogcea ). It crystallizes in mi¬ 
nute scales, which melt at 75°. It is solu¬ 
ble in boiling alcohol and in ether. 

Arachis, a genus of leguminous plants be¬ 
longing to the sub-order ccesalpiniece. The 
.4. hypogcea, the underground arachis (Greek 

hupoyeios = subterranean), is thus called 




Arachnida 


Arago 


because the legumes are produced and ma¬ 
tured beneath the soil. The plant is be¬ 
lieved to have come originally from Africa, 
but it is now cultivated in the warmer parts 
both of Asia and America. The legumes 
are eatable. The seeds have a sweet taste, 
and furnish a valuable oil used for lamps 
and as a substitute for olive oil. In South 
Carolina they are employed for chocolate. 

Arachnida, the class of animals which 
contains spiders, scorpions, and mites. It 
belongs to the articulata or annulosa, and 
the sub-class arthropoda, and is appropri¬ 
ately placed between the Crustacea on the 
one hand, and the insecta on the other. The 
highest Crustacea have 10 feet, the arach¬ 
nida 8, and the insecta G. The arachnida 
are wingless, have no antenn®, breathe by 
means of tracheal tubes or pulmonary sacs 
performing the function of lungs. As a 
rule, they have several simple eyes. They 
have no proper metamorphosis. They live 
in a predatory manner. Cuvier divided the 
class into two orders, pulmonarice and 
trachearice: that is, those breathing by 
lungs and those breathing by tracheae. The 
former include the spiders proper and the 
scorpions; the latter, the acari (mites) 
and their nearer and more remote allies. 
Huxley separates the arachnida into six 
orders: (1) Arthrogastra , including Scor¬ 

pio. chelifer, phrynus, phalangium, gale- 
odes, etc.; (2) araneina, or spiders; (3) 
ocarina , or mites and ticks; (4) fresh¬ 
water arctisca or tardigrade, called water- 
bea’s; (5) pgenogonida (marine animals) ; 
and (G) pentastomida (parasites). 

Arachnoid Membrane, one of the three 
coverings of the brain and spinal cord, is 
situate between the dura-mater and the pia- 
mater. It is non-vascular, transparent, and 
remarkably thin. Its outer surface, next 
the dura mater, is free, smooth, and glisten¬ 
ing; its inner surface is connected to the 
pia mater by numerous delicate threads, 
which traverse the space (sub-arachnoid) 
between the two membranes. Some anato¬ 
mists regard the space between arachnoid 
membrane and dura-mater (sub dural) as a 
serous cavity bounded by a serous mem¬ 
brane, of which the arachnoid membrane is 
its visceral layer, and the inner free shining 
surface of the dura mater its parietal layer. 
The sub-arachnoid space contains a fluid 
named cerebro-spinal, which in health varies 
in amount from two drachms to two ounces. 

Arack, or Arrack, a spirituous liquor 
manufactured in the East Indies from a 
great variety of substances. It is often 
distilled from fermented rice, or it may be 
distilled from the juice of the cocoanut 
and other palms. Pure arack is clear and 
transparent, with a yellowish or straw 
color, and a peculiar but agreeable taste and 
smell; it contains at least 52 to 54 per 


cent, of alcohol. In India, where the word 
is continually used by Anglo-Indians and 
others, arack is made by double distillation 
chiefly from “ todi ” or “toddy,” a sweet 
juice derived from the unexpanded flowers 
of various palm-trees, and notably of the 
cocoanut ( cocos nucifera). It is manu¬ 
factured also from the succulent flowers of 
the bassio genus of trees, from rice, and 
from, other vegetable products. Liberty to 
sell it in the several districts of India is 
farmed out to native contractors at a stipu¬ 
lated sum, notwithstanding which it is ob¬ 
tainable at a very cheap rate, which leads to 
a good deal of drunkenness both among Eu¬ 
ropean soldiers in the East, and the low 
caste natives of India. The beverage arack 
may be imitated by dissolving 40 grains of 
flowers of benjamin in a quart of rum. Dr. 
Kitchiner calis this “ Vauxhall nectar.” 

Arad, capital of a district in Eastern 
Hungary; on the right bank of the Maros, 
an affluent of the Theiss; pop. (1900) 56,260, 
including many Jews. It is an important 
railway center, and is 95 miles S. E. of 
Budapest, and 74 miles E. of Szegedin by 
rail. It carries on a large trade in corn, 
spirits, wine, and tobacco, and is one of the 
greatest cattle markets in Hungary. Dur¬ 
ing the 17th century it was often captured, 
and at last destroyed by the Turks. During 
the Revolutionary War of 1849 it was occu¬ 
pied for a time by the Austrians, who capit¬ 
ulated to the Hungarians in July. In Au¬ 
gust Arad was surrendered to the Russians 
by Gorgei; many of the prisoners were mas¬ 
sacred; and in October, 13 Hungarian offi¬ 
cers were executed here by order of the in¬ 
famous Haynau. New Arad, on the other 
side of the river, has over 6,000 inhabitants, 
including many Germans. 

Araf, the Purgatory of Islam, the place 
between Paradise and Hell. Its position has 
not been defined with the usual exactness of 
Mohammed, but it is undoubtedly a place of 
purification by fire. 

Arafat, or Jebel er Rahmeh, a hill in 

Arabia, about 200 feet high, with stone steps 
reaching to the summit, 15 miles S. E. of 
Mecca; one of the principal objects of pil¬ 
grimage among Mohammedans, who say that 
it was the place where Adam first received 
his wife, Eve, after they had been expelled 
from Paradise and separated from each other 
120 years. A sermon delivered on the mount 
constitutes the main ceremony of the Hadj 
or pilgrimage to Mecca, and entitles the 
hearer to the name and privileges of a 
Hadji or pilgrim. 

Arago, Dominique Francois [ar-ii-go'), 
an eminent French astronomer and physi¬ 
cist; born near Perpignan, Feb. 26, 1786. 
His biographical notices of distinguished 
men of science hold a high place in literature 




Arago 


Aragonite 


for clearness of thought and beauty of style. 
Elected to the Chamber of Deputies after 
the Revolution of 1830, he eloquently took 

part with the 
advanced Re¬ 
publicans. Af¬ 
ter the fall of 
Louis Philippe 
in 1848, he ef¬ 
fected, as Min¬ 
ister of War and 
Marine, many 
salutary re - 
forms, such as 
the abolition of 
flogging in the 
navy and of ne- 
gro slavery in 
the colonies. 
His scientific ob¬ 
servations and 
discoveries were 
Dominique Francois arago. numerous and 

important. 
English translations of separate portions of 
his works have been published, notably his 
“ Autobiography , ” “ Popular Lectures on 
Astronomy, ” “ Meteorological Essays, ” 

and “ Biographies of Scientific Men/’ He 
died in 1853. 

Arago, Emmanuel, a French advocate 
and politician; son of Dominique; born at 
Paris in 1812; called to the bar 1837; took 
part in the Revolution of 1848; renounced 
politics after the coup d’etat of 1852, but con¬ 
tinued to practice at the bar. After the fall 
of the empire he again took a prominent part 
in public affairs, and held several impor¬ 
tant offices. He published poems and many 
theatrical pieces. lie died Nov. 2G, 189G. 

Arago, Etienne Vincent, a French poet, 
journalist, and playwright, born at Per¬ 
pignan, Feb. 9, 1802, brother of Dominique. 
He wrote, mostly in collaboration with 
others, a number of comedies, vaudevilles, 
and melodramas; and under the pseudonym 
of Jules Ferney, made himself known 
through his feuilletons in the “ Siecle.” By 
far his best production, however, is “ Spa, 
Its Origin, History, Waters, etc.” (1851), 
an epic in seven cantos. Beside this, “ A 
Voice from Exile” (18G0), and “The Blue 
and the White” (1862), a historical ro¬ 
mance of the wars in the Vendee, deserve 
mention. He died in 1892. 

Arago, Jacques Etienne, a French 
writer of travels, born at Estagel, March 
10, 1790; brother of the preceding. Till 1837 
his literary work consisted in the produc¬ 
tion of light theatrical pieces. He then lost 
his sight and made a voyage around the 
globe, which afforded material for two 
charming books: “Promenade Around the 
World” (1838) and “A Blind Man’s Voy¬ 
age ’Round the World.” He had some pain¬ 


ful experiences on this side of the globe, 
which are detailed in the “ Travels of a 
Blind Man in California ” (1851). He died 
in 1855. 

Aragon, once a kingdom, now divided into 
the three provinces of Saragossa, Huesca, 
and Teruel, in the N. E. of Spain; great¬ 
est length from N. to S., 190 miles ; breadth, 
130; area, 17,980 square miles; pop. (1900) 
912,711. It is bounded on the N. by the 
Pyrenees, and borders on Navarre, the 
Castiles, Valencia, and Catalonia. The 
Ebro flows through AragOn in an S. E. 
direction, receiving numerous tributaries 
from the lofty regions of the Pyrenees and 
from the Sierras in the S. The province 
is naturally divided into the level country 
along the Ebro, and the N. mountain¬ 
ous district of Upper Aragon. The central 
plain is sterile, poorly supplied with water, 
and intersected by deep ravines. The valleys 
of Upper Aragon are the most beautiful and 
fertile of all the Pyrenean valleys. The 
slopes of the hills a ,- e clothed with forests 
of oak, beech, arid pine. The minerals of the 
province are copper, lead, iron, salt, alum, 
saltpeter, coal, and amber. The silkworm 
industry has been introduced. Aragon 
early became a Roman province; and, on 
the fall of the empire, passed into the hands 
of the West Goths, but was conquered by 
the Moors in the beginning of the 8th cen¬ 
tury. The rulers of Aragon, after it had 
been recovered from the Moors and united 
with Catalonia (1137), became powerful; 
obtained possession of the Balearic Isles in 
1213, of Sicily in 1282, of Sardinia in 1326, 
and of Naples in 1440. By the marriage of 
Ferdinand of Aragon with Isabella, heiress 
of Castile, in 1409, the two States of Aragon 
and Castile were united, and formed the 
foundation of the later Spanish monarchy* 
After Ferdinand’s death in 1516, the union 
of the States was made permanent. The 
chief towns are Saragossa, Calatayud, 
Huesca, and Teruel. 

Aragonite, or Arragonite (from Aragon, 
in Spain, where it was first found), a min¬ 
eral with orthorhombic crystals, generally 
six-sided prisms, though the rectangular 
octohedron is considered its regular form. 
It occurs also globular, remiform, coralloidal, 
columnar, stalactitic, and incrusting. The 
hardness is 3-5-4; the sp. gr., 2-927 
to 2-947; the luster vitreous or nearly 
resinous on fractured surfaces. Its color 
is white, gray, yellow,* green, or violet; it 
is transparent or translucent, and brittle. 
The composition is carbonate of lime, 95-94 
to 99-31, with smaller quantities of strontia- 
carbonate, etc. Dana thus divides it: 
Var. 1. Ordinary: (a) Crystallized in 
simple or compound crystals, or in radiating 
groups of acicular crystals; (b) Columnar, 
including Satin-Spar; (c) Massive. 2. 
Scaly massive. 3. Stalactitic or Stalagmitic. 




Aragonite Group 


Aranjuez 


4. Coralloidal. 5. Tarnovicite. Mossottite 
and Oserskite also rank with Aragonite. It 
occurs in Spain, Austria, Italy, England, 
America, and elsewhere. 

Aragonite Group, Dana's second group 
of anhydrous carbonates, comprising arag¬ 
onite, manganocalcite, witherite, bromlite, 
strontianite, and cerussite. 

Araguay (ar'a-gay), or Araguaya, a 
large river of Brazil,which rises in about \9 ° 

5. lat., near the Parana, flowing to about 
6° S. lat., where it joins the Tocantins. 
The united stream, after a course of 1,000 
miles, falls into the delta of the Amazon in 
S. lat. 1° 40'. Many tribes of warlike 
Indians dwell on its banks. 

Arakan Yoma Mountains, a range 700 
miles long, stretching from tbs mountains 
of the Naga City downward along the E. 
of Chittagong division, Bengal, and Arakan 
division, Lower Burma, and through the 
Irawadi division, and terminating in Cape 
Negrais; highest peak. Blue Mountain, 7,100 
feet. The range is very steep, and there 
are few practicable passes. The principal 
are one on the road leading from An, alti¬ 
tude, 4.063 feet; and one on the road from 
Sandoway to Padaung, in Prome district. 

Aral Lake (a'ral), separated by the pla¬ 
teau of Ust-Urt from the Caspian Sea, is 
the largest lake in the steppes of Asia. It 
lies wholly within the limits of Russian 
Central Asia, embracing an area of about 
24,000 square miles. It is fed by the Sir- 
Darya (the ancient Jaxartes) on the N. E. 
side, and the Amu-Darya (or ancient Oxus) 
on the S. E. It has no outlet, and is gen¬ 
erally shallow, its only deep water being 
on the W. coast, where it reaches a depth 
of 225 feet; but it shoals gradually east¬ 
ward to a mere marshy swamp. Its level 
is 117 feet above that of the Caspian, which 
is 84 feet below the surface of the Black Sea. 
Like other lakes which are drained only by 
evaporation, it is brackish. Fish, including 
sturgeon, carp, and herring, are abundant. 
The lake is dotted with multitudes of isl¬ 
ands and islets. Owing to the shallowness 
of its waters, and its frequent exposure to 
fierce and sudden storms from the N. E., 
navigation is difficult; and a flotilla of flat- 
bottomed gunboats, built for this sea by 
the Russians, and which took part in the 
operations against Khiva in 1873, alone 
patrols its surface. The history of the Sea 
of Aral is very remarkable. Sir Henry 
Rawlinson and Col. Yule collected references 
made to it in Greek, Latin, Arabic, and 
Persian writers, and established the fact 
that the area it now occupies has been dry 
land twice within historical times — the 
Jaxartes and the Oxus then running S. 
of the Sea of Aral to the Caspian. This 
was the case during the Graeco-Roman pe¬ 
riod, and again during the 13th and 14th 

24 


centuries after Christ. The Russian Gov¬ 
ernment, which pushed its frontier as far 
E. as the Aral in 1848, has abandoned the 
idea of the diversion of the Oxus to the 
Caspian Sea, and has proposed to unite the 
two lakes by means of the steppe river 
Chogan, round the northern edge of the Ust- 
Urt plateau. 

Aralia, a genus of plants, the typical one 
of the order araliaccce. A. umbellifera ex¬ 
udes an aromatic gum. A. nudicaulis is 
used as a substitute for sarsaparilla. The 
berries of A. spinosa, the angelica tree, 
prickly ash, or toothache tree, of America, 
infused in wine or spirits, are used in cases 
of colic, while a tincture of them is pre¬ 
scribed in toothache. A. racemosa, the 
spikenard of America, is also regarded as a 
medicinal plant. 

Aram, Eugene (a'ram), a self-taught 
scholar whose unhappy fate has been made 
the subject of a ballad by Hood and a 
romance by Lord Lytton, born in York¬ 
shire, England, in 1704. In 1734 he opened 
a school at Knaresborough. About 1745 a 
shoemaker of that place, Daniel Clarke, was 
suddenly missing under suspicious circum¬ 
stances; and no light was thrown on the 
matter till 13 years afterward, when an 
expression dropped by one Richard House¬ 
man respecting the discovery of a skeleton 
supposed to be Clarke's, caused him to be 
taken into custody. From his confession an 
order was issued for the apprehension of 
Aram, who had long quitted Yorkshire, and 
was at the time acting as usher at the gram¬ 
mar school at Lynn. He was brought to 
trial on Aug. 3, 1759, at York, where, not¬ 
withstanding an able and eloquent defense 
which he made before the court, he was 
convicted of the murder of Clarke, sentenced 
to death, and executed. He was among the 
first to recognize the affinity of the Celtic 
to the other European languages, and under 
favorable circumstances might have done 
some valuable work in philological science. 

Aramaean (ar-am-a'an), or Aramaic, a 
Semitic language nearly allied to the He¬ 
brew and Phoenician, anciently spoken in 
Syria and Palestine and eastward to the 
Euphrates and Tigris, being the official lan¬ 
guage of this region under the Persian dom¬ 
ination. In Palestine it supplanted Hebrew, 
and it was it, and not the latter, that was 
the tongue of the Jews in the time of 
Christ. Parts of Daniel and Ezra are 
written in Aramaic, or, as this form of it is 
often incorrectly named, Chaldee, from an 
old notion that the Jews brought from 
Babylon. An important Aramaic dialect is 
the Syriac, in which there is an extensive 
Christian literature. 

Aranjuez (ar-an-hu'fith) (probably the 
Latin Ara Jovis ), a town of Spain, on the 
left bank of the Tagus, 30 miles S. S. E. of 




Arany 


Aratus of Sicyon 


Madrid rail, in a beautifully wooded val¬ 
ley. The town is regularly built, with broad 
streets intersecting each other at right 
angles. The palace was long a favorite 
spring resort of the royal family, and was 
altered and added to by successive sovereigns 
from Charles V. downward. The famous 
gardens were laid out .by Philip II.; their 
most splendid ornament are the great elm 
trees brought from England by Philip II., 
which radiate from a central plot in 12 
avenues. At Aranjuez was concluded a 
treaty between France and Spain in 1772, 
and it was also the scene of the abdication 
of Charles IV. in 1808. When the court 
was here, the population used to reach 
20,000; in 1900 it was 12,670. 

Arany, Janos (or'ony), a Hungarian poet, 
born at Nagy-Szalonta, March 1, 1817; edu¬ 
cated in the college at Debreczin, 1832-1836, 
he was employed as a teacher in his native 
place; in 1840 was appointed notary there; 
and won immediate success with his first 
epical production in 1845. During the 
Hungarian Devolution he held a government 
position; then lived in needy circumstances 
in his native town until 1854, when he ob¬ 
tained a professorship at Nagy-Koros. 
Thence he was called to Budapest in 1860 
as director of the Kisfaludy Society; 
founded the literary weekly “ Koszorti ” 
(“The Wreath”); and in 1865 was ap¬ 
pointed secretary of the Hungarian Acad¬ 
emy, of which he had been a member since 
1859. Owing to his feeble health he re¬ 
signed in 1878. As a national poet he ranks 
immediately after Petofl and Vorosmarty, 
his epical creations deserving to be acknowl¬ 
edged as ornaments not only of Hungarian 
but of modern poetry in general. He is a 
master of the ballad and a translator of 
highest merit, as proven by his versions of 
Tasso, Goethe, Shakespeare, and, above 
all, his translation of Aristophanes (3 
vols., 1880). Works: “The Lost Consti¬ 
tution,” a humorous epic (1845, prize of 
Kisfaludy Society), depicted the doings at 
the county elections; “The Taking of 
Mu r any ” (1848, prize); “ Katalin ” 

(1850); “ Toldi,” an epical trilogy (1851- 
1854-1880), exalting the deeds of the Hun¬ 
garian Samson; “The Gypsies of Nagy- 
Ida ” (1852) ; « Buda’s ‘ Death ” (1864, 

prize); “Prose Writings” (1879). He 
died in Budapest, Oct. 22, 1882. 

Arapaima (ar-ap-a'ma), a genus of tropi¬ 
cal fishes, including the largest known 
fresh water forms. They are found in the 
rivers of South America, and are sometimes 
taken in the Rio Negro, 15 feet in length, 
and 400 pounds in weight. They are shot 
with arrows or harpooned, and are highly 
esteemed as food; salted, they are conveyed 
in large quantities to Para. The genus 
arapaima belongs to the family osteoglos- 
sidce, allied to the clupeidce or herring, and 


is remarkable for the mosaic work of strong 
bony scales with which the body is covered. 
The head is also protected by bony arma¬ 
ture. Osteoglossum and heterotis are closely 
related genera, found in various parts of 
the tropics. 

Ararat, a celebrated mountain in Ar¬ 
menia, forming the point of contact of Rus¬ 
sia with Turkey and Persia, to all of which 
it belongs. It rises, an isolated cone, on the 
S. border of the plain of the Aras or Araxes. 
S. E. from Mount Ararat proper, or the 
Great Ararat, rises the Little Ararat, their 
summits in a direct line being about 7 
miles apart, and their bases blending into 
each other by the interposition of a wide 
valley. The summit of the Great Ararat 
rises 16,964 feet above the sea-level. It is 
covered with perpetual snow and ice for 
about 3 miles from its summit downward 
in an oblique direction. On the entire N. 
half it shoots up, from about 14,000 feet 
above the sea, in one rigid crest to its 
summit, and then stretches downward on 
its S. side to a level not quite so low, form¬ 
ing the Silver Crest of Ararat. Little Ara¬ 
rat rises 13,093 feet above the sea. Its 
declivities are steeper than those of the 
Great Ararat. The mass of Ararat forms 
a feature of stupendous grandeur in the 
landscape, as it shoots up abruptly from 
the plain. It is of volcanic origin, but 
there is only one eruption of the mountain 
on record. This, accompanied by an earth¬ 
quake which destroyed 6,000 houses, took 
place in 1840. The top of the Great Ara¬ 
rat was first reached by Professor Parrot in 
1829; it has been repeatedly reached since. 
The upper portion contains several glaciers, 
and the climate is severe According to tra¬ 
dition Mount Ararat was the resting place 
of the ark when the flood abated. 

Aras, a river of Armenia, rising S. of 
Erzerum at the foot of the Bingol-dagh; it 
flows for some miles through Turkish ter¬ 
ritory N. E. to the new Russian frontier. 
Here it turns eastward to the Ervian plain 
N. of Ararat, whence it sweeps in a semi¬ 
circle mostly between the Russian and Per¬ 
sian territories round to its confluence with 
the Kur, 60 miles from its mouth in the 
Caspian; length, 500 miles. 

Aratus (a-ra'tus), a Greek poet and as¬ 
tronomer; born at Soli, Cilicia, flourishing 
about 290-260 b. c. His chief work was 
an astronomical poem entitled “ Phenom¬ 
ena ” (“Aspects of the Heavens ”), in 1,154 
verses; the plan being in imitation of 
Hesiod, while the style is borrowed from 
Homer. Greatly admired in antiquity, it 
was translated into Latin by Cicero and 
others. He was a friend of the poets 
Theocritus and Callimachus. 

Aratus of Sicyon, a statesman of ancient 
Greece, born 272 b. c. In 251 b. c. he 




Araucania 


Arbitration 


overthrew the tyrant of Sicyon and joined 
it to the Achaean League, which he greatly 
extended. He accepted the aid of Antigonus 
Doson, King of Macedon, against the Spar¬ 
tans, and became in time little more than 
the adviser of the Macedonian king, who 
had now made the league dependent on 
himself. He is said to have been poisoned 
by Philip V. of Macedon, 213 b. c. 

Araucania (ar-5-ka'ne-a), the country of 
the Araueos or Araucanian Indians, in the 
south of Chile. The Chilian province of 
Arauco, lying between the Andes and the 
Pacific Ocean, and bounded on the N. by 
Concepcion, on the S. by Valdivia, was 
formed in 1875, with an area of 8.100 square 
miles, and a population (1892) of 88,332. A 
large part of the territory in Arauco and 
the more southerly province of Valdivia, is 
occupied by Indians, who have of late 
mostly submitted to Chilian authority. The 
Araucanians are interesting as furnishing 
the only example of Indian self-government 
in the presence of the European races. They 
are a fierce and warlike people, and have a 
kind of military aristocratic constitution. 
Formerly the government rested in the 
hands of four chiefs ( Toquis ), each nomi¬ 
nated by one of the four divisions of the 
people, and one of whom was elected “ great 

toqui.” Each toqui had under him five 
apoulmenes (district chiefs), to each of 
whom were subordinate nine ulmenes 
(township rulers). The ulmenes and apoul¬ 
menes (who succeeded by primogeniture) 
formed the general assembly of the nation, 
and were called together by the grand coun¬ 
cil to decide on war or peace, the election 
of military commander, etc. Their religion 
corresponds to their old political institu¬ 
tions ; their supreme being is the grand 
toqui of the universe. The Araucanians 
have no temples nor idols, support no 
priests, and but rarely sacrifice. After 
death the soul passes into a happy region 
which lies beyond the Andes. They have 
been long noted for their love of in¬ 
dependence, and for the bravery with 
which they have withstood the arms 
of their Spanish and Chilean invaders. 
Their country is divided from N. to 
S. into four parallel regions, with varying 
soil and climate. These are the coast re¬ 
gion, the plain region, the region of the 
lower Andes, and the region of the higher 
Andes. Araucania has the proud distinction 
of being the only portion of the New World 
that has never received the European yoke. 
From the days of Pizarro and Almagro 
downward, it has uniformly vindicated its 
freedom — its wars of independence having 
lasted, with intervals of precarious truce, 
from 1637 to 1773. In 1861 a French ad¬ 
venturer. Tonneins by name, ingratiating 
himself with the Indians, was elected King 
of Araucania as Orelie Antoine I. He was 


soon at war with Chile, and was captured 
and allowed to go to France. Returning 
to Araucania, he kept up a struggle with 
the Chilians in 1869-1870, but repaired once 
more to France in 1871, where he posed for 
a time as a dispossessed king, and died in 
1878. 

Araucaria (ar-o-ka're-a), a genus of 
plants belonging to the order pinacece 
(conifers) and to the family or section 
abietince. The inflorescence is terminal; 
the male flowers in cylindrical spikes; and 
the fruit succeeding the female ones large 
and globular; each scale, if not abortive, 
bearing a single seed. The branches are ver- 
ticillate and spreading, with stiff pointed 
leaves. Five or six species are known; all 
from the Southern Hemisphere. The one 
so common in English gardens is A. im- 
bricata, a native of the mountainous parts 
of Southern Chile. It is of hardy consti¬ 
tution, scarcely requiring protection, except 
in very severe weather. Another species, A. 
cxcelsa, or Norfolk Island pine, is a splendid 
tree of giant size. All the genus are orna¬ 
mental from their fine and unfading foliage. 
Araucarian pines were abundant in Europe 
during the oolitic period, associated with 
mammals, fishes, etc., whose nearest living 
analogues are now confined to Australia and 
the adjacent regions. 

Araxes. See Aras. 

Arbela, now Erbil, or Arbil, a small 

town of Assyria, E. from Mosul, famous as 
having given name to the battle in which 
Alexander finally defeated Darius, 331 b. c. 
The battle was really fought near Gau- 
gamela (the “ camel’s house ”), to the N. 
W. of Arbela. 

Arbitration, an adjudication by private 
persons, called arbitrators, appointed to 
decide a matter or matters in controversy, 
either by written or oral submission, by 
agreement of the disputants. It differs 
from a reference which is made by the 
order of a court of law. The proceeding 
generally is called a submission to arbi¬ 
tration; the parties appointed to decide are 
termed arbitrators, not referees; and their 
adjudication is called an award. Tin's 
mode of settling disputes has been approved 
by legislatures at various times, and the^e 
are statutes in a number of States regulat¬ 
ing the proceeding. 

Legal Arbitration. — Infants and others 
not sui juris cannot submit controversies to 
arbitration. The matters that may be sub¬ 
mitted to an arbitrator are all personal 
disputes and differences that might other¬ 
wise be made the subject of controversy in 
the courts of civil jurisdiction, except mat¬ 
ters respecting a claim to an estate in real 
property, in fee or for life, which in New 
York cannot be submitted to arbitration; in 
some other States they may be. Thus 
breaches of contract generally, breaches of 



Arbitration 


Arbitration 


promise of marriage, trespass, assaults, 
charges of slander, differences respecting 
partnership transactions or the purchase 
price of a piece of personal property, all 
may be referred to arbitration. Questions 
relating to real property in the State of 
New York cannot be the subject of arbitra¬ 
tion. Differences between landlord and 
tenant, where no claim of title is interposed, 
may be. Pure questions of law may also be 
referred to the decision of an arbitrator. 
Actions at law and suits in equity may also 
be settled by arbitration; and this kind of 
reference may be made at any stage of the 
proceedings, sometimes even after the ver¬ 
dict, and probably, by analogy, after decree 
in equity. Questions relating to the future 
use and enjoyment of property, and future 
or anticipated differences between parties, 
may likewise be so submitted, but not in 
New York. In some of the States, how¬ 
ever, some matters depending on points 
strictly technical are excluded from arbitra¬ 
tion, in view of the fact that often arbi¬ 
trators are not learned in the law. A mat¬ 
ter clearly illegal cannot be made the sub¬ 
ject of a valid submission. But where 
transactions between parties have been 
brought to a close by general award, ap¬ 
parently good, the courts have refused to 
reopen them on a suggestion that some 
legal item had been admitted in account. 
It is not the policy of law to refer to arbi¬ 
tration felonies and other criminal offenses 
of a public nature, because the public 
safety requires them to be punished, and 
for this purpose they can be properly tried 
only in one of the ordinary courts of the 
country. Partners and corporations may 
make submission to arbitration. The arbi¬ 
trator ought to be a person who stands 
perfectly indifferent between the disputants; 
but there are no other particular qualifica¬ 
tions for the office, and the choice by par¬ 
ties of the person who they agree shall de¬ 
cide between them is perfectly free. In 
matters of complicated accounts mercantile 
men are greatly preferred. In other cases 
it is usual to appoint lawyers, who, being 
accustomed to judicial investigations, are 
able to estimate the evidence properly, to 
confine the examination strictly to the 
points in question, and, making the award, 
to avoid those informalities in respect to 
which it might afterward be set aside. Both 
time and expense are thus saved by fixing on 
a professional arbitrator. 

Mode of Procedure .— The proceedings be¬ 
fore an arbitrator are regulated generally 
according to the forms observed in courts 
of law. The arbitrator on the day ap¬ 
pointed hears the case and makes his award, 
which need not be in writing, for a verbal 
award is perfectly valid: but in practice it 
is usual for the arbitrator to make a writ¬ 
ten award. This award in its effect 


operates as a final and conclusive judgment 
respecting all the matter submitted, and 
binds the rights of the parties for all time. 
An award may be set aside on the ground of 
corruption and fraud in the arbitrator, and 
for any material irregularity or illegality 
appearing on the face of the proceedings, 
such as is beyond or not covered by the 
submission. But the tendency of the courts 
is to favor arbitration, and maintain 
awards, unless such serious grounds as are 
above referred to, can be substantiated. 
Where there are two arbitrators the submis¬ 
sion often provides that in the case of their 
differing in opinion the matter referred 
shall be decided by a third person, called an 
umpire, who is generally appointed under 
a power to that effect by the arbitrators 
themselves. But they cannot make such 
appointment unless specially authorized so 
to do bv the terms of the submission. This 
umpire rehears the case, and for this pur¬ 
pose is invested with the same powers as 
those possessed by the arbitrators, and is 
bound by the same rules. It remains to 
be stated in general concerning arbitration 
that from the nature of the case there can 
be no appeal, on the merits of the dispute 
submitted, to any public tribunal whatever. 
In New York the proceeding to vacate an 
award, and the grounds on which it can 
be made, are regulated by statute. 

Court of Arbitration .— By chapter 278, 
Laws of 1874, the legislature of New York 
established the “ Court of Arbitration of 
the Chamber of Commerce of the State of 
New York,” defined its jurisdiction, and 
regulated its proceedings. Gov. Dix nomi¬ 
nated. and the Senate confirmed, the Hon. 
Enoch L. Fancher as the official arbitrator, 
or judge of the court. Its work was 
chiefly confined to commercial matters and 
disputes of shipping merchants, though dur¬ 
ing its existence almost all subjects of con¬ 
troversy have been before the court and 
decided. There is no appeal from the de¬ 
cision of the official arbitrator; though, 
where a defeated party desires it, a re¬ 
hearing of the ease is always granted. No 
costs nor fees to attorneys or counsel can 
be recovered: each party, whether defeated 
or not, must bear his own costs and ex¬ 
penses. The London Corporation and the 
London Chamber of Commerce founded 
jointly in 1892 a Chamber of Arbitration, 
or Tribunal of Commerce, for settling trade 
and commercial difficulties; and the great 
coal dispute and strike of 1893 led to a 
conference which secured a peaceful con¬ 
clusion for the time, and the foundation of 
a permanent “ Board of Reconciliation,” 
consisting of representatives both of owners 
and of the miners. Diplomatic conferences, 
which often obviate war, belong to a differ¬ 
ent category. 

International arbitration has been dis- 



Arblay 


Arc 


cussed frequently and at length. It has 
been employed in matters of debate between 
nations more than a hundred times. As 
between the United States and Great Brit¬ 
ain, the San Juan boundary question, the 
Alabama question and the Bering Sea 
sealing controversy, have been so arranged. 
The first general treaty of arbitration ever 
drawn between nations was signed Jan. 11, 
1897, in Washington, by Richard Olney, 
Secretary of State for the United States 
and Sir Julian Pauncefote, Ambassador of 
Great Britain to the United States, for 
Great Britain. This treaty was placed be¬ 
fore the United States Senate, Jan„ 11, 1897, 
accompanied by a special message from 
President Cleveland, but the Senate refused 
to ratify it. Since then similar treaties 
have been made and ratified between Italy 
and the Argentine Republic and between the 
Argentine Republic and Uruguay. The 
Universal Peace Congress at The Hague, in 
1899, established an International Court of 
Arbitration, to which the debt dispute of 
Great Britain, Germany, and Italy against 
Venezuela was referred in 1903. New South 
Wales has an arbitration tribunal for the 
purpose of settling industrial disputes. This 
tribunal consists of a judge of the supreme 
court, a representative appointed by the em¬ 
ployers and a representative nominated by 
the employees. International arbitration 
has made more or less continuous gains in 
recent years. Two important instances of 
its progress were the treaties signed by the 
United States with France and China in 
1908. See Hague, The; Peace Congress, 
Universal. Benjamin F. Trueblood. 

Arblay, Madame d’. See Burney, 
Frances. 

Arbor Day, a day set apart to encourage 
the voluntary planting of trees by the peo¬ 
ple. The custom was inaugurated by the 
Nebraska State Board of Agriculture in 
1874, which recommended that the second 
Wednesday in April annually be designated 
as Arbor Day, and that all public school 
children should be urged to observe it by 
setting out young trees. The custom has 
since been extended, till now nearly every 
State and Territory in the country has set 
apart one day by legislative enactment or 
otherwise, for this purpose; several of the 
States making the day a legal holiday, and 
others making it a school holiday. In the 
thickly settled cities of the Eastern and 
Middle States the ceremony usually consists 
of planting a shade or ornamental trees on 
the grounds of public or other school build¬ 
ings. In more thinly settled sections the 
children and their elders set out trees on 
the principal thoroughfares and in public 
park reservations. In Canada the first Fri¬ 
day in May is celebrated as Arbor Day. 

Arboriculture. See Forestry. 


Arbor Vitae, literally the tree of life. 

(1) In botany, a name given to the trees be¬ 
longing to the coniferous genus thuja. T. 
occidentalis, or American arbor vitae, is a 
well known and valued evergreen. (2) In 
anatomy, a dendriform arrangement which 
appears in the medulla of the brain when the 
cerebellum is cut through vertically. 

Arbuthnot, John, a Scottish humorist; 
born near Arbuthnot 'Castle, Kincardine¬ 
shire, Scotland, April 29, 1667; was phy¬ 
sician to Queen Anne. His literary fame 
rests mainly on “ The History of John Bull ” 
(1712), at first attributed to Swift, but 
proved to have been the work of Arbuthnot. 
Primarily designed to satirize the Duke of 
Marlborough, and to oppose the continuance 
of the war of the Spanish succession, this 
work was the means of fastening the so¬ 
briquet and the typical character of John 
Bull upon the English nation; but owing to 
its ardent and extreme toryism it is now lit¬ 
tle read, and known chiefly by brilliant ex¬ 
tracts. It is said to have suggested to 
Swift the composition of “ Gulliver’s Trav¬ 
els.” He also Avrote a number of serious 
works which haA^e been highly valued. He 
died in London, Feb. 27, 1735. 

Arbutus, a genus of plants belonging to 
the order of ericaccce { heath Avorts). A 
species, the A. unedo, or austere strawberry 
tree, is found, apparently Avild, in the 
neighborhood of the Lakes of Killarney. It 
lias panicles of large, pale greenish-white 
floAvers and red fruit, which, with the eA T or- 
green leaves, are especially beautiful in the 
months of October and November. Trailing 
arbutus is a creeping or trailing plant 
(epigeea repens) with rose colored blossoms, 
found chiefly in NeAV England in the spring. 
Commonly called May floAver, or sometimes 
ground laurel. 

Arc, in geometry, a portion of the cir¬ 
cumference of a circle, cut off by tAvo lines 
Avhich meet or intersect it. Its magnitude 
is stated in degrees, minutes, and seconds, 
which are equal to those of the angle Avhich 
it subtends. Hence, counted by degrees, min¬ 
utes and seconds, the arc of elevation and 
the angle of eleAvation of a heavenly body are 
the same, and the tAvo terms may be used 
in most cases indifferently. The straight 
line uniting the two extremities of an arc 
is called its chord. Equal arcs must come 
from circles of equal magnitude, and each 
must contain the same number of degrees, 
minutes, and seconds as the others. Sim¬ 
ilar arcs must also each haA T e the same num¬ 
ber of degrees, minutes, and seconds, but 
they belong to circles of unequal magnitude. 
Concentric arcs are arcs having the same 
center. 

In mathematical geography, an arc of the 
earth’s meridian, or a meridional arc, is an 
arc partly measured on the surface of the 




Arc 


Arcfcsilaus 


earth from N. to S., partly calculated 
by trigonometry. Such arcs have been 
measured in Lapland; in Peru; from Dun¬ 
kirk, in France, to Barcelona, in Spain; at 
the Cape of Good Hope, and from Shanklin 
Down, in the Isle of Wight, to Balta, in 
Shetland. It was by these measurements 
that the earth was discovered to be an oblate 
spheroid. 

In electricity, a voltaic arc is a luminous 
arc, which extends from one pencil of char¬ 
coal to another, when these are fixed to the 
terminals of a battery in such a position 
that their extremities are one-tenth of an 
inch apart. 

Arc, Joan of. See Joan of Arc. 

Area, a genus of conchiferous mollusks, 
the typical one of the family arcades. The 
shell is strongly ribbed, or cancellated, 
hinge straight, with very numerous trans¬ 
verse teeth. They are universally distrib¬ 
uted, but are commonest in warm seas. 
They inhabit the zone from low water to 
230 fathoms. In 1875 Tate estimated the 
known recent species at 140, and the fossil 
ones at 400, the latter commencing with the 
lower silurian rocks. Of the recent species, 
A. noce, A. tetragona, A. lactea, A. rariden- 
tata, and A. barbata occur in England. The 
fossil species are found in the United States, 
Europe, and Southern India. 

Arcachon (ar-ka-shon'), a bathing place 
which has grown up since 1854, on the S. 
side of the Bassin d’ Arcachon, 34 miles S. 
W. of Bordeaux, France. The fine broad 
sands are admirably adapted for bathing; 
and the place is sheltered by sand hills, 
covered with extensive pine woods, in which 
game abounds. Its main street stretches 
2% miles along the shore, with the pine- 
forest immediately behind. The climate is 
always temperate, and the rainfall is 32 
inches. Its numerous villas among the 
firs are much frequented in winter by in¬ 
valids afflicted with lung disease. Scientific 
oyster culture is practiced here on a large 
scale. There are 3,300 oyster “ parks ” in 
the lagoon, lined with 6,000 ova tiles for 
the collection of oyster spat, and calculated 
to yield 200,000,000 infant oj^sters in a 
single season. Pop. (1901), 7,120. 

Arcade, a series of arches of any form, 
supported on pillars, either inclosing a 
space before a wall, or any building 
which is covered in and paved; or, when 
used as an architectural feature for orna¬ 
menting the towers and walls of churches 
entirely closed up with masonry. The 
cloisters of the old monasteries and relig¬ 
ious houses were, strictly speaking, arcades. 
The term is also applied to a covered pas¬ 
sage having shops on either side of it. Two 
arcades inscribed in a greater arcade are 
called geminous arcades. This arrangement, 
seen for the first time in the Byzantine 


architecture, became common in the Gothic 
buildings. Often in the latter there are 
three inscribed arcades, and that in the mid¬ 
dle is sometimes greater than the two 
others. 

Arcadia, the classical name of Middle 
Peloponnesus, now forming the modern 
province of Arkadia, in the Morea, Greece. 
It occupies a high tableland, having on the 
N., Achaia, E., Argolis, W., Elis, and, on the 
S., Laconia and Messenia. Area 1,600 square 
miles. It is intersected by mountain ranges, 
some of which are very lofty, and contains 
plains of some extent. Its principal river is 
the Roufia {Alpheus ), the largest in the 
Morea. Lake Stymphalus, of classic men¬ 
tion, is found here. From its elevation, 
Arcadia is much colder and more rigorous 
than the rest of the Morea. The inhabitants 
still retain their primitive mode of life as 
shepherds, living in tents, and pursuing a 
migratory existence. The plane, fir, ilex, 
chestnut, oak, etc., are common, and deer 
and game plentiful. Chief towns, Tripolitza, 
Londari, Karitena, etc. Many interesting 
ruins are seen here, among them the remains 
of the cities of Phigaleia, Megalopolis, and 
Pallantium. Pop. (1896) 167,092. From 
its first inhabitants, the Pelasgi, the 
land derived the name Pelasgia. In later 
times, it was divided among the 50 sons of 
Lycaon, into kingdoms, and received from 
Areas the name Arcadia. In the course of 
time, the small kingdoms made themselves 
free, and formed a confederacy. The prin¬ 
cipal were Mantinea, where Epaminondas 
obtained a victory, and a tomb (now the 
village of Mondi), Tegea (now Tripolitza), 
Orchomenus, Pheneus, Psophis, and Megal¬ 
opolis. Their chief deity was Pan; their 
chief business, breeding of cattle and agri¬ 
culture. This occasioned the pastoral poets 
to select Arcadia for the theater of theii 
fables. Thus it has been made to appear as 
a paradise, although it was far from de¬ 
serving this character. 

Arcadius, born in 377, died 408; son of 
the Emperor Theodosius, on whose death in 
395 the empire was divided, he 
obtaining the E., and his brother 
Honorius the W. He proved a 
feeble and pusillanimous prince. 

Arcesilaus (ar-ses-e-la'us), a 
Greek philosopher, founder of 
the New Academy, was born at 
Pitane in HColia, Asia Minor, 

316 b. c. He studied philosophy, 
first under Theophrastus the 
Peripatetic, and afterward under 
Grantor. He ultimately became 
the head of the academic school 
or those who held the doctrines emperor 
of Plato; but he introduced so arcadius. 
many innovations that its phil¬ 
osophic character was completely changed in 
the direction of scepticism. His great rivals 






Arch 


Arch 


were tlie Stoics. He denied the Stoical dos- 
trine of knowledge, which he affirmed to be, 
from its very nature, unintelligible and con¬ 
tradictory. He also denied the existence of 
any sufficient criterion of truth, such as the 
“ irresistible conviction ” of the Stoics, and 
recommended abstinence from all dogmatic 
judgments. In practice he maintained that 
we must act on grounds of probability. It 
is not easy to determine satisfactorily what 
his theory of morals was. A wit, a poet, and 
a man of frank and generous disposition, 
which seems to have captivated his disciple .3 
even more than his philosophy, he was yet 
accused of the grossest profligacy. He died 
in his 76th year (241 b. c.). 

Arch, in architecture, a series of wedge- 
shaped stones or bricks, so arranged over a 
door or window in an edifice for habitation, 
or between the piers of a bridge, as to sup¬ 
port each other, and even bear a great su¬ 
perincumbent weight. The stones and bricks 
of a truncated wedge shape used in build¬ 
ing arches are called voussoirs. The sides 
of an arch are called its haunches or flanks, 
and by old English writers of the 16th cen¬ 
tury its hause. The highest part of the arch 
is called its crown, or by the old English 
authors the scheme or skeen, from the Ital- 



SEMI-CIRCULAR HORSESHOE 

ARCH. ARCH. 


ian schiena. The lowest voussoirs of an 
arch are called springers, and the central 
one which holds the rest together the key¬ 
stone. The under or concave side of the 
voussoirs is called the intrados, and the 
outer or convex one the extrados of the arch. 
A chord to the arch at its lower part is 
called its span, and a line drawn at right 
angles to this chord, and extending up¬ 
ward to its summit, is called its height. 
The impost of an arch is the portion of the 
pier or abutment from which the arch 
springs. If the height of the crown of an 
arch above the level of its impost is greater 
than half the span of the arch, the arch is 
said to be surmounted. If, on the contrary, 
it is less, then the arch is said to be sur- 
based. The curved arch was known to the 
Assyrians and the Old Egyptians. Sir J. G. 
Wilkinson considers that it existed in brick 
in the reign of Amenopli I., about b. c. 1540, 
and in stone in the time of Psammetichus 
II., b. c. 600. The evidence is derived from 


\ II 


the ruins of actual buildings, but paintings 
appear to carry the arch back to about 
2020 B. c. There is no mention of the genu¬ 
ine arch in Scripture, the term “ arches,” 
in Ezek. xl: 16, being a mistranslation. 

The arch was 
brought into exten¬ 
sive use by the Ro¬ 
mans, and everywhere 
prevailed till the 12th 
century a. d. when the 
arch pointed at the 
apex, and called in 
consequence the 
pointed arch — the 
one so frequently seen 
in Gothic architecture 
— appeared in Europe 
as its rival. The 
forms of both curved 
and pointed arches 
may be varied in¬ 
definitely. Of the former may be mentioned 
the horseshoe arch, a name which ex¬ 
plains itself, and the foil arch, from Latin 
folium —:a leaf, of which there are the 
trefoil, the cinquefoil, and the multifoil 
varieties, so named from the plants after 
which they are modeled. 



POINTED ARCH. 


Other arches are the pointed one; the 
equilateral one, when the centers of the cir¬ 
cles whose intersection constitutes the 
pointed arch, coincide with the angular 
points at the two sides of the base; the 
lancet arch, when the centers of the circles 


fall beyond these points; the drop arch, 
when they fall within the base; and the 
segmented pointed arch, the sides of which 
constitute segments of circles containing less 
than 180 degrees. Besides these there are 
several other varieties of arch distinguished 
by their respective forms. 

Arch, Triumphal, a structure raised by 
the Romans to celebrate a victory, or some 
great historical event; or to add an addi¬ 
tional luster to the commemoration of the 
military exploits of a victorious general. 
These structures originated in the custom 
of adorning with the spoils of war the gate 
by which a successful military leader en¬ 
tered Rome on his return from battle. Af¬ 
ter a time these temporary monuments 
were replaced by others of the more endur¬ 
able nature of stone and bronze. The arcus 
triumphalis, as the Romans styled this form 
of structure, was usually erected in some 
public thoroughfare. In design they were 
commonly either one large arch, or one 
large central arch, with one or two smaller 
ones on each side. In every case the fronts 
and sides of the erection were decorated 
with trophies, the entablature being crowned 
with some piece of sculptural allegory, be¬ 
neath which was an inscription emblazoning 
the deeds of the hero in whose honor the 



































Arch 


Archangel 


arch was erected. The most remarkable of 
these edifices still existing are the arch of 
Augustus at Rimini; that of Trajan at 
Beneventum; at Rome, those of Constan¬ 
tine, Sever us, Drusus, Gallienus, and Titus. 
The oldest and most admirably propor¬ 
tioned, however, is that of Titus, whose con¬ 
quest of Judaea it was built to celebrate. 
The arch in the highest estate of preserva¬ 
tion is that of Constantine. Many similar 
monuments of departed Roman greatness ex¬ 
ist in France, Egypt, Spain and Greece. 
France possesses of modern arches the 
greatest number. Those of the Porte St. 
Denis and Porte St. Martin, erected in 1673 
and 1674 respectively, record the victories of 
Louis XIV. The splendid Arc du Carrousel, 
forming the western entrance of the Tuil- 
eries, built in honor of the French armies, 
was commenced in 1806, and finished in 
1809; in height it is 47 feet, in breadth 55. 
Surmounting it is a great equestrian group, 
composed of a chariot drawn by four horses, 
and guided by the allegorical figures of 
Peace and Victory. But the grandest and 
most colossal triumphal arch of modern 
construction is that standing at the end of 
the Avenue des Champs Elysees, at Paris. 
It was erected to commemorate the victories 
of Napoleon I. and his armies, and, although 
commenced in 1806, was not completed un¬ 
til after the revolution of 1830. It has 
three arches, the central one being 95 feet 
high. In the interior are graven the names 
of the most eminent of the French generals, 
with that of their leader. London possesses 
but two structures of this kind — the arch 
at Hyde Park, supporting the equestrian 
statue of the Duke of Wellington, and the 
Marble Arch. New York has erected a 
Washington arch, and an elaborate naval 
arch was erected in fac-simile on Fifth 
avenue in 1899, preparatory to perpetua¬ 
tion in marble hereafter. 

Arch, Joseph, an English reformer, born 
in Barford, Warwickshire, in 1826, and, 
while still a farm laborer, became a Primi¬ 
tive Methodist preacher. In 1872 he 
founded the National Agricultural Labor¬ 
ers’ LTnion, and thereby, according to Justin 
M‘Carthy, “ began the emancipation of the 
rural laborers.” He afterward visited 
Canada to inquire into the labor and emi¬ 
gration questions; and, in 1885-1886, he 
represented in Parliament the northwest di¬ 
vision of Norfolk, which again returned 
him in 1892 and 1895. 

Archaean (ar-ke'an) Rocks, the oldest 
rocks of the earth’s crust, crystalline in 
character, and embracing granite, syenite, 
gneiss, mica-schist, etc., all devoid of fossil 
remains. These rocks underlie and are dis¬ 
tinctly separate from the stratified and fos- 
siliferous formations, which indeed have 
chiefly taken origin from them. 


Archaeology, the science which makes us 
acquainted with the antiquities of nations 
that have lived and died, and the remains 
of various kinds which throw a light upon 
the history of those now existing. Almost 
every country now boasts its national 
archaeological society. The term is capable 
of a very widely extended signification, in¬ 
cluding everything that is connected with 
the rise and progress of any nation, its 
history, laws, religious observances, pub¬ 
lic and private buildings, manners and cus¬ 
toms of all classes of the people, the arts in 
use among them, and the extent of their 
acquirements and discoveries in science. 
The archaeologist seeks to study and pre¬ 
serve any materials which tend to elucidate 
the objects already mentioned, and these ma¬ 
terials naturally resolve themselves into 
three great divisions, each susceptible of 
further subdivision. The first class may be 
considered to consist of all records, written 
or printed, legal documents, old chronicles, 
diaries of a public or private nature, State 
papers, letters, etc. The second may be 
termed oral, or traditional, in contradistinc¬ 
tion to the first, which may be broadly 
called written archaeology, and consists of 
the ballads, legends and folk-lore of a people, 
their sports, superstitions, and the rise and 
origin of local customs, proverbs and ex¬ 
pressions. The third, termed monumental 
archaeology, consists of works of art, paint¬ 
ings, sculpture, coins, medals, pottery, glass, 
wooden and metal utensils, tools of all de¬ 
scriptions, armor, weapons, carriages, boats, 
roads, canals, walls, encampments, burial- 
grounds, earthen mounds for purposes of de¬ 
fense or sepulture, and even human and ani¬ 
mal remains. Every country owns, in a 
greater or less degree, relics of antiquity 
highly interesting to the archgeologist. From 
the sculptured stones and obelisks of Egypt 
and Assyria, records have been unravelled by 
Lavard, Rawlinson, and other savants, that 
throw great light on the early history of 
those countries, and offer convincing testi¬ 
mony of the indisputable truth of Holy 
Writ. In Mexico and Central America, evi¬ 
dences have been found of the existence of 
a clever and ingenious people who had 
died before the discovery of the Western 
Hemisphere. See American Antiquities. 

Archaeopteryx, a genus of fossil birds. 
A. lithographica (Von Meyer) is a fossil 
bird allied to the gallinacece, but constitut¬ 
ing a distinct order in the class of birds, 
in the opinion of Prof. Owen. Mr. Parker 
makes it akin to the palamedea. or 
screamer. It occurs in the Solenhofen shale, 
believed to be of Upper Oolitic age. 

Archangel, a province of Russia in 
Europe, occupying the entire country from 
the Ural Mountains on the E. to Finland on 
the W., and from the Vologda and Olonetz 
on the S. to the Arctic Ocean and White Sea 




Archangel 


Archduke 


on the N. Nova Zembla, and some large 
islands of the Arctic Sea are also included 
within it; area 331,040 square miles. The 
largest part of this great territory is bleak, 
sandy, and perpetually sterile. Immense 
plains, lakes and morasses, interspersed with 
occasional pastures, form the features of 
the country. The principal source of wealth 
lies in the forests, which are almost inex¬ 
haustible. Hunting and fishing are the 
principal occupations of the inhabitants. 
The reindeer, among the Laps in the N. W., 
and the Samoyedes in the N. E., is domes¬ 
ticated. Chief productions are hay, hemp, 
cordage, mats, tallow, tar, turpentine, pot¬ 
ash, etc. The natives, though of Finnish 
origin, have now become essentially Rus- 
sian. The Samoyedes, who are in the low¬ 
est scale of civilization, and spread over a 
vast tract of country, do not exceed in 
number 7,000; the Laps, not more than 
2,000. The chief towns are Archangel, the 
capital, Onega, and Dwina. Pop. (1908) 
413,500. 

Archangel, a seaport, capital of the Rus¬ 
sian government of same name, on the right 
bank of the Northern Dwina, about 20 miles 
above its mouth in the Arctic Ocean, and 
670 miles N. E. of St. Petersburg. It, ex¬ 
tends about 2 miles on a low flat along the 
liver, and is ill built, mostly of wooden 
houses, arranged in two very irregular main 
streets, and numerous narrow lanes with 
wooden pavements. The most noticeable 
buildings are the churches, all Greek but an 
Anglican and two others that are Protes¬ 
tant, ecclesiastical seminary, two gymnasi¬ 
ums, navigation and engineering school, ma¬ 
rine hospital, extensive stone bazar, etc. 
There are shipbuilding yards, and a gov¬ 
ernment dockyard. The principal manufac¬ 
tures are linen, leather, canvas, cordage, and 
beer. 

Below the town the river divides into 
several branches and forms a nuinoer of is¬ 
lands, one of which, called Sollenbole, is 
the harbor. It is not accessible to vessels 
drawing more than 17 feet, but the depth is 
being increased by dredging. Small craft 
ascend for 300 miles above the town, and 
thus furnish the means of a very impor¬ 
tant inland trade. The principal exports 
are oats, linseed, flax, tow, tallow, train 
oil, mats, deals and battens, pitch and tar, 
and the imports coffee, spices, salt, woolens, 
hardware, etc. The port is closed for six 
months by ice. Railways are being laid to 
connect the town and province with the rest 
of the empire. The entrance to the Dwina 
was discovered by Richard Chancellour in 
1554; he being driven there by a storm. 
The city was founded in 1584; and for 
many years was the only port in Russia 
open to the ships of foreigners. Pop. 
(1900) 21,09G. 


Archbishop, a chief bishop. The atten¬ 
tive reader ot the Acts of the Apostles, not¬ 
ing that nearly the whole missionary energy 
of St. Paul was expended upon the cities 
and chief towns rather than on the villages 
and the country districts, will be prepared 
to learn that there were flourishing churches 
in the leading centers of population, while, 
as yet, nearly all other parts remained 
pagan. So strong, however, was the 
evangelistic spirit prevailing, that in due 
time every one of the first formed churches 
was surrounded by a number of younger and 
less powerful congregations which it had 
called into being. The pastors of these 
new churches being called bishops, that 
term no longer appeared a dignified enough 
appellation for the spiritual chief of the 
mother church, and, about a. d. 340, the 
Greek title of archiepiscopos was introduced 
to meet the difficulty. Two archbishops fig¬ 
ure at the Council of Ephesus, in 431, and in 
subsequent centuries the designation became 
common over Christendom. 

In England the early British churches 
were, in large measure, swept away by the 
Anglo-Saxon invaders, who were heathens, 
and the country consequently required to be 
reconverted. The great southern center 
from which this was done was Canterbury, 
then the capital of Kent, where King Eg¬ 
bert gave Augustine, the chief missionary, 
a settlement. In the N., York, the chief 
town of Northumbria, where King Edwin 
built a shrine for Paulinus, became the 
great focus of operation for that part of 
England; hence the two archbishoprics now 
existing are those of Canterbury and of 
York. The prelate who occupies the former 
see is Primate of all England, while his 
brother of York, is only Primate of England, 
the superiority of the see of Canterbury, 
long contested by that of York, having been 
formally settled in A. d. 1072. The former 
is the first in dignity after the princes of 
the blood; the latter is not second, but 
third, the Lord Chancellor taking preced¬ 
ence of him in official rank. An archbishop 
is often called a metropolitan. He exer¬ 
cises a certain supervision over the bishops, 
and receives appeals against their decisions 
in matters of discipline. In the United 
States the Roman Catholic Church is the 
only one which has dignitaries of this rank, 
and in 1900 the entire country was divided 
into 14 archdioceses. 

Archdeacon, an ecclesiastical dignitary 
next in rank below a bishop, who has juris¬ 
diction either over a part of or over the 
whole diocese. He is usually appointed by 
the bishop, under whom he performs various 
duties, and he holds a court which decides 
cases subject to an appeal to the bishop. 

Archduke, a duke whose authority and 
power is superior to that of other dukes. In 
France, in the reign of Dagobert, there was 




Archegosaurus 


Archery 


an Archduke of Austrasia; and at a later 
period, the provinces of Brabant and Lor¬ 
raine were termed archduchies. The Dukes 
of Austria assumed the title of archduke in 
1150; but the dignity was not confirmed till 
1453. In the present day, this title is not 
assumed by any excepting the princes of 
the imperial House of Austria. 

Archegosaurus (ar-ke-go-s&'rus), a fos¬ 
sil saurian reptile, found by Goldfuss, in 
1847, in large concretionary modules of clay- 
ironstone, from the coal field of Saarbriick. 
Four species have been described. Prof. 
Owen makes it a remarkable connecting link 
between the reptile and the fish, and on 
these grounds: it is related to the salaman- 
droid-ganoid fishes by the conformity of 
pattern in the plates of the external cranial 
skeleton, and by the persistence of the 
chorda dorsalis, as in the sturgeon, while 
it is allied to the reptiles by the persist¬ 
ence of the chorda dorsalis, and the branch¬ 
ial arches, and by the absence of the oc¬ 
cipital condyle or condyles, as in Lepidosi- 
ren, and by the presence of labyrinthic teeth, 
as in Labyrinthodon, which, however, also 
ally it to the ganoid Lepidosteus. 

Archelaus (ar-kel'a-us), a king of Mace- 
don, natural son and successor of Perdiccas 
II. He was a liberal patron of literature 
and the arts, and greatly favored, among 
others, Euripides and Zeuxis. He died about 
398 b. c. 

Archelaus, a Greek philosopher, the dis¬ 
ciple and successor of Anaxagoras. Arche¬ 
laus is said to have had Socrates for his 
pupil at Athens. Flourished about 440 
b. c. 

Archelaus, son of Herod the Great. His 
reign is described as most tyrannical and 
bloody. The people at length accused him 
before Augustus (Judea being then depend¬ 
ent upon Rome). The Emperor, after hear¬ 
ing his defense, banished him to Vienne, in 
Gaul. To avoid the fury of this monster, 
7 a. d., Joseph and Mary retired to Naza¬ 
reth. 

Archelaus, the son of Apollonius, a 
sculptor. He was a native of Ionia, and is 
thought to have lived under Claudius. He 
executed in marble the apotheosis of Homer, 
which was found, in 15G8, at a place called 
Fratocchia, belonging to the House of Col- 
onna. 

Archenholz, Johann Wilhelm von (ar'- 

chen-holts), a German historian (1743- 
1812). He took part in the closing cam¬ 
paigns of the Seven Years’ War and retired 
as captain, 1763; traveled extensively in 
Europe, lived in England the greater part 
of 1769-1779, and settled in Hamburg in 
1792. His book on “England and Italy” 
(1785), extensively translated, obtained a 
phenomenal success. A sequel to it was 
“Annals of British History” (1789-1798, 


20 vols.). His “ History of the Seven Years’ 
War” (1789; augmented '793, 13th ed. 
1892) is still the most popular account of 
that war. 

Archer, Thomas, an English novelist 
and essayist. His works deal with the ccri- 
ditions of the working classes and with 
social evils. Among the best known are: 
“A Fool’s Paradise” (1870; “Profitable 
Plants” (1874). 

Archer, William, a Scottish critic, born 
at Perth, Sept. 23, 1856. He graduated at 
Edinburgh University, 1876, and was called 
to the bar, 1883. He has long been dramatic 
critic for various London papers, and has 
published books on the drama, including: 
“English Dramatists of To-day” (1882); 
“Masks or Faces: a Study in the Psychol¬ 
ogy of Acting” (1888); “Henry Irving,” 
a critical study (1883) ; “William Charles 
Macreadv, a Biography ” (1890). He is the 
English translator of Ibsen’s dramas (1890- 
1891). 

Archer Fish, the toxotes aculator, which 
shoots water at its prey. It is found in 
the East Indian and Polynesian Seas. 

Archery, the art of shooting with a bow 
and arrow. This art, either as a means of 
offense in war, or as subsistence and amuse¬ 
ment in time of peace, may be traced in the 
history of almost every nation. It always, 
however, declines with the progress of time, 
which introduces weapons more to be de¬ 
pended on, and not so easily exhausted as a 
bundle of arrows. With the ancients, the 
sagitarii, or archers, were an important 
class of troops. In the Middle Ages, the 
bow was much more used by the burghers 
than by the barons. The Swiss were famous 
archers. In modern times, this weapon is 
used by the Asiatic nations, by the tribes 
of Africa, by the American Indians, etc. In 
1813 and 1814, irregular troops, belonging 
to the Russian army, particularly the Bash- 
keers, appeared in Paris, armed with bows 
and arrows, and made surprising shots. 
This weapon was the leading arm of the 
English people for centuries, and their ex¬ 
pertness in the use of it was proverbial. 
Great dependence was placed upon archers 
in war; and frequently has the success of a 
battle been attributed to their means, as at 
Cressy, Poitiers, and Agincourt. Most of 
the English sovereigns had a body guard 
entirely consisting of archers. In the reign 
of Charles II. the Royal Company of Arch¬ 
ers, as it was called, became merged in the 
Artillery Company of London. Archery has 
been revived in modern times as a pastime, 
and is largely practiced. The Toxopholite 
Society of London was first established in 
1781. The principal instruments employed 
in archery are the bow, string, arrow, glove 
and brace. The bows are generally made of 
yew and ash, and the best arrows come 






Archill 


Archimedes 


from the latter description of wood. The 
distance to which an arrow can be sent by 
a good archer is generally from 200 to 250 
yards. 

Archill, Argol, Orchil, Orchill, or Or= 
chal, two species of lichen, the rocclla 
tinctoria and R. fusiformis, which grow in 
the Canary and Cape Verde Islands. They 
are found on rocks near the sea. They pro¬ 
duce a fine but fugitive purple dye, and 
are largely employed for that purpose. Ar¬ 
riving in this country in its natural state, 
it is ground between stones so as to be com¬ 
pletely bruised, but not reduced to powder. 
Then it is moistened with a strong spirit 
of urine, or with urine itself mixed with 
quicklime. In a few days it acquires a purp¬ 
lish-red, and finally a blue color. In the 
former state it is called archil, in the latter 
lacmus or litmus. Cudbear is similarly 
made. Other lichens, such as the vario - 
laria orcina, the lecanora tartarea, etc., 
are sometimes used in place of the rocella. 

Archilochus (ar- 
kil'd-kus), a Greek 
poet; flourished in 
the 7tli century b. 
c. Of his life, 
nothing is definite¬ 
ly known. He was 
classed by the an¬ 
cients with the 
greatest poets, 
Homer, P i n d a r, 
Sophocles; but of 
his works only a 
few fragments have 
come down to us. 
His lyrics, in iam- 
archilochus. bic verse, were of¬ 

ten pointed with 
the bitterest satire; besides satires he wrote 
hymns, elegies, and epodes. 

Archimedes (ar-ke-me'des), the most fa¬ 
mous of ancient mathematicians, was a na¬ 
tive of Syracuse. He possessed equal knowl¬ 
edge of the sciences of astronomy, geome¬ 
try, hydrostatics, mechanics, and optics. 
Among his inventions were the combina¬ 
tion of pulleys for lifting heavy weights, 
the revolving screw, and a spherical rep¬ 
resentation of the motion of the heav¬ 
enly bodies. His inventive genius was 
especially exemplified in the defense of 
Syracuse when besieged by Marcellus. It 
is said that on this occasion he de¬ 
vised a burning-glass, formed of reflecting 
mirrors of such power that by it he set 
fire to the enemy’s fleet. This well known 
story is, however, believed to be equally an 
invention. Upon the city being taken by 
storm, Archimedes, then in his 74th year, 
was among those who lost their lives, B. 
c. 212. His burial place was afterward 
discovered by Cicero. Eight of the works 


of Archimedes have descended to posterity. 
They are: “On the Sphere and Cylinder,” 
“ On the Equilibrium and Center of Grav¬ 
ity of Planes,” “ The Measurement of a 
Circle,” “ On Conoids and Spheroids,” “ On 
Spirals,” “ The Quadrature of the Parab¬ 
ola,” “ The Arenarius,” and “ On Floating 
Bodies.” 

Archimedes, Principle of, a well known 
principle in hydrostatics, the discovery of 
which is attributed to the celebrated phi¬ 
losopher whose name it bears. This import¬ 
ant theorem may be thus defined: When a 
solid is immersed in a fluid, it loses a por¬ 
tion of its weight, and this portion is equal 
to the weight of the fluid which it displaces, 
that is, to the weight of its own bulk of the 
fluid. An experimental proof of this prin¬ 
ciple is thus obtained: From one of the 
arms of a balance is suspended a hollow 
cylinder, having a cylindrical mass of any 
substance capable of exactly fitting into it, 
hanging from it by means of a thread. From 
the other arm of the balance hangs a scale- 
pan, into which weights are placed until the 
solid cylinder and the hollow one are ex¬ 
actly counterbalanced. Water is then 
poured into a vessel around the solid cylin¬ 
der, until it is completely immersed; upon 
which the weights in the scale pan will pre¬ 
ponderate, the solid cylinder seeming to 
have lost a considerable portion of its 
weight. The balance will, however, be 
brought into equilibrio, if water be poured 
into the upper hollow cylinder until it is 
quite full. Now, as this hollow cylinder is 
of such a size that the solid mass exactly 
fits its interior, it follows that the water 
with which the hollow cylinder is filled is 
precisely equal in bulk to the solid cylinder; 
which proves that the apparent loss of 
weight suffered by the latter is precisely 
equal in weight to a mass of water equal in 
bulk to itself. This very ingenious method 
forms one mode — but not the most exact — 
by which the specific gravity of solids is as¬ 
certained. A wonderful story is told in con¬ 
nection with the discovery of this important 
principle. Hiero, King of Syracuse, intend¬ 
ing to offer to the gods a crown, caused one 
to be manufactured of pure gold. When 
brought home, the crown appeared to be of 
full weight, but it was suspected that a 
part of the gold had been stolen, and a like 
weight of silver substituted. Archimedes 
was desired to investigate the supposed 
fraud, and while engaged in solving the dif¬ 
ficulty, he happened to enter the bath, where, 
observing that a certain quantity of water 
overflowed, equal to the bulk of his body, he 
instantly saw in it the solution of the prob¬ 
lem. Carried away by his ardor, he is said 
to have hastened home, without waiting to 
dress, crying out, “Eureka!” (“I have 
found it! ”) 









Archimedian Screw 


Architecture 


Archimedian Screw, or Spiral Pump, 

a machine invented by Archimedes, the cele¬ 
brated Syracusan philosopher, while study¬ 
ing in Egypt. Observing the difficulty of 
raising water from the Nile to places above 
the reach of the flood tides, he is said to 
have designed this screw as a means of over¬ 
coming the obstacle. It consists of a pipe 
twisted in a spiral form around a cylinder, 
which, when at work, is supported in an in¬ 
clined position. The lower end of the pipe 
is immersed in water, and when the cylin¬ 
der is made to revolve on its own axis, the 
water is raised from bend to bend in the 
spiral pipe until it flows out at the top. 
The Archimedian screw is still used in Hol¬ 
land for raising water, and draining low 
grounds. The Dutch water screws are 
mostly of large size, and are moved by the 
wind, one windmill furnishing sufficient mo¬ 
tive power to keep several screws going at 
once. 

Archipelago, a term applied to such tracts 
of sea as are interspersed with many islands. 
It is more especially applied to the numer¬ 
ous islands of the yEgean Sea, or that part 
of the Mediterranean lying between Asia 
Minor and Greece. These islands are prin¬ 
cipally divided into two groups called the 
Cyclades and Sporades. The former con¬ 
tains the Islands of Kythnos, Lyra, Se- 
riphos, Keos, Anoros, Tenos, Naxos, Thera, 
Ios, Melos, Kimolos, etc., all belonging to 
Greece, and forming the province of the 
Cyclades, containing an aggregate popula¬ 
tion (1896) of 134,747. The Sporades group 
consists of Scio, Cos, Rhodes, Samos, Mity- 
lene, Lemnos, etc., and had a population 
(1896) of 115,515. 

Architecture, the art of building, espe¬ 
cially with a view to beauty or magnifi¬ 
cence. The first habitations of man were 
each as nature afforded, or cost little labor 
to the occupant — caves, huts, and tents; 
but as soon as men rose in civilization and 
formed settled societies they began to build 
more commodious and comfortable habita¬ 
tions. They bestowed more care on the ma¬ 
terials, preparing bricks of clay or earth, 
which they dried in the air, or baked by 
fire. 

Egypt .— The history of architecture is 
generally regarded as beginning with the 
construction of the Egyptian pyramids, 
4,000 or 3,000 years b. c. The architecture 
remaining from the middle empire (3000- 
2100 b. c.) is chiefly represented by the 
tombs found at Abydos where excavations, 
in the early part of 1900, laid bare very in¬ 
teresting details of ancient life, and in the 
tombs hewn out of the rocky cliffs of the 
W. bank of the Nile. Several of these tombs 
at Beni Hassan were made architectural by 
decorative treatment with columns with 
8 . 16 or even 32 sides, having some¬ 

thing like embryonic flutings and a 


square abacus, suggesting the Greek Doric 
order and therefore said to be “ Proto- 
Doric.” The development of Egyptian 
art and architecture was interrupted 
for a number of centuries by the 
invasion of the shepherd kings (Hyksos) ; 
but after their expulsion about 1700 
b. c., a new series of dynasties reign¬ 
ed at Thebes, and the temples and 
tombs ercted by Thothmes, Amenophis, and 
Queen Hatasu, by Seti and Ramses, are 
splendid monuments of Egyptian genius. 

Other Ancient Styles .— The typical form 
of Chaldean and Assyrian architecture 
was the pyramid made of mounds or ter¬ 
races built of crude brick and sometimes 
faced with hard brick or even stone brought 
from the mountains of Mesopotamia. Vaults 
and arches were used to a certain extent. 
The buildings were splendidly decorated 
with alabaster slabs elaborately carved, by 
painted plaster and brilliantly enameled 
tiles. Recent excavations at Niffer point 
to a considerable knowledge of architecture 
displayed fully 7,000 years ago. 

Persia had excellent building material 
and with the growth of luxury following 
the period of conquest the Achaemenidse who 
reigned from 566 to 330 b. c. distinguished 
themselves by erecting magnificent palaces. 
Egyptian and Assyrian systems were ap¬ 
plied with modifications. The Hebrews had 
no distinctively national architecture. The 
temple at Jerusalem, a few rock tombs, 
and the city gates of Jerusalem are the only 
monuments of Jewish architecture. 

The architecture of the far Orient stands 
by itself. The earliest Buddhist remains in 
India are attributed to Asoka, who reigned 
from 272 to 236 b. c. They consist of 
stupas or topes, which are mounds inclos¬ 
ing relic shrines, chaityas or temple 
halls cut in the rocks, and viharas or 
monasteries. It is supposed that the Bud¬ 
dhist style of architecture directly influenced 
the Jaina temples, the earliest of which, 
built on Mount Abu in the Indian desert, 
in 1032, by Vimala Sah, consists of a court 
140 feet long and 90 feet wide and 
surrounded by cells and a double colonnade. 
The dome and columns are covered by an ex¬ 
uberance of carvings and sculptures. 

In China the buildings are generally of 
wood, clearly framed, adorned, and often 
grotesque in their ornamentation. The fre¬ 
quency of earthquakes in Japan militated 
against any monumental architecture. The 
gateways to the temples are often of richly 
carved wood. The imperial palace at Tokyo 
is composed of one-storied wooden build¬ 
ings. 

Greece .— The architecture of classic 
Greece is due to the Dorians and Ionians. 
As the _ column was the most important 
feature in the Greek public architecture, the 
two distinctive forms of it, called respect- 





Architecture 


Architecture 


ively Doric and Ionic, gave their name to 
the systems of columnar design. The col¬ 
umn of the Doric order, from three and a 
half to seven diameters in height, was taper¬ 
ing, and had neither pedestal nor base; 
its shaft had 20 shallow llutings with 
sharp edges. The capital, which was half 
the diameter in height, had no astragal or 
knuckle-bone moldings, but was made up 
of a circular echinus or ovolo adorned with 
fine grooves and a square abacus or tile-cap 
without fillet or ornament. On the abacus 
rested the plain architrave with a narrow 
fillet on the upper edge. The frieze was 
divided into square panels called metopes, 
separated by vertical triglyphs, each of two 
vertical grooves with chamfered edges. 
Over each column was a triglyph and one 
or two in each column. The cornice pro¬ 
jected and rested on a bed-mold of one or 
two simple moldings. The soffit, or un¬ 
der surface of the molding was adorned 
with square flat projections called mutules 
each having 18 conical shaped orna¬ 
ments called guttie depending from it. The 
tympanum or inclosed triangular field of 
the gable was often adorned with sculp¬ 
tures, as were also the metopes. The best 
examples of Doric architecture were the 
temples of Athene (Minerva), called the 
Parthenon, and the temple of Theseus at 
Athens and the temple of Athene at Sunion 
(Sunium). Primitive wood construction 
seems to be imitated in the details of the 
Grecian Doric. The triglyphs represent the 
ends of cross beams made of three planks; 
the mutules, the sheathing of the eaves, the 
guttae, the heads of the spikes. Simple and 
dignified as were the details of the Doric 
order, they were rendered brilliant by artis¬ 
tically contrasted colors — red, green, blue, 
buff, and gold. 

In the Ionic order, the column was slen¬ 
der. It stood on a base usually composed 
of two convexed moldings of semi-circular 
profile, short tori separated by a semi-cir¬ 
cular concave molding, called the scotia, 
and sometimes also provided with a plinth 
or square flat base block. The shaft, which 
was S or 10 times its diameter in height, 
had 24 deep, narrow flutings, separated by 
narrow fillets. The capital had a bead or 
astragal, and echinus, above which was a 
horizontal band ending on both sides in 
scrolls or volutes. The architrave was 
separated from this by a thin molded 
abacus. Above this came the entablature, 
comprising an architrave of several flat 
bands crowned by thin moldings, a frieze 
without metopes and frequently sculptured 
in relief, above that a cornice of exquisite 
workmanship. Often this was crowned by 
a row of narrow blocks or dentils support¬ 
ing a high cymatum carved with honey¬ 
suckle ornaments. The origin of the Ionic 
order is still a matter of dispute, but it 
is believed to have been derived from Asiat¬ 


ic sources. The examples found at Halicar¬ 
nassus, Miletus, Priene, Epht.us, and else¬ 
where in Asia Minor, are among the most 
splendid representatives of this order. 

A third order of architecture, sometimes 
regarded as a special one, is called the Co¬ 
rinthian; but this is a late outgrowth of the 
Ionic. The Greeks developed this less than 
the Romans. The architecture of the Greek 
religious and secular edifices depended large¬ 
ly for beauty upon the development of these 
orders, and the temples especially, ruins of 
which have lasted till our day, show that 
their mastery of proportion and detail and 
exquisite symmetry has never been sur¬ 
passed. 

The historical development of Grecian ar¬ 
chitecture has been divided into six periods. 

(a) The Archaic, from 650 to 500 b. c., in 
which the Doric order was exclusively used 
and is typified by the temple at Corinth, 
the northern temple at Selinos in Sicily, 
the temple in Poestum, in Southern Italy, 
and the temple at Assos, in Asia Minor. 

(b) The Transitional, from 500 to 460 
b. c., typified by the temple of Athena at 
yEgina, the temple of Zeus at Olympia, 
and the supposed temple of Herakles (the 
Theseus) at Athens. (c) The Periclean, 
from 460 to 400 b. c., the most perfect mon¬ 
ument of which was the Parthenon, the 
temple on the Acropolis, measuring 220 by 
100 feet, the work of Iktinos and Kalli- 
krates, built for the chryselephantine statue 
of Athena Parthenos, by Phidias. The 
monuments of this age are regarded as the 
most magnificent of all the architectural 
triumphs of the Greeks. (d) The Alex¬ 
andrian, from 400 to 300 b. c., marked by 
sumptuous splendor rather than artistic per¬ 
fection. The temple of Apollo Didymaeus, 
at Miletus, was 366 by 163 feet. The temple 
of Artemis (Diana) measured 342 by 163 
feet. (e) The Decadent period, from 300 
to 100 b. c., marked by weakness and lack of 
life in Athens itself, but having some superb 
examples of architecture in Asia Minor, 
(f) The Roman period, lasting from 100 
b. c. to A. d. 200, of which the temple of 
Olympian Zeus, at Athens, measuring 354 
by 171 feet, is regarded as the most im¬ 
portant monument. Several of the columns 
of this temple were carried to Rome and 
served as models in the development of the 
Roman Corinthian order. 

Italy .— The Romans were a composite 
people, and each of the elements which 
went to make up the nation furnished its 
quota toward the development of the prac¬ 
tical architecture which covered Italy and 
indeed all parts of the Roman empire with 
splendid monuments. The city of Rome 
itself was founded 753 b. c. When the 
Etruscans were absorbed, they contributed 
to Roman architecture the knowledge of 
the vault. The Cloaca Maxima and the 
even earlier sewer which was discovered a 



Architecture 


Architecture 


few years ago, remain a monument of their 
engineering skill. The few buildings of re¬ 
publican Rome were mostly of Etruscan 
design and workmanship. After the Greek 
States had been conquered by the Romans 
and the multitude of artistic spoils had 
been brought back to Italy, together with 
a host of Greek artists, the city began to be 
decorated with splendid buildings, in which 
Greek ideas were modified to meet new 
needs. The Etruscan column with its simple 
entablature was retained. The Doric and 
Ionic forms were adopted and the Corin¬ 
thian was developed into an independent 
order, while the Composite order was added 
to the list. Monolithic shafts were erected 
instead of those built out of super-imposed 
drums. Columns of porphyry or verd- 
antique were highly polished and fluting 
was omitted. The arch and vault were made 
the base of almost all designs and the Ro¬ 
man skill in engineering enabled them to 
conquer tremendous difficulties in the pro¬ 
cess of building. New methods of ornamen¬ 
tation with elaborate carving were employ¬ 
ed for both exterior and interior decoration 
and most brilliant colors were used. Floors, 
wall spaces, and ceilings were often covered 
with elaborate mosaics, and the most rare 
and richly colored marbles were brought 
from all parts of the known world. Besides 
the Colosseum, the Pantheon, the Theater 
of Marcellus, and the remains of temples, 
baths, with their great vaulted halls, 
triumphal arches and other monuments 
still survive in Rome itself and in the 
provinces of the empire as examples of an¬ 
cient architecture. One of the noblest of 
all the temples of Rome was the circular 
temple, called the Pantheon, built by Ha¬ 
drian early in the 2d century a. d., meas¬ 
uring 143 feet in diameter, with the walls 
20 feet thick and supporting a semi-spher- 
ical dome rising to a height of 140 feet. The 
Roman baths were also wonderful examples 
of architectural engineering and of practi¬ 
cal utility. The Roman theater was built of 
wood. The first stone theater was built 
55 b. c. by Pompey. The Colosseum was 
completed 82 a. d., and measured 607 by 
506 feet, was 108 feet high and accommo¬ 
dated 87,000 spectators. Triumphal arches 
were among the most characteristic prod¬ 
ucts of Roman architecture. There were no 
less than 38 of these in Rome itself. The 
most perfect of those still extant is the 
arch of Titus. The arch of Constantine, 
built 330 A. d., near the Colosseum, had 
sculptures taken from the earlier arch of 
Trajan. The later emperor built magnifi¬ 
cent palaces. At Pompeii are the well pre¬ 
served remains of many houses which are 
supposed to be typical of Roman architec¬ 
ture. The general plan of these houses 
seems to be of Greek origin. 

Early Christian Architecture. — Constan¬ 
tine endowed Bethlehem and Jerusalem 


with splendid churches, and when he found¬ 
ed his new cathedral at Byzantium on the 
Bosporus, he dedicated the church to the 
Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia). Only one 
of the basilicas of Constantine is left in 
Rome, St. John Lateran, but modern altera¬ 
tions have largely changed it. The Church 
of St. Paul Beyond the Wall was built by 
Theodosius, in 1386. It lasted till 1821 
and has since been rebuilt and is regarded 
as one of the most impressive places of 
worship in Rome. Early Christian architec¬ 
ture was characterized by the basilica with 
three or four aisles and the use of wooden 
roofs. Byzantine architecture was charac¬ 
terized by vaulted monuments, with the 
pendentive dome supported on the summit 
of four arches spanning the four sides of a 
square. Instead of taking concrete for the 
substructure, they used brick and stone, 
and many of their forms of vaulting were 
of remarkable ingenuity. The interior was 
richly decorated, characterized by colors in 
mosaics rather than carvings. The most 
important building in Byzantine architec¬ 
ture is the Church of St. Sophia, built 532 
to 538 A. d. The dome rests upon four 
arches and the nave measures 200 by 100 
feet, flanked by enormously wide aisles, and 
rises 180 feet. So perfectly is it poised 
that in 1,500 years it has not been destroyed 
by the earthquakes which have ruined so 
many buildings in the East. The Church 
of St. Mark, at Venice, which was begun 
in 977, has a fine dome, and the decoration 
of its interior still preserves its brilliant 
colors. 

Moslem Architecture. — The spread of 
Mohammedanism through Asia and Africa, 
and even into Europe, was accompanied by 
the building of remarkable mosques and 
tombs. Among the earliest of the Moham¬ 
medan mosques was that of Amru, at Cairo, 
built in 642, and enlarged early in the 8th 
century; the mosque of Ibn Tulun, built 
876 to 885, in Cairo, on the same plan as 
that of Amru, but had cantoned piers in¬ 
stead of parallel ranges of columns. Arabic 
architecture shows itself in the mosques of 
Kalaun (1484), Sultan Hassan (1356), El 
Muyyad (1415), and Raid Bey (1463). It 
very curiously corresponds with the develop¬ 
ment of Gothic architecture in Europe. The 
characteristics of Arabic architecture are 
its beautiful domes and minarets, the point¬ 
ed vaults and arches. The most magnifi¬ 
cent example of Moorish architecture in 
Spain is the Alhambra, which was begun in 
1248 and has been several times enlarged. 
The delicacy and richness of its ornamenta¬ 
tion is its chief glory. 

Romanesque Architecture. — Romanesque 
architecture has been divided into four 
broad divisions, called the Lombard, the 
Tuscan Romanesque, the Italo-Byzantine, 
and the Early Christian or Basilican. The 
Lombard monuments belong chiefly to the 




Architecture 


Architecture 


11th and 12th centuries, and fine churches 
of this style are found in Milan, Pavia, 
Piacenza, Bologna, and Verona. Many of 
these churches had detached bell towers or 
campaniles; some of them were decorated 
with carvings of a grotesque character. The 
Tuscan Roman or Piscan architecture be¬ 
trays the influence of Byzantine traditions. 
Many of the churches have alternate bands 
of white and colored marbles. The Duomo 
of Pisa, built from 1063-1118, is 312 feet 
long and 118 feet wide. The baptistery is 
circular and has a lofty central hall sur¬ 
rounded by an aisle. Here also is the 
famous leaning tower built in 1174. The 
Romanesque architecture of Western Eu¬ 
rope has sometimes been called “ the round 
arched Gothic.” This style is shown in the 
great monasteries which rose in the 11th 
and 12th centuries. 

England .— No style of architecture is 
better known in England and Scotland than 
the Norman, owing to the abundance of 
examples which remain. It is characterized 
by round-headed openings, by flat buttress¬ 
es like pilasters, and by the richness and 
quaintness of the carving, especially so 
many of the doorways and chancel arches of 
even the smaller churches. In the cathe¬ 
drals and large churches the pillars divid¬ 
ing the aisles from the nave are very mas¬ 
sive. Among the many examples in En¬ 
gland may be mentioned the cathedrals of 
Durham, Canterbury, Peterborough, and 
parts of Lincoln and Winchester. All the 
existing abbeys and cathedrals of the Nor¬ 
mans had originally wooden ceilings. The 
stone vaults seen in some were supplied at 
a later day. Most of the elaboration which 
was given to the churches was lavished 
upon the doorways, and in nearly all the 
Norman churches the characteristic round 
arches were afterward changed to the 
pointed Norman arch. The church at Iffley 
is a good example of the original Norman 
facade. 

Gothic Architecture .— The name “Goth¬ 
ic architecture ” has been applied to the 
architectural styles developed in Western 
Europe during the third and fourth cen¬ 
turies preceding the year 1600. The name, 
however, has nothing whatever to do with 
the Goths. The style is simply a develop¬ 
ment of the Romanesque. Groined vaults 
were generally substituted for barrel vaults 
so that masses of masonry could be concen¬ 
trated at isolated points of support. The 
piers or buttresses bearing the principal 
strain, immense windows could be supplied 
and were generally filled with magnificent 
stained glass. Another of the characteris¬ 
tic features of Gothic architecture was that 
of flying buttresses, where the thrusts of 
the vaulting were transmitted by half 
arches to internal buttresses. Fine examples 
of this are found in the cathedrals of Cen¬ 
tral and Northern France. The principles 


of the concentration of strain and balanced 
thrusts are the structural basis of the 
Gothic style. The ribbed vaulting and the 
pointed arch are the characteristic outcome 
of the application of these principles. The 
Romanesque edifices were generally simple, 
low and massive; the Gothic generally high¬ 
er and more slender, so that the interior 
aspect was much modified and the exterior 
was still more transformed. The towers, 
spires, pinnacles, great windows, triple por¬ 
tals, enormous rose windows in the gables, 
gave a light and airy appearance to these 
splendid edifices. 

Gothic architecture has been divided his¬ 
torically into three periods, distinguished 
by the characteristic window tracery. These 
are called “ the early pointed,” from the 
middle of the 12th century till toward the 
end of the 13th century, “ the middle point¬ 
ed period,” which covered the century from 
1275-1375, and the “florid Gothic period,” 
which came down through the first quarter 
of the 16th century. The choir of the Can¬ 
terbury cathedral was the first example of 
a thoroughgoing application of Gothic prin¬ 
ciples to church buildings. This was rebuilt 
by William Sens sometime after 1170. As 
soon as the transition from the Norman to 
first pointed architecture was complete, the 
latter was characterized by its narrow point¬ 
ed or “ lancet ” windows, without any, or 
with only very simple, tracery. Further dis¬ 
tinguishing features are high gables and 
roofs, and slender pinnacles and spires. But¬ 
tresses are deep instead of shallow, as in 
the Norman, and shafts slender, whether 
they are simple or clustered. The capital 
is bell-shaped, either with plain moldings 
or with bold and graceful foliage, and the 
abacus in England is round instead of 
square. The moldings consist of projecting 
rounds and deep retiring hollows, which 
give strong light and shade. In England, 
Salisbury cathedral is wholly in this style; 
so are the nave and transept of Westmin¬ 
ster Abbey. It gradually stiffened into 
what is called the “ late pointed style ” or 
“ the florid Gothic period.” This is easily 
distinguished from the previous style by 
the tracery of the windows, which is char¬ 
acterized by an upright and square tenden¬ 
cy. Perpendicular lines prevail in the win¬ 
dows as well as in the ornamental paneling. 
The doorways have square heads over 
pointed arches. Gables and roofs are at a 
low angle. Clerestory windows are more 
frequently square-headed than arched. Only 
in this style do we find the depressed four- 
centered or Tudor arch, although arches 
with two centers are also used. 

In Germany the development of Gothic 
architecture was less interesting than in 
France and England. The Germans were 
slow to give up the Romanesque, but when 
they once took hold of the new style they 
carried it to an extravagant height, as is 



Architecture 


Architecture 


exemplified in the cathedrals at Ulm, Stras- 
burg, Nuremberg, and elsewhere. Among 
the innovations was the raising of the side 
aisles to the same height as the central 
aisles. 

After the Moors had been driven out of 
Spain and enormous wealth had been ac¬ 
quired, many great cathedrals were built 
at Salamanca, Toledo and other places. The 
largest church built during the Middle 
Ages in Europe is the cathedral of Seville, 
which measures 415 by 298 feet, comprising 
five aisles, the central one being 50 feet 
wide and 145 feet high. Manv of the Ital- 
ian cities built splendid cathedrals, for 
instance, at Siena, Arezzo, and Orvieto, the 
Duomo at Florence, the wonderfully deco¬ 
rated cathedral at Milan, the church at San 
Petronio and at Bologna. Instead of a 
spire the Italians preferred a square tower 
as is shown in the beautiful campanile at 
Florence, which is regarded as one of the 
finest examples of Italian Gothic art. 

The Renaissance. — Roman or classic ar¬ 
chitecture may be said to have never en¬ 
tirely died out of Italy and when, in the 
15th century the revival of classic literature 
and taste, stimulated by Dante, Petrarch 
and Boccaccio, took place, the ancient clas¬ 
sic style of architecture naturally revived 
also. This is called the Renaissance. It 
has been attributed to the natural “ protest 
of individual reason against the trammels 
of external and arbitrary authority.” The 
new art had its origin in Florence and soon 
spread through nearly all the cities of 
Northern Italy. It has been divided into 
four periods. The Early Renaissance dating 
from 1420-1490; the High Renaissance, 
1490-1550; the decline or Baroque, 1550- 
1600; and the Rococo, 1600-1700. It was not 
in great buildings, such as cathedrals and 
palaces, but in smaller works such as gate¬ 
ways, chapels, tombs, and fountains that 
the architects of the Early Renaissance 
succeeded in doing their most charming 
work. Some of the altars or pulpits are 
especially pleasing. Many of the palaces 
in Northern Italy, especially in Venice, were 
remarkable for tbeir mixture of classic and 
Byzantine design. The greatest of the Ren¬ 
aissance churches was that of St. Peter’s 
at Rome, which was begun from a design of 
Bramate in 1506 and was completed by 
Michael Angelo, who supplied a dome in 
1546. It is 400 feet in diameter and rises to 
a height of 405 feet. The dimensions of the 
edifice are so vast that they dwarf the har¬ 
monious proportions of the whole. In 1606 
the nave was enlarged and hides the dome 
from view as one approaches. The present 
facade "was designed by the same ar¬ 
chitect, Maderna, who lengthened the 
nave. St. Peter’s is the largest church 
in existence. The center hall is near¬ 
ly 600 feet long. Its paneled and 
gilded vault is 83 feet high in span. 


The type of church established by St. 
Peter’s was widely imitated throughout 
Europe, especially in Italy. The period 
of formal classicism, developed in the latter 
part of the 16th century, was followed by 
what is called the Baroque style, which 
consisted of broken and contorted pediments, 
heavy moldings, and awkward sculptures, 
with a general disregard to dignity. This 
style prevailed in church architecture for 
almost two centuries. Many of the older 
and more dignified edifices were ruined by 
the application of this style. 

Renaissance Architecture in France .— 
The French Renaissance has been divided 
into three periods: (a) that of the Valois, 
1483 to 1589, divided into the transitional 
period which was characterized by a 
mixture of classic details with Gothic con¬ 
ception; (b) the style of Francis I., lasting 
from 1520 to 1547; the advanced Renais¬ 
sance, comprising the years from 1547 to 
1589; and (c) the Bourbon or classic period, 
from 1589 to 1715, and comprising the style 
of Henry IV. and Louis XIV. The most 
important of all the architectural enter¬ 
prises of the reign of Francis I. was the 
Louvre, which was begun in 1546. It was 
not completed till late in the 19th cen¬ 
tury. The preeminence which the French 
obtained in the disposal of monumental 
masses, picturesqueness, and in mastery of 
design has been largely retained by them 
down to the present time. 

Renaissance Architecture in England .— 
The Tudor style, which is a degenerate form 
of the Gothic, was largely used in England 
during the reign of Henry VII. and VIII., 
especially in the erection of country houses. 
Hampton Court, Haddon Hall and other 
show places of England arose at this time. 
Under the reign of Elizabeth down to the 
end of the 16th century, a new variation of 
architecture arose, which takes the name 
of Elizabethan. The pointed arch was no 
longer seen and the classic orders were often 
used in interior and exterior decoration. 
Inigo Jones, who flourished in the first half 
of the 17th century, copied largely from 
Palladio and other Italian masters of clas¬ 
sic Italian architecture. One of his mas¬ 
terpieces is the Chapel Royal, intended as 
a banqueting hall, for a great palace in 
London, designed to measure 1,152 by 720 
feet. He also built Wilton House, the villa 
at Chiswick, and St. Paul’s at Covent Gar¬ 
den. Sir Christopher Wren was the archi¬ 
tect of St. Paul’s cathedral in London, 
which was begun in 1675, nine years after 
the destruction of the Gothic cathedral in 
the great fire. The church measures 480 
feet in length and has transepts 250 feet 
long and a rotunda 108 feet in diameter. 
The dome is surmounted by a stone lantern 
and is 360 feet high. Wren also introduced 
what is called the English Renaissance type 
of steeple, which consists of the conical or 




Architecture 


Architecture in the 19 th Century 


pyramidal spire added to a belfry on a 
square tower. 

Renaissance Architecture in Germany .— 
The transformation of German architec¬ 
ture began after the middle of the 16th 
century. Many magnificent castles, town 
halls, and even private houses belong to the 
Renaissance style of architecture. The 
German modifications of this style went 
toward picturesque ornamentation and 
grouping of quaint and fantastic composi¬ 
tions. 

Renaissance Architecture in Spain .— 
After the overthrow of the Moors and the 
discovery of America, when enormous riches 
poured into Spain, it was natural that ar¬ 
chitecture should have received a great im¬ 
petus. The Flamboyant Gothic style was suc¬ 
ceeded by a style of the Renaissance called 
Plateresque, because the sumptuous decor¬ 
ations lavished upon the jeweler’s art were 
applied also to churches and palaces. This 
style was succeeded by what is called the 
Griego-Romano style, which was broadly 
classic but lacked originality and interest. 
The cathedral at Grenada, built in 1529, 
was one of the finest in Spain, and the 
churches at Malaga and Salamanca are in¬ 
teresting examples of the Plateresque sys¬ 
tem of decoration. Among the triumphs of 
the Griego-Romano style was the cathedral 
of Valladolid, built in the 16th century. 
The most interesting building of this period 
was the monastery of Escorial, begun in 
1563, and not completed for nearly 150 
years. 

Modern Architecture. — Toward the close 
of the 18th century the Roman revival, 
which had planted many buildings with 
arcades and porticos copied from those of 
the Romans, was followed by what is called 
the Greek revival. With no regard for pro¬ 
priety, the Greek Doric and Ionic columns 
were applied to every kind of building. One 
of the first of these buildings was the Bank 
of England, built in 1788. The British 
Museum consists of a colonnade which Pro¬ 
fessor Hamlin says is “ a mere frontispiece 
applied to the badly planned and common¬ 
place building from which it cut off neces¬ 
sary light.” This application of Greek 
forms was seen in many public buildings 
and in many country residences. Other ex¬ 
amples of classic revivals, both Greek and 
Roman, are found in all parts of Europe, 
as, for instance, St. George’s Hall at Liver¬ 
pool, The Museum at Berlin, the Walhalla 
at Ratisbon, the Glyptotek at Munich, the 
Court Theater at Berlin, the Parliament 
House at Vienna, the Pantheon at Paris, 
and St. Isaac’s Cathedral at St. Peters¬ 
burg, and others. Many of the great cities 
have during the last few years been largely 
remodeled by the necessity of providing room 
for the rapidly increasing population, and 
vast increase of wealth concentrated in the 
hands of comparatively few has caused 
25 


enormous sums to be spent on public and 
private buildings. Whole blocks of com¬ 
monplace architecture have been added to- 
the cities of Berlin and Rome. The towns 
of Buda-Pest and Vienna have been largely 
rebuilt. Among the monuments of what 
has been called the Victorian Gothic style 5 
which has come into vogue during the last 
50 years, are the Parliament House at West¬ 
minster, the new Museum at Oxford, the 
Albert Memorial at London, and the Nat¬ 
ural History Building at South Kensington. 

Architecture in the United States .— 
Naturally enough, in the early periods of 
American architecture, the buildings were 
in imitation of those in England. Many 
of them, indeed, were made from materials 
brought from across the Atlantic. The so- 
called colonial style of architecture was a 
modification of the Queen Anne style of 
England, as shown in many interesting 
churches and a few large and important 
houses. The Old South Church at Boston, 
and Trinity Church at Newport, St. Paul’s 
at New York, and Christ Church at Phila¬ 
delphia, are among the best-known ex¬ 
amples of this style. The colonial dwell¬ 
ing houses, many of which have been 
imitated in later times, show abundant ex¬ 
amples of the broad and generous treat¬ 
ment of this style of architecture. Among 
the most interesting of these is the Craigie 
House at Cambridge, where the poet Long¬ 
fellow spent the last part of his life. Dur¬ 
ing the early republican period a few pub¬ 
lic buildings were erected, notably the 
State capitols, and the original capitol at 
Washington. The classic revival, which 
took place in Europe, was also echoed in the 
United States. The White House at Wash¬ 
ington is an imitation of the English coun¬ 
try house. The Boston and New York cus¬ 
tom houses were in this classic style. Dur¬ 
ing the last 30 years a revival of in¬ 
terest in architecture has taken place, and 
important public buildings, churches, and 
museums of commendable style and beauty 
have been erected. The aspect of the larger 
cities has been greatly changed by the erec¬ 
tion of what have been called “ sky-scrap¬ 
ers,” enormous combinations of stone and 
metal, sometimes 20 or even 30 stories high. 
There is gradually growing a more digni¬ 
fied and artistic spirit and many mon¬ 
strosities, which have been erected often at 
public expense by inexperienced and in¬ 
competent architects, are now regarded 
with disfavor. The tendency in architec¬ 
ture is toward a purer taste with practical 
adaptation of appropriate forms to new 
conditions. A. D. F. Hamlin. 

Architecture in the 19 th Century. 

The establishment on a firm basis of the 
present national government is nearly con¬ 
temporaneous with the beginning of the 19th 
century, and before many years had elapsed 
the Federal buildings in Washington at* 



Architecture in the 19th Century 


Architecture in the 19th Century 


traeted the attention of historians. Con* 
gress met in Washington in November, 
1800, as if with expressed determination to 
be in session there when the new century 
should begin. At that time, though the 
capital city has been for 10 years decided 
on and its exact location determined, the 
only buildings which the Federal govern¬ 
ment found ready for its use were a part 
of one wing of the Capitol and as yet in¬ 
complete buildings for the Treasury De¬ 
partment and War Department. The White 
House was not yet ready for its proposed 
use as a residence. Nor did these buildings 
make very good progress and when they 
were burned by the British army in 1813 
but little loss was suffered. 

After the war with Great Britain, the 
Capitol was rebuilt rapidly, and completed 
in its original form, as many men now liv¬ 
ing remember it, with a low central dome 
over what were then the wings occupied 
by the Senate and the House of Represen¬ 
tatives. The White House also was fin¬ 
ished in its present form, though the 
completion of the portico lingered for a 
time. The “ Octagon House,” now occu¬ 
pied by the American Institute of Archi¬ 
tects, is reputed to have been used by the 
President during the building of the White 
House; the building is not octagonal, how¬ 
ever, but of an ingenious and unusual plan 
well calculated to provide an agreeable 
residence. 

Otherwise, throughout the United States 
there was but little change or develop¬ 
ment in the line of architectural art. The 
Georgian epoch of design had passed, ex¬ 
cept in the construction of dwelling houses. 
A Greek taste prevailed, and an ambition 
to produce Grecian architecture was upper¬ 
most in the minds of all who undertook 
public buildings. The lyceums or town 
halls throughout the country, the city halls 
and court houses, and State houses or Capi¬ 
tols, were generally designed’ with colon¬ 
nades. Of this nature is the principal 
building of the college designed under the 
auspices of Thomas Jefferson, if not by 
that statesman himself; of this character 
is the old custom house (now the Sub- 
Treasury) in New York, which is a very 
faithful copy of a hexastyle Doric temple; 
and of this character are the Nashville 
State house, the capitol at Montgomery, 
and a great number of buildings, large and 
small, in the North as well as in the South, 
erected at all periods up to the middle of 
the century. At the same time, however, 
the dwellings were much more commonly 
in the grave and decent style which we have 
generally called “ Old Colonial architec¬ 
ture.” In this respect New York city was 
peculiarly fortunate. Whole quarters of 
the city were thickly built up with houses 
of the most satisfactory style which has yet 
been employed in domestic architecture in 


I the United States — or, at least, which has 
received general acceptance. Many single 
blocks or isolated buildings throughout 
that part of the city which lies S. of 
Bleecker street still remain in their origi¬ 
nal condition, and in these is to be seen the 
original American domestic architecture of 
the time before 1835. Of the same years 
are many interesting houses in the New En¬ 
gland towns, as well as in Maryland and 
Virginia. These houses of the 19th cen¬ 
tury are often confused with the much 
older houses which are properly “ Colonial,” 
and, indeed, are distinguishable only by 
the student who w T ill observe the archi¬ 
tectural details with some care. The taste 
for Greek architecture is, it is true, trace¬ 
able in them in the rather frequent ap¬ 
pearance of a colonnade of four or six or, 
as in one well-known case in Farmington, 
Conn., of five columns — a nearly unique 
architectural device. At any time between 
1820 and 1850, if a wealthy man wished to 
build himself a house of unusual stateli¬ 
ness, he would turn the simple domestic 
“ piazza ” into a portico of Greco-Roman 
dignity. Thus in Charleston the Fic-ken 
mansion has a hexastyle portico at least 
as dignified and nearly as large as that of 
the custom house, and a large mansion on 
South Battery has a Corinthian portico of 
four columns serving as its entrance porch. 
With the years beginning with 1835, the 
houses of the cities became more often large 
and handsome, with costly mahogany 
doors, large rooms divided by colonnades 
of white-painted wood, and very ample and 
easy staircases — all of them features 
known to the country mansions, but hardly 
to city life till that time. Here again 
New York city is the most important cen¬ 
ter of interest, for the houses of Wash¬ 
ington square and those in West 8th street 
(Clinton place), 9th street (Brevoort 
place), and East 8th street (St. Mark's 
place) are very generally of this type, 
and never since that time have rows of 
street houses been so well handled or their 
interiors so well understood. The houses 
of Boston at this time were as good 
internally, and had certain peculiarities of 
plan recommending them to the student, 
such as the use of the alley passing through 
and under the house to the back yard, of the 
utility of which plan much might be said; 
but their exteriors were generally less no¬ 
ticeable. The narrow and crooked streets 
and something in the popular taste almost 
forbade external display or even elegance. 
In Philadelphia, on the other hand, seVer- 
ity was caused rather by the strong Quaker 
influence than by anything in the external 
character of the town, while the easy ac¬ 
cess to white marble in considerable quan¬ 
tities made this a favorite material. Hence 
arose the well-known type of the Philadel¬ 
phia house, with walls of red brick, white 



Architecture in the 19th Century 

• 

marble lintels, sills, and doorsteps, and, as 
the houses were built close to the side¬ 
walk, without areas and with the entrance 
nearly on a level with the street, a display 
of solid white-painted wooden shutters 
which carried out the chromic effect to the 
full. 

The cities of the South were less crowd¬ 
ed, less busy, more decidedly marked by 
the distinction between elegant and humble 
dwellings. In Mobile, Charleston, Savan¬ 
nah, the characteristic dwelling was rather 
a more stately mansion standing free or 
nearly so, and having broad verandas or 
“ galleries ” which, however, were not 
turned toward the street, but sidewise upon 
gardens. Savannah, however, has a very 
unusual plan: a succession of square, open 
“ places ” from each of which four streets 
lead in four directions, giving a se¬ 
ries of square corners and allowing of an 
irregularity of shape in the house-lots 
which is not known in our other cities. It 
is a matter of regret that this plan is not 
preserved in the newer quarters. The resi¬ 
dences in Savannah commonly have win¬ 
dows along their sides opening upon a gar¬ 
den, which, if small, is private, made so 
by brick walls of sufficient height. 

The Gothic revival made itself manifest 
in the United States at an early date. Few 
carefully designed buildings in the medise- 
val styles had been built even in England, 
when, in 1839, Richard Upjohn took charge 
of the work on Trinity Church in New 
York, his task there passing almost im¬ 
mediately into the designing of a wholly 
new structure, which was finished in 1846, 
At about the same time the Church of the 
Holy Trinity in Brooklyn, which still 
stands unaltered, was built by Lefevre, 
whose name is almost forgotten because of 
his death soon after the completion of this 
one important work. These buildings were 
carefully studied from the English Perpen¬ 
dicular style; and as English Gothic hard¬ 
ly included vaulting as a necessary feature, 
this was wholly omitted in the American 
examples, though unfortunate afterthought 
caused some poor imitations of vaulting in 
woodwork and plaster. Apart from this, 
the churches were solidly built and with 
attention to the archaeological propriety of 
every part; the inevitable slips in this di¬ 
rection being cause by the lack of recorded 
and accessible knowledge in those pre-arch- 
seological days. 

No form of Pointed style was in common 
use for any other buildings than churches; 
the same architects who did their best to 
build Gothic churches preferred to design 
private and business dwellings of different 
aspect, though there appeared a few build¬ 
ings which, like Harvard College Library 
and Yale College Alumni Hall, were remind¬ 
ers of English collegiate Tudor architecture. 
Upjohn, apart from his Gothic proclivities, 


Architecture in the 19th Century 

was rather famous for his small Italian 
villas, some of which were of singular grace 
of design; and A. J. Downing, the land¬ 
scape gardener, though he occasionally put 
pointed arches and a steep gable roof to a 
cottage, carried his Gothic efforts no fur¬ 
ther than this, and seems to have preferred 
Elizabethan or some other semi-classic 
style for the numerous country houses 
which he designed. The public buildings 
of the time just preceding the middle of the 
century (nearly always of pseudo-Greek 
style, as has been said above) were unim¬ 
portant, and have been, in the main, re¬ 
placed by more impressive structures. The 
country houses were also, as a general 
thing, without marked character, and the 
rows of street fronts in New York, Phila¬ 
delphia, and Boston, and in the newer and 
rapidly growing cities of the West, were 
unmarked by architectural intelligence. 

In a very few cases a larger house was 
designed with some faithfulness, preserv¬ 
ing a little of the simplicity of the bygone 
Georgian period, or carefully studied from 
French Parisian building, or the more tran¬ 
quil and simple city fronts of Italy. Still, 
the arrival of the year 1850 found no im¬ 
portant architectural movement existing in 
the country; nor was this year followed by 
any very marked development. Two or 
three years later, J. Wrey Mould came 
from England and began to build the Uni¬ 
tarian Church in New York at the corner 
of 4th avenue and 20th street. His de¬ 
sign included a lofty and slender campanile, 
which has never been built; and the church 
was marked by a character of architectural 
and sculptured detail and by a logical solid¬ 
ity of structure that are even now not 
very familiar to American designers. This, 
however, was Mould’s only great chance; 
his other buildings were comparatively un¬ 
important, and his work in the adornment 
of Central Park in New York is undistin- 
guishable from that of other artists em¬ 
ployed upon the same terraces and bridges. 
St. George’s Church in New York was com¬ 
pleted, except for the spires, in 1853, un¬ 
der the direction of Leopold Eidlitz, who 
succeeded to his former partner and, per¬ 
haps, the first designer of the church. This 
church has since been injured by fire, and 
altered; but the original scheme, with an 
undivided and unbroken interior, and a roof 
supported by carefully designed timber 
trusses of two patterns, alternating one 
with another, was one of the boldest and 
most satisfactory buildings in the United 
States. The spires were built by Mr. Eid¬ 
litz a few years later, and were remarkable 
as the only pierced spires of Romanesque 
design known to students; but, unfortu¬ 
nately, the poor quality of the stone caused 
their removal. The above-mentioned 
buildings had architectural character, but 
the greater part of even the respectable 



Architecture in the 19th Century 


Architecture in the 19th Century 


and useful structures of the time were com¬ 
paratively devoid of it. The Boston Athe¬ 
naeum, with its good plan and really ex¬ 
cellent reading room; the New York Astor 
Library, the Boston Public Library on 
Boylston street, finished about 1858, and 
some smaller buildings which the Eastern 
cities managed to pay for during the decade 
from 1845 to 1S55, were generally as de¬ 
void of individuality as were the stone¬ 
faced hotels and State houses of the time. 
During the years from 1845 to 1860 the 
building of the Southern cities and their 
immediate neighborhood was carried on 
much in their old lines — the lines of the 
Georgian architecture. What deviation 
there was from this was still rather in the 
direction of the supplying of obvious needs. 
Thus, the houses of Beaufort and of other 
seaside summer resorts were not unlike 
English Georgian manor houses, with this 
peculiarity, that they were large with a few 
spacious, open rooms and wide halls, giv¬ 
ing the idea of small and simple English 
manor houses increased in scale — a scheme 
very appropriate to the low latitude and 
the steadily warm summer weather. New 
Orleans, most conservative of American 
cities, showed no change in its outward as¬ 
pect. The Western cities had received the 
inoculation of the very evil system of irra¬ 
tional ornamentation which marked also 
the buildings of the East, as will be stated 
below. 

About 1855, Richard Morris Hunt, hav¬ 
ing returned from Paris, where he had 
been a student and also assistant to a 
prominent Paris architect, built the Studio 
building in West 10th street, and the since- 
destroyed private house on the N. side of 
West 38th street, putting into these some¬ 
thing of that French completeness of plan 
and of exterior disposition of parts which 
the country had hardly known before. 
Hunt also established an atelier on the 
Paris plan; and half a dozen of the archi¬ 
tects most successful and most reputed be¬ 
tween 1870 and the close of the century 
were for a time inmates of that studio. 
Experiments were tried in those days — 
experiments both in material and design — 
which it is sad to see were wholly aban¬ 
doned during the years which followed. 
Thus, when Upjohn built Trinity Building 
in New York, a business building, a mere 
investment for Trinity parish, he used terra¬ 
cotta for the cornice, and by this means 
obtained a boldness of overhang which he 
would hardly have dared to give in stone. 
Terra-cotta had to be imported in those 
days, or, if not imported, then made by 
means of a special plant and fired in fur¬ 
naces erected for the occasion. It is easy 
to see why the experiment had no immedi¬ 
ate results. So in design the churches on 
5th avenue — that of the Ascension, at the 
corner of 10th street, and the Presbyterian 


Church 300 feet further N., together with 
the church at University place and 10th 
street — were all of about this period, and 
in them was more intelligent designing than 
generally in the civic buildings of the time; 
but there was room for more originality in 
the latter, and the buildings by Hunt above 
named and a bank in Wall street by Detlef 
Lienau held out more promise. Other busi¬ 
ness buildings of great importance date 
from this time; two of them were built by 
Eidlitz in the business section of New 
York, both of singular solidity and of 
thoughtful design, which cannot now be 
judged, as one has disappeared and the 
other has been altered out of recognition. 

The war came, and while some important 
enterprises took form during those four 
years of excitement and rapid thought, but 
little of importance was brought to per¬ 
fection. The conditions were peculiar; 
many of the architects and many of their 
possible employers were in the army; but 
those who were at home, although often for 
a short visit only, were full of ambition. 
So it happened that both industrially and 
artistically the years immediately follow¬ 
ing the war were very active. In the 
Eastern cities, the domain of business be¬ 
gan to encroach rapidly upon that which 
had been the residence portion, and whole 
streets were built up with buildings of 
somewhat pretentious character as to their 
outsides, the masons and stone-cutters mak¬ 
ing fortunes out of the simpler work upon 
so many precisely similar fronts; the resi¬ 
dence streets were lined with buildings of 
constantly increasing cost, and also the 
construction of country houses became an 
important employment for the builders in 
the smaller towns. A few years were still 
to elapse before the more important public 
and private buildings took shape; this was 
the epoch of much building of less pre¬ 
tension. 

The result of the mingling of styles and 
the clashing of different tastes and fancies 
was very curious. Philadelphia buildings 
kept nearer to their old type of red brick 
and white marble and simple design; Bos¬ 
ton buildings were far more often designed 
by architects employed, each one for a sep¬ 
arate building by the owner of the soil. 
New York, following its unfortunately 
deeply rooted habit, built itself up in long 
rows of stores and houses, each for sale to 
any possible buyer, and therefore of neces¬ 
sity deprived of individual character. And 
yet the difference in architectural merit of 
the buildings in the three cities was not so 
great as might be assumed. The critical 
students of 18G5 abhorred the New York 
brownstone front, with its high stoop and 
its exaggerated affectation of Corinthian 
elegance, and they envied Boston her in¬ 
telligent Harvard graduates who owned lots 
and would build houses for themselves, and 



Architecture in the 19th Century 


Architecture in the 19th Century 


who employed other Harvard graduates to 
design those houses. But Philadelphia and 
Hew York, sticking to their traditions, pro¬ 
duced at least less that was monstrous and 
impossible than Boston. There was more 
intelligence in the Boston buildings, but 
there was also more whim. The dreadful 
heresy of eclecticism got hold of a few of 
the Boston men, and the Gothic buttress 
topped by an Ionic pilaster, a motive which 
passed into a proverb, was only an extreme 
case of what was a serious injury to archi¬ 
tectural growth. The Gothic revival in. the 
hands of Peter B. Wright, J. Cleveland 
Cady, Calvert Vaux, Frederick Clarke 
Withers, and John Sturgis, led to the erec¬ 
tion of some important buildings; the Bos¬ 
ton Museum of Fine Arts, fronting on 
Copley square, being the most florid of 
these, and embodying the English terra¬ 
cotta building of the day. The Academy of 
Design in New York was the only building 
ever erected in America in which a serious 
effort was made to design an abundant 
sculpturesque decoration on the principles 
of the more advanced preachers of the gos¬ 
pel of medievalism. The labor and thought 
required for such work prevented any im¬ 
mediate following of this example, and it 
soon appeared that the taste for Gothic 
buildings was not deeply rooted among the 
architectural students of the time. Good 
buildings were designed by the men who 
have been named, and Richard Upjohn’s ad¬ 
mirable Trinity Chapel should be added to 
the list of Gothic churches deserving spe¬ 
cial praise; but the general effect of the 
taste for pointed windows and for the or¬ 
namentation supposed to belong to them 
was very unfortunate. It had much to do 
with what was certainly the most unsatis¬ 
factory epoch in American architectural de¬ 
signing. The years from 1865 to 1875 saw 
the erection by the hundred of the most 
insufferable country houses that could be 
imagined. All architectural sense seemed 
to have gone out of the designers. The 
posts of the verandas were cut into shapes 
suggested by nothing in the world except 
children’s toys; window-heads of hitherto 
unknown form were put into woodwork, 
into cast-iron, and even into stone; a va¬ 
riety of roof known throughout the coun¬ 
try as the French roof, and consisting o* o, 
lower slope so steep as to be almost a ver¬ 
tical wall, and an upper slope so flat as to 
be a mere tr deck,” produced the ugliest sky 
lines conceivable. The country was full of 
carpenters and masons who thought them¬ 
selves architects because they had pur¬ 
chased and studied some book containing 
plans and elevations of famous buildings. 
These men were trying for originality; but 
this search, difficult and dangerous wen 
among men who have had previous train¬ 
ing in artistic designing, becomes ruinous 
when followed by the men of an epoch and 


a country as devoid of artistic sense as 
those which we are now considering. Build¬ 
ings were planned without any artistic per¬ 
ception of the necessities or the plan; 1 
room was thrust out to the E. and another 
to the S. and another to the W., these dif¬ 
ferent wings having no relation to one an¬ 
other or to the central mass, which, in¬ 
deed, they might entirely conceal or even 
destroy. 

The same incongruity of design affected 
even the public buildings of the time. These 
were the days of Harvard Memorial Hall, 
of the first and accepted design for the 
capitol at Albany, of the United States 
government buildings, including the post- 
office and court rooms in the same huge 
mass, which were erected in many of the 
cities of the land, and of very numerous 
buildings which the designers, if now liv¬ 
ing, would with perfect propriety disclaim, 
classing them as the work of their salad 
days. Men who have since proved them¬ 
selves capable of much better things pro¬ 
duced the most unfortunate designs during 
those hurried years. The “ Tribune ” build¬ 
ing in New York, the Boston city hall and 
court house, the earlier public buildings of 
Chicago, the Connecticut State house or 
capitol at Hartford, may all be named 
with those cited a few lines above as speci¬ 
mens of what ought not to be done in archi¬ 
tecture, and yet as the buildings of men 
who have since proved themselves capable 
and dexterous. It is, indeed, true that a 
flood of bad taste covered the land, and 
that few detached monuments of some little 
architectural merit could be seen above it. 

A more promising condition of things 
was seen to exist when the third quarter of 
the century was completed. In 1875 the 
older men who were still busy had learned 
a great deal by experience and by their own 
blunders; the younger men began to come 
in, more or less well taught in Paris — at 
all events certain of the fact that there was 
such a thing as 19th-century architecture 
and that as yet the United States had 
hardly achieved it. Henry Richardson was 
busy as early as 1875, and a very few years 
later lie took up definitely that Romanesque 
style which he had studied in Central 
France — took it up, and built thereafter 
according to its doctrine, without forsak¬ 
ing it for a moment. Trinity Church in 
Boston, partly studied from Spanish mod¬ 
els, was one of his Romanesque buildings 
—-perhaps the earliest of them. Nearly 
contemporaneous with this were three im¬ 
portant churches in Boston, one of them 
by Richardson himself, the others by the 
younger Upjohn and Cummings and Sears; 
and several large churches of considerable 
merit were built in different mediaeval 
styles in New York. The older Upjohn, 
the designer of Trinity Church, 35 years 
before, made of St. Thomas’s Church when 




Architecture in the 19th Century 


Architecture in the 19th Century 


rebuilt on 5th avenue, his latest and 
crowning labor. The present writer built 
many college buildings between 1870 and 
1880, and, in connection with George 
Fletcher Babb, Battell Chapel of Yale Col¬ 
lege and a bank building in Albany, each 
of these in a modified Gothic style. Other 
college buildings, by George B. Post for 
Princeton College, by H. H. Richardson 
for Harvard University, and J. Cleveland 
Cady in several parts of the country, as¬ 
sisted greatly the advance of style; and 
Trinity College, near Hartford, was begun 
on a great scale and in a consistent En¬ 
glish Gothic style from the designs of Will¬ 
iam Burges of London. The admirable 
buildings of Columbia College at 49th 
street, New York, were built by C. C. 
Haight at a later time, and the same archi¬ 
tect built theological seminaries and hos¬ 
pitals in and near New York, all in some 
form of English Collegiate Gothic. Of 
younger men, the firm of McKim, Mead & 
White, who had built the large and inter¬ 
esting buildings known as the Tiffany 
house and the Villard-Reid house in New 
York, designed also the Newport Casino, 
and in doing this helped much toward a 
development of country house architecture 
which, indeed, has constituted the most im¬ 
portant artistic result of the quarter cen¬ 
tury. The American frame house, sheathed 
with clapboards or shingles, is, in the hands 
of architects of taste, the best thing we 
have yet to show. A few years later the 
firm of Carrere & Hastings designed the 
spirited Spanish-looking palaces used as 
hotels in St. Augustine. All these build¬ 
ings had character; but there were still 
traces enough of the old unarchitectural 
designing, and this especially in the more 
important buildings, as is natural. The 
original designs for the Albany capitol and 
for the Philadelphia public buildings were 
nearly as devoid of architectural merit as 
if they had been built 40 years earlier. 

Since 1885 there have been many more 
buildings of cost and of great pretension — 
many more buildings which in scale reached 
the standard set by the continental nations 
of Europe — than at any previous time. 
Club houses of great importance, dwellings 
of such cost and dignity that they are 
really and in every sense of the word pal¬ 
aces, and National and municipal build¬ 
ings, into the design of which some archi¬ 
tectural ambition has found its way, are 
now so common that even a bare list of 
them would fill more space than can here 
be given. If the progress of architecture 
since that time has not been all that could 
be hoped, this fact is to be ascribed to the 
rapid increase of new demands upon the 
architect’s attention. New problems hare 
developed themselves much more rapidly 
than the comparatively small number of in¬ 
telligent architects could work them out. 


The common use of the elevator made 10- 
story buildings as easy to administer as the 
4-story buildings of old time, and the ho¬ 
tels and business buildings were at once 
changed in this radical way; whereupon it 
was found that the design which had served 
for a 4-story building was not capable of 
ready adaptation to the new conditions. 

Hardly had this been realized and the 
problem fairly got in hand when the intro¬ 
duction of the steel-cage form of construc¬ 
tion revolutionized half the building of the 
American world anew, and the 10-story 
front had to be reconsidered for 1G, 18, or 
20 stories. Moreover, while the 10-story 
building, like its predecessors, had been 
a structure of solid walls carrying iron¬ 
framed floors, the steel-cage building was 
felt to be a totally different construction. 
Here was a skeleton of uprights and hori¬ 
zontals, and no thoughtful architect could 
jacket such a structure with a thin stone¬ 
faced or brick-and-stone-faced wall without 
feeling that this was a mere simulacrum of 
building, and that the real secret of the 
new design had not yet been discovered. 
So, too, with the churches, although they 
were not required to be of unusual height, 
and although the steel-frame structure 
hardly suggested itself as fit for them, their 
condition was felt to be changed by the 
monstrous height of their neighbors, the 
insurance buildings, the hotels, the apart¬ 
ment houses. A church with a 200-foot 
steeple and a 70 foot high roof-ridge made 
but a poor show alongside of a tower-like 
mass as large horizontally at top as at bot¬ 
tom, and carrying a level cornice higher 
than the steeple-cross of the church. More¬ 
over, the architects whose work was of such 
quality as to please greatly the more in¬ 
structed part of the community, a com¬ 
munity full of a kind of literary intelli¬ 
gence, but without much training in the 
arts which address themselves to the eye — 
those architects found themselves over¬ 
whelmed with work. It is not in human 
nature to refuse a $20,000 or a $40,000 com¬ 
mission; it is not in human nature to con¬ 
fess the impossibility of doing so much, 
work and doing it well. The result is a 
general tendency toward a method of de¬ 
sign which, in the best instances, is marked¬ 
ly controlled by good taste, by the absten¬ 
tion from incongruities and ill-considered 
details, but which may be almost devoid of 
the evidences of thought. The colonnade 
taken bodily from an ancient building, or a 
theoretical plate in an old book, the evenly 
spaced windows capped by a little delicate 
sculpture, the roof either invisible or of 
low pitch and masked by a balustrade cop¬ 
ied from an Italian palazzo — these and 
other such architectural members are uni¬ 
ted without shock and without repulsive 
incongruity in buildings which do their 
appointed work quite well — which accom- 




Architrave 


Arctic 


modate a family or a congregation, or which 
prove to be paying investments — and the 
community is fairly well satisfied. The ex¬ 
treme rarity of anything novel in design 
goes with this abrupt explanation of our 
present state as an architectural commun¬ 
ity. Louis Sullivan of Chicago is left alone 
in his serious and repeated efforts to de¬ 
sign the exteriors of lofty steel-framed 
buildings according to their nature and the 
requirement of the law and modern cus¬ 
tom. A. Page Brown, recently dead, was 
alone in having a separate and little-known 
national style in which to build his Cali¬ 
fornia College buildings. Heins and La 
Farge are almost alone in having a large 
church (the Cathedral of St. John the Di¬ 
vine) put into their hands to be slowly 
elaborated and perfected in design, even as 
the preparatory work progresses. Shep- 
ley, Itutan, and Coolidge of Boston are al¬ 
most alone in having a chance to build a 
costly and massive structure (the W. por¬ 
tal of Trinity Church), with an abundance 
of representative and ideal figure sculpture 
forming an essential part of the architec¬ 
tural design. Wilson Eyre has few to help 
him in his gallant effort to create a truly 
decorative system of sculpture for build¬ 
ings which can have but little of it. Sculp¬ 
ture is, indeed, added to a few of our build¬ 
ings of neo-classic design, just as mural 
painting is used within, but this without 
modifying the architectural character of the 
structure. 

The conclusion seems to be that while the 
artistic mind of the country has well out¬ 
grown the period of callow haste and of 
ill-bred ugliness, it has hardly as yet en¬ 
tered upon a true architectural progress. 
The possibilities of such progress are evi¬ 
dent; moreover, there are artists enough 
who feel the need of it; but whether the 
mind of the community, giving its best 
energies to money-making, will in the 
course of the next century apply itself with 
serious purpose to architectural art is, per¬ 
haps, as uncertain now as it was in 1850. 

Russell Sturgis. 

Architrave, in architecture, the part of 
an entablature which rests immediately on 
the heads of the columns, being the lowest 
of its three principal divisions, the others 
being the frieze and the cornice. 

Archives, the place in which records are 
kept; also the records and papers which are 
preserved, as evidence of facts. 

Archivolt, in architecture, the ornamental 
band of moldings on the face of an arch 
and following its contour. 

Archons, the chief magistrates of ancient 
Athens, chosen to superintend civil and re¬ 
ligious concerns. They were nine in num¬ 
ber; the first was properly the archon, or 
archon eponymos, by whose name the year 


was distinguished in the public records; the 
second was called archon basileus, or king 
archon, who exercised the functions of high- 
priest; the third, polemarchos, or general 
of the forces. The other six were called 
thesmothetai, or legislators. 

Archytas, an ancient Greek mathema¬ 
tician, statesman, and general, who flour¬ 
ished about 400 b. c., and belonged to Taren- 
tum, in Southern Italy. The invention of 
the analytic method in mathematics is 
ascribed to him, as well as the solution of 
many geometrical and mechanical problems. 
He constructed various machines and auto¬ 
mata, among the most celebrated of which 
was his flying pigeon. He was a Pythago¬ 
rean in philosophy, and Plato and Aristotle 
are said to have been both indebted to him. 

Arc Light. See Electric Lighting. 

Ar^on, Jean Claude d’, a French en¬ 
gineer and author; born in Pontarlier, in 
17 33. He was educated at the military 
school at Mezieres. In the Seven Years’ 
War he distinguished himself, especially in 
the defense of Cassel. His fame was in¬ 
creased by his invention of the floating 
batteries used without success at the siege 
of Gibraltar (1782). In 1793, under Du- 
mouriez, he took Breda and other places in 
Holland. His chief work is “Considerations 
Militaires et Politiques sur les Fortifica¬ 
tions” (1795). He died July 1, 1800. 

Arcot (Aru-Kaclu, “ Six Deserts ”), a city 
of British India, in the presidency of Mad¬ 
ras, the capital of the district of North Ar¬ 
cot. It is situated on the right bank of the 
Palar, 5 miles from Arcot railway station, 
and 05 miles W. S. W. of Madras. Besides 
the military cantonment, which can accom¬ 
modate three regiments of cavalry, Arcot 
contains some mosques in a tolerable state 
of repair, and the ruins of the Nawab’s pal¬ 
ace. In 1751 Clive, with 300 Sepoys and 
200 Europeans, marched against Arcot, 
which was garrisoned by 1,100 men; and 
after having taken it, had in his turn to 
withstand a siege of 50 days. Arcot was af¬ 
terward captured by the French, but retaken 
by Colonel Coote in 17G0. It was taken and 
held for a time by Hyder Ali, but passed 
into the hands of the British in 1801. Pop. 
12,000. The districts of North and South 
Arcot form a portion of the presidency of 
Madras. They are dependent on tanks in 
the dry season, and have suffered severely 
from famines. Area of North Arcot, 7,616 
square miles; pop. (1891) 2,180,487; area 
of South Arcot, 5,217 square miles; pop. 
(1891) 2,162,851. 

Arctic, (1) An adjective = bright, and 
(2) a substantive = a bear, so called either 
from his bright eyes or from his brilliant 
tawny fur. Before the Aryans had finally 
separated, riksha = bright, applied to the 
plow-like constellation, had become obsolete, 



Arctic Circle 


Arctic Regions 


and the substantive bear remained, whence 
the constellation came to be called arktos 
among the Greeks, Ursa, among the Latins, 
and Bear among ourselves. 

1. Properly, pertaining to the constella¬ 
tion called by the Greeks arktos — bear, by 
the Romans, Ursa, and by ourselves Ursa 
Major, the Great Bear, the Plow, Charles’ 
Wain, etc. 

2. Pertaining to the North generally, or 
more especially to the region within the Arc¬ 
tic Circle. 

Arctic Circle, a small circle of the globe, 
23° 28' distant from the North Pole, which 
is its center. It is opposed to the Antarctic 
circle, which is at the same distance from 
the South Pole. 

Arctic Expeditions, expeditions pro¬ 
jected to explore the regions surrounding 
the North Pole. The object with which 
these enterprises were commenced by the 
English was to obtain a passage by way 
of the polar regions to India, Egypt being 
in Mohammedan hands, and fear, which now 
seems absolutely ludicrous, being felt that 
the Portuguese would successfully debar 
daring English seamen from using the route 
by the Cape of Good Hope. When the utter 
hopelessness of finding either a northwestern 
or a northeastern passage to India through 
the polar regions became apparent, it was 
felt that Arctic expeditions might still prof¬ 
itably be sent out for purely scientific ex¬ 
ploration, one main object now being to 
make as near an approach as possible to the 
Pole. They have continued at intervals to 
our own times, and are not likely ever to 
cease. Two of the most notable events in 
their history which have hitherto occurred 
have been the discovery of the northwest 
passage by Captain McClure, of the “ In¬ 
vestigator,” on Oct. 26, 1850, and the tragic 
deaths of Sir John Franklin and his crew, 
about the year 1848, the catastrophe being 
rendered all the more impressive to the pub¬ 
lic mind by the uncertainty which long hung 
over the gallant explorers’ fate. 

In September, 1895, Lieut. Robert E. 
Peary, of the United States navy, returned 
from an Arctic expedition, after an absence 
of two years. He did not get so far north 
as some of his predecessors, but in scientific 
results his expedition surpassed all others 
of recent years. His surveys and maps ex¬ 
tend our knowledge of the coast northward 
2°. He started on another expedition in 
1897. On Aug. 13, 1896, Dr. Fridtjof Nan¬ 
sen, of Norway, returned from an Arctic ex¬ 
pedition, after an absence of more than 
three years. The most northerly point 
reached by him was 86° 14' N. latitude, 
or 200 miles nearer the Pole than ever 
reached before. He found no indications of 
land N. of 82° N. latitude, and in the 
higher latitudes no open sea, only narrow 


cracks in the ice. The lowest temperature 
recorded during the voyage was 62° F., and 
the highest 37%° E. See Abruzzi. 

The following are the farthest points of 
N. latitude reached by Arctic explorers: 


Year. 

Explorers. 

North Latitude. 

1607. 

Hudson. 

80° 

23' 

0" 

1773. 

Phipps. 

80° 

48' 

0” 

1806. 

Scoresby. 

81° 

12' 

42'' 

1827. 

Parry. 

82° 

50' 

0" 

1874. 

Meyer (on land). 

82° 

0' 

0” 

1875. 

Markham and Parr 





(Nares’expedition) . 

83° 

20' 

26" 

1876. 

Payer. 

83° 

07' 

0" 

1884. 

Lockwood (Greely’s 





party) . 

83° 

24' 

0" 

1896. 

Nansen. 

86° 

14' 

0" 

1900. 

Abruzzi. 

86° 

33' 

0" 

1906. 

Peary. 

87° 

6' 

0" 

1909. 

Peary. 


The Pole 


Arctic Ocean, in its widest sense, that 
portion of the ocean which extends from the 
Arctic circle (lat. 66° 32' N.) to the North 
Pole, or more restrictedly from about lat. 
70° N. Assuming the former limit, the 
Arctic Ocean is found entering deeply, in 
the form of gulfs, bays, etc., into the N. 
parts of the continents of Europe, Asia, and 
America. The principal of these indenta¬ 
tions are the White Sea in Europe; Kara 
Sea, Gulfs of Obi and Yenisei in Siberia; 
and Baffin bay in North America. It i3 
united to the Pacific by Bering Strait, and 
to the Atlantic by a wide stretch of sea ex¬ 
tending from Greenland on the W. to Nor¬ 
way on the E. Among the principal is¬ 
lands of the Arctic Ocean are Greenland (at 
last proved to be an island) and E. of 
Greenland the extensive group known un¬ 
der the name of Spitzbergen, the small is¬ 
land of Jan Mayen, and Iceland. W. of 
Greenland, and divided from it by Davis 
Strait and Baffin bay, there are a consid¬ 
erable number of islands of great size but 
little interest. N. of Europe are the is¬ 
lands of Nova Zembla; and N. from these, 
Francis Joseph Land an archipelago as yet 
imperfectly known. The water of the Arc¬ 
tic Ocean is extremely pure, shells being 
distinctly visible at a great depth; it also 
presents rapid transitions of color, chiefly 
from ultramarine to olive-green, the latter 
variations of color being produced by myri¬ 
ads of minute animals, belonging for the 
most part, to the Ccelenterata and Mollusca 
classes. 

Arctic Regions, the regions round the 
North Pole, and extending from the pole on 
all sides to the Arctic circle in lat. 66° 32' 
N. The Arctic or North Polar circle just 
touches the N. headlands of Iceland; cuts 
o,ff the S. and narrowest portion of Green¬ 
land; crosses Fox Strait N. of Hudson bay, 
whence it goes over the American conti- 















Arctic Regions 


Arctic Regions 


nent to Bering Strait. Thence it runs to 
Obdorsk at the mouth of the Obi; then, 
crossing Northern Russia, the White Sea, 
and the Scandinavian peninsula, returns to 
Iceland. 

The most important facts now ascer¬ 
tained respecting the climate of the Arctic 
regions are, that the main line of extreme 
cold extends across the Polar Sea from the 
meridian of 90° W. to that of 130° E., 
reaching much farther on the Asiatic than 
on the American side, so that the winter 
temperature of Yakutsk (lat. 62° 2') is 7° 
F. lower than that of Rensselaer Harbor, 
in Smith Sound (lat. 78° 37'). But the 
American limit of cold oscillates much less 
than the Asiatic, the summer temperature 
at Rensselaer Harbor being but 62°, while 
at Yakutsk it is 95° F. above that of win¬ 
ter. This difference is due to the absorp¬ 
tion of summer heat by the comparatively 
dry plains ol Siberia, while on the North 
American continent the numerous lakes and 
inlets moderate the climate throughout the 
year. To this it may, perhaps, be added 
that Greenland, owing to its peculiar con¬ 
stitution and position, is to North America 
a source of refrigeration which has no coun¬ 
terpart in the E. continent. This circum¬ 
stance, and the humid atmosphere main¬ 
tained by the numerous lakes, somewhat 
moderates the severity of f lie cold, but at 
the same time renders it somewhat more 
constant. 

Many have adopted the belief in the ex¬ 
istence of an open polar sea about the North 
Pole. But this belief is not supported by 
any positive evidence. Ice is nearly con¬ 
stant everywhere between Spitzbergen and 
the S. point of Greenland. This is called 
the main N. ice. E. of Spitzbergen and near 
Nova Zembla, the sea is always beset, if not 
completely barred, by ice. In Baffin bay, 
and thence W. to Bering Strait, numerous 
expeditions have had a perpetual struggle 
with ice. The expedition of 1875-1876 un¬ 
der Captain Nares, members of which 
reached a point 30 miles farther N. than 
had ever previously been attained, proceed¬ 
ing by way of Baffin bay and Smith Sound, 
found" no indications of an open polar sea. 
On the contrary, the explorers found N. of 
82° 27' a sea consisting of one unbroken 
sheet of old ice of immense thickness, which 
effectually barred the further progress of 
the vessels, while the ruggedness of the ice 
rendered it impossible to reach the pole by 
sledge. Nansen more recently found abund¬ 
ance of ice in the tract of sea crossed by 
him. 

It seems certain that a current sets into 
the polar basin along the coasts of Norway 
and Lapland. It is probably the effect of 
prevalent S. W. winds, though some call it 
a branch of the Gulf Stream. There is also 
a strong current running in at Bering 
Strait. On the other hand, along the E. 


coast of Greenland and in Baffin bay the 
movement is generally S. In the numerous 
channels between Baffin bay and Bering 
Strait the tides are regular but feeble; in¬ 
deed, it seems possible to trace across Bar- 
row Straits the line of neutralized or no 
tide, and this, there is reason to suspect, is 
also the line of comparatively permanent 
ice. 

Valuable minerals, fossils, etc., have been 
discovered within the Arctic regions. In 
the archipelago N. of the American conti¬ 
nent excellent coal frequently occurs. The 
mineral cryolite is mined in Greenland and 
carried to the United States. Among other 
fossils, the remains of large saurians are 
found in the Lias, which extends widely 
over the N. archipelago, and ammonites 
collected in abundance prove that in lat. 
73° N. there was once a tropical tempera¬ 
ture. The group of islands opposite the 
mouth of the Lena, in lat. 73°, are little 
more than accumulations of fossil remains 
carried down bv the river, and are annual- 
ly visited for the purpose of digging fossil 
ivory. 

The only arborescent plants in Greenland 
are dwarf birches, willows, and berberries; 
thyme and angelica in sheltered spots alone 
give perfume. The English expedition of 
1875-1876 found 20 or 30 species of phaner¬ 
ogamous plants between lat. 82° and 83°. 
From Churchill river on the W. side 
of Hudson bay (lat. 53°), the line 
limiting the forest runs constantly to 
the N. of W. till it reaches Nor¬ 
ton Sound, a little S. of Bering Strait, larch 
and poplar making their appearance as we 
go Wo In Siberia, where the summer heat 
is greater, woods flourish to a much higher 
latitude within the polar circle. In the 
Scandinavian peninsula the red pine reaches 
lat. 69°, the Scotch fir 70°, the birch 71°. 
Animal life is by no means deficient within 
the polar circle. Species indeed are few, 
but the individuals extremely numerous. 
The proof of this is to be found in the 
immense number of skins of fur-bearing 
animals, eider ducks, seals, walrus, etc., 
annually supplied to commerce. Recent 
expeditions have found the usual arctic 
quadrupeds and birds as far N. as the land 
extended. How far N. the cetaceans reach 
is doubtful. 

Notwithstanding this apparent abundance, 
the human being has in general a severe 
struggle for subsistence beyond the 64th 
parallel N. lat., though traces of Eskimos 
have been found as far N. as 81° 52'. The 
Eskimos who inhabit Greenland and the ex¬ 
treme N. of America have a hard life of it, 
often pressed, and not seldom cut off, by 
famine. Under their rigorous skies the re¬ 
sources derivable from the surrounding 
abundance of animal life can only support 
a handful of men. Even in Siberia, where 
the reindeer trained to the sledge, and the 






Arcturus 


Ardennes 


great rivers from S. to N. frozen through¬ 
out the winter, add so greatly to the facili¬ 
ties of intercourse or emigration, whole 
communities are frequently cut off by fam¬ 
ine or disease. Yet we see Europeans set¬ 
tled under the parallel of 73° at Upernivik 
in Greenland, of 72° 2' at Ustyarsk in Si¬ 
beria, and of 70° 40' at Hammerfest in Nor¬ 
way, and Europeans have wintered far N. 
of this. The settlements in Greenland, 
Northern Siberia, Kamchatka, and the Hud¬ 
son bay territories are all more or less con¬ 
nected by trade with S. countries, whence 
they derive their power of endurance; and 
from the constant care required in order to 
guard against the consequences of the severe 
climate it is evident that to man the support 
of life within the polar circle must ever be 
difficult and precarious. Nevertheless, ow¬ 
ing to the abundance of lower animal life, 
men have visited these regions for centuries 
to gather the exceedingly rich harvests of 
furs and oil. 

Arcturus, in astronomy, a fixed star 
of the first magnitude, called also Alpha 
Bootis. It is one of the very brightest 
stars in the northern heavens. In March, 
1635, Morin saw it in the west for more 
than half an hour after sunrise. To find 
it, draw a line through the tail of the 
Bear four times the length of the dis¬ 
tance between the stars Mizar and Benet- 
nasch in the diagram below. The ancients 
considered it a red star. Piazzi could not 
find it had any parallax. Though nominally 
fixed, yet it has a proper angular motioni of 
2.250', equivalent to 53.32 miles in a sec¬ 
ond. In 752 years it altered its latitude 
5', and in 20 centuries, according to Hum¬ 
boldt, it has moved 2 1 / 4 times the diameter 
of the moon’s disk. In 1803, Ilerschel found 
its diameter, seen through a fog, 2-10 of a 
second, from which he calculated its diam¬ 
eter to be not less than 8,000,000 leagues = 
48,000,000 miles. 

^ "Mizar. 

Benetnasoh. 7 ) \ S Dubhe, 

Y—1« 

ArcturuB. V * 

* Y Q 

URSA MAJOR AND THE STAR ARCTURUS. 

The Arcturus of Scripture. — Hebrew Ash, 
Job ix: 9; Aish, xxxviii: 32. Septuagint, 
Arktouros; Vulgate, Arcturus. Not the 
star now called Arcturus, which stands in 
solitary grandeur in the sky, unaccompanied 
by any of his ‘ sons,” baneha, mentioned in 
Job xxxviii: 32, but the Great Bear (Ursa 
Major). Hebrew, Ash, is formed by aphae- 
Tesis from Hebrew neash = a bier or litter. 
In Arabic, naasch, cognate with the Hebrew 
neash, is the name of the four stars (Greek 
Alpha, Beta, Gamma and Delta), consti¬ 
tuting the hinder portion of the Great Bear; 


w’hile the three in the tail (Greek Epsilon t 
Zeta, Eta), are called in Arabic Banat- 
naasch — daughters of the bier, meaning, 
the mourners followed the bier. The last 
of these (Greek Eta) is still designated by 
its Arabic name Benetnasch. 

Ardagh, Sir John Charles (ar'da), a 
British military officer, born in 1840; en¬ 
tered the Royal Engineers in'1859; and be¬ 
came major-general in 1898. He attended 
the Conference of Constantinople, Congress 
of Berlin, Bulgarian Boundary Commission, 
and the Peace Conference at The Hague, in 
1899. He was for many years director of 
military intelligence in the British war 
office. He received many honors for his 
services. He died Oct. 1, 1907. 

Ardahan (ar-dan'), a village of about 300 
houses, in the portion of Turkish Armenia, 
ceded in 1878 to Russia, 35 miles N. W. of 
Kars. Its position gives it strategic im¬ 
portance. Its fortress was dismantled by 
the Russians in the war of 1854-1856; in 
1878 the Berlin Congress sanctioned the ces¬ 
sion to Russia of Ardahan, which had been 
captured early in the war. On account of 
the severity of the climate, the houses of 
Ardahan are mainly constructed under¬ 
ground. 

Ardalan (ar-dal-an'), a province in the 
W. of Persia, embracing the basin of the 
Shirwan Riid. It is generally mountainous, 
but the valleys are very fertile, and if well 
watered, yield cereals and fruits in abun¬ 
dance. Area, 6,000 square miles; est. pop. 
150,000. Capital, Kermanshah. 

Ardebil, a town of Persia, in the province 
of Azerbijan, 110 miles E. of Tabriz, and 
some 5,000 feet above the sea. Pop. about 
10 , 000 . 

Ardeche (ar-dash'), a Department in the 
South of France, takes its name from a trib¬ 
utary of the Rhone, and includes part of an¬ 
cient Languedoc. It is almost wholly moun¬ 
tainous. In the N. W. of the Department, 
the Cevennes culminate in the volcanic 
Mont-Mezene, 5,752 feet in height. Nu¬ 
merous extinct volcanic peaks, deep craters, 
grottos, rock labyrinths, and basaltic col¬ 
umns give an extraordinarily picturesque 
appearance to the scenery. The upland, 
where winter reigns for six or eight months, 
is devoted to pasturage; but the valley of 
the Rhone produces wine, olives, chestnuts, 
figs, and almonds. Only a fourth of the 
area is cultivated. Iron, coal, antimony, 
lead, marble, and gypsum are wrought. 
There are manufactures of silk, paper, 
leather, cloth, and straw. Area, 2,136 
square miles; pop. (1906), 347,140. The 
capital is Privas. 

Ardennes (ar-dan'), an extensive hill- 
country and forest, occupying the S. E. 
corner of Belgium, between the Moselle and 
the Meuse, but extending also into France 



Ardennes 


Arenaceous Rocks 


and Rhenish Prussia. It consists of a 
broken mass of hills, for the most part of 
no great elevation, which gradually slope 
toward the plains of Flanders. The aver¬ 
age height of the hills is less than 1,600 
feet; but in the E., they attain an eleva¬ 
tion of about 2,100 feet. Large tracts of 
this region consist not of hills, but of gently 
undulating plateaus, in some districts 
densely covered with oak and beech forests, 
but for the most part heathy, marshy, and 
barren. The channel of the Meuse is in 
some places bound in by rugged and pre¬ 
cipitous cliffs more than 600 feet high. The 
principal rocks of the Ardennes are clay- 
slate, graywacke, quartz rock, and various 
metamorphic rocks; besides which occur in 
various places extensive outcrops of crystal¬ 
line limestone. The wealth of the region is 
its wood and its minerals. Enormous sup¬ 
plies of coal are found in the north, a very 
important element in Belgium’s industrial 
wealth; iron, lead, antimony, copper, and 
manganese are also found. Multitudes of 
cattle and sheep are reared. The Arduenna 
Silva of the Romans extended over a still 
wider area. 

Ardennes, a frontier Department of 
France, bordering on Belgium. It is named 
from the forest of Ardennes, and formed 
a part of the old province of Champagne. 
Length from N. to S., 63 miles; area, 2,020 
square miles. The N. E. belongs to the 
basin of the Meuse; the S. W. is watered 
by the Aisne; these rivers being united by 
a canal. About two-fifths of the whole sur¬ 
face is hilly, and covered with forests and 
wide tracts of pasturage. In the N., mar¬ 
ble is obtained; but the prevailing rock is 
limestone. South of this, and stretching 
across the department from E. to W., are 
great layers of slate. Only the valleys are 
fertile, and produce corn. The vine is cul¬ 
tivated in the S. W. Cattle and sheep 
are reared. Slate, marble, iron, clay, cop¬ 
per, and coal are found. Iron working is 
largely carried on; but the chief industry 
is cloth-making, especially in Sedan. There 
are also manufactures of clay pipes, glass, 
paper, sugar, and beer. The capital is 
Mezi£res, but the most important place is 
the great fortified city of Sedan. Pop. of 
department (1906), 317,505. 

Arditi, Luigi (ar-de'te), an Italian mu¬ 
sician and composer, born in Piedmont, July 
16, 1822; studied music at the Conservatoire 
of Milan. Famous first as a violinist, then 
as a conductor, he went to London in 1857, 
and from that year till 1878 was musical di¬ 
rector at Her Majesty’s Theater. He had 
conducted Italian opera and concerts in 
places as remote from one another as New 
York and Constantinople; bad published 
the operas “1 Briganti ” (1841), and “La 
Spia ” (1856) ; and was known as author of 


much popular music—songs, violin duets, 
and waltzes. He died May 1, 1903. 

Ardnamurchan ( mur'kan) Point, the 

most westerly point of the Island of Great 
Britain, in Argyllshire, having a lighthouse, 
180 feet above sea level, visible 18 to 20 
miles off. 

Ardoch, a parish in South Perthshire, 
celebrated for its Roman remains, one, a 
camp, being the most perfect existing in 
Scotland. 

Are, the unit of the French land measure, 
equal to 100 square meters, or 1,076.44 
square feet. A hectare is 100 ares, equal to 
2.47 acres. 

Areca, a genus of lofty palms with pin¬ 
nated leaves, and a drupe-like fruit inclosed 
in a fibrous rind. A. catechu, of the Coro¬ 
mandel and Malabar coasts, is the common 
areca palm which yields areca or betel nuts, 
and also the astringent juice catechu. A. 
olcracea is the cabbage-tree, or cabbage- 
palm of the West Indies. With lime and 
the leaves of the betel pepper, the areca 
nuts, when green, form the celebrated masti¬ 
catory of the East. They are an important 
article in Eastern trade. 

Arecibo (ar-a-se'bo), an important com¬ 
mercial town of Porto Rico; on the N. 
coast; facing the Atlantic Ocean; 50 miles 
W. of San Juan. It is similar to all Span¬ 
ish towns, with a plaza, surrounded by the 
church and other public buildings, in the 
center, and streets running from it in right 
angles, forming regular squares. The build¬ 
ings are of wood and brick. The harbor is 
a very poor one, being exposed to the full 
force of the ocean, and having no natural 
or artificial protection. Imports and ex¬ 
ports can be handled only by twice lighter¬ 
ing. Tributary to the town is a district of 
about 30,000 inhabitants. Pop. (1910) 
9,612. 

Arena, the inclosed space in the central 
part of the Roman amphitheaters, in which 
took place the combats of gladiators or wild 
beasts. It was usually covered with sand 
or saw dust to prevent the gladiators from 
slipping, and to absorb the blood. 

Arenaceous Rocks, rocks composed en¬ 
tirely, or to a large extent, of grains of 
quartz. Beds of loose sand occur exten¬ 
sively in the more recent deposits. The 
grains, either of quartz or flint, are gener¬ 
ally water-worn and rounded; in some cases, 
however, they are more or less angular, or 
rounded and angular grains occur com¬ 
mingled. In older deposits, the grains of 
sand are bound together by siliceous, cal¬ 
careous, argillaceous, or ferruginous ce¬ 
ments. It is seldom that a rock is composed 
of quartzose materials alone; grains or par¬ 
ticles of other mineral substances are fre¬ 
quently mingled with the grains of quartz. 



Arends 


Areopagus 


Silvery flakes of mica are seldom absent; 
and they often occur in layers parallel to 
the planes of stratification, causing the 
rock to split into thin slabs, and exposing 
a glittering surface. These are called mi¬ 
caceous sandstones. When grains of feld¬ 
spar occur, it is a feldspathic sandstone. 
Often large quantities of calcareous mat¬ 
ter, either as cement or as distinct grains, 
occur; and these are called calcareous sand¬ 
stones. In like manner we have siliceous 
and ferruginous sandstones, when silica and 
oxide of iron are conspicuously present as 
cementing or binding materials. Clay and 
carbonaceous matter, when plentifully dif¬ 
fused through the rock, give rise to argil¬ 
laceous, carbonaceous, and bituminous sand¬ 
stones. Greensand, or glauconitic sand¬ 
stone, is a rock containing abundant grains 
of the dirty greenish mineral called glau¬ 
conite. Arkose is a sandstone composed of 
disintegrated granite; volcanic sandstone, 
trappean sandstone, etc., being composed of 
disintegrated igneous rocks. The presence 
of lime can always be detected by the ef¬ 
fervescence which takes place on the ap¬ 
plication of hydrochloric or other acid. 
A sandstone of homogeneous composition, 
which may be worked freely in any direc¬ 
tion, is called freestone or liver rock. Flag¬ 
stone is a sandstone which is capable of be¬ 
ing split into thin beds or flags along the 
planes of deposition. When the sandstone is 
coarse-grained, it is usually called grit. If 
it contain, more or less abundantly, grains 
large enough to be called pebbles, the sand¬ 
stone is said to be conglomeratic; and if the 
pebbles or stones be angular, the rock is de¬ 
scribed as a brecciiform sandstone. Coarse¬ 
grained grits and pebbly or conglomeratic 
sandstones pass into conglomerate or pud- 
dingstone, which consists of a mass of vari¬ 
ous sized water-worn stones. Brecciiform 
sandstones frequently pass into breccia, 
which is an aggregate of angular and sub- 
angular fragments. Graywacke is an ar¬ 
gillaceous sandstone, more or less altered 
and sometimes semicrystalline, met with 
among palsezoic formations. 

Arends, Leopold (iir'ents), author of a 
widely popular system of stenography, born 
near Wilna, Russia, Dec. 1, 1817. Educated 
at Dorpat, in 1844, he settled in Berlin, 
where he wrote dramas, as well as books on 
popular natural history and ancient Hebrew 
music, but his name is best known through 
his “ Rational Stenography,” first published 
fully in 1860, in his “ Vollstandige Leit- 
faden.” His is the youngest of the three 
great rival systems in Germany—the others 
being those of Gabelsberger and Stolze — 
but it is perhaps the most widely used, and 
it has been introduced into the Spanish, 
French, Hungarian, and Swedish languages. 
He died in Berlin, Dec. 22, 1882. 


Arene, Paul Auguste (a-ran'), a French 
author, born in Sisteron, June 26, 1843, 
At first engaged in teaching at Marseilles 
and in Paris; but from 1865 on he devoted 
himself to literature, and became favorably 
known through his brilliant descriptions 
of his Provencal home. Notable among vari¬ 
ous collections of stories are “ The Perfumed 
Beggar Woman” (1876); “In the Kindly 
Sun ” (1879) ; “ The True Temptation of St. 
Anthony,” and “ Christmas Stories.” He 
also wrote two novels, “John of the Figs” 
(1868), and “The Golden Goat” (1889); 
several comedies, partly in conjunction with 
others, especially Alphonse Daudet, whose 
collaborator he was in the “ Letters From 
My Mill.” Equally charming as his stories 
are the pictures of travel, “ Twenty Days 
in Tunis” (1884-), and “From the Alps to 
the Pyrenees ” (1891). He died at Antibes, 
Dec. i6, 1896. 

Areolar Tissue, a tissue widely diffused 
through the body, and composed of white 
and yellow fibers, the former imparting to 
it strength, and the latter elasticity. The 
two kinds of fibers interlace with each 
other again and again in the most complex 
manner. The interstices .'eft between them 
are of very unequal size, and should not be 
called, as for a long time they were, cells. 
Areolar tissue protects from injury the 
parts of the body in which it occurs, and 
when placed in the interstices of other tis¬ 
sues it keeps the latter from moving as 
freely as otherwise they would. The cutis 
vera, or true skin, is composed of it, and it 
abounds in the exterior parts of the muscles 
and in the interstices between their fibers, 
beneath the skin, on the surface of the 
pharynx, and the cesophagus. 

Areometer (ar-e-om'e-ter), an instrument 
designed to measure’ the specific gravity of 
liquids. The simpler areometers measure 
only the relative weights of liquids. They 
consist of a tube of glass, terminated in a 
ball at its lower part, and divided into equal 
portions through its whole length. Another 
ball filled with mercury is soldered below 
to keep it vertical. The depth to which it 
sinks in various liquids is in the inverse 
ratio of their relative specific gravities. In 
Fahrenheit’s areometer, there is an adjust¬ 
ment by weights so that the volume of the 
part immersed is constant, and thus the 
absolute specific gravity of the liquid tested 
is ascertained, that of water being previ¬ 
ously fixed. 

Areopagus (ar-e-op'a-gus), the name of 
a hill or rocky eminence lying to the W. 
of the Acropolis at Athens, which was the 
meeting-place of the chief court of judi¬ 
cature of that city; hence called the Coun¬ 
cil of Areopagus. It was of very high an¬ 
tiquity, and existed as a criminal tribunal 
long before the time of Solon. Solon en¬ 
larged its sphere of jurisdiction, and gave 



Arequipa 


Arezzo 


it extensive powers of a censorial and po¬ 
litical nature. He caused it to consist of 
exarchons who had creditably passed the 
scrutiny to which they were subjected at the 
termination of their period of office. As a 
court of justice, it took cognizance of cap¬ 
ital crimes, as murder, arson, etc.; and it 
also exercised a certain control over the or¬ 
dinary courts. Its censorial duties were of 
a very extensive and inquisitorial nature, 
for the preservation of order and decency. 
Religion also came within its jurisdiction, 
which punished impiety in whatsoever form. 
Pericles succeeded in greatly diminishing 
the power of this council, and deprived it of 
many of its old prerogatives. It still, how¬ 
ever, seems to have retained a great degree 
of power; but in later times, when corrup¬ 
tion of manners prevailed among the people, 
it lost its moral influence and authority; 
yet it continued to exist down to a very late 
period. Some say that the Apostle Paul 
was taken before this council; but the Scrip¬ 
ture does not bear out this idea. It would 
seem, rather, that the Athenians had taken 
him to the hill in order to hear him ex¬ 
pound his new doctrines. 

Arequipa (ar-a-ke'pa), a city of Peru, 
capital of the Department of the same name; 
40 miles from the Pacific Ocean, on the 
Chile river; altitude, 7,850 feet above sea 
level. It is a bishop’s seat, has a college, 
several convents, and a cathedral. Its trade 
is large, and the adjacent country fertile. 
Gold and silver are mined in the vicinity. 
A great earthquake occurred, Aug. 13 and 
14, 1808, which destroyed more than $12,- 
000,000 worth of property, and the lives of 
more than 500 persons. Its public build¬ 
ings and dwellings are one or two stories 
high and constructed of stone. Near at 
hand Harvard University has an observa¬ 
tory, at an altitude of over 8,000 feet. Pop. 
35,000. 

Ares (a'rez), the Greek god of war, or 
more particularly of its horror and tumult, 
was the son of Zeus and Hera, and one of 
the favorites of Aphrodite. He is repre¬ 
sented in Greek poetry as a most sanguinary 
divinity, delighting in war for its own 
sake, and in the destruction of men. Be¬ 
fore him into battle goes his sister Eris 
(Strife) ; along with him are his sons and 
companions, Deimos (Horror) and Phobos 
(Fear). He does not always adhere to the 
same side, like the great Athena, but in¬ 
spires now the one, now the other. Nor is 
he always victorious. Diomed, by the help 
of Athena, wounds him, and in his fall, says 
Homer, “ he roared like nine or ten thousand 
warriors together.” Such a representation 
would have been deemed blasphemous by 
the ancient Roman mind, imbued as it was 
with a solemn, Hebrew-like reverence for its 
gods. The worship of Ares was never very 
general in Greece; it is believed to have been 


imported from Thrace. There, and in Scy¬ 
thia, were its great seats, and there Ares 
was believed to have his chief home. He 
had, however, temples or shrines at Athens, 
Sparta, Olympia, and other places. On 
statues and reliefs he is represented as 
young and of great muscular power, either 
naked or clothed with the chlamys. The 
Romans identified their national war god 
Mars with the Greek Ares. (See Mars.) 

Aretaeus (ar-et-e'us), a Greek physician 
of Cappadocia, who flourished about 100 
A. d. He is considered to rank next to 
Hippocrates in the skill with which he 
treated diseases; was eclectic in his method; 
and in the diagnosis of disease is superior 
to most of the ancient physicians. The first 
four books of his great work, preserved 
nearly complete, treat of the causes and 
symptoms of diseases; the other four, of the 
cure of the same. 

Aretino, Pietro (a-rfi-te'no), an Italian 
poet and dramatist, born at Arezzo, April 
20, 1492. He had already won some fame 
as a writer of 
satires, when 
he settled in 
Rome in 1517, 
where his 
bent for witty 
effusions led 
to his banish¬ 
ment in 1524. 

Turning to 
Florence, he 
won the favor 
of John de 
Medici, and 
at Milan in¬ 
gratiated him¬ 
self with 
Francis I. 
of France, 
through 
whose intercession he was allowed to re¬ 
turn to Rome. Of his works only his five 
comedies in prose, and “ Orazia,” a tragedy 
in verse, numbering among the best in Ital¬ 
ian literature, are of lasting merit. His 
“ Letters ” are a valuable contribution to 
the history of the times. He died in Ven¬ 
ice, Oct. 21, 1556. 

Arezzo (a-ret'sd, ancient Arretium), a 
city of Central Italy, capital of a Province 
of the same name in Tuscany, near the con¬ 
fluence of the Chiana with the Arno. It 
has a noble cathedral, containing some fine 
pictures and monuments; remains of an an¬ 
cient amphitheater, etc. It was one of the 
12 chief Etruscan towns, and in later times 
fought long against the Florentines, to 
whom it had finally to succumb. It is the 
birthplace of Maecenas, Petrarch, Pietro 
Aretino, Redi, and Vasari. Pop. (1908), 
44,316. The Province of Arezzo contains 
1,273 square miles. Pop. (1909) 281,852. 







Argali 


Argenson 


Argali, the name for some species of the 
genus ovis, or sheep. The Asiatic argan, 
ovis ammon, or 0. argali, which is per¬ 
haps the dishon of the Pentateuch, inhabits 
the mountains and steppes of Northern 
Asia; the 0. pygargus, perhaps only a va¬ 
riety of the former, is found in Northwest¬ 
ern America; while the 0. tragelaphus is 
indigenous to Barbary. They are very keen- 
sighted, quick of hearing, and possess a deli¬ 
cate sense of smell. They attach themselves 
closely to one locality, and are noted for 
their great powers of leaping, even from 
heights of 20 or 30 feet. The Big-horn 
sheep of the Rocky Mountains are some¬ 
times called American argali. 

Argali, Sir Samuel, an early English ad¬ 
venturer in Virginia, born about 1572; 
planned and executed the abduction of Poca¬ 
hontas, the daughter of the Indian chief 
Powhatan, in order to secure the ransom 
of English prisoners. He was Deputy Gov¬ 
ernor of Virginia (1617-1619), and was ac¬ 
cused of many acts of rapacity and tyranny. 
In 1620 he served, as captain of a vessel of 
24 guns, in an expedition under the 
command of Sir R. Mansell against 
Algiers, and was knighted by James I. By 
carrying on trade in violation of the law he 
managed to acquire a fortune, and was 
shielded from justice by the Earl of War¬ 
wick. On account of his enactment of 
exceedingly severe sumptuary laws and for 
the arbitrary manner in which he conducted 
the afl'airs of the colony he was disliked ex¬ 
ceedingly by the colonists in America. He 
died in 1639. 

Argand Lamp, a lamp named after its 
inventor, Aime Argand, a Swiss chemist 
and physician (born 1755; died 1803), the 
distinctive feature of which is a burner 
forming a ring or hollow cylinder covered 
by a chimney, so that the flame receives a 
current of air both on the inside and on the 
outside, thus increasing the supply of oxy¬ 
gen and decreasing the waste of carbon. 

Argaum, a village of Behar, India, cele¬ 
brated for the victory of the Duke of Wel¬ 
lington over the Mahrattas commanded by 
Seindia and the Rajah of Behar, Nov. 29, 
1803. 

Argelander, Friedrich Wilhelm Au¬ 
gust, a German astronomer, born in 
Memel, Prussia, in 1799; went to the Kon- 
Ugsberg University in 1817, and, attracted by 
the lectures of Bessel, entered the observa¬ 
tory as a regular assistant in 1820 ; in 1823 
appointed to the directorship of the observa¬ 
tory at Abo, Finland, on Bessel’s recom¬ 
mendation; in 1832 appointed Professor of 
Astronomy in the University of Helsingfors, 
and director of the new observatory there; 
and in 1837 recalled by the Prussian gov¬ 
ernment to assume the directorship of the 


new observatory to be built at Bonn, of 
which he remained at the head till his death 
in 1875. Among his most important works 
were the “ Uranometria Nova,” of all the 
naked-eye stars visible in European lati¬ 
tudes ; the great “ Durchmusterung,” re¬ 
sulting in a catalogue and charts of all the 
stars to the ninth magnitude between —2° 
and the North Pole, containing more than 
324,000 stars; and the observation and dis¬ 
cussion of the light variations of the vari¬ 
able stars, the model of all similar investi¬ 
gations since. His scale of magnitudes has 
never been improved on. 

Argemone (ar-jem'o-ne), a genus of 
plants belonging to the family papaveracece, 
or poppy-worts. It has three sepals and six 
petals. The A. Mexicana, believed, as its 
name imports, to have come from Mexico, is 
now common in India and other warm coun¬ 
tries in the Old World, as well as in the 
New. It has conspicuous yellow flowers. 
From having its calyx prickly, it is often 
called Mexican thistle. The yellow juice, 
when reduced to consistence, resembles gam¬ 
boge. It is detersive. The seeds are a more 
powerful narcotic than opium. 

Argens, Jean Baptiste de Boyer, Mar¬ 
quis de (ar-zhan'), a French miscellaneous 
writer, born in 1704. Choosing the profes¬ 
sion of arms, he served a campaign in Ger¬ 
many, and then retired to Holland, where 
he wrote the “ Chinese Letters,” and other 
works. Being invited by Frederick the Great 
to the Prussian court, he was appointed di¬ 
rector of the academy at Berlin. He died 
in 1771. 

Argensola, Bartolomeo Leonardo de 

(iir-hen-so'la), a Spanish poet and historian 
(1565-1631). His verse lacks native force, 
but shows considerable depth of sentiment, 
while in form it displays exquisite finish. 
His history of “ The Conquest of the Moluc¬ 
cas ” is esteemed a model of correct and 
idiomatic Spanish prose! 

Argensola, Lupercio Leonardo de, a 

Spanish poet, born at Barbastro, Aragon, 
Dec. 14, 1559; brother of the preceding. 
His three tragedies, “ Isabella,” “ Alexan¬ 
dra,” and “Phyllis,” brought him fame 
while still a young man; but his forte was 
lyric poetry, in which he won distinction. 
His ballads and songs are notable for vigor 
of thought and richness of pictorial fancy. 
Some of his “Sonnets” are masterpieces; 
and his “ Epistles,” both in substance and 
form, are models of that species of com¬ 
position. He died at Naples in March, 
1613. 

Argenson, Marc Pierre de Voyer, 
Comte d’ (ar-zhan-sOn'), a French states¬ 
man, born in 1696. After holding a number 
of subordinate offices, he became Minister for 
Foreign Affairs, and succeeded in bringing 
about the Congress of Breda, which was" the 





Argent 


Argentine Republic 


prelude to that of Aix-la-Chapelle. He was 
present at the battle of Fontenoy, and was 
exiled to his estate for some years through 
the machinations of Mine. Pompadour. 
His “ Considerations sur le Gouvernement 
de la France,” was a very advanced study 
on the possibility of combining with a mon¬ 
archic form of government democratic prin¬ 
ciples and local self-government. “ Les Es- 
sais, ou Loisirs d’un Ministre d’Etat,” pub¬ 
lished in 1785, is a collection of characters 
and anecdotes in the style of Montaigne. 
He died in 1764. 

Argent, in coats of arms, the heraldic 
term expressing silver; represented in en¬ 
graving by a plain white surface. 

Argentina, a common name of the Ar¬ 
gentine Republic (q. v.). 

Argentine, a silvery-white slaty variety 
of calc-spar, containing a little silica with 
laminae usually undulated. It is found in 
primitive rocks and frequently in metallic 
veins. Argentine is also the name of a 
small British fish (scopelus borealis), less 
than two inches long, and of a silvery color. 

Argentine Republic, formerly called the 
United Provinces of La Plata, a vast coun¬ 
try of South America; extreme length, 2,300 
miles; average breadth a little over 500 
miles; total area, 1,778,195 square miles. 
It is bounded on the N. by Bolivia; on the 
E. by Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the 
Atlantic; on the S. by the Antarctic Ocean; 
and on the W. by the Andes. 

Natural Divisions .— It comprises four 
great natural divisions: (1) The Andine 
region, containing the provinces of Mendoza, 
San Juan, Rioja, Catamarca, Tucuman, 
Salta, and Jujuy. (2) The Pampas, con¬ 
taining the provinces of Santiago, Santa 
Fe, Cordova, San Luis, and Buenos Ayres; 
with the territories Formosa, Pampa, and 
Chaco. (3) The Argentine Mesopotamia, 
between the rivers Paranfl and Uruguay, 
containing the provinces of Entre Rios and 
Corrientes, and the territory Misiones. (4) 
Patagonia, including the eastern half of 
Tierra del Fuego. With the exception of 
the N. W. where lateral branches of the 
Andes run into the plain for 150 or 200 
miles, and the province of Entre Rios, which 
is hilly, the characteristic feature of the 
country is the great monotonous and level 
plains called pampas. In the N., these 
plains are partly forest-covered, but all the 
central and S. parts present vast tree¬ 
less tracts, which afford pasture to im¬ 
mense herds of horses, oxen, and sheep, and 
are varied in some places by brackish 
swamps, in others by salt steppes. 

Water Courses .— The great water course 
of the country is the Paranfi., having a 
length of fully 2,000 miles from its source 
in the mountains of Goyaz, Brazil, to its 
junction with the Uruguay, where begins the 


estuary of La Plata. The Parana is formed 
by the union of the Upper Parana and Par¬ 
aguay rivers, near the N. E. corner of the 
country. Important tributaries are the Pil- 
comayo, the Vermejo, and the Salado. The 
Parana, Paraguay, and Uruguay are val¬ 
uable for internal navigation. Many of 
the streams which tend eastward terminate 
in marshes and salt lakes, some of which 
are rather extensive. Not connected with 
the La Plata system are the Colorado and 
the Rio Negro, the latter formerly the 
S. boundary of the country, separating it 
from Patagonia. The source of the Negro 
is Lake Nahuel Huapi, in Patagonia (area, 
1,200 square miles), in the midst of mag¬ 
nificent scenery. The level portions of the 
country are mostly of tertiary formation, 
and the river and coast regions consist 
mainly of alluvial soil of great fertility. 
In the pampas clay have been found the 
fossil remains of extinct mammalia, some 
of them of colossal size. 

Productions .— European grains and fruits, 
including the vine, have been successfully 
introduced, and are cultivated to some ex¬ 
tent in most parts of the republic, but the 
great wealth of the state lies in its count¬ 
less herds of cattle and horses and flocks of 
sheep, which are pastured on the pampas, 
and which multiply there very rapidly. 
Gold, silver, nickel, copper, tin, lead, and 
iron, besides marble, jasper, precious stones, 
and bitumen, are found in the mountainous 
districts of the northwest, while petroleum 
wells have been discovered on the Rio Ver¬ 
mejo; but the development of this mineral 
wealth has hitherto been greatly retarded 
by the want of proper means of transport. 
As a whole, there are not extensive forests 
in the country, except in the region of the 
Gran Chaco (which extends also into Bo¬ 
livia), where there is known to be 60,000 
square miles of timber. Thousands of square 
miles are covered with thistles, which grow 
to a great height in their season. Cacti 
also form great thickets. Peach and apple 
trees are abundant in some districts. The 
native fauna includes the puma, the jaguar, 
the tapir, the llama, the alpaca, the vicuna, 
armadillos, the rhea or nandu, a species of 
ostrich, etc. The climate is agreeable and 
healthful, 97° being about the highest tem¬ 
perature experienced. Rain is less frequent 
than in the United Kingdom. 

People .— As a whole, this vast country is 
very thinly inhabited, some parts of it as 
yet*being very little known. The native In¬ 
dians were never very numerous, and have 
given little trouble to the European settlers. 
Tribes of them yet in the savage state still 
inhabit the less known districts, and live 
by hunting and fishing. Some of the Gran 
Chaco tribes are said to be very fierce, and 
European travelers have been killed by them. 
The European element is strong in the re- 



Argentite 


Argolis 


public, more than half the population being 
Europeans or of pure European descent. 
Large numbers of immigrants arrive from 
Southern Europe, the Italians having the 
preponderance among those of foreign birth. 
The typical inhabitants of the pampas are 
the Gauchos, a race of half-breed cattle- 
rearers and horse-breakers; they are almost 
continually on horseback, galloping over the 
plains, collecting their herds and droves, 
taming wild horses, or catching and slaugh¬ 
tering cattle. In such occupations they ac¬ 
quire a marvellous dexterity in the use of 
the lasso and bolas. 

History .— The river La Plata was dis¬ 
covered in 1512 by the Spanish navigator 
Juan Diaz de Solis, and the La Plata ter¬ 
ritory had been brought into the possession 
of Spain by the end of the 10th century. 
In 1810 the territory cast off the Spanish 
rule, and in 1S1G the independence of the 
United States of the Rio de la Plata was 
formally declared, but it was long before a 
settled government was established. The 
present constitution dates from 1853, being 
subsequently modified. The executive power 
is vested in a President, elected by the rep¬ 
resentatives of the 14 provinces for a term 
of six years. A National Congress of two 
chambers — a Senate and a House of Dep¬ 
uties — wields the legislative authority, 
and the republic is making rapid advances 
in social and political life. The revenue for 
1899 was $45,676,188 in gold, and $61,419,- 
090 in paper; the expenditure, $21,481,378 
in gold,and $96,068,365 in paper; and the in¬ 
ternal public debt, Jan. 1, 1897, was 189,162,- 
500 pesos gold, and 45,838,067 pesos paper 
(one metal peso—9614 cents in United States 
gold) ; and the national external debt, in 
July, 1898, was about $310,000,000 (in 
United States gold), with a new issue of 
about $50,000,000 in bonds authorized. In 
1897 there were 9,270 miles of railway open. 
The external commerce is important, the 
chief exports being wool, skins, and hides, 
live animals, mutton, tallow, bones, corn, 
and flax. The imports are chiefly manufac¬ 
tured goods. Trade is largely with Great 
Britain and France, and is increasing rap¬ 
idly, exports having advanced from $45,- 
000,000, in 1876, to $189,917,531 (gold), in 
1899. The latter year the imports were 
$116,850,671 (gold). For the year 1899 
the exports of wheat amounted to 1,713,490 
cons; of corn, 1,116,276 tons; of flax, 217,713 
tons; of flour, 59,464 tons. Buenos Ayres 
is the capital of the republic. Other towns 
are Cordova, Rosario, La Plata, Tucuman, 
Mendoza and Corrientes. The population of 
the republic was estimated in 1908 at 6,489,- 
023. Senor Louis F. De Oliveira Cezar. 

Argentite, sulphide of silver, a blackish 
or lead-gray mineral, a valuable ore of 
silver found in the crystalline rocks of many 
countries. 


Argillaceous Rocks are rocks in which 
clay prevails (including shales and slates). 

Arginusae (ar-gin'6-se), a number of 
small islands, S. E. of the coast of Lesbos, 
a province of Asia Minor. In the vicinity 
of these islands the Athenians, under Conon, 
406 b. c., defeated the Spartans under Col- 
licratidos in a hard contested naval battle. 

Argives, or Argivi, the inhabitants of 
Argos; used by Homer and other ancient 
authors as a generic appellation for all the 
Greeks. 

Argol, a salt deposited by wine on the in¬ 
side of bottles and barrels. It is dissolved 
more easily in water than in alcohol. It 
is mostly composed of potassic bitartrate, 
KHC 4 H 4 O a , and contains varying quantities 
of calcic of tartrate, mucilaginous matter, 
and coloring. It may be purified in hot 
water, and clarified by adding clay, and re¬ 
crystallizing. In repeating the process it 
becomes white and is called cream of tartar. 

Argolis (ar'go-lis), a peninsula of Greece; 
lies between the bays of Nauplia and iEgina, 
and now forms, with Corinth, a nomarchy 
or department. Argolis was the eastern re¬ 
gion of Peloponnesus. The Greeks inhabit¬ 
ing it were often called Argives, or Argians. 
Kills and mountains alternate with fruit¬ 
ful plains and valleys. According to the 
monuments of Greek mythology, Argolis was 
peculiarly rich, and early cultivated. In- 
achus, about 1800, and Danaus, about 1500 
years b. c., came hither with colonists from 
Egypt. Here reigned Peiops, an emigrant 
from Asia Minor, from whom the penin¬ 
sula derives its name. Tt was afterward the 
seat of government of Atreus and Agamem¬ 
non, Adrastus, Eurystheus, and Diomedes. 
Here, Hercules was born. In the morass of 
Argolis he slew the Lerncean hydra, and in 
the cave of Nemea subdued the ferocious 
lion. In the earliest times it was divided 
into the small kingdoms of Argos, Mvcenre, 
Tirinthus, Troezene, Hermione and Epidau- 
rus, which afterward formed free States. 
The chief city, Argos, has retained its name 
since 1800 b. c. Its inhabitants were re¬ 
nowned for their love of the fine arts, par¬ 
ticularly of music. Some vestiges remain of 
its ancient splendor, and it has at present 
about 9,000 inhabitants. Here, and in Del¬ 
phi, statues were erected to the brothers 
Biton and Cleobis, who fell victims to their 
filial piety. Near this city lies the capital 
of Argolis, Nauplia, or Napoli di Romania, 
with an excellent harbor, and the most im¬ 
portant fortress of the peninsula. On the 
site of the present village of Castri, on the 
TEgean Sea, formerly lay the city Hermione, 
with a grove dedicated to the Graces: op¬ 
posite is the island of Hydra. Near the city 
of Epidaurus, the watering place of ancient 
Greece, on the iEgean Sea, iEsculapius had 
his temple. At Troezene, now the village 



Argon 


Argulm 


of Damala, Theseus was born. Pop. of 
province of Argolis and Corinth (1896) 
157,578. 

Argon, a constituent gaseous element dis¬ 
covered in our atmosphere by Lord Ray¬ 
leigh and Prof. Ramsay, in 1894. Ar¬ 
gon has a characteristic spectrum. Its 
specific gravity (H = l) is between 19 and 
21. It is about 2^ times as soluble in water 
as nitrogen. Its critical temperature 
(-121° C.) and boiling point (-187° C.) are 
lower than those of oxygen. Prof. Olzewski 
succeeded in solidifying it to white crystals, 
melting it at —189.6° C. It seems to be in¬ 
capable of combining with anything. It 
has been found in cleveite and in a meteor¬ 
ite. There is still much doubt concerning its 
true status. It is separated by acting on 
air with red-hot copper filings to separate 
the oxygen. The residual gas is dried and 
passed over white-hot magnesium filings. 
The magnesium combines with the nitrogen, 
producing a solid nitride and leaving argon 
as a gas. The argon amounts in volume 
to about 4 per cent, of the nitrogen. The 
argon is treated repeatedly by a substantial 
duplication of the above process, some days 
being required to dispose of all the nitrogen. 
Another method of preparation is to pass 
electric sparks, preferably from platinum 
terminals, through the nitrogen mixed with 
oxygen. This gradually burns up the nitro¬ 
gen. Its oxide can be absorbed by caustic 
alkali, leaving argon as a gas. 

Argonaut (ar'go-n&t), one of the heroes 
who accompanied Jason in the ship “Argo” 
when he sailed on his mythic voyage in quest 
of the golden fleece (generally used in the 
plural). The tales describing the return 
of the Argonauts differ very essentially. 
Several poets of antiquity have celebrated 
this adventurous undertaking, which is 
placed in the middle of the 13th century, b. 
c. There are still preserved, under the 
name of “ Orpheus,” a poem on this sub¬ 
ject; another in Greek by Apollonius of 
Rhodes; and one in Latin by Valerius Flac- 
cus. The golden fleece was that of the ram 
on which Phryxus and Helle had escaped 
the persecutions of their stepmother Ino, 
after which Phryxus had sacrificed the ram 
and hung its fleece in a consecrated grove 
at Colchis. Jason’s uncle had usurped the 
kingdom of Iolcos, and would only resign 
it on receiving the golden fleece from Jason. 
The latter was successful in his quest. 

The word is also applied to a genus of 
cephalopod mollusks, the typical one of 
the family argonautidce. The best known 
species is the argonaut, or paper sailor. 
The shell is thin and translucent. Aris¬ 
totle supposed that it floated with the con¬ 
cave side up, the animal holding out its 
arms, after the manner of sails, to catch the 
breeze. Poets have ever since repeated the 
fable; but naturalists know that when the 

26 


argonaut floats the sail-shaped ajms are ap¬ 
plied closely to the sides of the shell, and 
when the animal crawls at the bottom the 
so-called boat is reversed like the shell of a 
snail. In 1875, Tate estimated the known 
species at four recent and two fossil, the 
latter being from the tertiary rocks. 

Argo-Navis, the southern constellation of 
the Ship, containing 9 clusters, 3 nebulfe, 13 
double and 540 single stars, of which about 
64 are visible. 

Argonne (argon') a district of France, 
between the rivers Meuse, Marne and Aisne, 
celebrated for the campaign of Dumouriez 
against the Prussians in 1792, and for the 
military movements and actions which took 
place therein previous to the battle of Sedan, 
in 1870. 

Argos, a town of 
Greece, in the N. E. 
of the Peloponnesus, 
between the gulfs of 
ACgina and Nauplia 
or Argos. This town 
and the surrounding coin of argos. 
territory of Argolis 

were famous from the legendary period of 
Greek history onward, the territory contain¬ 
ing, besides Argos, Mycenre, where Agamem¬ 
non ruled, with a kind of sovereignty, over 
all the Peloponnesus. 

Argosy, a poetical name for a large mer¬ 
chant vessel; derived from Ragusa, a port 
which was formerly more celebrated than 
now, and whose vessels did a considerable 
trade with England. 

Argot, the jargon, slang or peculiar 
phraseology of a class or profession; orig¬ 
inally the conventional slang of thieves and 
vagabonds, invented for the purpose of dis¬ 
guise and concealment. 

Arguelles, Augustin (ar'gwel'yes), a 
Spanish statesman, born in Asturias, in 
1776. On the outbreak of the War of Inde¬ 
pendence (1808), he attached himself to the 
patriotic party, and, as representative of his 
native province in the Cortes, gained a high 
reputation for eloquenco (1812-1814). On 
the restoration of Ferdinand VII., Arguelles 
was arrested, and suffered 10 years’ barbar¬ 
ous captivity, till the revolution of 1820 re¬ 
stored him to freedom. For a few months 
he was Minister of the Interior, but on the 
fall of the Constitution (1823) he fled to 
England, where he remained till the am¬ 
nesty of 1832. On his return to Spain, be¬ 
ing nominated to the Cortes, he was repeat¬ 
edly made president and vice-president of 
the Chamber of Deputies, and always showed 
himself a moderate but unwavering re¬ 
former. He died at Madrid, March 23, 
1844. 

Arguim, or Arguin (ar-gwim'orar-gwin'), 
a small island on the W. coast of Africa, 
not far from Cape Blanco, formerly a center 




Argument 


Argyfe 


of trade the possession of which was vio¬ 
lently disputed between the Portuguese, 
Dutch, English and French, and is now 
claimed by France. 

Argument, a term sometimes used as 
synonymous with the subject of a discourse, 
but more frequently appropriated to any 
kind of method employed for the purpose of 
confuting or at least silencing an opponent. 
Logicians have reduced arguments to a 
number of distinct heads, such as the argu- 
. mentum ad judicium, which founds on solid 
proofs and addresses to the judgment; the 
argumentum ad verecundiam, which appeals 
to the modesty or bashfulness of an oppo¬ 
nent by reminding Him of the great names 
or authorities by whom the view disputed 
by him is supported; the argumentum ad 
ignorantiam, the employment of some log¬ 
ical fallacy toward persons likely to be de¬ 
ceived by it; and the argumentum ad hom- 
incm, an argument which presses a man 
with consequences drawn from his own prin¬ 
ciples and concessions, or his own conduct. 

Argus. (1) In classical mythology, a son 
of Arestor, said to have had 100 eyes, of 
which only two slept at one time, the sev¬ 
eral pairs doing so in succession. When 
killed by Mercury, his eyes were put into the 
tail of the peacock, by direction of Juno, 
to whom this bird was sacred. Argus was 
deemed a highly appropriate name to give 
to a vigilant watch dog. 

(2) In zoology, a genus of birds of the 
family phasianidce, and the sub-family 
pliasianince. It contains the argus, or ar- 
gus pheasant ( argus giganteus ). The male 
measures between five and six feet from the 
tip of the bill to the extremity of the tail, 
and is an eminently beautiful bird, the quill- 
feathers of the wings, which often exceed 
three feet in length, being ornamented all 
along by a series of ocellated spots. The 
name Shetland argus is given to a starfish 
(astrophyton scutatum) . It is called also 
the basket urchin or sea basket. The arms 
branch again and again dichotomously, so 
that their ultimate fibers are supposed to be 
about 80,000 in number. 

Argyle, Campbells of, a historic Scot¬ 
tish family, raised to the peerage in the 
person of Sir Duncan Campbell of Locliow, 
in 1445. The more eminent members are: 
Archibald, second Earl, killed at the 
battle of Flodden, 1513. Archibald, fifth 
Earl, attached himself to the party of Mary 
of Guise, and was the means of averting a 
collision between the Reformers and the 
French troops in 1559; was commissioner 
of regency after Mary’s abdication, but af¬ 
terward commanded her troops at the bat¬ 
tle of Langside; died 1575. Archibald, 
eighth Earl and Marquis, born 1598; a zeal¬ 
ous partisan of the Covenanters; created a 
Marquis by Charles I. It was by his per¬ 
suasion that Charles II. visited Scotland, 


and was crowned at Scone in 1651. At 
the Restoration he was committed to the 
Tower, and afterward sent to Scotland, 
where he was tried for high treason, and 
beheaded in 1661. Archibald, ninth Earl, 
son of the preceding, served the King with 
great bravery at the battle of Dunbar, and 
was excluded from the general pardon by 
Cromwell in 1654. On the passing of the 
Test Act in 1681 he refused to take the 
required oath except with a reservation. 
For this he was tried and sentenced to 
death. He, however, escaped to Holland, 
from whence he returned with a view of 
aiding the Duke of Monmouth. His plan, 
however, failed, and he was taken and con¬ 
veyed to Edinburgh, where he was beheaded 
in 1685. Archibald, tenth Earl and first 
Duke, son of the preceding, died 1703; took 
an active part in the Revolution of 1688- 
1689, which placed William and Mary on the 
throne, and was rewarded by several im¬ 
portant appointments and the title of Duke. 
John, second Duke and Duke of Greenwich, 
son of the above, born 1678, died 1743; 
served under Marlborough at the battles of 
Ramilies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and 
assisted at the sieges of Lisle and Ghent. 



He incurred considerable odium in his own 
country for his efforts in promoting the 
union. In 1712 he had the military com¬ 
mand in Scotland, and, in 1715, he fought 
an indecisive battle with the Earl of Mar’s 
army at Sheriffmuir, near Dunblane, and 
forced the Pretender to quit the kingdom. 
He was long a supporter of Walpole, but his 
political career was full of intrigue. He is 
the Duke of Argyle in Scott’s “ Heart of 
Midlothian.” George Douglass Campbell, 
eighth Duke, Baron Sundridge and Hamil¬ 
ton, was born in 1823. He early took a 
part in politics, especially in discussions re¬ 
garding the Presbyterian Church of Scot¬ 
land. In 1852 he became Lord Privy Seal 





Ariadne 


Arica 


under Lord Aberdeen, and again under 
Lord Palmerston, in 1850; Postmaster-Gen¬ 
eral in 1860; Secretary for India from 1868 
to 1874; again Lord Privy Seal in 1880, but 
retired, being unable to agree with his col¬ 
leagues on their Irish policy. He was au¬ 
thor of “ The Reign of Law/’ “ Scotland 
as It Was and as It Is,” etc. He died April 
24, 1900. His eldest son, the Marquis of 
Lorxe, married the Princess Louise, fourth 
daughter of Queen Victoria, in 1871. 

Ariadne (ar-e-ad'ne), a daughter of 
Minos, King of Crete, who, falling in love 
with Theseus, then shut up by her father 
in the labyrinth, gave him a clue by which 
he threaded his way out. Afterward she 



was the wife of Bacchus, who gave her a 
crown, which ultimately became a constella¬ 
tion called by her name. Also an asteroid, 
the 43d found; discovered by Pogson, on 
April 15, 1857. 

Arian, a follower of Arius, Presbyter of 
Alexandria in the 4th century a. d., or one 
holding the system of doctrine associated 
with his name. During the first three cen¬ 
turies of the Christian era, what was sub¬ 
sequently called the doctrine of the Trinity 
had become the subject of controversy, 
chiefly in one direction; it had been decided 
against Sabellius that there are in the God¬ 
head three distinct persons, whereas Sa¬ 
bellius had in effect reduced the three to 
one. In the year 317, Alexander, Bishop 
of Alexandria, having publicly expressed his 
opinion that the Son of God is not only of 
the same dignity as the Father, but of the 
same essence (in Greek, ousia ), Arius, one 
of the Presbyters, considered this view as 
leaning too much to Sabellianism, and, rush¬ 
ing to the other extreme, he declared that 
the Son of God was only the first and noblest 
of created beings, and though the universe 
had been brought into existence through His 


instrumentality by the Eternal Father, yet 
to that Eternal Father He was inferior, not 
merely in dignity, but in essence. The views 
of Arius commended themselves to multi¬ 
tudes, while they were abhorrent to still 
more; fierce controversy respecting them 
broke out, and the whole Christian world 
was soon compelled to take sides in the 
struggle. Constantine, the first Christian 
emperor, was then the reigning sovereign, 
and after he had failed by private means to 
restore peace and unity, he summoned a 
council to meet at Nice, in Bithynia, which 
it did in A. D. 325. It was the first gen¬ 
eral council and the most celebrated of all. 
It declared Christ to be homoousios, i. e., of 
the same essence as the Father, whereas 
Arius regarded Him as only homoioiisios, of 
similar essence. The erring Presbyter was 
deposed and exiled; but his numerous fol¬ 
lowers maintained his doctrine, and were at 
times so successful that each party had in 
turn the power, of which it had no scruple 
to avail itself, of using carnal as well as 
spiritual weapons against its adversaries; 
indeed, it is believed that Arius himself 
died by poison. It would occupy too much 
space to detail the vicissitudes of a highly 
checkered struggle; suffice it to say that the 
Arians greatly weakened themselves by 
splitting into sects, and the doctrines re¬ 
garding the relation of the three Divine 
Personages authoritatively proclaimed at 
Nice were at last all but universally 
adopted. They may be found detailed in 
what are popularly termed the Nicene and 
the Athanasian Creeds. They were held al¬ 
most without a dissentient voice through 
the Middle Ages, and were cordially ac¬ 
cepted by the leading reformers. The 
Churches of Rome, England and Scotland 
are all at one with regard to the doctrine of 
the Trinity, as are also the most powerful 
bodies of English Non-conformists. Arian- 
ism has from time to time appeared in the 
churches, but as a rule its adherents have 
sooner or later gone back to orthodoxy or 
forward to Unitarianism. 

Arias Montanus, Benedictus, a Roman 
Catholic divine and Orientalist, born in 
South Estremadura in 1527. Studied at Se¬ 
ville and Alcala, and became a Benedictine. 
He was present at the celebrated Council 
of Trent; and, in 1568, was sent by Philip 
II. to Antwerp, to superintend the publica 1 
tion of the famous edition of the Antwerp 
Polyglot Bible (8 vols. folio, 1569-1572). 
He became librarian at the Escurial, and 
died in 1598. 

Arica, a seaport of Tacna, the most south¬ 
erly department of Peru. It is one of the 
chief outlets of the trade of Bolivia, and has 
been connected since 1854, by rail, with 
Tacna, 38 miles inland. Its exports mostly 
consist of copper, silver, cascarilla and other 
barks, chinchilla skins, alpaca, and vicuna 







Ariege 


Arlon 


wool. Arica has frequently suffered from 
earthquakes. It was almost wholly de¬ 
stroyed in 1832, but soon rebuilt. It suf¬ 
fered severely again in 1808, the earthquake 
being succeeded by fearful waves, one of 
them 40 feet high. In the time of the Span¬ 
ish supremacy, Arica was a great commer¬ 
cial city with 30,000 inhabitants; its pres¬ 
ent population is about 4,000. It was 
stormed and taken by the Chileans in 1880. 
The treaty of 1883 provided that Arica and 
the department of Tacna were to be occu¬ 
pied by Chile for 10 years, and that a popu¬ 
lar vote should then determine to which 
country they should belong. Owing to the 
failure of negotiations, this vote had not 
been taken at the end of 1910. 

Ariege (ar-yazh), a mountainous depart¬ 
ment of France, on the slopes of the Pyre¬ 
nees, comprising the ancient countship of 
Foix and parts of Languedoc and Gascony. 
The principal rivers are the Ari6ge, Arize 
and Salat, tributaries of the Garonne. Sheep 
and cattle are reared; the arable land is 
small in quantity. Chief town, Foix. Area 
1,890 square miles; pop. (190G) 205,084. 

Ariel, the name of several personages 
mentioned in the Old Testament; in the 
demonology of the later Jews a spirit of the 
waters. In Shakespeare’s “ Tempest,” Ariel 
was the “ tricksy spirit ” whom Prospero 
had in his service. 



ARIES. 


Aries, in astronomy, the constellation 
Aries, or the Pam, one of the ancient zodi¬ 
acal constellations, and generally called the 
first sign of the zodiac; also the portion of 
the ecliptic between 0° and 30° longitude, 
which the sun enters on March 21st (the 
vernal equinox). The constellation Aries, 
from which the region derives its name, was 
once within its limits, but now, by the pre¬ 
cession of the equinoxes, it has gradually 
moved into the space anciently assigned to 
Taurus. It is denoted by the Greek symbol, 


Gamma, which remotely resembles a ram’s 
head. (Herschel’s “ Astronomy,” §§ 380, 
381.) 

The first point of Aries is the spot in the 
heavens where the sun appears to stand at 
the vernal equinox. It is not marked by the 
presence of any star, but it is not very far 
from the third star of Pegasus, that called 
Algenib. It is the point from which the 
right ascension of the heavenly bodies are 
reckoned upon the equator and their longi¬ 
tudes upon the ecliptic. 

Aril, or Arillus, in some plants, as in the 

nutmeg, an extra covering of the seed, out¬ 
side of the true seed coats, proceeding from 
the placenta, partially investing the seed, 
and falling off spontaneously. It is either 
succulent or cartilaginous, colored, elastic, 
rough or knotted. In the nutmeg it is 
known as mace. 

Arimanes, or Ahriman, the principle of 
evil in the Persian theology, which perpetu¬ 
ally counteracts the designs of Ormuzd or 
Oromazdes, who denotes the principle of 
good. 

Arimaspians, in ancient Greek tradi¬ 
tions, a people who lived in the extreme 
N. E. of the ancient world. They were 
said to be one-eyed and to carry on a per¬ 
petual war with the gold-guarding griffins, 
whose gold they endeavored to steal. 

Arimathaca (ar-e-ma-the'a), a town of 
Palestine, identified with the modern Ram- 
leh, 22 miles W. N. W. of Jerusalem. 

Arion, an ancient Greek poet and musi¬ 
cian, born at Methymna, in Lesbos, flour¬ 
ished about b. c. 625. He lived at the court 
of Periander of Corinth, and afterward 
visited Sicily and Italy. Returning from 
Tarentum to Corinth with rich treasures, 
the avaricious sailors resolved to murder 
him. Apollo, however, having informed him 
in a dream of the impending danger, Arion 
in vain endeavored to soften the hearts of 
the crew by the power of his music. He 
then threw himself into the sea, when one 
of a shoal of dolphins, which had been at¬ 
tracted by his music, received him on his 
back and bore him to land. The sailors hav¬ 



ing returned to Corinth, were confronted by 
Arion, and convicted of their crime. The 




















Ariosto 


Aristides 


lyre of Arion, and the dolphin which res¬ 
cued him, became constellations in the heav¬ 
ens. A fragment of a hymn to Poseidon, 
ascribed to Arion, is extant. 

Ariosto, Ludovico (a-re-os'to), an Ital¬ 
ian poet, born at Reggio, Sept. 8, 1474. Was 
one of the three great epic poets of Italy, 
and styled “ The Divine ” by his country¬ 
men. He early abandoned the study of 
law for that of the classics. Having at¬ 
tracted attention through two comedies, he 
entered the service of Cardinal Ippolito 
d’Este, who intrusted him with several 
diplomatic missions; after whose death in 
1520, he was employed by the reigning 
Duke of Ferrara, Alfonso, the Cardinal’s 
brother, and for three years he served as 
governor of a province in the Apennines, 
where the people were largely brigands. 
His imperishable fame rests mainly 
on his great romantic heroic poem 
“ Orlando Furioso; ” of which Orlando’s 
love for the fair Angelica, and his mad¬ 
ness induced by her treachery, form the 
theme. It is really a continuation of Bo- 
jardo’s “ Orlando Inamorato,” a knowledge 
of which is most helpful to a thorough ap¬ 
preciation of the “ Furioso.” Of his other 
poetical efforts the most noteworthy are 
his seven epistolary satires, conceived in 
the spirit of Horace, which contain sundry 
bits of autobiographical information and 
rank among the treasures of Italian litera¬ 
ture. Ariosto exhibits a wonderful skill 
in interweaving his episodes, which he con¬ 
tinually interrupts, and again takes up 
with an agreeable, and often imperceptible, 
art, and so entwines them with one an¬ 
other that it is difficult to give a connected 
sketch of the contents of his poems, es¬ 
pecially “ Orlando.” He died in Ferrara, 
June 6, 1533. 

Arista, Don Mariano (ar-is'ta), a Mex¬ 
ican statesman, born in 1803. Of Spanish 
descent, he at an early age entered the army, 
in which he attained to the rank of major- 
general. He served with distinction in the 
war against the United States, was, in 1848, 
appointed Minister of War, and, in 1850, 
President of the Republic. In the latter 
office he distinguished himself by the liber¬ 
ality of his political views, his leanings 
toward peace and progress, and his atten¬ 
tion to the social and commercial develop¬ 
ment of the country. He was succeeded as 
President in 1852, by Don Juan Cebellos. 
He died in 1855. 

Aristaeus (ar-is-te'us), son of Apollo and 
Cyrene, was brought up by the Nymphs. The 
introduction of the use of bees is ascribed 
to him (hence he is called Mellisceus), and 
gained for him divine honors. 

Aristarchus (ar-is-tar'kus), a Greek 
grammarian, who criticised Homer’s poems 
with the greatest severity, and established 


a new text; for which reason, severe and 
just critics are often called Aristarchi. He 
was born in the island of Samothrace, and 
lived at Alexandria, about 750 b. c. 
Ptolemy Philometor, who highly esteemed 
him, confided to him the education of his 
children. After having spent his life 
in criticising Pindar, and other poets, 
especially Homer, he died at Cyprus, 
aged 72. 

Aristarchus of Samos, a famous astroit 
oilier, born 267 b. c. First asserted the 
revolution of the earth about the sun. His 
work on the magnitude, and distance of the 
sun and moon, is still extant. He is also 
regarded as the inventor of the sun-dial. 

Aristeas (ar-is'te-as), a personage of an¬ 
cient Greek legend, represented to have lived 
over many centuries, disappearing and re¬ 
appearing by turns. 

Aristides (a-ris-ti'dez), a statesman of 
ancient Greece, for his strict integrity sur- 
named “ The Just.” He was one of the 10 
generals of the Athenians when they fought 
with the Persians at Marathon, b. c. 490. 
Next year he was eponymous archon, and 
in this office enjoyed such popularity that 
he excited the jealousy of Themistocles, who 
succeeded in procuring his banishment by 
the ostracism (about 483). Three years af¬ 
ter, when Xerxes invaded Greece with a 



large army, the Athenians hastened to re¬ 
call him, and Themistocles now admitted 
him to his confidence and councils. In the 
battle of Platiea (479) he commanded the 
Athenians, and had a great share in gain- 






















Aristides 

ing the victory. To defray the expenses of 
the Persian War he persuaded the Greeks to 
impose a tax, which should be paid into the 
hands of an officer appointed by the States 
collectively, and deposited at Delos. The 
confidence which was felt in his integrity 
appeared in their intrusting him with the 
office of apportioning the contribution. He 
died at an advanced age about b. c. 468, so 
poor that he was buried at the public 
expense. 

Aristides, a 1st century Christian apolo¬ 
gist, whose lost work was identified in 1890 
with part of Barlaam and Josaphat. 

Aristippus (ar-is-tip'us), a disciple of 
Socrates, and founder of a philosophical 
school among the Greeks, which was called 
the Cyrenaic, from liis native city Cyrene, 
in Africa; flourished in 380 b. c. His moral 
philosophy differed widely from that of So¬ 
crates, and was a science of refined volup¬ 
tuousness. His fundamental principles were 
— that all human sensations may be re¬ 
duced to two, pleasure and pain. Pleasure 
is a gentle, and pain a violent, emotion. All 
living beings seek the former, and avoid the 
latter. Happiness is nothing but a contin¬ 
ued pleasure, composed of separate gratifi¬ 
cations; and as it is the object of all hu¬ 
man exertions, we should abstain from no 
kind of pleasure. Still we should always 
be governed by taste and reason in our en¬ 
joyments. His doctrines were taught only 
by his daughter Arete, and by his grandson 
Aristippus the younger, by whom they were 
systematized. Other Cyrenaics compounded 
them into a particular doctrine of pleasure, 
and are hence called Hedonici. The time 
of his death is unknown. His writings are 
lost. 

Aristobulus (ar-is-to-bu'lus), name of 
several royal personages of Judea: Aris¬ 
tobulus I., son of John Hyrcanus, high 
priest of the Jews; from 105-104 B. c. King 
of Judea. He is supposed to have been the 
first of the Hasmoneans to take the title 
of king. In the single year of his reign he 
conquered portions of Iturea and Trachon- 
itis, and compelled the people to accept 
Judaism. Aristobulus II., son of Alexan¬ 
der Jannsenus, was named as high priest by 
his mother, Queen Regent Alexandra, while 
to Hyrcanus II., his elder brother, the 
throne was given. In a contest for the 
throne, he was defeated by Pompey in 63 
B. c., and carried captive to Rome. He 
died about 48 b. c. Aristobulus III., a 
grandson of Hyrcanus II.; his sister, Mari- 
amne, was the wife of Herod I., who ap¬ 
pointed him high priest, but, fearing his 
popularity, had him assassinated about 30 
b. c. Aristobulus III. was the last male 
of the Hasmonean family. 

Aristobulus, an Alexandrian Jew and 
peripatetic philosopher, who lived about 170 
B. c., was considered by the early fathers 


Aristolochiaceae 

as the founder of the Jewish philosophy in 
Alexandria. He is said to have been the 
author of an allegorical commentary on the 
books of Moses, which showed that the old¬ 
est Greek writers borrowed from the He¬ 
brew Scriptures; but it is now admitted 
that this work was written by a much later 
writer. 

Aristocracy, a form of government by 
which the wealthy and noble, or any small 
privileged class, rules over the rest of the 
citizens; now mostly applied to the nobility 
or chief persons in a State. 

Aristodemus, a legendary hero and King 
of the Messenians, who killed his daughter, 
when a sacrifice to the gods was demanded 
by the oracle; and who afterward slew him¬ 
self, in despair for his country. 

Aristogeiton (-gi'ton), a citizen of 
Athens, whose name is rendered famous by 
a conspiracy (514 b. c.) formed in con¬ 
junction with his friend Harmodius against 
the tyrants Hippias and Hipparchus, the 
sons of Pisistratus. Both Aristogeiton and 
Harmodius lost their lives through their at¬ 
tempts to free the country, and were reck¬ 
oned martyrs of liberty. 

Aristolochia (-lo'ke-a), a genus of plants, 

the typical one of the order aristolochiacece, 
or birthworts. They have curiously inflated 
irregular flowers, in some cases of large 
size; these consist of a tubular colored 
calyx, no corolla, six stamens, one style, and 
a six-celled capsular fruit, with many seeds. 
One species, the A. clematis, or common 
birthwort, a plant with pale yellow tubular 
flowers, swollen at the base, is common 
among old ruins. Most of the aristolochias 
are emmenagogue, especially the European 
species, A. rotunda, longa, and clematitis, 
and the Indian A. Indica; the last-named 
species is also antarthritic. A. bracteata 
is anthelmintic; when bruised and mixed 
with castor-oil, it is used in cases of ob¬ 
stinate psora. A. odoratissima, of the West 
Indies, is alexipharmic. The A. fragrantis- 
simcu, of Peru, is given in dysenteries, fevers, 
rheumatism, etc.; A. serpentaria (the Vir¬ 
ginian snake root), besides being given in 
the worst forms of typhus fever, is deemed 
of use against snake-bite; as is also A. 
trilobata. (Bindley.) The “Treasury of 
Botany ” points out that faith in the effi¬ 
cacy of some aristolochia or other as an 
antidote to the poison of serpents prevails 
in America, Egypt, and India, its existence 
in regions so remote from each other afford¬ 
ing strong evidence of its truth. 

Aristolochiaceae (ar-is-tb-lo-ke-a'se-I), an 
order of plants placed by Lindley under his 
last or asaral alliance of pergynous exo¬ 
gens. It has hermaphrodite flowers, six to 
ten epigynous stamina, a three or six-celled 
inferior ovary, and wood without concentric 
zones. In 1846, Lindley estimated the known 



Aristomenes 


Aristotelianism 


species at 130. Many are climbing plants. 
In their qualities they are tonic and stimu¬ 
lating. 

Aristomenes (ar-is-tom'e-nes), the great 
Messenian hero, who boldly, and for a long 
time successfully, resisted the Spartans in 
the third war. His history is so mixed with 
legend as to be in good part incredible. The 
story of his escape from a deep cavern, into 
which he had been thrown by the Spartans, 
by creeping through a fox hole, is extra¬ 
ordinary, hue not well authenticated. Not¬ 
withstanding his boldness and heroic cour¬ 
age, he could not prevent the subjection of 
the Messenians. 

Aristophanes (ar-is-tof'e-nes), the great¬ 
est of the Greek writers of comedy (b. c. 
448 ?-380 ?), born at Athens. His comedy, 

“ The Knights,” is 
said to have been 
put on the stage 
when the author was 
but 20 years old. 
Of his 44 plays, only 
11 have come down 
to us. These are 
“ The Knights,” and 
“ The Clouds” — 
prized by him 
above all the rest 
— wherein he ridi¬ 
cules the Sophists 
and with them Soc- 
rates; “The 
Wasps,” in which 
the Athenians are 
lashed for their li¬ 
tigiousness ; “ The 

Aristophanes. Acharnians,” “ The 

Peace,” and “ The 
Lyristrate,” arguments for concord among 
Grecian States; “The Birds,” a satire 
against the “ Greater Athens ” idea; in 
“ The Thesmophoriazusoe ” the Athenian 
women carry off to court the poet 
Euripides in punishment of his misogyny; 
“ The Frogs,” directed against Euripides, 
as the cause of the degeneration of 
dramatic art; in “ The Ecclesiazusae,” or 
“ Ladies of Parliament,” he reduces to ab¬ 
surdity the overweening expectation of the 
righting of all wrongs through political re¬ 
forms; in the “ Plutus,” the blind god of 
wealth is made to see and the good old times 
come back again. Aristophanes first ap¬ 
peared as a poet in the fourth year of the 
Peloponnesian War (b. c. 427), and his sar¬ 
casms twice brought him to trial on charges 
of having unlawfully assumed the title of an 
Athenian citizen. 

Aristotle (ar'is-totl), the most renowned 
of Greek philosophers, born at Stagira, 
Macedonia, 384 b. c.; was for 20 years a 
3 tudent of philosophy in the school of Plato 
at Athens, but at the same time a teacher, 
in the meantime mastering and digesting 


all the accessible results of philosophical 
and scientific research and speculation in 
his time. After Plato’s death, he opened a 
school of philosophy at the court of Her- 
mias, King of Atarncus, in Mysia, who had 
been his fellow 
student in 
Plato’s Acad¬ 
emy, and 
whose adopted 
daughter he 
afterward mar¬ 
ried. At the 
invitation of 
Philip of Ma- 
cedon, he un¬ 
dertook the 
education of 
his son, Alex¬ 
ander. When 
Alexander suc¬ 
ceeded to the 
throne, the 
philosopher re¬ 
turned to ARISTOTLE. 

Athens and 

opened a school in the Lyceum, so called 
from the neighboring temple of the Ly- 
cian Apollo. From being held in the cov¬ 
ered walk ( peripatos ) of the Lyceum, the 
school obtained the name of the Peripatetic. 
He taught in the Lyceum for 13 years, 
and to that period we owe the composition 
of most of his numerous writings. The 
number of his separate treatises is given by 
Diogenes Laertius as 146; only 46 separate 
works bearing the name of the philosopher 
have come down to our time. He died at 
Chalcis, Euboea, in 322 b. c. 

Aristotelianism, or Peripateticism, the 

doctrine of philosophy of Aristotle; one 
of those speculative systems which arose 
from the school of Socrates, and which, 
from the unity and grandeur of its foun¬ 
der’s genius, took strong root in the Greek 
mind, and, since the revival of letters, also 
in Western Europe. Aristotle attempted to 
steer a medium course between the ultra¬ 
idealism of his master Plato, and the low 
sensationalism of the physical school of 
Elea. His genius was as wide as nature. 
He studied all things, and seemed to know 
everything better than all others. His 
knowledge was something amazing, and he 
extended the boundaries of science to almost 
an encyclopedical extent. Science, whether 
as abstract or physical, he was at home in. 
Aristotle keenly combated the ideal theory 
of Plato, or that which expounded the deity 
as holding in himself the archetypal ideas 
after which the world was fashioned, and 
which it was the business of reason and 
science to discover. But while denying these 
ideas of his master, he nevertheless agreed 
with him in the view that knowledge con¬ 
tains an element radically distinct from 



















AristotelianJsm 


Aristotelianism 


sensation. He also differed from the Eleat- 
ics and the Epicureans, inasmuch as he de¬ 
nied that sensation could account for the 
whole of knowledge; but maintained, with 
them, that without this sensation, knowl¬ 
edge would be impossible. The celebrated 
maxim that “ there is nothing in the intel¬ 
lect which was not previously in the sense,” 
if not Aristotle’s, at least well expresses a 
side of his doctrine; but, when he insists 
upon the distinction between the necessary 
and the contingent, the absolute and the 
relative, he rises altogether above the sphere 
of sensation, and takes emphatically his 
place with reason. Thus he steered a mid¬ 
dle course between what he considered to 
be the Scylla and Charybdis of speculation 
— idealism and sensationalism; but in what 
precise line he moved is by no means clear. 
He in no place has expounded his doctrines, 
and he is very chary of definition; so that 
no two Aristotelians of to-day are agreed 
upon the details of his philosophy. Perhaps 
it may be best characterized when we say 
that it was a system of empiricism, or one 
based upon experience, often very consid¬ 
erably modified by the rationalism of Plato. 

The language in which his philosophy is 
couched is brief, pregnant, and peculiar; and 
his system not only has afforded a test of 
the critical acumen of those who have taken 
to a study of his works, but it has afforded, 
besides, a nice test of advancement in the 
knowledge of the Greek language to read 
Aristotle with intelligence and promptitude. 
Philosophy, according to Aristotle, is prop¬ 
erly science arising from the love of knowl¬ 
edge. There are two sorts of knowledge: 
mediate, and immediate. From immediate 
knowledge, which we gain through the ex¬ 
perience of particulars, we derive mediate 
knowledge, by means of argumentation, 
whose theory it is the office of logic to prop¬ 
erly expound. Logic is, therefore, the in¬ 
strument of all science; but only quoad 
formam, for it is experience which supplies 
the matter to be worked upon. The formal 
part of reasoning he accordingly expounds 
better than any man either before or since 
his time. He, indeed, created logic, and 
this system stands erect through the changes 
of centuries like an Egyptian pyramid, which 
heat and moisture cannot wear away. He 
nowhere defines logic; but the book which 
contains it is ordinarily called the “ Or¬ 
ganon.” His successors have only damaged 
when they have tried to improve his sys¬ 
tem of argumentation; and down to the 
period of Sir William Hamilton, it remained 
nearly destitute of a single modification or 
addition. He most profoundly bases his 
logic upon the laws of contradiction, and he 
even recognizes that of sufficient reason as 
a regulative principle in the evolution of 
truth. After logic, he took up all the sci¬ 


ences, rational, empirical, and mixed, ex¬ 
cept one alone, viz., history. 

He seems to’ have divided philosophy into 
logic, physics, and ethics, or into speculative 
and practical knowledge. (1) Speculative 
philosophy contemplates the real order of 
things, irrespective of human control; prac¬ 
tical philosophy discusses affairs voluntary 
and accidental. Heal substances are either 
invariable, or variable; while sublunary 
matters are variable, and perishable; the 
deity alone is imperishable, and unchange¬ 
able. Do men pursue the real in an ab¬ 
stract way? Then, metaphysics and mathe¬ 
matics emerge. Do they pursue knowledge 
as to its objects? Then physics, cosmology, 
psychology, theology emerge. (2) Practical 
philosophy again comprehends ethics, poli¬ 
tics, and economy. A word or two on each 
of these heads; and first of speculative phil¬ 
osophy. 

1. Physics, or natural philosophy. Na¬ 
ture is the sum of all existences, which are 
disclosed to us by our perceptive faculties. 
The knowledge of nature is properly the 
knowledge of the laws of bodies in motion. 
Nature, cause, accident, end, change, infin¬ 
itude, space, time, and motion, are included 
in this science. The three elements of ex¬ 
istence are matter, form, and privation; 
and change is possible as regards substance, 
quantity, quality, and place. Motion, like 
time, has neither beginning nor end; and 
the first thing to Avhich motion was applied 
was the heavens. In his “ Cosmology,” Aris¬ 
totle discusses astronomy, using that term 
in its widest signification. It appears to 
us moderns obscure and inconsistent, and is 
by no means satisfactory. Physiology is in¬ 
debted to Aristotle for its first essay. The 
soul is, according to him, the active prin¬ 
ciple of organized life. It is distinct from 
the body, yet, considered as its form or en- 
telechy, it is inseparable from it. Its facul¬ 
ties are production, nutrition, sensation, 
thought, and will or impulse. His remarks 
on the principle of common sense, on con¬ 
sciousness, on imagination, on memory, and 
on recollection nearly all of which he was 
the first to distinctly recognize, are very val¬ 
uable, and will repay a careful perusal even 
at the present day. Metaphysics, or more 
properly, the first philosophy, according to 
Aristotle, is his attempt to sciencize being 
in the abstract. The leading characteristics 
of the latter existence he analyzes into the 
10 categories of substance, quantity, quality, 
relation, time, place, situation, possession, 
action, passion. With this arrangement he 
connected the question of the first being, 
whose felicity is alone complete, and whose 
existence is alone immutable. 

2. The ruling idea of his practical phil¬ 
osophy was that of a sovereign good, and 
final end or aim of. action. This final end 
he denominated happiness, which is the re- 




Aristoxenus 


Arithmetical Progression 


suit of the perfect energies of the soul, and 
is the highest of which our nature is ca¬ 
pable. It arises from the perfect exercise 
of reason, and is ordinarily called virtue. 
This he describes as the mean between two 
extremes, which is the character of nearly 
the whole of his philosophy. He distin¬ 
guishes the moral virtues into seven cardinal 
ones, of which justice, in a sense, embraces 
all the rest. Under the head of right, he dis¬ 
tinguishes that belonging to a family from 
that belonging to a city. A perfect unity 
of plan prevails throughout his morals, 
politics and economics. Both of the latter 
have for their object to show how this per¬ 
fect virtue, already described, may be at¬ 
tained in the civil and domestic relation¬ 
ships, through a good constitution of the 
state and the household. The principle of 
the science of politics is expediency, and its 
perfection consists of suitableness of means 
to the end proposed. By this principle 
Aristotle proves the legality of slavery; and 
all education he refers to the ultimate end 
of political society. Of Aristotle’s success¬ 
ors, the only one deserving of mention is 
Theophrastus, author of the “ Character¬ 
istics.” This system long maintained its 
ground as distinct from that of Plato. In 
the Middle Ages it became degraded into a 
noxious system of barren formularies, which 
were ultimately swept away by the revival 
of Platonism. All except his logic, which 
will live forever, is now nearly forgotten, 
save by a few devoted students. 

Aristoxenus (ar-is-tox'e-nus), an ancient 
Greek musician and philosopher of Taren- 
tum, born about b. c. 324. He studied 
music under his father Mnesias, and phil¬ 
osophy under Aristotle, whose successor he 
aspired to be. He endeavored to apply his 
musical knowledge to philosophy, and es¬ 
pecially to the science of mind, but it only 
appears to have furnished him with far¬ 
fetched analogies and led him into a kind 
of materialism. We have a work on the 
“ Elements of Harmony ” by him. 

Arithmetic, in its broadest sense, the 
science and art which treat of the properties 
of numbers. This definition, however, would 
include algebra, which is considered a dis¬ 
tinct branch. Algebra deals with certain 
letters of the alphabet, such as x, y, z, 
a, b, c, etc., standing as symbols for num¬ 
bers; arithmetic operates on numbers them¬ 
selves, as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. Viewed as a 
science, arithmetic is a branch of mathe¬ 
matics; looked on as an art, its object is 
to carry out for practical purposes certain 
rules regarding numbers, without troubling 
itself to investigate the foundation on which 
those rules are based. 

It is variously divided, as into integral 
and fractional arithmetic, the former treat¬ 
ing of integers and the latter of fractions. 
Integral arithmetic is sometimes called 


vulgar or common arithmetic; and from 
fractional arithmetic is sometimes separated 
decimal arithmetic, treating, as the name 
implies, of decimals. There are also log¬ 
arithmic arithmetic for computation by 
logarithms, and instrumental arithmetic 
for calculation by means of instruments or 
machines. Another division is into theo¬ 
retical arithmetic, treating of the science 
of numbers, and practical arithmetic, which 
points out the best method of practically 
working questions or sums. Political arith¬ 
metic is arithmetic applied to political 
economy, as is done in the statistical re¬ 
turns so continually presented to Parlia¬ 
ment or Congress. Finally, universal arith¬ 
metic is a name sometimes applied to al¬ 
gebra. The chief subjects generally treated 
under the science or art of arithmetic are 
(1) numeration and notation; (2) addition; 
(3) subtraction; (4) multiplication; (5) 
division; (6) reduction; (7) compound ad¬ 
dition; (8) compound subtraction; (9) com¬ 
pound multiplication; (10) compound di¬ 
vision; (11) simple proportion (rule of 
three); (12) compound proportion; (13) 
vulgar fractions; (14) decimal fractions; 
(15) duodecimals; (10) involution; (17) 
evolution; (18) ratios, proportions and pro¬ 
gressions; (19) fellowship or partnership; 
(20) simple interest; (21) compound inter¬ 
est, and (22) position. Of these, the most 
important are the simple processes of addi¬ 
tion, subtraction, multiplication and di¬ 
vision, the judicious use of which, singly or 
in combination, will solve the most complex 
arithmetical questions. 

Arithmetical Complement, that which 

a number wants to make it reach the next 
highest decimal denomination. Thus the 
arithmetical complement of 4 is 6, for 4 + 6 
are—10, and that of 642 is 358, because 
642+358 are—1,000. The arithmetical 
complement of a logarithm is what it wants 
to make it reach 10. 

Arithmetical Mean. (1) The number, 
whether it be an integer or a fraction, which 
is exactly intermediate between two others. 
Thus, 5 is the arithmetical mean between 

2 and 8 ; for 2 + 3 are = 5, and 5 + 3 are = 8. 

To find such a mean add the numbers to¬ 
gether and divide their sum by 2; thus, 
2+8 = 10, and IO-t- 2 = 5. (2) Any one of 

several numbers in an arithmetical ratio 
interposed between two other numbers. 
Thus, if 6, 9 and 12 be interposed between 

3 and 15, any one of them may be called 
an arithmetical mean between these two 
numbers. 

Arithmetical Progression, a series of 

numbers increasing or diminishing uni¬ 
formly by the same number. If they in¬ 
crease, the arithmetical progression is said 
to be ascending, and if they decrease, de- 



Arithmetical Proportion 


Arizona 


scending. Thus the series 3, G, 9, 12, 15 
is an ascending arithmetical progression, 
mounting up by the continued addition of 
3; and the series 8, G, 4, 2, is a descending 
one, falling regularly by 2. 

Arithmetical Proportion, the relation 
existing between tour numbers, of which 
the first is as much greater or less than the 
second as the third is of the fourth; the 
equality of two differences or arithmetical 
ratios. In such cases the sum of the ex¬ 
tremes is — that of the means. 

Ari Thorgilsson (ii-re tor'gils-son), the 
father of Icelandic literature (10G7-1148). 
He was the first Icelander to use his mother 
tongue as a literary medium in writing his 
“ Islendingabok,” a concise history of Ice¬ 
land from its settlement (about 870) until 
1120. 

Arius. See Arian. 

Arizona, a Territory of the Western Di¬ 
vision of the North American Union; 
bounded by Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, 
California and the Mexican State of Sonora; 
gross area, 113,956 square miles; organized 
Feb. 14, 1863; number of counties, 13; pop. 
(1900) 122,212; (1910) 204,354; capital, 
Phoenix. On June 10, 1910, Congress pro¬ 
vided for the admission of the Territory to 
Statehood. 

Topography .— The surface in general is a 
series of plateaus, ranging in altitude from 
80 to 7,500 feet above sea level. It is trav¬ 
ersed by the Northside, San Francisco, 
Black, Black Mesa, Gila, Dragon, Santa 
Ana, Zuni, Santa Catarina, Mogollon and 
Penaleno Mountains, with peaks stretching 
to an extreme height of 12,572 feet (Humph¬ 
rey Peak). The watercourses are the Colo¬ 
rado river and its tributaries, the Little 
Colorado, Gila, Zuni, San Juan and sev¬ 
eral smaller streams. The principal rivers 
pass through canons that are among 
the greatest wonders of the world. Dotting 
the plains are enormous mesas or table¬ 
lands, some with perpendicular sides more 
than 1,000 feet high. No part of the world 
has so rich a field for archaeological and 
ethnological investigation as Arizona. Long- 
buried dwellings and cities, with other ruins 
of an exceedingly ancient people, are being 
continually disclosed; and explorations by 
government geologists are yielding a vast 
and curious volume of information concern¬ 
ing the cliff-dwellers and other prehistoric 
races. Arizona to-day is a region of won¬ 
ders and mysteries. 

Geology .— The weird cafions are remark¬ 
able in that they exhibit all the geological 
formations of North America. Geologists 
declare that the Colorado river, in its whole 
course, has cut through strata representing 
a thickness of 25,000 feet, and exposed the 
gradations from the quarternary alluvial 
deposits through volcanic alterations to the 


primary azoic rocks. Of this total exposed 
strata about 16,000 feet are in Arizona, 
and in this stretch are seen superficial de¬ 
posits, alluvium, clay, sandstone, detritus 
and diluvium. The Grand Canon of the 
Colorado alone shows upper carboniferous 
limestone, cross-stratified sandstone, red 
calcareous sandstone with gypsum, lower 
carboniferous limestone, shales, grits, Pots¬ 
dam sandstone and granite and other for¬ 
mations. The plains are of quarternary 
and tertiary deposits; the bottom lands, 
calcareous sands and clays. 

Mineralogy .— The Territory is a store¬ 
house of mineral riches, the resources in¬ 
cluding anthracite and bituminous coal, 
carbonates and oxides of iron, gold, silver 
copper, lead, platinum, quicksilver, tin, 
nickel, salt, sulphur, hydraulic lime, 
natural lodestones, opals, onyx, garnets, 
malachite, sapphires, chalcedony and count¬ 
less medicinal springs. The most valuable 
productions in the calendar year 1898, were: 
Gold, 119,249 fine ounces, valued at $2,465,- 
100; silver, 2.246,800 fine ounces, coining 
value, $2,904,954; copper, 111,158,246 
pounds; clay products, all brick and tile, 
$81,509, and dressed sandstone, $57,444. 
Turquoise mining was carried on at Tur¬ 
quoise Mountain, in Cochise county, and 
at Mineral Park, in Mohave county, and an 
ancient mine was discovered near Globe, 
with many stone tools of the old workers. 

Soil .— Of the total area, embracing over 
72,500,000 acres, only a comparatively 
small portion, approximating 5,000,000 
acres, is arable land, and of this part about 
500,000 acres are under irrigation and highly 
productive. The construction of irrigating 
canals and water storage reservoirs is being 
steadily promoted and is daily adding 
largely to the agricultural area. The pine 
timber land covers an area of nearly 4,000,- 
000 acres, giving the Territory resources for 
timber and building material unsurpassed 
anywhere in the country. 

Agriculture .— The principal crops are 
wheat and hay, which, in 1898, yielded 
770,532 bushels and 116,487 tons respec¬ 
tively. Within recent years much attention 
has been given to the cultivation of sugar 
beets, date palms, melons, cotton, tobacco, 
sugar cane and the canaigre plant, used in 
tanning. Almonds, peanuts, oranges, lem¬ 
ons, apricots, potatoes, corn, barley, oats 
and root products generally do well under 
irrigation. The value of all farm and ranch 
animals in 1898 was $10,706,449, the most 
numerous being sheep and cattle. Accord¬ 
ing to the census of 1890, the Territory had 
1,426 farms, comprising 1,297,033 acres, 
and worth, with buildings and improve¬ 
ments, $7,222,230. 

Manufactures .— Natural conditions have 
made Arizona more of a mining and agri- 













































































































































































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Arizona 


Arjuna 


cultural region tlian a manufacturing one. 
In 1900 there were 314 manufacturing es¬ 
tablishments reported, employing $10,157,- 
408 capital and 3,476 persons; paying $2,- 
636,575 for wages and $8,464,410 for mate¬ 
rials ; and having a combined output valued 
at $21,315,189. The chief productions were 
flour, grist, and lumber in various forms. 

Banking .— In 1899 there were 5 Na¬ 
tional banks in operation, having $400,000 
in capital, $116,528 in outstanding circula¬ 
tion and $795,087 in reserve. There were 
also 3 Territorial banks, with $229,700 
in capital, $1,368,007 in deposits, and 
$1,671,768 in resources. 

Imports and. Exports .—For the year 1899 
the imports of merchandise in the district 
of Arizona aggregated in value $1,224,863 
and the exports, $1,992,423. There was also 
imported gold and silver to the value of 
$2,818,352. 

Education .— The Territory has no com¬ 
pulsory attendance law. In 1898 the public 
school enumeration was 18,802; enrollment 
in the public schools, 14,613, and average 
daily attendance, 9,011. There were 244 
public school districts; 435 teachers; school 
property valued at $472,108; receipts of 
the year, $235,381, and expenditures, $229,- 
323. For higher instruction there were 
public high schools at Phoenix and Prescott, 
St. Joseph’s Academy at Prescott, a public 
normal school at Tempe, and the University 
of Arizona at Tucson, opened in 1891. 
Schools for Indian youth are maintained 
at the Colorado river. Fort Apache, Navajo 
and San Carlos agencies, and at Phoenix, 
Sacaton, Supai, Hualapai and Hackberry. 

Churches .— The strongest denominations 
numerically in the Territory are the Poman 
Catholic; Latter-Day Saints; Methodist 
Episcopal, South; Baptist; Presbyterian; 
Protestant Episcopal and Congregational. 
All denominations reported in 1890: Organ¬ 
izations, 131; churches and halls, 122; mem¬ 
bers, 26,972, and value of church property, 
$270,816. In 1899 there were 81 evangelical 
Sunday schools, with 594 officers and teach¬ 
ers and 5,280 scholars. 

Railroads .— The total length of railroads 
within the Territory Jan. 1, 1900, was 
1,465.88 miles, of which 49.70 miles were 
constructed during the previous year. Of 
all railroad property, 999 miles were as¬ 
sessed at an average valuation of $4,191 
per mile, and 454 miles were exempt from 
taxation for a term of years under Terri¬ 
torial laws. 

Post-Offices and Periodicals .— In 1899 
there were about 200 post-offices of all 
grades and 52 periodicals, of which 10 were 
dailies and 40 weeklies. 

Finances .— The assessed valuation of all 
taxable property in 1899 was $32,509,520, 
an increase of more than $1,000,000 in a 


year, and the net bonded and floating 
debt, in 1900, was $1,132,187, an increase 
occasioned by the issue of bonds with which 
to erect a capitol building. 

Government .— The Governor is appointed 
by the President for a term of four years 
and receives a salary of $2,600 per annum. 
Legislative sessions are held biennially and 
are limited to 60 days each. The legislature 
has 12 members in the Council and 24 in 
the House, each of whom receives $4 per day 
and mileage. The Territory has a delegate 
to Congress. In politics, the Territorial 
government is that of the national adminis¬ 
tration. The Legislature in 1904 had a 
Democratic majority. 

History .— The early history of the region 
now comprised within the limits of Ari¬ 
zona is yet to be discovered and written. 
There are abundant evidences that long be¬ 
fore the region was known to white men, 
it was inhabited by .a large and superior 
race. The country now included in Arizona 
and New Mexico was partly explored in 
1539 by Marco de Nizan, in quest of the 
precious metals, and on his report Vasquez 
de Coronado organized an expedition in the 
following year and visited the Moqui vil¬ 
lages and the New Mexican pueblos. About 
1596 the first colony was established; in 
1680 the Spaniards were driven out of the 
country; by 1695 they had recovered nearly 
all of it, and by 1720 Jesuit missionaries 
had established a number of missions, 
ranches and mining stations. There were 
serious Indian outbreaks in 1802 and 1827, 
and what is now Arizona and New Mexico 
was acquired by the United States 
in 1848 and 1853. N. O. Murpiiy. 

Arizona, University of, a co-educational 
institution in Tucson, chartered in 1885, 
opened in 1891; lias grounds and buildings 
valued at over $225,000; scientific appa¬ 
ratus, $58,600; income, $155,000; professors 
and instructors, 40; students, 200; volumes 
in the library, 14,000; value of the same, 
over $27,000; number of graduates since 
opening, over 70. 

Arjish Dagh (ar'yesh-dach'), the lofti¬ 
est peak of the peninsula of Asia Minor, 
at the western extremity of the Anti-Taurus 
Range, 13,150 feet; an exhausted volcano; 
on the N. and N. E. slopes are extensive 
glaciers. 

Arjuna (ar-yo'na), name of two heroes 
in Hindu mythology: (1) the third son of 
Purdu; he was one of the principal heroes 
of the Mahabharata. The sister of Krishna 
was one of his wives. After many wonder¬ 
ful exploits he withdrew from worldly 
affairs and went to the Himalayas. (2) 
Better known by the name Kartavirya. Be¬ 
cause of his devout worship of Dattatreya, 
a divine being, in whom was incarnated a 
portion of Vishnu, Brahma and Shiva, he 






Ark 


Arkansas 


was given a golden chariot., a thousand arms, 
the power of checking wrong, etc. Accord¬ 
ing to the Vishnupurana he rules 85,000 
years. 

Ark, a chest or coffer for the safe-keep¬ 
ing of any valuable thing; a depository. 
The large floating vessel in which Noah and 
his family were preserved during the deluge. 

The Ark of the Covenant, in the syna¬ 
gogue of the Jews, was the chest or vessel 
in which the tables of the law were pre¬ 
served. This was a small chest or coffer, 
three feet nine inches in length, two feet 
three inches in breadth and the same in 
height, in which were contained the var¬ 
ious sacred articles. It was made of shittim 
wood, overlaid within and without with gold 
and was covered with the mercy seat, called 
also the propitiatory, as the Septuagint ex¬ 
presses it, that is, the lid or cover of pro¬ 
pitiation; because, in the typical language 
of Scripture, those sins which are forgiven 
are said to be covered. 

Arkansas, a State in the South Central 
Division of the North American Union; 
bounded by Missouri, Tennessee, Mississippi, 
Louisiana, Texas and the Indian Territory; 
gross area, 53,850 square miles; admitted 
into the Union, June 15, 183G; seceded, 
March 4, 18G1; readmitted June 22, 18G8; 
number of counties, 75; pop. (1890) 1,128,- 
179; (1900) 1,311,504; (1910) 1,574,449. 

Capital, Little Lock. 

Topography. — The surface presents the 
features of mountains, prairies, hills, val¬ 
leys and swamps. The Ozark, Boston, 
Ouachita and other ranges, from 1,500 to 
2,000 feet high, occupy the W. and N. W. 
parts, with numerous spurs and outlying 
hills of considerable altitude; the central 
part is rolling ground; and the E. part is 
low, with many lakes and swamps and is 
liable to overflows of the Mississippi. 
Drainage is by the Mississippi, Arkansas, 
St. Francis, Black, White, Ouachita, Saline 
and Red rivers. Compensation for the ab¬ 
sence of a seacoast is had in the navigability 
of long stretches of the principal rivers, 
thus permitting a valuable water traffic 
with adjoining States. 

Geology. — The upper mountainous, forest 
and mineral lands may be separated from 
the lowlands and alluvial plains by a line 
drawn across the State from N. E. to S. W. 
The principal formations are the lower 
Silurian in the N.; the sub-carboniferous 
on the S.; the cretaceous in the S. W., and 
the tertiary, overlaid by quarternary sands 
and clays. Hot and mineral springs are 
numerous and some of them are widely 
known. The valley of the St. Francis in 
the N. E. is a continuous swamp covered 
with a heavy growth of cypress, gum, oak, 
hickory and sycamore, while in the higher 
land there is an abundance of white oak 
and hickory. In the Arkansas valley are 


red cedar, cottonwood, maple and several 
varieties of oak. Other forest growths of 
value are ash, walnut, elm, willow and 
papaw. 

Mineralogy. — The State contains semi- 
antliracite, cannel, and bituminous coal; 
iron and zinc ores; galena, frequently bear¬ 
ing silver; manganese; gypsum, oil-stone of 
superior quality; marble; alabaster; rock 
crystal; copper; granite; kaolin; marl; 
mineral ochers, and salt. The most valu¬ 
able production at present is coal, which, 
in the calendar year 1899, yielded 843,554 
short tons, spot value $989,383, a decrease 
in a year of over 3G 1,000 tons. Quarrying 
(1898) had an output of limestone val¬ 
ued at $54,373 and sandstone, $24,825. Clay 
products yielded $227,2G6 in brick and tile, 
and $17,100 in pottery; and 2,662 long tons 
of manganese ores were mined, valued at 
$26,035. 

Soil. — The soil varies with the geological 
characteristics and surface conditions al¬ 
ready described. Agriculturally, the most 
valuable soil is found in the river bottom¬ 
lands, and as the surface rises from these 
bottoms the soil becomes less productive. 
There are large submerged tracts that only 
require proper drainage to make them valu¬ 
able to the farmer. The uplands generally 
are well timbered and well watered. 

Agriculture. — The most valuable produc¬ 
tion is cotton, of which 1,876,467 acres 
yielded 919,469 gross bales in the season of 
1898-1899, valued at over $25,000,000. Of 
cereals, corn had the largest yield in 1899, 
the total being 48,087,140 bushels, valued at 
$18,273,113. The total value of the cereal, 
potato, and hay crop exceeded $20,000,000. 
Farm and ranch animals of all kinds were 
valued at $22,674,555, the most numerous 
being swine and cattle. According to the 
census of 1890 the State had 124,760 farms, 
comprising 14,891,356 acres, and worth, with 
buildings and improvements, $118,574,422. 

Manufactures. — In 1900 there were 4,- 
794 manufacturing establishments reported, 
employing $35,960,640 capital and 28,150 
persons; paying $9,937,387 for wages and 
$23,963,768 for materials; and having a 
combined output valued at $45,197,731. The 
principal articles were lumber, sawed and 
worked; flour and grist; cotton-seed oil and 
cake; foundry and machine shop products; 
and brick and tile. In the fiscal year 1898- 
1899, the collections of internal revenue on 
taxable manufactures aggregated $269,936. 

Banking. — In 1899 there were 7 National 
banks in operation, having $1,070,000 in 
capital, $242,548 in outstanding circula¬ 
tion, and $881,030 in reserve. There were 
also 37 State banks, with $1,152,914 in capi¬ 
tal, $3,730,329 in deposits, and $5,712,601 
in resources. 

Education. — In 1898 the school popula¬ 
tion was 465,565; enrollment in the public 






























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Arkansas 


Arkona 


schools, 303,808; and average daily attend¬ 
ance, 191,447. There were 4,936 public 
schools; 7,073 teachers; public school prop¬ 
erty valued at $2,294,397; receipts of the 
year, $1,255,446; and expenditures, $1,220,- 
362. For higher instruction there were 48 
public high schools; 24 private secondary 
schools; 1 public and 6 private normal 

schools; 8 universities and colleges for 

men and for both sexes; and the Central 
Baptist College for Women, at Conway. 
The principal universities and colleges are 
Arkansas College (opened 1872, Presb.) ; 
Arkansas Industrial University (1872, non- 
sect.) ; Philander Smith College (1877, 
Meth. Epis.) ; Hendrix College (1884, Meth. 
"Epis. S.) ; Ouachita College (1886, Bapt.) ; 
Arkadelphia- College (1890, Meth. Epis.); 
Arkansas Cumberland College (1891, Cumb. 
Presb.) ; and Mountain Home College (1893, 
Bapt.). 

Churches. — The strongest denominations 
numerically in the State are the Methodist 
Episcopal, South; Regular Baptist, Colored; 
Regular Baptist, South; African Methodist 
Episcopal; Disciples of Christ, and the 
Methodist Episcopal. All denominations 
reported in 1890: Organizations, 4,874; 
churches and halls, 4,719; members, 
296,208; and value of church property, $3,- 
266,663. In 1899 there were 2.050 evangeli¬ 
cal Sunday-schools, with 13,962 officers and 
teachers, and 151,000 scholars. 

Railroads. — The total length of railroads 
within the State, Jan. 1, 1900, was 3,092.77 
miles, of which 269.48 miles were con¬ 
structed during the previous year. The as¬ 
sessed valuation of railroad property, with 
that of telegraph and express companies, 
was about $23,000,000. 

Post-Offices and Periodicals. — In 1899 
there were about 1.850 post-offices of all 
grades, and 259 periodicals, of which 21 
were dailies and 212 weeklies. 

Finances. — The assessed valuation of all 
taxable property in 1900 was $189,999,045, 
of which $62,936,142 was personal property. 
The recognized bonded debt and overdue 
interest, as reported in 1898, amounted to 
$1,565,580; and the unrecognized debt all 
due in 1900, to $8,706,773. 

State Government. — The Governor is 
elected for a term of two years and receives 
a salary of $3,500 per annum. Legislative 
• sessions are held biennially, and are limited 
to 60 days each. The Legislature has 32 
members in the Senate and 100 in the House, 
each of whom receives $6 per day and 
mileage. There are 7 representatives in 
Congress. In politics the State is strongly 
Democratic. 

History. — This portion of the original 
Territory of Louisiana, named after a tribe 
of Indians found there by the earliest ex¬ 
plorers of record, was first settled by the 
French in 1670. Tt became a part of 
Louisiana Territory in 1803, of Missouri 


Territory in 1812; was organized as Ar¬ 
kansas Territory, with the present Indian 
Territory and Oklahoma Territory in 
1819; and was detached from Indian Ter¬ 
ritory and created a State in 1836. It was 
settled almost exclusively by people from 
the Southern States, and early became a 
battle ground in the Civil War. Following 
the seizure of Federal arsenals by the State 
authorities after the State had seceded, 
came the defeat of the Confederates in the 
battle of Pea Ridge, May 6-7, 1862, and in 
that of Prairie Grove, or Fayetteville, Dec. 
7 following; the occupation by the Union 
forces of Helena; and the capture of Ar¬ 
kansas Post by a combined Union military 
and naval force, Jan. 11, 1863, and of Little 
Rock, Sept. 10, following. The State was 
adopted its present constitution in 1874. 

D. W. Jonest. 

Arkansas Post, a village in Arkansas 
county. Ark.: on the Arkansas River; 117 
miles S. E. of Little Rock. It is on a high 
bluff and was the site of the first settle¬ 
ment made within the present limits of 
Arkansas by French missionaries in 1685. 
Its elevated location gave it considerable 
military importance during the Civil War. 
The Confederates established strong works 
here, which were reduced bv a combined as¬ 
sault of a portion of the United States 
army, under General McClernand, and a 
naval command under Admiral Porter, on 
Jan. 11, 1863. 

Arkansas Stone, a name given to the oil¬ 
stones made from two grades of novaculite 
quarried in Hot Springs, Garland, and ad¬ 
joining counties in Arkansas. The rocks 
cover a large area and yield the finest whet¬ 
stones, and from them the highost grades 
of both whetstones and razor hones are 
made. 

Arkansas, University of, a co-educa- 
tional institution organized in 1872, with 
academic and technical departments in Fay¬ 
etteville, law and medical departments in 
Little Rock, and normal school for colored 
students in Pine Bluff; has grounds and 
buildings valued at over $365,000; produc¬ 
tive funds, $130,000; income, about $200,- 
000; professors and instructors, 75; stu¬ 
dents, 1,400; volumes in the libraries, 
15,000; value of the same, $40,000; number 
of graduates since opening, over 550. 

Arklow, a seaport of Wicklow, Ireland, 
49 miles S. of Dublin, at the mouth of the 
Avoca river, which is crossed here by a 
bridge of 19 arches. Near it is Shelton 
Abbey, the seat of the Earl of Wicklow. 
There are ruins of the castle of the Ormonds, 
destroyed by Cromwell in 1649, and traces 
of an ancient monastery. In 1798, a bloody 
encounter took place here between the gov¬ 
ernment troops and the United Irishmen. 

Arkona, the N. E. promontory of the Isl¬ 
and of Riigcn, in the Baltic. Its chalk 





Arkwright 


Arm 


cliffs rise to a height of 177 feet, topped 
with a lighthouse, built in 1827, itself 78 
feet high, from which the Danish Island of 
MOen, 33 miles N. W., can be seen. Here 
stood the famous fortification (Slavonic, 
XJrkan ) so long impregnable, and the tem¬ 
ple of the Wend deity Swantewit, the most 
sacred sanctuary of the Slavs of Northern 
Germany. It was destroyed, after a long 
struggle, bv King Waldemar I. of Denmark 
in 11G8. The remains of the burg-ring or 
wall still stand on the land side of the 
promontory. 

Arkwright, Sir Richard, an English in¬ 
ventor, born at Preston, in Lancashire, in 
1732. The youngest of 13 children, he was 
bred to the trade of a barber. When about 35 
years of age he gave himself up exclusively 
to the subject of inventions for spinning cot¬ 
ton. The thread spun by Hargreaves’ 
jenny could not be used except as weft, be¬ 
ing destitute of the firmness or hardness 

required in the 
longitudin- 
al threads or 
warp. But Ark¬ 
wright supplied 
this deficiency 
by the invention 
of the spinning 
frame, which 
spins a vast 
number of 
threads of any 
degree of fine¬ 
ness and hard¬ 
ness, leaving the 
operator mere- 

SIR RICHARD ARKWRIGHT, ty ^0 f ee< l the 

machine with 
the cotton and to join the threads when 
they happen to break. His invention in¬ 
troduced the system of spinning by rollers, 
the carding, or roving, as it is technically 
termed (that is, the soft, loose strip of cot¬ 
ton ), passing through one pair of rollers, 
and being received by a second pair, which 
are made to revolve with (as the case may 
be) three, four, or five times the velocity of 
the first pair. By this contrivance the 
roving is drawn out into a thread of the 
desired degree of tenuity and hardness. His 
inventions ^eing brought into a quite ad¬ 
vanced state, Arkwright removed to Not¬ 
tingham in 1708 in order to avoid the at¬ 
tacks of the same lawless rabble that had 
driven Hargreaves out of Lancashire. Here 
his operations were at first greatly fettered 
*>y a want of capital; but two gentlemen of 
means having entered into partnership with 
him, the necessary funds were obtained, 
and Arkwright erected his first mill, which 
was driven by horses, at Nottingham, and 
took out a patent for spinning by rollers in 
1709. As the mode of working the ma¬ 
chinery by horse-power was found too ex¬ 
pensive, he built a second factory on a much 


larger scale at Cromford, in Derbyshire, in 
1771, the machinery of which was turned 
by a water-wheel. Having made several ad¬ 
ditional discoveries and improvements in the 
processes of carding, roving, and spinning, 
he took out a fresh patent for the whole 
in 1775, and thus completed a scries of the 
most ingenious and complicated machinery. 
Notwithstanding a series of lawsuits in de¬ 
fense of his patent rights, and the destruc¬ 
tion of his property by mobs, he amassed a 
large fortune. He was knighted by George 
III. in 1780, and died in 1792. 

Arles (arl), a city of France, in the De¬ 
partment of Bouches-du-Rhone, on the 
Rhone, 44 miles W. N. W. of Marseilles. It 
is principally notable as having been an 
important town when Gaul was invaded by 
Ccesar. It afterward became a Roman col¬ 
ony, and was long a rich and prosperous 
city. The Roman amphitheater, capable of 
accommodating 30,000 spectators, yet re¬ 
mains, noble in its ruins. The great obelisk, 
and innumerable artistic remains, attest 
the former magnificence of this city. The 
Emperor Constantine embellished Arles, and 
his son Constantine II. was born here. In 
855 it became the capital of the kingdom 
of A relate, which was, in 933, united to that 
of Burgundy. Pop. (1901) 29,314. 

Arlincourt, Victor Vicomte d\ (ar-lan- 

kor'), a French poet and novelist (1789— 
1850). His chief poetical work is “Charle¬ 
magne, or the Caroleid ” (1818), an epic; 
and of his novels the most successful was 
“ Le Solitaire” (1821), which was trans¬ 
lated into all European languages. Among 
several pamphlets, written in support of the 
Legitimist cause in 1848, one entitled “ God 
Wills It ” went through 04 editions. 

Arlington Heights, a range of hills in 

Fairfax county, Va., on the Potomac, oppo¬ 
site Washington. They were strongly forti¬ 
fied during the Civil War. Gen. Robert E. 
Lee had a residence here. The place is now 
the site of a National Soldiers’ Cemetery. 

Arm, the upper limb in man, connected 
with the thorax or chest by means of the 
scapula or shoulder-blade, and the clavicle 
or collar-bone. It consists of three bones, 
the arm-bone (humerus), and the two bones 
of the forearm (radius and ulna), and it is 
connected with the bones of the hand by 
the carpus or wrist. The head or upper end 
of the arm-bone fits into the hollow called 
the glenoid cavity of the scapula, so as to 
form a joint of the ball-and-socket kind, al¬ 
lowing great freedom of movement to the 
limb. The lower end of the humerus is 
broadened out by a projection on both the 
outer and inner sides (the outer and inner 
condyles), and has a pulley-like surface for 
articulating with the fore-arm to form the 
elbow-joint. This joint somewhat resembles 
a hinge, allowing gf movement only in one 




Armada 


Armagnac 


direction. The ulna is the inner of the two 
bones of the fore-arm. It is largest at the 
upper end, where it has two processes, the 
coronoid and the olecranon, with a deep 
groove between to receive the humerus. The 
radius — the outer of the two bones — is 
small at the upper and expanded at the 
lower end, where it forms part of the wrist- 
joint. The muscles of the upper arm are 
either flexors or extensors, the former serving 
to bend the arm, the latter to straighten it 
by means of the elbow-joint. The main 
flexor is the biceps, the large muscle which 
may be seen standing out in front of the 
arm when a weight is raised. The chief op¬ 
posing muscle of the biceps is the triceps. 
The muscles of the fore-arm are, besides 
flexors and extensors, pronators and supina¬ 
tors, the former turning the hand palm 
downward, the latter turning it upward. 
The same fundamental plan of structure 
exists in the limbs of all vertebrate ani¬ 
mals. 

Armada, a fleet of armed ships; a squad¬ 
ron; particularly applied to that great 
naval armament, which was called the In¬ 
vincible Armada, fitted out in 1588, by 
Philip II. against Queen Elizabeth. It 
consisted of 129 ships, carrying about 20,000 
soldiers and 8.000 sailors. The loss of the 
Marquis of Santa Cruz, their admiral, and 
a violent tempest, the day after they sailed, 
retarded for some time the operations of 
the Spaniards. They arrived on the coast 
of the Netherlands in July, were thrown 
into disorder by a stratagem of Lord How¬ 
ard, and in this situation were attacked 
with such impetuosity that it became neces¬ 
sary to attempt to return. Contrary winds 
obliged the Spanish admiral, the Duke of 
Medina Sidonia, to make the circuit of 
Great Britain with the wreck of this mag¬ 
nificent armament. In passing the Orkneys, 
it was attacked by a violent storm, and only 
a feeble remnant returned to Spain. 

Armadillo, the Spanish-American name, 
now imported into English, of various mam¬ 
malia belonging to the order edentata, the 
family dasypodidce, and its typical genus 
dasypus. The name armadillo, implying 
that they are in armor, is applied to these 
animals because the upper part of their 
body i& covered with large, strong scales or 
plates, forming a helmet for their head, a 
buckler for their shoulders, transverse bands 
for their back, and in some species a series 
of rings for the protection of their tail. 
Another peculiarity is the great number of 
their molar teeth; these amount in one 
species to more than 90. There are five toes 
on the hinder feet, and four or five, accord¬ 
ing to the species, on the anterior ones. The 
fore feet are admirably adapted for digging, 
and the animal, when it sees danger, can 
extemporize a hole and vanish into it with 
wonderful rapidity. If actually captured, 


it rolls itself into ball, withdrawing its head 
and feet under its strong armor. There are 
several species — such as the great arma¬ 
dillo, or tatu ( dasypus gigas ), the three- 
handed armadillo, or apara ( D. apar) , the 
six-banded armadillo ( D . scxcinctus) , and 
the hairy armadillo ( D . villosus) . They 
feed chiefly on ants and other insects and 
worms, and are peculiar to South America, 
where a giant animal of similar organiza¬ 
tion, the glyptodon, lived in tertiary times. 
Like all the animals belonging to this order, 
the armadillos are slow-motioned and harm¬ 
less; sometimes they are troublesome in 
gardens, both from the destruction of 
plants and the number and extent of the 
excavations which they form. 

It is also the name of a genus of crus¬ 
taceans belonging to the order isopoda, and 
the family oniscidce, the type of which is 
the well-known wood-louse. It is so called 
partly from its being covered with a cer¬ 
tain feeble kind of armor; but chiefly from 
its rolling itself up into a ball after the 
fashion of the South American mam¬ 
malian armadillos. Some species live in 
damp places, under stones, etc. 

Armageddon (-ged'don), the great bat¬ 
tlefield of the Old Testament, where the 
chief conflicts took place between the Israel¬ 
ites and their enemies —• the tableland of 
Esdraelon in Galilee and Samaria, in the 
center of which stood the town Megiddo, 
on the site of the modern Lejjun; used fig¬ 
uratively in the Apocalypse to signify the 
place of “ the battle of the great day of 
God.” 

Armagh (ar-maG'), a city, and capital 
of Armagh county, Ireland; and the arch- 
iepiscopal seat of the Primate of all Ire¬ 
land; 70 miles N. W. of Dub 1 in. It is 
said to have been founded by St. Patrick, 
A. d. 450. Pop. (1901) 7,588. 

Armagnac (ar-man-yak), an ancient ter¬ 
ritory of France, in the province of Gas¬ 
cony, some of the counts of which hold 
prominent places in the history of France. 
Bernard VII., son of John II., surnamed 
the Hunchback, succeeded his brother, John 
III., in 1391, and was called to court by 
Isabella of Bavaria, with the view of head¬ 
ing the Orleans in opposition to the Bur¬ 
gundian faction, where he no sooner gained 
the ascendancy than he compelled the Queen 
to appoint him Constable of France. He 
showed himself a merciless tyrant, and 
became so generally execrated that the 
Duke of Burgundy, to whom Isabella had 
turned for help, found little difficulty in 
gaining admission into Paris, and even 
seizing the person of Armagnac, who was 
cast into prison in 1418, when the exasper¬ 
ated populace burst in and killed him and 
his followers. John V., grandson of the 
above, who succeeded in 1450, made himself 
notorious for his crimes. He was assassi- 



Armansberg 


Armenia 


nated in his castle of Lcctoure in 1473 by 
an agent of Louis XI., against whom he 
was holding out. 

Armansberg, Count Joseph Ludwig 

von (ar'mans-barg), a Bavarian statesman; 
born in 1787; was President of the Regency 
of Greece in 1833-1835, and Chancellor of 
State in 1835-1837. He died in 1853. 

Armatoles, the warlike inhabitants, since 
the 15th century, of the mountain districts 
in Northern Greece, especially in Macedonia, 
Epirus and Thessaly. At one time, as rob¬ 
bers, they ravaged the neighboring country, 
at another time protected its wretched in¬ 
habitants from other robbers in considera¬ 
tion of blackmail. The Turkish pashas, 
unable to subdue them, made terms with 
them, and tried to metamorphose them into 
a sort of military police, intrusting to their 
care the safety of the public roads, and 
dividing the country into districts, each 
under the supervision of a chief of these 
militia. But, although the Armatoles fre¬ 
quently suppressed the brigandage of the 
Klephts, they still regarded them as broth¬ 
ers of common origin and faith, and shared 
with them their hatred for the Turkish 
yoke, however nominal it might be. The 
Turks, at last alarmed at this sympathy, 
tried to substitute for the Armatoles the 
Mohammedan Albanians, who were the im¬ 
placable enemies of the Greeks. The mo¬ 
ment the Greek insurrection broke out, in 
1820. the Armatoles joined the insurgents 
12,000 strong, and they at least gained some 
glory in the war. 

Armenia, a mountainous country of 
Western Asia, not now politically existing, 
but of great historical interest. It varied 
in extent at different epochs, but it may be 
regarded as lying between lat. 30° 50' and 
41° 4P N., and Ion. 3G° 20' and 48° 40' E. 
It was sometimes subdivided into First, Sec¬ 
ond, and Third Armenia, to which a Fourth 
was afterward added; but the division by 
which it was almost universally known was 
into Armenia Major and Armenia Minor, or 
tiie Greater and the Less Armenia. It 
would seem to have stretched from the Cas¬ 
pian Sea and the Persian province of Azer- 
bijan on the E. to Asia Minor on the W., 
and from the Kur or Cyrus river on the N. 
to Kurdistan and Mesopotamia on the S. 
Armenia Major comprised the larger and 
E. portion of this area, extending W. as far 
as the Euphrates and the Anti-Taurus, and 
having an area of about 84,000 square miles. 
Armenia Minor extended from the Euphra¬ 
tes to Asia Minor, and its area may be 
stated at about 53,000 square miles. The 
Euphrates thus intersects Armenia almost 
centrally, and forms the natural boundary 
between the two divisions now described. 
The territory ot this kingdom is now parti¬ 
tioned among Turkey, Persia, and Russia, 
Turkey possessing the largest share. 


The plateau of which Armenia chiefly 
consists is mountainous and volcanic. The 
ridges, of which there are four principal, 
are generally parallel to each other, run¬ 
ning, with sundry deviations, E. and W., 
and between them are broad valleys and 
plateaux;* that of the Aras, at Mount Ara¬ 
rat, being 2,890 feet, and many others 5,000 
to 8,000 feet above the sea-level. The 
mountains are mainly composed of trachy- 
tic porphyry; with slate, limestone, etc., 
appearing on the sides of the chains, and 
sometimes rising up with the porphyry. 
Granite is also met with, but is not fre¬ 
quent; and in the N. Tertiary fossiliferous 
rocks are found. Its volcanoes are all qui¬ 
escent, unless we except Ararat, of which an 
eruption took place in 1840, accompanied 
by a disastrous earthquake. A few moun¬ 
tains, as Ararat, Alaghez, and Bangbl-dagh, 
rise above the line of perpetual snow, but 
this is not generally the case; and there are 
no passes but such as can be crossed in a 
single day. Silver, lead, iron, and copper 
are found in the mountains; and the last 
two have to some extent been wrought in 
modern times. Rock salt is plentiful, and 
is exported in considerable quantities to 
Persia and elsewhere. Mineral waters 
abound, but little or nothing is known of 
their qualities. 

Several important rivers take their rise 
in Armenia, namely the Kur or Cyrus, and 
its tributary the Aras or Araxes, flowing E. 
to the Caspian Sea; the Akampsis or 
Tchorak, and the Halys or Ivizil-Irmak, 
flowing N. to the Black Sea; and the Tigris 
and Euphrates, which flow into the Persian 
Gulf. There are also several minor tribu¬ 
tary streams. The only considerable lakes 
are those of Van, 70 miles in length and 
about 28 in breadth; Goukcha, Sevanga or 
Sevan, N. E. of Erivan, about 40 miles long 
by 15 broad; and Urumiyah. 

The climate of Armenia is very severe, 
presenting quite a contrast to that of the 
warm regions of the Lower Euphrates, and 
to the mildness prevalent on the shores of 
the Black Sea. Any one, indeed, leaving 
the shores of the Pontus in April, and trav¬ 
eling rapidly S. may in one week experience 
the delights and discomforts of three sea¬ 
sons of the year. Winter in Armenia con¬ 
tinues from October to May, sjjring and 
harvest a month each, and the change to 
summer is very rapid. The heat, especially 
in the valleys, during summer, is great, and 
rain seldom falls. In Erivan, which is a 
degree of lat. S. from Trebizond, the ther¬ 
mometer in winter falls 3G° F. lower than 
it does in the latter; and in summer it 
rises 24° F. higher. On the plateaux of 
Erzeroom, Gumri, etc., the difference is still 
greater; indeed, in the town of Erzeroom 
the snow lies in the streets for eight months 
of the year. E. and S. E. winds in summer, 
W. winds in spring, and N. E. storm winds 




Armenia 


Armenia 


in winter, are most prevalent. Though se¬ 
vere, the climate, is, however, esteemed 
healthy. The soil of Armenia is reckoned 
on the whole productive, though in many 
places it would be quite barren were it not 
for the great care taken to irrigate it; to 
such an extent indeed is the system of irri¬ 
gation carried on, that in summer many 
considerable streams are wholly absorbed. 
Wheat, barley, tobacco, hemp, grapes, and 
cotton are raised; and in some of the val¬ 
leys apricots, peaches, mulberries, and wal¬ 
nuts are grown. From the nature of the 
country the rearing of stock is carried on 
to a greater extent than agriculture. The 
horses are spirited, fleet, and fiery. Pines, 
birches, poplars, and beeches flourish, but 
there are no thick forests, except in the 
N. parts of the country. The flora is not 
so varied as might be expected in such an 
Alpine country; in several respects it re¬ 
sembles the vegetation of the Alps of Tyrol 
and Switzerland. 

The inhabitants are chiefly of the genu¬ 
ine Armenian stock; but besides them, in 
consequence of the repeated subjugation of 
the country, various other races have ob¬ 
tained a footing. Of these the principal are 
the Turcomans, who still maintain their 
nomadic habits, and from whom the coun¬ 
try has received the name of Turcomania. 
In the S. portion are the predatory Kurds 
and the Turks; on the Tchorak, Georgians; 
and throughout the whole country, Greeks, 
Jews, and Gypsies. The total number of 
Armenians has been estimated at 2,000,000, 
of whom probably one-half are in Armenia. 
The remainder, like the Jews, are scattered 
over various countries, and being strongly 
addicted to commerce, play an important 
part as merchants. They are found over all 
Western Asia; about Z00,000 are in Con¬ 
stantinople and its vicinity; numbers are 
in Russia, Hungary, and Italy; some in 
Africa and America; and a large number in 
India, chiefly in the great marts, Bombay, 
Madras, and Calcutta. Everywhere they 
are engaged in banking and trading. Their 
eyes and hair are black, their look lively, 
noses aquiline, and their complexion some¬ 
what swarthy. The women are remarkable 
for the delicacy and regularity of their 
features. Like the Jews, whom in many re¬ 
spects they resemble, their ruling passion 
appears to be an inordinate love of gain, 
but they are generally esteemed honest. 
Their mental capacity is good, and those 
who are educated are distinguished by su¬ 
perior cultivation and refined manners; but 
the mass of the people inhabiting their na¬ 
tive country, in consequence of centuries 
of neglect, are grossly ignorant and super¬ 
stitious. 

History .— The legendary history of Ar¬ 
menia begins with Haik, son of Togarmah, 
the great-grandson of Noah, mentioned in 
Gen. x: 3. He is said to have taken refuge 

27 


in Armenia from the tyranny of Belus, King 
of Babylon, who was slain in pursuit of 
him. The seventh king in descent from 
Haik was killed in battle with Semiramis, 
and the country became tributary to As¬ 
syria. From Haik the country derived the 
name Haikistan, and from Aram, his sixth 
successor, that of Armenia. Armenia con¬ 
tinued subject to Assyria under its own 
princes till the revolt of the Medes and 
Babylonians against Sardanapalus, when 
Barbak, the King of Armenia, joined these 
powers and recovered his independence. 
Tigranes I. is said to have been the ally of 
Cyrus against Astyages, and to have built 
the city of Tigranocerta. His successor, 
Yhakin, the legendary hero of Armenia, 
was deified after his death. Valii, the last 
of the dynasty of Haik, was killed in fight¬ 
ing against Alexander as the ally or vassal 
of Darius. The duration of the dynasty 
was about 1,800 years. Armenia was now 
incorporated with the kingdom of Syria. It 
recovered its independence under Ardvates 
(c. c. 317), during the dissension among 
the successors of Alexander, but on his 
death submitted to the Seleucidse. About 
B. c. 190 Artaxias and Zariadres, two Arme¬ 
nian nobles, freed themselves from the do¬ 
minion of Antioclius the Great and estab¬ 
lished the kingdoms of Armenia Major and 
Armenia Minor. Armenia Major was re¬ 
conquered from Artaxias II. by Antiochus 
Epiphanes. About 149 b. c. Mithridates, or 
Arsaces VI., King of Parthia, whose domin¬ 
ion extended over Media, Persia, and Baby¬ 
lonia, placed his brother Waghershag or 
Valarsaces on the throne of Armenia, and 
introduced the dynasty of the Arsacidee into 
the country. He built cities and organized 
the defenses of the country. His great- 
grandson Tigranes II., whose long reign ap¬ 
pears to have begun about 96 b. c., con¬ 
quered Artenes, King of Sopliene or Arme¬ 
nia Minor, and united all Armenia under his 
sway. He was successful in war against 
the Parthians, and made himself master of 
the "whole Syrian monarchy. He is also said 
to have founded or built Tigranocerta, the 
origin of which is likewise attributed to his 
probably mythical predecessor. Being the 
son-in-law of Mithridates, King of Pontus, 
while Mithridates was preparing to renew 
his war with the Romans after the death of 
Sulla he invaded Cappadocia at his instiga¬ 
tion and carried away much spoil and many 
prisoners. Mithridates, after his defeat, 
took refuge with Tigranes, who does not 
seem to have been disposed to render him 
active assistance; but Lucullus made a per¬ 
emptory demand through Appius Clodius 
for his surrender, which left Tigranes no al¬ 
ternative but a declaration of war (69 b. c.). 
Disregarding an invasion of Cilicia, Lucul¬ 
lus at once carried the war into Armenia, 
defeated the numerous forces of Tigranes, 
and captured Tigranocerta. Antiochus Eu- 




Armenia 


Armenia 


sebes was reinstated on the throne of 
Syria, and other dependents of Tigranes re¬ 
volted. Tigranes in the meantime, with the 
assistance of Mithridates, collected another 
army which was again defeated by Lucullus 
(68 b. c.). Favored by disaffection among 
the Homan troops, however, Tigranes recov¬ 
ered the greater part of Armenia, and de¬ 
feated Fannius, the lieutenant of Lucullus. 
Pompey, who arrived in 66 b. c., after over¬ 
throwing Mithridates, who had also recov¬ 
ered his dominions, advanced to Armenia, 
which was at the same time invaded by the 
Parthians, instigated by the revolted son of 
Tigranes. The Parthians speedily withdrew, 
and young Tigranes fled to Pompey. At 
this critical juncture the elder Tigranes 
hastened to make his submission to the Ho¬ 
man general, who left him in possession of 
his kingdom, but deprived him of the prov¬ 
inces of Sophene and Gordyene, which he 
erected into a kingdom for the younger Ti¬ 
granes. The elder Tigranes continued faith¬ 
ful to the Roman alliance, and Gordyene, 
which had been seized by the Parthians, was 
soon after restored to him. Tigranes died 
about 55 b. c. Ilis son Artavasdes was 
made prisoner by Antony in 34 B. c., and 
carried to Egypt, where he was put to death 
by Cleopatra in 30 b. c. Armenia continued 
subject to the Homans, who appointed its 
princes from the family of the Arsacidse 
till the time of Trajan, who made it a prov- 
inc-e. It was given up by Hadrian and again 
ruled by the Arsacidse. Chosroes defended 
it during a long reign against the power of 
Persia, which had recently reestablished its 
monarchy on the ruins of the Parthian em¬ 
pire; but about A. d. 258-259 Sapor, King 
of Persia, unable to subdue Chosroes by 
force of arms, caused him to be assassinated, 
and his son Tigranes being an infant, took 
possession of the country. Tigranes was 
restored by the Romans in 286, the third 
year of Diocletian. At the beginning of his 
reign he persecuted the Christians, who 
were numerous in Armenia, but was him¬ 
self converted to Christianity, it is said, by 
Gregory the Illuminator. Armenia was 
thus the first country which officially em¬ 
braced Christianity. On the defeat of Gale- 
rius by the Persians in 296 Tiridates, who 
fought valiantly as the ally of the Romans, 
was compelled to follow the retreat of his 
protectors; but the succeeding campaign re¬ 
stored him, and his dominions were ex¬ 
tended in the peace with Persia which fol¬ 
lowed. By the teaty into which Jovian, the 
successor of Julius, entered with Sapor II. 
(a. d. 363), the Homans were compelled to 
abandon the protection of Armenia. It was 
speedily reduced to a Persian province, but 
after the death of Sapor (380) its inde¬ 
pendence was restored in a new treaty of 
peace made with Theodosius in 3S4. The 
country, Ion" oppressed by the contentions 
between the Homans and Persians, soon fell 


into division through the attraction of 
these rival powers. A Persian king or gov¬ 
ernor, Chosroes, was set up over the E., and 
a Homan, Arsaces, over the W. portion of 
the country, both being of the royal house 
of Armenia. On the death of Arsaces the 
Homans suppressed the form of royalty, and 
annexed their portion of the country to the 
empire under the military command of a 
count of the Armenian frontier. This oc¬ 
curred in the reign of Theodosius II. On 
the death of Artasires or Ardashir, the suc¬ 
cessor of Chosroes, Bahrain V. of Persia 
(about 431) annexed the Persian portion 
under the name of Persarmenia. The Per¬ 
sians exerted themselves to extripate Chris¬ 
tianity, but failed to do so; and on the fall 
of the Sassanidse (632) the country was 
united again under the Greek empire. It 
now became the scene of incessant struggles 
between the declining empire and the rising 
Mohammedan power, and as it was perse¬ 
cuted by the emperors for its adoption of 
the Monophysite heresy its sympathies were 
not always with the former. The dynasty 
of the Pagratids or Bagratidte was estab¬ 
lished by the arms and influence of the 
caliphs. It was a family of Jewish origin, 
and appears to have risen gradually to in¬ 
fluence in the country. The date of its ele¬ 
vation to royalty is usually given as 88 5, 
but a much earlier date is sometimes as¬ 
signed. It lasted till 1079, when the coun¬ 
try again became dependent on the Greek 
empire. During this period several other 
dynasties which it is not necessary specif¬ 
ically to notice reigned simultaneously in 
different parts of the country. On the fall 
of the Pagratidoe a relative of the last king 
founded a small kingdom in the N. of 
Cilicia, which gradually extended to the 
Mediterranean, and was known as Lesser 
Armenia. It was overthrown by the Mame¬ 
lukes in 1375. Armenia formed part of the 
empires of Genghis Khan and Tamerlane, 
and a great part of it was conquered by 
Selim II. in 1522. Henceforth it was 
shared between the Turks and Persians, the 
former having the greater part of it. In 
1828 Russia obtained a considerable portion 
of it, and this was greatly augmented by 
the treaty of Berlin (1878). Russian Ar¬ 
menia includes the governments of Erivan 
and Elizabethpol, the territory of Kars, 
etc., with the important towns of Tiflis, 
Kars, and Erivan. At the time of the Ber¬ 
lin treaty Turkey made promises of better 
treatment for her Armenian subjects, but 
these have been disregarded and in 1895- 
1896 many thousands of the Armenians in 
different localities were massacred and 
atrocious cruelties perpetrated upon them 
by the Turks, with full approval, it would 
seem, of the Sultan and his advisers. 

Armenian Church .— The Armenians re¬ 
ceived Christianity as early as the 3d cen¬ 
tury. During the Monopliysitic disputes, 




Armenia 


Armenia 


being dissatisfied with the decisions of the 
Council of Chalcedon (451), they separated 
from the Greek Church in the year 53G. 
The Popes have at different times attempted 
to gain them over to the .Roman Catholic 
faith, but have not been able to unite them 
permanently and generally with the Roman 
Church. There are, however, small numbers 
here and there of United Armenians, who 
acknowledge the spiritual supremacy of the 
I Pope, agree in their doctrines with the 
Catholics, but retain their peculiar ceremo¬ 
nies and discipline. At different times force 
has been used to make them conform to the 
religion of Mohammed; but the far greater 
part are yet Monopliysites, and have re¬ 
mained faithful to their old religion and 
worship. Their doctrine differs from the 
orthodox chiefly in their admitting only one 
nature in Christ, and believing the Holy 
Spirit to issue from the Father alone. In 
their seven sacraments, which they call mys¬ 
teries, there are these peculiarities, that in 
baptism they sprinkle thrice and dip thrice, 
and this is immediately followed by con¬ 
firmation; that in the Lord’s Supper they 
mix no water with the wine, and use leav¬ 
ened bread, which they distribute dipped in 
wine; and that they allow extreme unction 
' only to divines immediately after their 
death. They adore saints and their images, 
but do not believe in purgatory. In fasting 
they surpass the Greeks. Their feasts are 
fev/er than those of the Greeks, but they 
celebrate them more devoutly. They wor¬ 
ship, in Turkey, mostly in the night time; 
the mass is said in the ancient Armenian, 
the sermon is preached in the modern. Their 
hierarchy differs little from that of the 
Greeks. Tire catholicus or head of the 
church has his seat at Etclimiadzin, a mon¬ 
astery near Erivan, the capital of the Rus¬ 
sian Armenia, on Mount Ararat. The holy 
oil, which he prepares and sells to the 
clergy, and the frequent pilgrimages of the 
Armenians to Etchmiadzin, supply him with 
means for the support of a magnificent style 
of worship and of establishments for educa¬ 
tion. He maintains in his residence a sem¬ 
inary for the education of divines. There 
is here also a printing press. The patri¬ 
archs, bishops, and archbishops of the Arme¬ 
nians are invested by him, and every three 
years confirmed in their offices or recalled. 
The remainder of the clergy resemble the 
priests of the orthodox church in rank and 
duties. The monks follow the rule of St. 
Basil. The vartabets, who live like monks, 
cultivate the sciences, take degrees, which 
may be compared with the usual academical 
honors, and are the vicars of the bishops, 
form a class of divines peculiar to the Ar¬ 
menian Church. The secular priests must 
be married once, but are not allowed to take 
a second wife. Both monks and clergy in 
general are ignorant and superstitious. 

Language and Literature. — The Armenian 


language belongs to the great Indo-Euro¬ 
pean family of languages, and is most 
closely connected with the Iranic group. 
The Old Armenian or Haikan language, 
which is still the literary and ecclesiastical 
language, is distinguished from the New 
Armenian, the ordinary spoken language, 
which contains a large intermixture of Per¬ 
sian and Turkish elements. The most 
learned Armenian antiquaries do not pre¬ 
tend to trace their literature further back 
than about 150 years before the Christian 
era, when Marabas Catina wrote a history 
of Armenia, and earned for himself the 
title of the Armenian Herodotus. He was 
followed by some half dozen historians and 
mythologists, but all these early produc¬ 
tions are lost, though they have not been 
quite valueless, inasmuch as they were the 
sources whence later Armenian writers com¬ 
piled works still extant. The authors who 
lived in the 4th century of the Christian 
era are the first whose writings have been 
preserved. Christianity then prevailed in 
Armenia, and her authors were princes and 
prelates. The 5th century was the golden 
age of Haikan literature. This century was 
fruitful in authors, and was further dis¬ 
tinguished by two events important to the 
progress of learning. The Armenians till 
then had had no alphabet of their own, in¬ 
differently using Greek, Syriac, and Persian 
characters. Early in the 5tli century Mes- 
rop Masdoty invented a Haikan alphabet of 
38 letters, still called, in honor of the in¬ 
ventor, Mesropian, and now employed as 
capitals, since others of more convenient 
form have supplanted them in common use. 
About the same time schools were instituted 
throughout Armenia, and the scholars there 
trained exerted themselves in producing 
Haiken versions of the Bible, and of the 
masterpieces of Greece and Rome. One of 
the most distinguished authors who now 
appeared was Archbishop Moses Chorenen- 
sis or Chorenabyi. Besides innumerable 
translations, he wrote a history of Armenia, 
a treatise on rhetoric, and a treatise on 
geography — all of which, together with 
some homilies, have been preserved, as well 
as some hymns still habitually sung in the 
Armenian Church service. His “ History of 
Armenia” was published in 173G, with a 
Latin translation, by the celebrated W. 
Whiston and his son George. In the 6th 
century Haikan literature first remained 
stationary, and then began to decline. This 
decline continued down to the 16th century. 
During this period authors abounded, but in 
a literary sense their productions were 
worthless. A few histories, however, na¬ 
tional, Tatar, Arab, etc., some of them in 
verse, deserve esteem for the information 
they contain. In the 17th century Arme¬ 
nian schools and colleges arose in the East 
and in the West, Armenian printing presses 
were set up in various towns, and Armenian 



Arminianism 


Arminius 


literature began to revive. In the 18th cen¬ 
tury the revival was complete, very much 
owing to the zealous and judicious exer¬ 
tions of Petro Mechitar, a Catholic Arme¬ 
nian, who in 1701 founded a religious so¬ 
ciety at Constantinople for the purpose of 
elevating the Armenians by diffusing among 
them a knowledge of their ancient literature 
and language. Being persecuted by the op¬ 
posite sect he fled with his adherents to the 
Morea, then under the Venetians, and es¬ 
tablished a monastery and academy at 
Modon. The Morea reverting to the Otto¬ 
man scepter, Mechitar transferred his in¬ 
stitution to the small island of San Lazaro 
at Venice, where it has ever since remained 
and prospered. Abbot Mechitar, during the 
remainder of his life (he died in 1749), 
successfully exerted himself to render his 
monastic college the chief seat of Armenian 
erudition and education. The best Arme¬ 
nian press extant is the Mechitarist, from 
which issues a newspaper that circulates 
widely in the Levant. Here many of the 
classical works of England, France, Italy, 
and Germany have been translated into Ar¬ 
menian. There is also a Mechitarist college 
in Vienna, and a branch in Munich. Wher¬ 
ever any extensive community of Armenians 
have settled they have set up a printing 
press (as in Amsterdam, Leghorn, Moscow, 
Venice, Astrakhan, Constantinople, Smyrna, 
Tiflis, St. Petersburg, Madras, Calcutta, 
etc., and at several of these places periodi¬ 
cals are published. The best Armenian dic¬ 
tionaries for foreigners are the Armenian- 
French one published at Venice in 1812; 
the Armenian-Italian of Emmanuel Tchak- 
tchak (Venice, 1837) ; the Armenian-Eng- 
lish of Aucher as improved by Bedrossian 
(Venice, 1868-1879; both Armenian-English 
and English-Armenian) ; and the French- 
Armenian of Norayr (Constantinople, 1884). 

Arminianism, the doctrine of Arminius, 
a Protestant divine, who maintained that 
God had predestinated the salvation or con¬ 
demnation of individuals only from having 
foreseen who would and who would not ac¬ 
cept of offered mercy. His chief opponent 
was Gomar, who, with the Calvinists, as¬ 
serted that God had from all eternity, of His 
free good pleasure, elected some to ever¬ 
lasting life, while He had left others to 
unbelief and consequent perdition. After 
the death of Arminius his followers rapidly 
increased, and were vehemently attacked by 
the Calvinists. In 1G10 they addressed a 
petition to the States of Holland for pro¬ 
tection, from which they got the name of 
Remonstrants. The Calvinists put forth a 
counter remonstrance, and, in 1614, the 
States issued an edict granting full tolera¬ 
tion to both parties. This displeased the 
Calvinists, who continued their persecu¬ 
tions, and at length, in 1619, the doctrines 
of the Arminians were condemned by the 


Synod of Dort, and their clergy were driven 
from their churches, and forbidden the ex¬ 
ercise of their ministry in public. Owing 
to this step, many left the country, and 
found refuge in France, England, and other 
places. The views of the Arminians are 
summed up in the following five articles: 

(1) That God had, from all eternity, de¬ 
termined to save all who, He foresaw, would 
persevere in the faith, and to condemn all 
who should continue in unbelief. (2) That 
Christ died for all men; but that only 
those who believe are really saved by His 
death. (3) That man is of himself incapa¬ 
ble of true faith, and must, therefore, be 
born again, of God, through Christ, by the 
Holy Spirit. (4) That all good works are 
to be attributed to the grace of the Holy 
Spirit, which, however, does not force a man 
against his own inclination. (5) That God 
gives to the truly faithful the power to 
resist sin. With respect to the possibility 
of a fall from the state of grace, Arminius 
and his immediate disciples were undecided; 
but his followers came afterward to the be¬ 
lief that it was possible. After 1630 the 
Arminians were again tolerated in Holland; 
but from that time their opinions under¬ 
went a considerable change. They have in¬ 
clined more and more to freedom of thought, 
and the rejection of creeds and confessions. 
They chiefly build on the necessity of moral 
duties and good works, and allow each one 
to interpret the Holy Scriptures for him¬ 
self. They reject many articles of faith, 
and do away almost entirely with the ne¬ 
cessity of succor from the Holy Spirit. The 
Arminians have, however, dwindled down to 
a very small body; but their tenets, more 
especially regarding predestination, have 
been adopted by various other denomina¬ 
tions, as the Wesleyan Methodists, as well 
as by numerous individual members of 
other churches. 

Arminius, or Hermann, who by his in¬ 
trepidity and success acquired the title of 
*' the Deliverer of Germany/' was the son of 
Segimer, a chief of the Cherusci. Having been 
sent to Rome as a hostage, he was there 
educated, served in the Roman army and 
for his valor was raised to citizenship and 
knighted. But his attachment to his native 
country induced him to revolt, and he be¬ 
came one of the most powerful leaders of 
the discontented German nations. He drew 
Varus, the Roman commander on the 
Rhine, into that ambuscade in which he 
and nearly all his troops were slain, and 
completely baffled Germanicus; but, after 
having for years withstood the vast power 
of Rome, Arminius was assassinated by 
one of his own countrymen, in the 37th year 
of his age, a. d. 19. 

Arminius, Jacobus, a Protestant divine, 
born at Oudewater, Holland, 1560; founder 
of the sect of the Arminians. In his pub- 





Armistice 


Armor 


lie and private life Arminius has been ad¬ 
mired for his moderation: and though many 

gross insin- 
u a t i o n s 
have been 
thrown 
against him, 
yet his 
memory has 
been fully 
vindicat¬ 
ed by the 
ablest pens. 
A life of 
perpetu¬ 
al labor and 
vexation of 
mind at last 
brought on 
jacobus arminius a sickness, 

of which he 

died, 1609. His writings were all on con¬ 
troversial and theological subjects. 

Armistice, the term given to a truce or 
suspension of hostilities between two arm¬ 
ies or nations at war, by mutual consent. 
It sometimes occurs owing to the exhaustion 
of both parties; at other times it is had 
recourse to with a view to arrange terms 
of peace. It may be either general or par¬ 
tial ; the former, between two countries, 
the latter, limited to particular places, as 
between two armies or between a besieged 
fortress and its assailants. The former 
ordinarily requires ratification, but the lat¬ 
ter is in the power of the commanders of 
the respective troops. 

Armitage, Edward, an English histori¬ 
cal and mural painter, born in London, 
May 20, 1817; studied in Paris, where in 
1842 he exhibited his first independent work. 
In the following year his “ Landing of 
Caesar ” gained a prize of $1,500 in London; 
and in 1845 and 1847 he carried off prizes 
of $1,000 and $2,500. After a year’s study 
at Rome, he visited the Crimea during the 
war, and on his return produced two spirited 
battle-pieces. He was made an associate in 
1867, and, in 1872, a fellow, of the Royal 
Academy, to which, in 1875,he wasappointed 
lecturer on painting. Most of his contribu¬ 
tions to the academy exhibitions have been 
scriptural subjects; all have been marked 
by powerful composition, and by a breadth 
and boldness that largely atone for a want 
of warmth in the coloring. His mural 
paintings include a series of noble figures 
of Christ and the apostles in a Roman Cath¬ 
olic church in London. Died in 189G. 

Armitage, Thomas, an American clergy¬ 
man ; born at Pontefract, England, Aug. 2, 
1819; was an important influence in the 
Baptist Church in New York city, and the 
prime mover in the establishment of the 
American Bible LTnion in 1850. He was 
president of that body from 1856 to 1875. 



Among his works are: “ Jesus, His Self- 
Introspection ; ” and “ History of the Bap¬ 
tists ” (1887). He died in Yonkers, N. Y., 
Jan. 21, 1896. 

Armor, a word formerly applied to all 
such contrivances as served to defend the 
body from wounds or to annoy the enemy. 



Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 

(From brass of Sir (Complete suit of plate- 
John de St. Quintin, armor, beginning of 16th 
1397.) century.) 

1, helmet; 2, visor; 8 gorget; 3a, camail; 4 , 
breast-plate ; 5, skirt ; 6, arm-pieces; 7, elbow-piece; 
8, gauntlet; 9, hauberk ; 10, thigh-piece ; 11, knee- 
piece ; 12, greaves; 13, sollerets ; 14, lance-rest; 

5, belt. 

Hence it was divided into two kinds, de¬ 
fensive and offensive. A complete suit of 
defensive armor anciently consisted of a 
casque or helm, a gorget, cuirass, gauntlets, 
tasses, brassets, cuishes and covers for the 
legs, to which the spurs were fastened. 
This was called armor cap-a-pie, and was 
worn by cavaliers and men-at-arms. The 
infantry had only part of it, viz., a pot or 
head-piece, a cuirass and tasses; all of 
them made light. The horses had armor 
which covered the head and neck. Of all 
this equipment of war, scarcely anything is 
now retained except, in a few cases, the 
cuirass. 

The word is now applied to the metal pro¬ 
tection given to ships of war, usually con¬ 
sisting of super-carbonized steel or nickel 
steel. See Armor Plates. 






























Armored Train 


Armor=Piercing Shells 


Armored Train, one of the modern in¬ 
struments of war that received severe tests 
in the American operations against Fil¬ 
ipino insurgents in 1898-1899, and in 
those of the British against the Boers in 
1899-1900. Credit has been given to Ad¬ 
miral Fisher of the British navy for the 
first use of the armored train in war, when, 
in 1882, he covered a locomotive with boiler 
plate and equipped cars, similarly protected, 
with field guns and put them to effective 
practical use. But the germ of the idea 
goes back further than 1882. When the 
Germans closed their vise-like grip upon 
Paris, the French made frequent sorties 
from the city, and in many of these attacks 
they were assisted by field guns mounted on 
wagons and carriages. Later they were 
mounted on railroad cars, which were pro¬ 
tected in their vital points against the 
enemy’s guns. 

Since 1882 most of the military powers 
of Europe have been experimenting with 
armored trains. Great Britain has now 
probably the most complete and efficient 
armored trains in the world. The best that 
the British army possesses is the engine and 
train of the First Sussex Artillery Volun¬ 
teers, and this is far superior to the hastily 
constructed trains that have previously been 
in service. The model design was made 
from special designs for war purposes. The 
protected engine carries a Maxim gun, and 
the protected cars have heavy field guns, 
operated by machinery, so that any part of 
the surrounding country can quickly be 
covered. Arrangements are made to com¬ 
pensate for the recoil, and also to give 
steadiness and stability to the cars. This 
latter is accomplished by an arrangement 
for clamping the truck to the rails by strong 
screw clips whenever the gun is fired, 'mere 
are also several steel-plated vans accom¬ 
panying the train, in which horses and sol¬ 
diers can be safely conveyed. 

This type of movable fortress performed 
notable achievements in South Africa, and 
in the sorties from Ladysmith and Kim¬ 
berly it was the chief implement that forced 
the Boers back. With machine guns and 
field pieces the moving train becomes a 
valuable offensive apparatus, being able to 
move up close to the enemy’s lines or re¬ 
treat to a point beyond the range of small 
arms. The rapidity with which the train 
can change its base of action renders it a 
difficult object for the batteries of an enemy 
to hit, and almost the only way to defeat 
its operations is to wreck or derail it; then 
it becomes a helpless target for long-range 
guns. 

Probably the first attempt in the United 
States to provide an armored car was that 
made by the Michigan Central Railroad 
Company, on the order of the American Ex¬ 
press Company, for the purpose of protect¬ 


ing the valuable articles carried on its spe¬ 
cial express trains. These armored or “ arse¬ 
nal cars ” were so constructed as to make 
the center of them with its steel plating 
a thoroughly bullet-proof rdom, with ap¬ 
ertures so disposed as to enable the guards 
within to resist an attack by thieves from 
any quarter. 

During the remarkable dash of the Ameri¬ 
can troops in the Philippines into the north¬ 
ern part of the island of Luzon, in search 
of the fugitive insurgent leader Aguinaldo, 
in 1899, much effective work was accom¬ 
plished by an improvised armored train. 

Armor=Piercing Shells, projectiles so 
constructed as to bore through the metallic 
plates with which modern ships of war are 
coated. Each advance in manufacturing 
tougher and more tenacious material for 
armor has been met by a corresponding 
improvement in velocity and penetrating 
power. It has been stated as an axiom that 
any armor-plate which may be carried on 
a ship may be penetrated. A Kruppized 



AEMOR-PIERCING SHELL. 


plate, eight inches thick, resisted a shell 
striking it with a velocity of 2,300 feet a 
second, but a capped ball moving at the rate 
of 2,500 feet pierced it. A Harveyized plate 
has been pierced to the depth of 14 inches 
by a six-inch projectile. The so-called 
Johnson cap is made of soft steel filled with 
graphite. The flat front of the projectile 
serves to heat the plate and destroy its 
temper. The hard point of the rapidly 
revolving shell, lubricated by the graphite, 
forces itself through the steel or bronze. 
The shell, which contains some powerful 
explosive, is blown to pieces either by the 
heat caused by the impact or by a time 




















































































Armor Plates 


Armor Plates 


fuse. The raw material for armor-piercing 
shells is still partly hardened. After the 
steel bar is cut to the right size and heated 
to the right temperature, it is subjected to 
pressure under a hydraulic mandrel which 
squeezes it into a conical form. Another 
press punches a hole in the center of the 
thicker end. After several other similar 
processes it is turned and trued in lathes. 
A rifling band of copper is welded on near 
the base. Around the nose of the full 
armor-piercing projectile, a short distance 
from the point, a groove is cut. This is for 
a soft steel cap, which is put on by the 
government when the shells are loaded. 
The cap serves to prevent the shell from 
glancing when it strikes obliquely and also 
acts as a lubricant, enhancing its penetrat¬ 
ing power. 

In the tempering of the shells, the govern¬ 
ment requirements are such that it is seem¬ 
ingly necessary to work for two ends that 
lie in exactly opposite directions. They 
must be both tough and brittle. A certain 
number are selected at random from each 
lot for testing. One-half of these are fired 
at an armor-plate target and must pierce it 
without receiving any damage (often they 
come through it with hardly a scratch) ; 
the other half are loaded and exploded in 
a pit, and the requirement is that they shall 
be literally blown to pieces. If*, in the first 
test, a shell is broken or flattened or badly 
injured in any way, or if in the second test 
the explosion simply rips the shell open or 
rends it apart, the whole lot is rejected. 

Armor Plates, slabs of metal with which 
the sides of war vessels are covered for the 
purpose of rendering them shot-proof. For 
many years they were also used on land 
fortifications, but in the United States this 
application of them has been abandoned for 
the more satisfactory earth and concrete em¬ 
placements. The idea of using slabs of iron 
or steel for protection against missiles is 
not a recent invention. The first attempt to 
use armor-plate on the sides of ships was 
made by John Stevens, of Hoboken, in 1812. 
He built a vessel shaped somewhat similar 
to the later vessels of the “ Monitor ” type, 
and sheathed it along the water line with 
laminated iron plates. His vessel was 
offered to the United States Government 
but was not accepted. It is also said that 
in 1845 a man named Balmano, in New 
York, proposed that warships be clad with 
several thicknesses of iron %-inch thick, 
riveted upon one another. The French 
were the first to adopt armor-plating. In 
1854 they sent floating batteries to the 
Black Sea, sheathed with 4% inches of 
laminated iron, which was proof against the 
fire of the 68-pounders, then the most 
powerful guns. The British admiralty, fol¬ 
lowing this example, sent out very slow and 
unmanageable iron-clad batteries in 1855- 


1856. These batteries protected the ships 
very well against round balls from the un- 
rified cannon of the day. It was not, how¬ 
ever, till the American Civil War that 
armor plating came into general use. The 
Confederate ram “ Merrimac ” was the first 
practical armor-plated vessel in the United 
States, her sheathing consisting of railroad 
rails. Her successful opponent, the “Moni¬ 
tor,’’ was heavily sheathed with laminated 
iron plates extending several feet below the 
water line. The famous contest between 
these pioneer ironclads revolutionized naval 
warfare and naval equipment, and since 
the American Civil War all maritime 
countries have been concerned in obtaining 
guns and projectiles of the greatest range 
and penetration, and a sheathing for their 
ships of the most impenetrable material. 
Hence, the improvements in armor-plate and 
in ordnance have about kept equal pace. 

It was early found that laminated plates 
were more effective than solid ones; later, 
iron plates were built up in layers, heated 
to a white heat, and welded together, form¬ 
ing a very substantial armor. The iron was 
shortly replaced with steel, and it was dis¬ 
covered that the addition of 3% per cent, 
of nickel gave the steel greater elasticity 
and greater resistance to cracking than or¬ 
dinary steel. Harvey introduced the process 
of carbonizing the face of armor-plate, 
greatly increasing its hardness. The plate, 
having been placed in a furnace, is covered 
with a layer of carbonizing material about 
a foot thick, over which is laid a covering 
of brick to exclude the flame and air from 
the carbonizing material. The doors of the 
furnace are bricked up and a high heat 
maintained for about 100 hours. The plate 
is removed, and its surface cleared when 
cold, it is then reheated, and sprayed with 
cold water, producing an exceedingly hard 
surface. This Harveyized steel was used 
for nearly all the American and foreign men- 
of-war, until, in 1895, a process was dis¬ 
covered at the iron works of Krupp, at 
Essen, by which the face of the plate was 
made so hard that it cut glass like a dia¬ 
mond, while the back remained so tough that 
it would suffer no injury from cracks when 
struck by a projectile. The Krupp process 
is somewhat similar to, and an improvement 
on, the Harvey process. In this process a 
hydrocarbon gas is used instead of solid car¬ 
bonaceous matter for the super-carburiza¬ 
tion of the plate. The Kruppized steel has 
30 per cent, greater resisting power than the 
nickel steel. When armor-plates have to be 
bent or curved, this operation is performed 
after carbonizing and before the final heat¬ 
ing for hardening. The plates as a general 
thing are not more than 98 inches wide and 
16 feet long. 

So great has been the advance in the de¬ 
sign and manufacture of guns and projec- 



Armour 


Arms 


tiles that it is stated as an axiom that any 
armor-plate that may be carried on a ship 
may be perforated. The maximum velocity 
hitherto for testing a Kruppized plate 8 
inches thick with 8-inch projectile, was 2,000 
feet per second, and the plate withstood it, 
but with the same velocity a capped projec¬ 
tile pierced the plate. A Harveyized plate 
has been pierced to a depth of 14 inches by a 
6-inch soft cap projectile, so that the cap 
showed on the back. The Krupp armor is 
perforated, but not cracked, by a projectile 
with a velocity exceeding 2,500 feet per 
second. The Harvey plate is cracked but 
rarely perforated at a velocity of less than 
2,000 feet per second. The projectiles used 
for testing purposes vary from 100 pounds 
to 850 pounds in weight. Tests of armor- 
plates are of small value, however, in indi¬ 
cating the outcome of a battle at sea, be¬ 
cause war vessels present so many angles 
of direction and such fluctuating targets to 
projectile discharges at sea that nearly all 
calculations of velocity and penetration be¬ 
come nugatory. Armor tests, on the other 
hand, are made with a fixed target, a steady 
gun, and a straight sight. The advantage 
of the new process of making steel has been 
that one could use thinner plates which 
were not so heavy, so that the ships could 
carry larger cannon and travel with greater 
rapidity. Armor-plates are manufactured 
in Sheffield, England: at the Creusot and 
St. Chamond works in France; by Krupp, at 
Essen, and at the Dill ingen and Gruson 
works in Germany; and in the United 
States, at Pittsburg and Bethlehem, Pa. 
Each of the last plants, besides their work 
for the United States Navy, have filled 
large orders from foreign governments, es¬ 
pecially Russia. Maunsel White. 

Armour, Philip Danforth, an American 
philanthropist, born in Stockbridge, N. Y., 
May 16, 1832; received a common school 
education; was a miner in California in 
1852-1856; in the commission business in 
Milwaukee in 1856-1863; and later became 
the head of a large meat-packing concern in 
Chicago. He founded the Armour Mission 
and the Armour Institute of Technology, 
both in Chicago; the former at a cost of 
about $250,000, and the latter with an en¬ 
dowment of $1,500,000, subsequently in¬ 
creased. He died Jan. 6, 1901. 

Armour Institute of Technology, a co¬ 
educational (non-sectarian) institution, 
founded in Chicago, Ill., by Philip D. Ar¬ 
mour, in 1893; has grounds and buildings 
valued at over $700,000; endowments, $1,- 
750,000; income, about $190,000; professors 
and instructors, about 70; students, 1,600; 
volumes in the library, 25,000; graduates 
since opening, over 450. 

Arms, a term applied to weapons of of¬ 
fense, which are divisible into two distinct 
sections — firearms, and arms used without 


gunpowder or other explosive substance* 
The first arms of offense would probably be 
wooden clubs, then would follow wooden 
weapons made more deadly by means of 
stone or bone, stone axes, slings, bows and 
arrows, with heads of flint or bone, and af¬ 
terward various weapons of bronze. Sub¬ 
sequently a variety of arms of iron and 
steel were introduced, which comprised the 
sword, javelin, pike, spear or lance, dagger, 
axe, mace, chariot scythe, etc.; with a rude 
artillery consisting of catapults, ballistse, 
and battering-rams. From the descriptions 
of Homer, we know that almost all the 
Grecian armor, defensive and offensive, in 
his time was of bronze, though iron was 
sometimes used. The lance, spear, and jave¬ 
lin were the principal weapons of this age 
among the Greeks. The bow is not often 
mentioned. Among ancient nations, the 
Egyptians seem to have been most accus¬ 
tomed to the use of the bow, which was the 
principal weapon of the Egyptian infantry. 
Peculiar to the Egyptians was a defensive 
weapon intended to catch and break the 
sword of the enemy. With the Assyrians 
the bow was a favorite weapon; but with 
them lances, spears, and javelins were in 
more common use than with the Egyptians. 
Most of the large engines of war, chariots 
with scythes projecting at each side from 
the axle, catapults, and ballistae, seem to 
have been of Assyrian origin. During the 
historical age of Greece the characteristic 
weapon was a heavy spear from 21 to 24 
feet in length. The sword used by the 
Greeks was short, and was worn on the 
right side. The Ron an sword was from 2L 
to 24 inches in length, straight, two-edged, 
and obtusely pointed, and, as by the Greeks, 
was worn on the right side. It was used 
principally as a stabbing weapon. It was 
originally of bronze. The most characteris¬ 
tic weapon of the Roman legionary soldier, 
however, was the pilum, which was a kind 
of pike or javelin, some 6 feet or more in 
length. The pilum was sometimes used at 
close quarters, but more commonly it was 
thrown. The favorite weapons of the an¬ 
cient Germanic races were the battle-axe, 
the lance, or dart, and the sword. The weap¬ 
ons of the Anglo-Saxons were spears, axes, 
swords, knives, and maces or clubs. The 
Normans had similar weapons, and were 
well furnished with archers and cavalry. 
The cross-bow was a. comparatively late in¬ 
vention introduced by the Normans. Gun¬ 
powder was not used in Europe to discharge 
projectiles till the beginning of the 14th 
century. Cannon are first mentioned in 
England in 1338, and there seems to be no 
doubt that they were used by the English 
at the siege of Cambrai in 1339. The pro¬ 
jectiles first used for cannon were of stone. 
Hand firearms date from the 15th century. 
At first they required two men to serve 




Arms 


Armstrong 


them, and it was necessary to rest the 
muzzle on a stand in aiming and firing. The 
first improvement was the invention of the 
match-lock, about 1476; this was followed 
by the wheel-lock, and about the middle of 
the 17th century by the flint-lock, which 
was in universal use until it was super¬ 
seded by the percussion-lock, the invention 
of a Scotch clergyman early in the 10th 
century. The needle-gun dates from 1827. 
The only important weapon not a firearm 
that has been invented since the introduc¬ 
tion of gunpowder, is the bayonet, which is 
believed to have been invented about 1650. 
The principal weapons used in modern war¬ 
fare will be found under their respective 
names. 

Arms, Coat of, or Armorial Bearings, 

a collective name for the devices borne on 
shields, banners, etc., as marks of dignity 
and distinction, and, in the case of family 
and feudal arms, descending from father to 
son. They were first employed by the cru¬ 
saders, and became hereditary in families at 
the close of the 12th century. They took 
their rise from the knights painting their 
banners or shields each with a figure or 
figures proper to himself, to enable him to 
be distinguished in battle when clad in ar¬ 
mor. 

Arms, Stand of, the set of arms neces¬ 
sary for the equipment of a single soldier. 

Armstrong, Sir Alexander, an English 
physician, born in Ireland about 1820; was 
educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and at 
the University of Edinburgh; and became 
widely known as an explorer. He entered 
the British navy at an early age, and served 
in many parts of the world. He took part 
in an expedition to Xanthus in Syria; spent 
five consecutive years in the Arctic regions, 
searching for Sir John Franklin; and cir¬ 
cumnavigated the American continent, in 
which voyage he became one of the discov¬ 
erers of the Northwest Passage. For sev¬ 
eral years he was Director-General of the 
Medical Department of the British navy. 
His publications include “A Personal Nar¬ 
rative of the Discovery of the Northwest 
Passage,” and “ Observations on Naval Hy¬ 
giene, Particularly in Connection with Polar 
Service.” He died July 5, 1899. 

Armstrong, John, an American author 
and soldier; born at Carlisle, Pa., Nov. 25, 
1758; served in the War of the Revolution 
on the staff of General Gates; was United 
States Minister to France, 1804-1810, after¬ 
ward to Spain; and Secretary of War, 1813— 
1814. Author of “ Newburg Letters,” be¬ 
gun in camp, 1783, anonymously, and in¬ 
tended to arouse Congress to redress army 
grievances. They gave General Washing¬ 
ton displeasure. He also wrote “Notices 
of the War of 1812” (1836). He died at 
Red Hook, N. Y, ; April 1, 1843. 


Armstrong, Samuel Chapman, an 

American educator, born in Hawaii in 1839, 
a son of Richard Armstrong, an American 
missionary to the Sandwich Islands. In 
1860 he came to the United States; in 1862 
was graduated at Williams College; and in 
June of the same year he organized a 
company for the 125th Regiment of New 
York Infantry, and with it was assigned 
to the Army of the Potomac. At Har¬ 
per’s Ferry he was captured and held pris¬ 
oner for three months. After the close 
of the war he was mustered out of the 
volunteer service with the rank of brigadier- 
general. During his service he volun¬ 
teered for the command of a regiment of 
colored troops, with whom he served two 
years. In 1866 he took up the work of 
the Freedman’s Bureau and at first had the 
oversight of the colored people in 10 coun¬ 
ties of Virginia. After two years in this 
work he procured help from the American 
Missionary Association and personal friends 
in the North and founded a school which 
afterward became famous as the Hampton 
Normal and Agricultural Institute. The 
United States Government, recognizing the 
great value of his work for colored youth 
here, began sending Indian youth to the 
institute in 1878, and since then the two 
races have been educated together. Gen¬ 
eral Armstrong served as president of the 
Institute till his death, May 11, 1893. 

Armstrong, William George, Lord, an 

English inventor, born in 1810 at Newcastle, 
where his father was a merchant. He was 
articled to a solicitor, and became a part¬ 
ner in the firm; but the bent of his mind 
lay in other directions. In 1840 he pro¬ 
duced a much improved hydraulic engine, 
and in 1845 the hydraulic crane. In 
1842 he brought to perfection an ap¬ 
paratus for producing electricity from 
steam. He was elected a member of the 
Royal Society in 1846; and shortly after¬ 
ward commenced the Elswick Engine 
Works, in the suburbs of his native city. 
This large establishment was at first chiefly 
employed in producing hydraulic cranes, 
engines, accumulators, and bridges, but was 
soon to be famous for the production of 
ordnance. During the Crimean War, Arm¬ 
strong was employed by the War Office to 
make explosive apparatus for blowing up 
the ships sunk at Sebastopol. This led him 
soon afterward to consider improvements in 
ordnance, and he devised the form of can¬ 
non that bears his name. The essential 
feature of the Armstrong gun, whether rifled 
or smooth bore, breech-loading or muzzle¬ 
loading, is that the barrel is built up of 
successive coils of wrought-iron, welded 
round a mandrel into a homogeneous mass 
of great tenacity, the breech being especially 
strengthened on similar principles. The 
actual results obtained by these guns, even 



Army 


Army 


of the earlier patterns, were almost incredi¬ 
ble. An ordinary 32-pounder weighed 5,700 
pounds; Armstrong’s 32-pounder weighed 
2,600 pounds. The former required 10 pounds 
of powder as a charge; for the latter 
5 pounds sufficed. The former would send a 
shot or shell 3,000 yards; the range of the 
latter exceeded 9,000 yards. In 1858 the 
rifle-cannon committee recommended the 
adoption of the Armstrong gun for special 
service; and the government proposed to 
secure the result of these experiments for 
the nation. Armstrong offered to the gov¬ 
ernment all his inventions; and, till 1863, 
there existed a kind of partnership between 
the government and the Elswick firm, 
Armstrong being knighted in 1858, and ap¬ 
pointed chief-engineer of rifled ordnance. 
The Elswick firm has supplied many for¬ 
eign governments with guns. The great 
reputation and commercial success of Arm¬ 
strong depended, however, largely on his 
skill as a constructor of hydraulic machin¬ 
ery. Already a member of many scientific 
societies, he was in 1863 President of the 
British Association. Cambridge and Oxford 
conferred honorary degrees on Armstrong, 
who was raised to the peerage as Baron 
Armstrong in 1887. He died Dec. 27, 
1900. 

Army, the national militia of a country. 
The organization of an army is of two kinds 
— tactical and administrative. The former 
enables the leader of an army to transmit 
his orders to three or four subordinate com¬ 
manders, who pass them on to three or four 
others under them, until, through a regular 
chain of responsibility, the original impulse 
is communicated to the private soldier. The 
latter deals with the paying, feeding, cloth¬ 
ing, arming and transportation of the mili¬ 
tary forces. 

Ancient Armies .— The earliest regular 
military organization is attributed to 
Sesostris, who flourished in Egypt about 16 
centuries B. C. This extraordinary con¬ 
queror divided Egypt into 36 military 
provinces, and established a sort of militia 
or warrior caste. With this army he over¬ 
ran Asia as far as India, and from the 
Ganges to the Caspian. Alter him little 
further progress was made in military art 
until the Persian empire rose. Its soldiers 
introduced the mass formation, with cav¬ 
alry in intervals of square-; but the most 
important feature of the Persian organiza¬ 
tion was the establishment of what was 
practically a standing army, apportioned as 
garrisons throughout the conquered prov¬ 
inces, and under the control of military 
governors distinct from the satraps. In 
time of war this standing army was aug¬ 
mented by a general levy, which included 
the tributary nations, and, therefore, re¬ 
sulted in a heterogeneous collection of bar¬ 
barous and undisciplined peoples; a source , 


of weakness which caused the defeat of 
Xerxes’ numerically powerful army. In 
Greece it was not a standing army, but a 
sort of national militia, that gained Mara¬ 
thon, Plataea, and Mycale. The leading 
men in each State paid attention to organi¬ 
zation and tactics in a way never before 
seen. The Lacsemonians invented the fa¬ 
mous phalanx, a particular mass formation 
for foot-soldiers; and to this the Athenians 
added lighter troops to cover the front 
and harass the enemy in march. Their 
cavalry also were efficient and alert. The 
charge of the Athenian army at Marathon 
showed the crowning excellence of their 
rapid system of attack; and Miltiades, their 
leader, is said to have invented the double¬ 
step, to increase the momentum of a pha¬ 
lanx when rushing on the enemy. The The¬ 
bans introduced the column formation, 
which, being deeper and narrower than the 
phalanx, was intended to pierce the enemy’s 
line at some point and throw them into con¬ 
fusion. Philip, the father of Alexander the 
Great, established, in Macedonia, the world’s 
second standing army; and, as a further 
change, made the phalanx deeper and more 
massive than it had been among the Lacse¬ 
monians. He brought into use the Macedon¬ 
ian pike, a formidable weapeon 24 feet in 
length. The Romans initiated changes in 
army matters which have had a widespread 
influence throughout the civilized world. 
About 200 b. c. every Roman from the age 
of 17 to 46 was liable to be called upon to 
serve as a soldier; the younger men being 
preferred, but all were available up to the 
middle time of life. The Roman legion, in 
its best days, excelled all other troops alike 
in discipline and in esprit. So long as none 
but freemen were enlisted the position of a 
legionary was one of honor. With a gradual 
laxity in discipline the decline of the Roman 
power commenced. 

Mediceval Armies .— With the decline of 
the Roman power all that remained of scien¬ 
tific warfare was lost for a time. The 
Northern invaders made little use of tactics, 
but relied chiefly on their personal bravery 
and on the impetuosity and weight of their 
attack in column. The conquerors of the 
Roman Empire at first recognized no su¬ 
perior save the community, of which all 
conquests were the property. What all had 
aided to acquire all demanded equally to 
share. Hence arose a division of the con¬ 
quered territory, individual chiefs rewarding 
their own followers with gifts of the land 
they had helped to conquer. The growth of 
a feeling that such gifts could be revoked, 
and that they implied an obligation to fu¬ 
ture service, marks the beginning of the 
feudal system, under which national armies 
disappeared, and each baron had a small 
army composed of his own retainers, avail¬ 
able for battle at short notice. The contests 



Army 


Army 


of these small armies, sometimes combined 
and sometimes isolated, make up the greater 
part of the military annals of the Mid¬ 
dle Ages. Of military tactics or strategy 
there was very little; the campaigns were 
desultory and indecisive, and the battles 
were gained more by individual valor than 
by any well concerted plan. From this 
period dates the modern recognition of the 
importance of an army which under the 
franchise extended to the towns, and the 
superiority of which, since the overthrow of 
the Burgundian chivalry by Swiss infantry, 
in the three disastrous battles of 1470-1477, 
has never been disputed. The invention of 
gunpowder effected much less change during 
the Middle Ages than is generally supposed. 
When men could fight at a greater distance 
than before, and on a system which brought 
mechanism to the aid of valor, everything 
connected with the military art underwent a 
revolution. Historically, however, this 
great change was not very apparent until 
after this period. The art of making good 
cannon and hand-guns grew up gradually, 
like other arts; and armies long continued 
to depend principally on the older weapons, 
spears, darts, arrows, axes, maces, swords 
and daggers. As to army formation, there 
was still little that could deserve the name; 
there was no particular order of battle. No 
attempt was made until toward the close 
of the 15th century to embody a system of 
tactics and maneuvers for cavalry; and 
even that attempt was of the most primitive 
kind. Nor was it far otherwise with the 
foot soldiers; they were gradually becom¬ 
ing acquainted with the use of fire-arms; 
but midway, as it were, between two systems, 
they observed neither completely; and the 
armies in which they served presented very 
little definite organization. 

Modern Armies .—The Turkish Janizaries, 
the earliest standing army in Europe, were 
fully organized in 1632; but the formation 
of standing armies among Western Powers, 
which may be said to have Introduced the 
modern military system, dates from the es¬ 
tablishment of compagnies d'ordonnance by 
Charles VII., of France, nearly a century 
later. These companies of men-at-arms 
amounted, with their attendants, to 9,000 
men; to whom the King afterward added 
16,000 franc-archers, largely recruited from 
the mercenaries which growing wealth and 
luxury had developed. The superiority of 
such a force over militia forced its adoption 
on the surrounding States. Between the be¬ 
ginning of the 16th and the end of the 18th 
centuries the proportion of musketeers 
gradually increased; the pike was aban¬ 
doned for the bayonet, and even cavalry was 
taught to rely more on their fire than on 
the effect of their charge. The improvement 
in weapons naturally effected the formation. 
During the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) 


Gustavus Adolphus and Wallenstein adopted 
opposite modes of dealing with masses of 
infantry; the former spread them out to a 
great width, and only six ranks in depth, 
whereas the latter adopted a narrower front 
with a depth of 20 or 30 ranks. In Louis 



XIV.’s reign the prolonged wars introduced 
the larger grouping in brigades and divi¬ 
sions. Frederick the Great, in the next 
century, reduced the depth of his infantry 
formation to three ranks, and introduced a 
most rigid and exact system of tactics and 
drill, so that when able to manoeuver he 
nearly always won his battles; but when the 
result depended on bold and unexpected on¬ 
slaughts he was more frequently a loser than 
a winner. He, however, greatly improved 
the cavalry tactics, and restored to this arm 
a reliance on the effect of a rapid charge, 
while the introduction of horse artillery 
added to its power. The French Devolution 
effected almost as great changes in the mili¬ 
tary as in the political organization of 
Europe. The struggle from which France 
emerged victorious in 1797 had exhausted 
even the enormous levies which had fed her 
armies for the previous five years; and, in 
1798, a law was passed establishing com¬ 
pulsory military service. Every citizen was 
liable to five years’ service, and all between 
the ages of 20 and 25 were enrolled. The 
immense advantage which this terrible 
power gave Napoleon compelled other na¬ 
tions to follow the example of France, and 
in Europe voluntary enlistment has since 
survived in England alone. Restricted un¬ 
der the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) to 43,000 
men with the colors, the Prussian strength 
was, nevertheless, annuallv added to by 
Scharnhorst, who first developed the idea of 
sending the trained soldiers back to their 
homes at the end of the year and replac¬ 
ing them with fresh recruits: and thus, 
while keeping the establishment within the 
required limits, producing a powerful and 
steadily growing reserve. In spite of the 
strength which Prussia mustered under 




























Army 


Army 


Bliicher, however, the teaching of Saclowa 
and the events of 1870 and 1871 were re¬ 
quired to induce the other Powers to fol¬ 
low her example. Now, in most nations, will 
be found an army of reserve, intended to 
augment the standing army from a peace to 
a war strength, and consisting of two 
classes — those waiting an immediate call 
to arms, if required, and those constituting 
the militia — the entire effective military 
power of the State. It may be interesting 
here to mention certain distinctions in the 
application of the word army. . A cov¬ 
ering army is encamped for the protection of 
the different passes or roads which lead to 
the town or other place to be protected. A 
siege army is ranged around or in front of a 
fortified place, to capture it by a regular 
process of besieging. A blockading army, 
either independent of, or auxiliary to, a 
siege army, is intended to prevent all in¬ 
gress and egress at the streets or gates of 
a besieged place. An army of observation 
takes up an advanced position, and by celer¬ 
ity of movement keeps a close watch on all 
the manoeuvers of the enemy. An army of 
reconnaissance has a more special duty at 
a particular time and place, to ascertain 
the strength and position of the enemy’s 
forces. A flying column is a small army 
carrying all its supplies with it, so as to 
be able to operate quickly and in any direc¬ 
tion, independently of its original base of 
operations. 



TRANSPORTING ARTILLERY. 


Armies of the World. — The following 
shows the armed strength of the military 
nations of the world as reported in 1900: 

Argentine Republic .— Regular army, 945 
officers and 312,073 men; national guard, 
480,000 officers and men. 

Austria-Hungary .— Peace footing, 24,583 
officers and 333,028 men; war footing, 45,238 
officers and 1,826,940 men; levy in mass, 
over 4.000,000. 

Belgium .— Peace footing, 3,419 officers 
and 48,014 men; war footing, 4,466 officers 
and 143,628 men; Garde Civique, 42,827 
officers and men. 

Bolivia .— Peace footing, 1,021 officers and 
2,000 men; war footing, 82,000 officers and 

men. 

Brazil .— Peace footing 4,000 officers and 
24,160 men; gendarmerie 20,000, 


British Empire. — Regular army, 8,109 
commissioned officers, 1,087 warrant officers, 
17,100 sergeants, 3,941 musicians, and 150,- 
267 rank and file; reserves, regular, first 
and second classes, 83.000 officers and men, 
militia, 138,961, yeomanry, 11,891, volun¬ 
teers, 263,963; total home and colonial 
forces, 669,259; regular forces on Indian 
establishments, 73,162; grand total, 742,421 
officers and men, of whom 664,189 were 
classed as effectives. Owing to the war in 
South Africa these numbers were increased 
considerably during the early part of the 
year. 

Chile. — Regular army, 623 officers and 
29,282 men; national guard, 512,700. 

China. — The Eight Banners, about 
300,000 officers and men; Ying Ping (na¬ 
tional army) from 540,000 to 600,000 men; 
active armies of the Center, Manchuria, and 
Turkestan, number unknown; total land 
army on peace footing about 300,000; on 
war footing, about 1,000,000. 

Columbia. — Peace footing fixed at 1,000, 
in 1898; war footing fixed by Congress as 
circumstances may require. 

Costa Rica. — Peace footing, 600 officers 
and men, and 12,000 militia; war footing, 
34,000. 

Denmark. — Peace footing, 800 officers and 
9.000 men; war footing, 1,350 officers and 
58,600 men. 

Ecuador. — Peace footing, 3,341 officers 
and men ; war footing, 30,000. 

Egypt- —Regular, about 100 English offi¬ 
cers and 18,000 men. The English army of 
occupation numbers 5,553 officers and men. 

France. — Peace footing, 26,849 officers 
and 520,666 men, with 140.912 horses; in 
Algeria 2,195 officers and 55.122 men; in 
Tunis, 560 officers and 13,455 men. Active 
army and its reserve, 2,350,000; territorial 
army, 900,000, territorial reserve, 1,100,000; 
total, 4,350,000 men of whom about 
2,500,000 were effectives. 

German Empire. — Peace footing, 23,176 
officers and 562,277 men, with 98,038 horses; 
war footing, strength not officially pub¬ 
lished, but estimated at over 3,000,000 
trained officers and men. There are 494 
field batteries, of which 47 are mounted. 

Greece. — Peace footing, 1,880 officers and 
23,453 men; war footing, about 82,000 men; 
territorial army, about 96.000 men. 

Guatemala. — Peace footing, about 7,000 
officers and men; war footing 56.900 men. 

Haiti. — Peace footing, 6.828 officers and 
men, and special guard of 10 officers and 
650 men. 

Honduras. — Peace footing, 500 officers 
and men; with 20,000 militia. 

Italy. — Permanent army, under arms, 
14,324 officers and 237,660 men; on un¬ 
limited leave, 556,984 officers and men; mo¬ 
bile militia, 475.972 officers and men; ter¬ 
ritorial militia, 10,793 officers and 2.003,474 
men; total officers and men, 3,299,439. 









Army 


Army Reserve 


Japan. — Imperial Guard, 370 officers and 
10,843 men; 0 divisions, 2.745 officers and 
73,600 men; reserves, 696 officers and 82,384 
men; Yezo militia, 95 officers and 4,482 
men; the gendarmerie, 51 officers and 1,011 
men; territorial army, 357 officers and 104,- 
597 men; total strength. 4.760 officers and 
279,981 men, with about 29,000 horses. 

Kongo Free State. — Peace footing, 234 
European officers and 173 sergeants, and 
15,580 native troops. 

Korea. — An army of 5,000 officers and 
men. 

Madagascar. —An army of 191 officers and 
5,508 men. 

Mexico. — Peace footing, 2,068 officers and 
30,095 men; war footing, including reserves, 
151,500 officers and men. 

Montenegro. — No standing army; all 
males physically able are liable to military 
service; there are about 100,000 rifles in the 
country. 

Morocco. — Peace footing, about 12,000 of¬ 
ficers and men, and 18,000 militia; war foot¬ 
ing, in addition, about 40,000. 

Netherlands. — Peace foot'ng, 1,466 offi¬ 
cers and 40.195 sub-officers and soldiers; 
war footing, indefinite. 

Nicaragua. — Peace footing, 2,000 officers 
and men; war footing, in addition, 10,00»0 
reserve and national guard 5,000. 

Norway. — Troops of the line and reserves, 
900 officers and 30,000 men; not over 18,000 
troops can be put under arms, even in war, 
without consent of the Storthing. 

Orange Free State. — Standing army, 150 
officers and men, and 550 artillerymen as a 
reserve; available war strength, 17,381. 

Paraguay. — Standing army, 82 officers 
and 1,345 men; every male 20 to 35 years 
old is liable to war service. 

Persia. — Standing army, 24,500, nominal, 
105,500; liable to service 53,520. 

Peru. — Peace footing, 3 157 officers and 
men with a police force of from 2,000 to 
3,000. 

Portugal. — Peace footing, 35,337 officers 
and men; war footing, 160,000; colonial 
forces, 9,478 officers and men, the greater 
number being native troops. 

Rumania. — Peace footing, 3,478 officers, 
448 employes, and 56,489 men, 12,675 horses, 
and 390 guns; territorial army 75,000 men, 
and 8,050 horses; war footing, indefinite. 

Russia. — Peace footing, 36,000 officers 
and 860,000 men; war footing 63,000 offi¬ 
cers and 3.440,000 men. 

Salvador. — Standing army 4,000 officers 
and men; militia, 18,000. 

Santo Domingo. — Small army and reserve 
at the capital of each province, every physi¬ 
cally able male liable to service. 

Servia. — Standing army, 160,751 officers 
and men; war footing, 353,366 officers and 
men. 

Siam. — Standing army, 12,000 ; no armed 
militia; all males liable for war service. 


South African Republic .— No standing 
army; males liable for war service, 26,299. 

Spain .—Peace footing, 128,559 officers and 
men; war footing 183,972 officers and men. 

Sweden .— Standing army, 1,946 officers 
and 37,175 men. 

Sivitzerland .— No standing army; war ef¬ 
fective, Elite, 147,191 officers and men; 
Landerwehr, 83,283; Landstrum, 271,780. 

Turkey .— Standing army, 700,620 officers 
and men; war footing, 900,000. 

United States .— Standing army, 9,196 
officers and 105,166 men. Males are liable 
to service from 18 to 45 years. Congress 
created a General Staff in 1903. 

Uruguay .— Permanent army, 233 officers 
end 3,222 men; armed police force 3,200; 
national guard, 20,000. 

Venezuela .— Standing army, 3,600 officers 
and men; national militia (males 18 to 45 
years old), 60,000 men. 

Army Corps, one of the largest divisions 
of an army in the field, comprising all arms, 
and commanded by a general officer; sub¬ 
divided into divisions, which may or may 
not comprise all arms. 

Army Hospital Train, a railway con¬ 
trivance for military purposes, introduced 
by the Surgeon-General of the United States 
Army during the war with Spain, in 1898, 
for the purpose of conveying sick and 
wounded soldiers, on their arrival from 
Cuba, at Florida ports, to the various mili¬ 
tary hospitals in the United States. This 
train had a full staff of physicians, surgeons 
and trained nurses, and was completely 
equipped with everything necessary for the 
medical and surgical treatment of the sol¬ 
diers. It is believed to have been the first 
train service completely organized for such 
purpose. 

Army Register, an annual publication 

of the United States Government, giving per¬ 
sonal. regimental and other details of the 
regular army, corresponding to the British 
“ Army List.” 

Army Reserve, in most European arm¬ 
ies, a force consisting of a first and second 
class army reserve and a militia reserve. 
The first "class army reserve consists: (1) 
Of men who have completed their period 
of seven years in the active army, and of 
men who, after having served not less than 
three years in the active army, have been 
transferred to the reserve to complete the 
term of their engagement; and. (2) of sol¬ 
diers who have purchased their discharge 
and have enrolled themselves in the reserve 
for five years. In time of war or when the 
country is threatened, the men of this class 
become liable for the same services as the 
active army. The second class army reserve 
is made up of enrolled pensioners, and is 
liable only for service at home. The militia 
reserve is composed of men belonging to the 
I militia who voluntarily enroll themselves in 





Army War College 


Arnauld 


this reserve for a period of six years, thus 
rendering themselves liable to be drafted 
into the regular army in case of war. 

In the United States there is no Federal 
army reserve, but each State maintains a 
militia force under the command of the 
Governor, principally to aid the legal au¬ 
thorities in maintaining peace within its 
limits. In emergencies threatening the 
whole country, and where the regular army 
is insufficient, the President calls for volun¬ 
teers, apportions the number needed among 
the several States, and asks the Governors 
to supply the determined quotas. The bulk 
of the volunteer army is thus drawn from 
the militia of the States. 

Army War College, a department of 
the United States military educational es¬ 
tablishment authorized by Congress in 1900. 
Brig.-Gen. William Ludlow was made chief 
of the board which drafted the regulations. 
The general purpose behind the plan is the 
unification of the systems of instruction at 
the four existing service institutions; the 
development of these systems; and the most 
advanced professional study of military 
problems. The officers of the college exer¬ 
cise a general supervision over the course 
of study in each of the present service 
schools. This supervision extends to all civil 
institutions to which the government details 
an officer for military instruction. The 
faculty of the college study the military or¬ 
ganization of the United States with an eye 
to a complete understanding of its practi¬ 
cal efficiency of operations, and constitute an 
advisory board to which the Secretary of 
War can turn at any time for details and 
recommendations as to any point in the 
mechanism of the whole military service. 
The study of plans of campaigns by the col¬ 
lege and the accumulation of military in¬ 
formation make the inauguration of a cam¬ 
paign, in case of war, only a matter of the 
issuing of the necessary orders by the Sec¬ 
retary, as all the requirements will have 
been carefully studied out beforehand. 

Army Worm, the very destructive larva 
of the moth heliophila or leucania uni- 
puncta, so called from its habit of marching 
in compact bodies of enormous number, de¬ 
vouring almost every green thing it meets. 
It is about IV 2 inches long, greenish in 
color, with black stripes, and is found in 
various parts of the world, but is particu¬ 
larly destructive in North America. The 
larva of sciara militaris, a European two- 
winged fly, is also called army worm. 

Arnaboldi, Alessandro (ar-na-bol'di), an 
Italian poet, born in Milan. Dec. 19, 1827; 
studied law in Pavia and entered the gov¬ 
ernment service, but resigned in 1873 owing 
to an optic infirmitv, and afterward lived in 
retirement near Milan. On the publication 
of a volume of “Verses” (1872), he was 


hailed by his countrymen as the peer of 
Manzoni and Leopardi, while Dali' Ongaro 
even styled him the greatest living poet of 
Italy. A second collection of his poems ap¬ 
peared as “New Verses” (1888). He died in 
1898. 

Arnason, Jon (ar'na-son), an Icelandic 

writer, born at Hof, Akagastrbnd, Nov. 13, 
1819; was for many years librarian of the 
national library, and devoted himself as¬ 
siduously to the collection of Icelandic folk¬ 
tales. He has hence been called the “ Grimm 
of Iceland.” His principal literary work is 
“ Popular Legends and' Tales of Iceland ” 
(18G2-1864). He died at Reykjavik, Aug. 
17, 1888. 

Arnaud, Henri (ar-no), the pastor and 
military leader of the Vaudois of Piedmont; 
born in 1641. At the head of his people 
he successfully withstood the united forces 
of France and Savoy, and afterward did 
good service against France in the War of 
the Spanish Succession. He had to retire 
from his country, and was followed by a 
number of his people, to whom he discharged 
the duties of pastor till his death, which 
occurred in 1721. 

Arnaud, Jacques Achille Leroy De 
Saint, Marshal of France; born in Bor¬ 
deaux, Aug. 20, 1796; after studying at the 
Lycee entered the army in 1816. Having 
been dismissed the service he led a rather 
checkered life for about 10 years, but in 
1831 was readmitted into the army. In 
1836 he went to Africa. He highly distin¬ 
guished himself at the storming of Constan¬ 
tine. From that time he was regarded as 
one of the most rising officers in the African 
army. He was present at the taking of 
Djelli in 1839 and at the capture of the 
Arab fortresses at Monsaja. In 1841 he en¬ 
tered the newly-formed corps of Zouaves as 
chef de bataillon. In 1844 he was promoted 
to the rank of colonel of the Zouaves. The 
revolution of 1848 and the fall of Louis 
Philippe had no effect upon St. Arnaud; he 
continued to acquire fresh reputation until 
he received the rank of general of division in 
1851. On Oct. 26 in that year he was called 
by Louis Napoleon from the command of a 
division of the army of Paris to the cabinet, 
and was created minister of war. In March, 
1854, he was appointed to the command of 
the French army which was engaged in the 
war against Russia. He died Sept. 29 .fol¬ 
lowing. 

Arnauld, the name of a French family, 
several members of which greatly distin¬ 
guished themselves. Antoine, an eminent 
French advocate, was born 1560, died 1619. 
Distinguished as a zealous defender of the 
cause of Henry IV., and for his powerful 
and successful defense of the University of 
Paris against the Jesuits in 1594. His 
family formed the nucleus of the sect of the 






Arnault 


Arnica 


Jansenists in France. His son Antoine, 
called the Great Arnauld, was born Feb. 6, 
1C 12, at Paris; died Aug. 9, 1694, at Brus¬ 
sels. He devoted himself to theology, and 
was received, in 1641, among the doctors of 
the Sorbonne. He engaged m all the quar¬ 
rels of the French Jansenists with the 
Jesuits, the clergy, and the government, was 
the chief Jansenist writer, and was con¬ 
sidered their head. Excluded from the Sor¬ 
bonne, he retired to Port Royal, where he 
wrote, in conjunction with his friend 
Nicole, a celebrated system of logic (hence 
called the “Port Royal Logic”). On ac¬ 
count of p rsecution he fled, in 1679, to the 
Netherlands. His works, which are mainly 
controversies with the Jesuits or the Calvin¬ 
ists, are very voluminous. His brother 
Robert, born in 1588, died in 1674, was a 
person of influence at the French court, but 
latterly retired to Port Royal, where he 
wrote a translation of “ Josephus ” and other 
works. Robert’s daughter Angelique, born 
in 1624, died in 1684, was eminent in the 
religious world, and was subjected to prose¬ 
cution on account of her unflinching adhe¬ 
rence to Jansenism. 

Arnault, Antoine Vincent (iir-no), a 
French poet and dramatist (1766-1834). He 
came into public notice through His tragedy 
“Marius at Minturnae ” (1791); but more 
especially deserves rememberance for his sa¬ 
tirical fables, in which he guarded success¬ 
fully against imitation of Lafontaine, and 
for his graceful poems, of which “ The Leaf ” 
has become most widely known. His 
“ Souvenirs of a Sexagenarian ” (1833) con¬ 
tain excellent delineations of character, and 
many interesting disclosures about the his¬ 
tory of the time up to 1804. 

Arndt, Ernst Moritz, a German writer 
and patriot, born at Schoritz, Isle of Riigen, 
Dec. 29, 1769. On the publication, in 1806, 
of the first series of his “ Spirit of the 
Times,” which kindled patriotic enthusiasm 
throughout the German lands, he was com¬ 
pelled to take refuge in Sweden. Some years 
later he was the editor at Cologne of a po¬ 
litical journal, “The Watchman. In 1848, 
a member of the National Assembly, he be¬ 
longed to the so-called imperial party, ad¬ 
vocating the union of Germany under the 
leadership of Prussia. On his 90th birthday 
(1859) the whole nation united in paying 
him homage. His influence was due to his 
devotion to the iiational cause. Many of his 
poems have become national lyrics, inti¬ 
mately linked with the stirring events to 
which they owe their origin. Among them 
are “What is the German’s Fatherland?” 
and “ The Song of the Field Marshal.” He 
died in Bonn, Jan. 29, 1860. 

Arndt, Johann, a German Lutheran cler¬ 
gyman, born at Ballenstedt, Anhalt, in 1555. 
His “ True Christianity ” was translated 
into most European languages, and is yet 


popular in Germany. Its object is edifica¬ 
tion— the promotion of practical religion; 
and it is written with great warmth and 
unction, and in a strain of piety bordering 
on mysticism. It has been called the Prot¬ 
estant “ lmitatio,” and its author the Fene- 
lon of the Protestant Church. There are 
two English translations — by Boehm (1720), 
and by Jaques (1815). He died at Celle, 
Hanover, in 1621. 

Arne, Thomas Augustine, an English 
musical composer, born in London, March 
12, 1710. He from an early age became 
a devoted enthusiast in the musical art, 
and indulged his passion by the production 
of operas, oratorios, etc., some of which, as 
his “ Rosamond,” “ Zara,” “ Judith,” and 
“ Artaxerxes,” established his reputation, 
during that epoch, as a musical composer 
of the highest class. He also wrote the 
music for the revival of Milton’s “ Masque 
of Comus,” in which first appeared the 
song of “ Rule Britannia,” since acknowl¬ 
edged as the national air of England. He 
died in 1778. His son Michael, also a com¬ 
poser, is principally known for his opera of 
“ Cymon,” produced in 1767. 

Arnee, one of the numerous Indian varie¬ 
ties of the buffalo (bubalils ami), remark¬ 
able as being the largest animal of the ox 
kind known. It measured about 7 feet high 
at the shoulders, and from 9 to 10% feet 
long from the muzzle to the root of the tail. 
It is found chiefly in the forests at the base 
of the Himalayas. 

Arneth, Alfred von (ar'net), an Aus¬ 
trian historian, born in Vienna, July 10, 
1819; was member of the House of Lords 
after 1869, and president of the Academy 
of Sciences after 1879. His life of “ Prince 
Eugene of Savoy” (1858-1859), is note¬ 
worthy as the first authoritative work on 
that great leader. Next in importance is 
the “History of Maria Theresa” (1863- 
1879). He died in Vienna, July 31, 1897. 

Arnhem (ar'nem), or Arnheim, a town 
in Holland, province of Gelderland, 18 miles 
S. W. of Zutphen, on the right bank of the 
Rhine. Pleasantly situated, it is a favorite 
residential resort, and it contains many in¬ 
teresting public buildings; manufactures 
cabinet wares, mirrors, carriages, mathemat¬ 
ical instruments, etc.; has paper-mills, and 
its trade is important. In 1795 it was 
stormed by the Frencfh, who were driven 
from it by the Prussians in 1813. Pop. 
(1908) 63,987. 

Arnhem Land, a portion of the northern 
territory of South Australia, lying W. of the 
Gulf of Carpentaria, and forming a sort of 
peninsula. 

Arnica, a genus of plants belonging to the 
order asteracew, or composites: also the 
English name of plants belonging to the 
above-mentioned genus, and especially of the 



Arnim 


Arnold 


A. montana, the mountain arnica, or Ger¬ 
man leopard’s-bane. It is common in the 
alpine parts of Germany, Sweden, Lapland, 

and Switzerland. It is a 
perennial, of a slightly 
fetid odor, and a bitterish, 
acrid taste. Given in large 
quantities it produces dele¬ 
terious effects, but the 
powdered leaves, in moder¬ 
ate doses, of five to 10 
grains, have been found 
serviceable in paralysis, 
convulsions, amaurosis, 
chlorosis, gout, and rheu¬ 
matism. As an outward 
application, arnica is in 
constant use as a remedy 
for sores, wounds, bruises, 
and ailments of a similar 
kind. Its use in all such 
cases has very largely in¬ 
creased in later years. 
Surgeons, and especially 
army surgeons, set great store by it. It is 
also employed as an internal medicine. 

Arnim, Achim von, a German poet and 
novelist, born in Berlin, Jan. 2G, 1781. He 
is the main representative of the younger 
generation of the romantic school. Settling 
at Heidelberg in 1806, after extensive trav¬ 
els, he formed a close friendship with Clem¬ 
ens Brentano, and edited with him “ The 
Boy’s Wonder-Horn,” a collection of old 
German legends and songs, which was re¬ 
ceived with much favor. In 1811 he mar¬ 
ried Brentano’s sister Bettina, and there¬ 
after lived alternately in Berlin, and on 
his estate, Wiepersdorf, in the province of 
Brandenburg. He was at his best as a 
story teller. His principal works are “ Pov¬ 
erty, Riches, Guilt, and Penitence of Coun¬ 
tess Dolores,” a novel (1810); and “The 
Crown Guardians,” a fantastic historical ro¬ 
mance (1817), a glowing picture of life 
toward the wane of the 15 th century. 
Among his short stories, published mostly 
in collections, the following deserve men¬ 
tion : “ The Mad Invalid at Fort Raton- 

neau,” “ The Three Loving Sisters and the 
Happy Dyer,” and “ Prince All-God and 
Singer Demi-God.” His complete works, 
with an introduction by W. Grimm, were 
edited by his wife (1839-1846). He died 
at Wiepersdorf, Jan. 31, 1831. 

Arnim, Elizabeth von, better known as 
Bettina, wife of the German novelist Louis 
Achim von Arnim, and sister of the poet 
Clemens Brentano; born in Frankfort-on- 
the-Main, April 4, 1785. Her warmth of 
sympathy led her, especially after she be¬ 
came acquainted with the Canoness Giinder- 
ode, into a fantastic worship of nature, and 
latterly into a real sickliness of feeling. 
The suicide of this lady, which was caused 


by an unhappy attachment to the philologist 
Creuzer, made a deep and lasting impression 
upon her, and her enthusiastic love 
of nature now became transformed into a 
kind of Platonic, child-like, and even af¬ 
fected love toward the poet Goethe. The 
poet, then about 60 years of age, did not 
reciprocate her feelings farther than by a 
tender forbearance for the wayward crea¬ 
ture. After her marriage, in 1811, she 
lived partly at Berlin, partly at her hus¬ 
band’s seat of Wiepersdorf. It was not till 
after her husband’s death that she appeared 
as an author. In 1835 she published “ Goe¬ 
the’s Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde ” 
(“ Goethe’s Correspondence with a Child ”), 
containing, among others, the letters that 
she alleged to have passed between her and 
Goethe. It has been generally stated that 
Goethe turned some of her letters into son¬ 
nets. Her later writings were politico- 
social. She died in Berlin, Jan. 20, 1859. 

Arnim, Harry, Graf von, a German 
diplomatist, born in Pomerania, in 1824; 
from 1864 to 1870, was Prussian ambas¬ 
sador at Rome, where he supported the anti- 
infalliblists during the Vatican Council. 
He was rewarded with thj title of Graf, 
but, as German ambassador to France 
(1872-1874), he fell into Prince Bismarck’s 
disfavor, and, on a charge of purloining 
State documents, was sentenced to three 
months’, to six months’, and to five years’ 
imprisonment. He had, however, retired 
into exile, and died at Nice, May 19, 1881. 

Arno, a river of Italy, which rises in the 
Etruscan Apennines, makes a sweep to the 
South and then trends westward, divides 
Florence into two parts, washes Pisa, and 
falls, 4 miles below it, into the Tuscan Sea, 
after a course of 130 miles. 

Arnobus, Afer, an early Christian 
writer, was a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca 
Veneria, in Numidia, and in 303 became a 
Christian. He wrote seven books of “ Dis- 
putationes Adversus Gentes,” in which he 
refuted the objections of the heathens 
against Christianity. This work betrays a 
defective knowledge of Christianity, but is 
rich in materials for the understanding of 
Greek and Roman mythology. He died 
about 326. 

Arnold, Abraham Kerns, an American 

military officer, born in 1837; was gradu¬ 
ated at the United States Military Academy 
in 1859; entered the cavalry branch of the 
army; served through the Civil War and 
received a Congressional medal of honor for 
gallantry in action; and after the war, 
served against the Indians on the frontier. 
In 1898, he was commissioned a Brigadier- 
General and served in the field during the 
war with Spain; and in 1899 became com¬ 
mander of the 2d Division, 7th Army Corps, 
on duty in Cuba. lie died Nay, 23, 1901. 



ARNICA. 




Arnold 


Arnold 


Arnold, Sir Arthur, an English states¬ 
man and author, born in 1833. He acted as 
assistant commissioner to administer the 
Public Works Acts during the cotton fam¬ 
ine, 1863-18GG. Afterward he wrote “ The 
History of the Cotton Famine.” Other lit¬ 
erary productions have been “ From the 
Levant ” (1868) ; “ Through Persia by Cara¬ 
van ; ” “ Social Politics,” and “ Free Land.” 
He sat as a Liberal member for Salford, 
1880-1885. He established and was presi¬ 
dent of the Free Land League from 1885 to 
1895; Chairman London County Council, 
1895 and 1896; knighted in 1895. 

Arnold, Benedict, an American military 
oflicer, born in Norwich, Conn., Jan. 14,1741. 
He was settled in extensive business at 
New Haven when the War of Independence 
broke out. After the news of the battle of 
Lexington, he raised a body of volunteers, 
and received a colonel’s commission. After 



commanding, for a short time, a small fleet 
upon Lake Champlain, he was with Gen¬ 
eral Montgomery, charged with the diffi¬ 
cult duty of leading a force of 1,100 men 
across the wilds of the country to Quebec, 
to stir up rebellion there, and displace the 
British garrison. In this unsuccessful at¬ 
tempt Montgomery was killed and Arnold 
severely wounded. After this, we find him 
in various important commands, but as of¬ 
ten involved in quarrels with Congress and 
his fellow-officers. It would be of little in¬ 
terest now to enter into a detail of his griev¬ 
ances, He seems to have been a singularly 
bravo, but reckless and unprincipled, man. 
Washington valued him for his acts of dar¬ 
ing, and would gladly have' overlooked his 
faults; but Congress and his brother-offi¬ 
cers regarded him with dislike, and sought 
every possible means to humble and annoj 

28 


him. After many disputes about the honor 
that was due to him for his services, he was 
invested with the government of Philadel¬ 
phia. There his imprudence was most 
marked; indeed, it would be difficult to 
clear him from the charge of actual dishon¬ 
esty. He was brought before a court-mar¬ 
tial ; four charges were urged against him; 
two of these were-found proven, and he was 
sentenced to be reprimanded by the com¬ 
mander-in-chief. Arnold could not bear the 
affront, nor longer endure the difficulties 
into which he had brought himself. He, 
accordingly, formed the disgraceful design 
of deserting to the ranks of the enemy, and 
put himself in communication with Sir 
Henry Clinton, the British commander. 
Major Andre was sent by Sir Henry to ne¬ 
gotiate with Arnold, and they had an inter¬ 
view near West Point, which fortress Ar¬ 
nold had offered to surrender to the enemy. 
On his way to the British camp, however, 
the voung officer fell into the hands of the 
Americans, and the whole plot was of course 
discovered. The news of Andre’s capture 
reached Arnold just in time to enable him 
to make his escape and reach the British 
camp in safety. There he retained his rank 
of brigadier-general, and fought with as 
much daring against the cause of American 
independence as he had before fought 
against the royal forces. He took command 
in an expedition against Virginia, and again 
in an incursion into his native State. Af¬ 
terward he served in Nova Scotia ami the 
West Indies, and at last settled in London, 
England, where he died, June 14, 1801. 

Arnold, Sir Edwin, an English poet and 
journalist, born in Rochester, June 10, 1832. 
He graduated from Oxford in 1854; taught 
for a while in Birmingham; and became 
principal of the Sanskrit College at Poona, 
in the Bombay Presidency, where he ren¬ 
dered important service to the government 
during the great rebellion in India. Re¬ 
turning to London in 1C61, he joined the 
editorial staff of the “ Daily Telegraph.” 
He has twice visited the United States on 
lecture tours. Of his original poetry, in¬ 
spired by Oriental themes and legends, the 
most famous work is “ The Light of Asia, 
a Poetic Presentation of the Life and Teach¬ 
ing of Gautama” (1876). “Indian Idylls” 
(1883) ; “Pearls of the Faith,” “Sa’di in 
the Garden,” “ The Light of the World,” 
“ Potiphar’s Wife and Other Poems,” “ In¬ 
dia Revisited,” “ Japonica,” and “ The 
Tenth Muse and Other Poems,” are among 
his many works. He died March 24, 1904. 

Arnold, Edwin Lester, an English au¬ 
thor, son of Sir Edwin Arnold. He has 
written “ A Summer Holiday in Scandin¬ 
avia ” (1877); “On the Indian Hills, or 
Coffee Planting in Southern India ” (1831) ; 
“ Bird Life in England ” (1887) ; “ Eng- 














Arnold 


Arnold of Winkelried 


land as She Seems” (1888); the novels 
“ Phra, the Phoenician” (1890), and “The 
Story of Ulla ” (1895). 

Arnold, George, an American poet, born 
in New York, June 24, 1834; author of 
“ McArone Papers,” contributed to “ Vanity 
Fair” (18G0-1865). His poetry is of merit: 
“Drift and Other Poems” (18GG), and 
“Poems Grave and Gay” (1867). Col¬ 
lected edition, with memoir, by William 
Winter (new edition, 1889). He died at 
Strawberry Farms, N. J., Nov. 3, 18G5. 

Arnold, Hans, pseudonym of Bertha von 
Bulow, a German story writer, born at 
Warmbrunn, Silesia, Sept. 30, 1850. Among 
her stories which enjoy great popularity 
are “'Merry Tales” (1891), and “Once in 
May and Other Stories” (1892). She also 
wrote some good comedies, viz.: “ Theory 

and Practice” (1890), and “Two Peaceful 
Ones” (1892). 

Arnold, Isaac Nevrton, an American 
lawyer, politician, and author, born at Hart- 
wick, N. Y., Nov. 30, 1815; was a member 
of Congress from 18G1 to 1865. His works 
are “Life of Abraham Lincoln” (1866); 
“Life of Benedict Arnold” (1880), and 
“ Recollections of the Early Chicago and Il¬ 
linois Bar” (1S80). He died in Chicago, 
Ill., April 24, 1884. 

Arnold, Johann Georg Daniel, an Al¬ 
satian dialect poet, born in Strasburg, Feb. 
18, 1780. His lyrics (in High German) 
are meritorious, but he is at his best in 
“Pentecost Monday” (1816), a comedy in 
Strasbui'g dialect and rhymed Alexandrine 
Verse, pronounced by Goethe “ an incompar¬ 
able monument of ancient Strasburg cus¬ 
tom and language, a work which in clear¬ 
ness and completeness of intuition and in¬ 
genious delineation of detail can scarcely 
be equaled.” He died in Strasburg, Feb. 
18, 1829. 

Arnold, Mat= 
thew, an Eng¬ 
lish poet, crit¬ 
ic, and essayist, 
born at Lale- 
liam, Dec. 24, 
1822; graduat¬ 
ed at Oxford 
in 1844, and 
was Professor 
of Poetry there 
from 1857 to 
1867. The de¬ 
gree of Doctor 
of Laws was 
conferred by 
the University 
Matthew Arnold. of Edinburgh 

in 1869, and by 

Oxford in 1870. He was government in¬ 
spector of schools from 1851, and repeatedly 
visited the Continent to inquire into and 


report upon systems of education. In 1883- 
1884 he made a lecturing tour through 
the United States. His works include 
“ The Strayed Reveler and Other Poems ” 
(1848); “Empedocles on Etna” (1853); 
“ Merope,” a tragedy (1857), and “New 
Poems” (1868). His prose writings com¬ 
prise” “Essays in Criticism” (1865, 2d 
series, 18S8) ; “Lectures on the Study 
of Celtic Literature” (1867); “Culture 
and Anarchy” (1869); “Friendship’s Gar¬ 
land” (1871), a humorous work; “Liter¬ 
ature and Dogma” (1873) ; “Last Essays 
on Church and Religion” (1877) ; “Mixed 
Essays” (1879); “Irish Essays” (1882), 
and “Discourses on America” (1885). 
Arnold first became known as a poet of clas¬ 
sical taste by the volume of poems and se¬ 
lections issued under his name in 1854. He 
died in Liverpool, April 15, 1888. 

Arnold of Brescia, one of the reformers 

prior to the Reformation, a disciple of Abe¬ 
lard of Paris, and of Berengarius. As early 
as the middle of the 12th century, his bold 
spirit, his scriptural knowledge, and his 
eloquence, had succeeded in arousing France 
and Italy against the abuses of the Roman 
Church. Driven by the clergy from Italy, 
lie sought refuge in Zurich, where he made 
many converts. At length, through the in¬ 
stigation of St. Bernard of Clairvaux, he 
was charged with heresy, and excommuni¬ 
cated by Pope Innocent II. At this junc¬ 
ture, serious popular tumults occurred at 
Rome, and Arnold, hastening thither, was 
received with great cordiality, and soon 
vested with supreme power. In 1155, how¬ 
ever, Adrian IV. interdicted and expelled 
him from the city. For a time he lived 
in Campagna, but was seized, and taken 
back to Rome, where he was executed, and 
his ashes were thrown into the Tiber. Ar¬ 
nold was a man of great eloquence and 
sanctity. He taught that Christ’s kingdom 
was not of this world; that temporal dig¬ 
nities and large independent revenues ought 
not to be held by the clergy; and that noth¬ 
ing should be left to them but spiritual au¬ 
thority and a moderate subsistence. He 
is also reckoned by Dr. Wall among those 
who denied the scriptural authority of in¬ 
fant baptism. His followers were called 
Arnoldists, and held the same opinions as 
the Waldenses. 

Arnold of Winkelried, a Swiss hero, 
who, at the battle of Scmpach, in 1386, sac¬ 
rificed himself to insure victory to his coun¬ 
trymen. The Austrian knights, dismounted, 
had formed themselves into a phalanx, 
which the Swiss vainly strove to pierce; 
when Arnold, rushing on the spear points 
of the enemy, and burying several in his 
breast, thus opened a gap in the fence of 
steel. The Swiss rushed in through the 
opening, and routed the Austrians with 
great slaughter. 






Arnold 


Arnotto 


Arnold, Samuel, an English composer, 
born in 1740; became composer to the Co¬ 
vent Garden Theater about 17G3, and or¬ 
ganist to the King in 1783; and is best 
known for his four volumes of “ Cathedral 
Music.” He died in 1802. 



THOMAS ARNOLD. 


Arnold, Thomas, an English clergyman 
and historian, born in Cowes, Isle of Wight, 
June 13, 1795. lie entered Oxford Univer¬ 
sity in 1811, and was elected a fellow of 
Oriel College in 1815. While in this place 
he was the friend and contemporary of the 
poet Keble, of Copleston, and of Archbishop 
Whately. In 1828, Arnold was elected to 

the liead-mas- 
tersliip of Rug- 
b y School, 
which office he 
held until his 
death, and 
raised it, by 
the enlightened 
system of edu¬ 
cation he in¬ 
augurated, to 
the highest 
rank among the 
great public 
schools of Eng¬ 
land. Under 
his auspices, 
the antiquated 
scholastic sys¬ 
tem became 

revolutionized. In politics he was an ad¬ 
vanced Liberal, so much so, indeed, that he 
was at one time denounced by some of the 
clergy for what they termed the Jacobinism 
of his views. In 1841 he was appointed 
Regius Professor of Modern History at Ox¬ 
ford, and died June 12, 1842. As a writer, 
ArnokTs works consisted mainly of a “ His¬ 
tory of Rome,” completed to the end of the 
Punic War; a “Commentary on the New 
Testament, and a “ Treatise on Church and 
State.” Fearless, disinterested, transpar¬ 
ently truthful, religious without cant, and 
zealous without rancor, Arnold produced 
through life the impression on his warmest 
opponents of a man whom it was impos¬ 
sible not to respect. Few men in modern 
times have so well realized and represented 
the ideal of the old knightly character as the 
Rugby schoolmaster. In domestic life he 
was most happy; here he was distinguished 
by unfailing cheerfulness and spirit. In 
1832 he purchased Fox How, a small es¬ 
tate; and in this charming retreat he en¬ 
joyed in the vacations, among the family 
circle, his own studies. His life has been 
written by Dean Stanley, one of his old 
pupils. 

_ Arnold, Thomas, an English writer on 
literature, and editor of old texts, son of 
Dr. Arnold, of Rugby, and brother of Mat¬ 
thew Arnold, born at Laleliam, Nov. 30, 


1823. He became a Roman Catholic, and 
spent a number of years in New Zealand 
and Tasmania. Among his works are “ A 
Manual of English Literature.” “ Select 
English Works of Wyclif ” (3 vols., 1869) ; 
“Selections from the Spectator;” “Beo¬ 
wulf” (text, translation, and notes); 
“ Henry of Huntingdon; ” “ Symeon of Dur¬ 
ham,” and “ Chronicles of the Abbey of Bury 
St. Edmunds.” lie died Nov. 12, 1900. 

Arnold, Thomas Kerchever, an English 

educator, born in 1800; educated at Cam¬ 
bridge University; became an Anglican 
clergyman; and published a large number 
of text-books for schools, including man¬ 
uals for the Greek, Latin, French, and Ger¬ 
man languages. He died in 1853. 

Arnolfo di Cambio (ar-nol'fo), or di 
Lapo, an Italian architect and sculptor, 
born in Tuscany, in 1232. The most cele¬ 
brated of his architectural works are, the 
churches of Santa Croce, the Cathedral, and 
Or San Michele, at Florence, in which the 
gradual transition from the Gothic severity 
to the Italian elegance is markedly repre¬ 
sented. This structure was completed, after 
the death of Arnolfi, by Brunelleschi, be¬ 
tween 1420 and 1444. He died in 1300. 

Arnon, a river in Palestine, the boun¬ 
dary between the country of the Moabites 
and that of the Amorites, latterly of the 
Israelites, a tributary of the Dead Sea. 

Arnott, Neil, a Scottish physicist, born 
in Aberdeen, in 1788. In 1811, he settled 
in medical practice in London, and in 1827 
published his great work, “ Elements of 
Physics.” He is also known as the inventor 
of the Arnott stove, the Arnott ventilator, 
and the water-bed. He died in 1874. 

Arnotto. (1) The waxy-looking pulp 
which envelops the seeds in the arnotto- 
tree. This is detached by throwing the seed 
into water, after which it is dried partially, 
and made up first into soft pellets, rolled 
in leaves, in which state it is called flag, or 
roll arnotto. Afterward, becoming quite 
dry, it is formed into cakes, and becomes 
cake arnotto. The South American Indians 
color their bodies red with it; farmers here 
and elsewhere use it to stain cheese; in 
Holland, the Dutch employ it to color but¬ 
ter ; the Spaniards put it in their chocolate 
and soups; dyers use it to produce a red¬ 
dish color, and varnish makers, to impart 
an orange tint to some varnishes. As a 
medicine, it is slightly purgative and stom¬ 
achic. This substance is very frequently 
adulterated. Previous to the passing of the 
Adulteration Act, it was found almost im¬ 
possible to obtain a pure sample, the adul¬ 
terants being flour, rye meal, turmeric, 
chalk, gypsum, Venetian red, and, in some 
cases, red lead; this last substance being 
a poison. At the present time the only 
adulterants used are flour, turmeric, and 




Arnould 


Arraignment 


small quantities of either chalk or gypsum. 
Pure arnotto should not contain more than 
6 per cent, of ash. Adulterated samples con¬ 
tain as much as 20, or even 30 per cent. 
The organic adulterants are easily detected 
by the microscope. 

(2) In botany, the arnotto tree, the bixa 
orcllana of Linnaeus, has a five-dentate 
calyx, 10 petals, many hypogynous stamina, 
and a two-valved hispid capsule. It is from 
20 to 30 feet in height, and grows in trop¬ 
ical America. It is the type of the old or¬ 
der bixacew, now more generally called 
flacourtiacece. 

Arnould, Arthur, a French novelist, dram¬ 
atist, and journalist, born in Paris in 1833. 
At an early age he devoted himself to jour¬ 
nalism, and soon attracted attention by his 
hostility to the empire. In 1870 he founded 
“ La Marseillaise ” and the famous “Journal 
de Peuple.” After the fall of the empire, he 
became a member of the Commune, and 
with its downfall barely escaped with his 
life. Besides essays and dramas, he is the 
author of a history of the Commune and 
over 30 novels, the best known being “ Zoe ” 
and “ Princess Belladonna.” He died in 
Paris, Nov. 25, 1895. 

Arnulf, great-grandson of Charlemagne, 
elected King of Germany in a. d. 887; in¬ 
vaded Italy, captured Rome, and was 
crowned Emperor by the Pope (896) ; died 
A. d. 889. 

Aromatic. (1) In chemistry, acids whose 
radical has the form C n H 2 D — 8 O 2 , as the 
benzoic, the toluic, and the cummic, or cu- 
mic. There are also aromatic alcohols, al¬ 
dehydes, hydrocarbons, and ketones. (2) A 
plant or a substance which exhales a fra¬ 
grant odor, conjoined in general with a 
warm, pungent taste. 

Aromatic Vinegar, a very volatile and 
powerful perfume, made by adding the es¬ 
sential oils of lavender, cloves, etc., and of¬ 
ten camphor, to crystallizable acetic acid. 
It is a powerful excitant in fainting, lan¬ 
guor, and headache. 

Aroostook, an American river; rises in 
Piscataquis county, Me.; flows more than 
120 miles in a circuitous course, receiving 
many important tributaries; and enters the 
St. John River in New Brunswick. It was 
an important factor in the settlement of the 
long-pending dispute concerning the boun¬ 
dary between the United States and British 
America. 

Arouet. See Voltaire. 

Arpad, the conqueror of Hungary, and 
founder of the Arpad dynasty, which reigned 
till 1301, was born in the second half of 
the 9th century. He was the son of Almus, 
whom the seven Maygar clans dwelling in 
the steppes N. E. of the Caspian Sea had 
elected their hereditary chief about 889. 


Thus united into one nation, the Magyars, 
mustering about 25,000 warriors, crossed 
the Carpathians and conquered Hungary, 
when Arpad was elected their prince. Ar¬ 
pad was unable completely to transform 
their nomadic hordes into an agricultural 
nation. He died in 907. 

Arpeggio (ar-pej'o), the distinct sound 
of the notes of an instrumental chord; the 
striking the notes of a chord in rapid suc¬ 
cession, as in the manner of touching the 
harp instead of playing them simultane¬ 
ously. 

Arpent (ar-pan), formerly a French 
measure for land, equal to five-sixths of an 
English acre; but it varied in different 
parts of France. 

Arpino (ar-pe'no), a town of South Italy, 
province of Caserta, 6 miles S. S. E. of Sora. 
It is the ancient Arpinum, birthplace of 
Caius Marius, Agrippa, and Cicero. 

Arqua (ar'kwa), a town of North Italy, 
12 miles S. W. of Padua, in which province 
it is situated. It is famous for having been 
the residence of Petrarch during the greater 
part of his life, and the place where he died 
in 1374. His sarcophagus is still to be 
seen. 

Arquebus, a hand-gun; a species of fire¬ 
arm resembling a musket, anciently used. 
It was fired from a forked rest, and some¬ 
times cocked by a wheel, and carried a ball 
that weighed nearly two ounces. A larger 
kind used in fortresses carried a heavier 
shot. 

Arracacha, a genus of plants belonging 
to the order apiacece, or umbellifers. A. 
esculenta is cultivated for the sake of its 
root in the elevated portions of equinoctial 
America. 

Arrack, a term used, in the countries to 
which the Arabs have penetrated, for dis¬ 
tilled spirits. See Arack. 

Arrah, a town of British India, in Shaha- 
bad district, Bengal, rendered famous dur¬ 
ing the mutiny of 1857 by the heroic re¬ 
sistance of a body of 20 civilians and 50 
Sikhs, cooped up within a detached house, 
to a force of 3,000 Sepoys, who were ulti¬ 
mately routed and overthrown by the arrival 
of a small European reinforcement. 

Arraignment, in the practice of crim¬ 
inal law the calling of a prisoner by his 
name to the bar of the court to answer the 
matter charged upon him in the indictment. 
His innocence being presumed, it is the law, 
and is so laid down in the most ancient 
books, that, though charged upon ar indict¬ 
ment of the gravest nature, he is entitled 
to stand at the bar in the character of a 
free man, without irons or any manner of 
shackles or bonds, unless there be evident 
danger of his escape, or of violence at his 
hands. 


I 




Arran 


Arrest 


Arran, an island of Scotland, in the firth 
of Clyde, between the coast of Ayr on the 
E. and the peninsula of Cantyre on the W.; 
length, N. to S., 20 miles; breadth, about 
10 m les; area, 165 square miles. It is of a 
wild and romantic appearance, particularly 
the N. half, which is covered by lofty gra¬ 
nitic mountains, connected by serrated 
ridges, intersected by deep ravines, and 
separated by gloomy dells or glens. 
The island attains its loftiest summit in 
Goatfell (a corruption of the Gaelic 
Goadh-Bhein, Wind mountain), which is 
2,900 feet high. The S. portion is rather 
hilly than mountainous, and contains sev¬ 
eral arable tracts of considerable extent 
and tolerable fertility. The coast is gen¬ 
erally belted with a level tract of more 
or less width, and presents several in¬ 
dentations. The geology of Arran has at¬ 
tracted much attention, as furnishing within 
a comparatively narrow space distinct sec¬ 
tions of the great geological formations. 
The botany possesses almost equal interest, 
both in the variety and the rarity of many 
of its plants. Among objects of historical 
interest are the cave of Drumidoon, which 
Fingal is fabled to have occupied, and in 
which Robert Bruce is alleged, on better 
grounds, to have found shelter; relics of 
Danish forts, Druidical stones, etc. Pop. 
(1901) 5,343. 

Arran Islands, or South Arran Islands, 

three islands near the W. coast of Ireland, 
in the Atlantic, at the mouth of Galway bay. 
The largest, Arranmore or Inishmore, com¬ 
prises 7,635 acres, and has a pop. of 2,592; 
the next, Inishmaan, 2,252 acres, has a pop. 
of 473; and the least, Inishere, 1,400 acres, 
has a pop. of 456. The three islands con¬ 
tinue in a more primitive state than any 
part of Great Britain. In Inishmore are 
so-called Druidical remains, open temples, 
altars, stone pillars, sacred mounts and 
raths, miraculous fountains, and sacred 
groves. The surface of Inishmore rises to 
the height of 360 feet above the sea, and is 
undulating and fertile. Agriculture and 
fishing are the chief employments. Good 
oats are raised, sheep fed, and the most 
esteemed calves are reared here. The varie¬ 
ties of fish are very great; and the board 
for the fisheries has erected a pier 245 feet 
in length at Killeany, on Inishmore, where 
100 vessels of 40 tons burden may ride 
safely. 

Arras (ar-a'), a city of France, capital 
of the Department of Pas-de-Calais, 60 miles 
S. E. of Calais, and 100 miles N. N. E, of 
Paris. This is a very ancient city, replete 
with fine old architectural remains, and also 
possessing a large commerce in cotton and 
stuffs, hosiery, lace, pottery, etc. Arras 
has been the theater of many memorable 
historical events, and was fortified by Vau- 
ban, in the reign of Louis XIV, Robes¬ 


pierre was born here, as was also Damiens, 
the assassin of Louis XV. During the Mid¬ 
dle Ages, Arras was famed for its tapestry, 
richly figured hangings that adorned the 
halls of the kings and the nobles. They 
were known under the name of arras; but 
have been for a long time superseded by 
the tapestry of the Gobelins. Arras was 
the capital of the Celtic Atrebates (whence 
the name), and subsequently of the Pro¬ 
vince of Artois. As such it was long ft 
part of Burgundy. It was ceded to France 
in 1482; attached to Austria in 1493; and 
finally became French in 1640, when Louis 
XIII. took it after a long siege. Pop. 
(1901) 25,813. 

Arrebo, Anders Christensen (ar-e-bo), 
a Danish poet (1587-1637). Bishop of 
Drontheim, Norway, when only 31, but de¬ 
posed in 1622, owing to his objectionable 
life; he was afterward rehabilitated as 
preacher in Vordingborg. As the pioneer 
of the Renaissance movement, he is consid¬ 
ered the father of modern poetry in Den¬ 
mark. His rhymed translation of the 
“Psalms of David” (1623), but especially 
his “ Hexameron ” (1641), an imitation of 
a once famous poem of the French poet Du 
Bartas on the “ Creation,” are highly es¬ 
teemed. 

Arrest, the seizure of a suspected crim¬ 
inal or delinquent that security may be 
taken for his appearance at the proper time 
before a court to answer to a charge. Ordi¬ 
narily, a person can be arrested only by a 
warrant from a justice of the peace; but 
there are exceptional cases in which he can 
be apprehended by an officer without a war¬ 
rant, by a private person also without a 
warrant, or by what is technically called a 
“ hue and cry.” An arrest is made by 
touching the body of the person accused, 
and after this is done a bailiff may break 
open the house in which he is to take him; 
but without so touching him first it is ille¬ 
gal to do so. The object of arrest being 
to make sure that he answers to a charge 
about to be brought against him, it does not 
follow that after being seized he is incar¬ 
cerated; if bail for his appearance at the 
proper time be given, and the case be not 
too aggravated a one for such security to 
be accepted, he will be released till the 
day of trial. 

In law, an arrest of judgment is the act 
or process of preventing a judgment or ver¬ 
dict from being carried out till it shall be 
ascertained whether it is faulty or legally 
correct. Judgment may be arrested (1) 
when the declaration made varies from the 
original writ; (2) where the verdict ma¬ 
terially differs from the pleadings and issue 
thereon; and (3) where the case laid in the 
declaration is not sufficient in law to admit 
of an action being founded upon it. 






Arrhenatherum 


Arrowroot 


Arrhenatherum, a genus of plants be¬ 
longing to the order graminacece, or grasses. 
A species grows wild in England, A. aven- 
aceum, or tall, oat-like grass. It is also 
cultivated occasionally in England, and 
much more frequently in France, but is not 
very nutritious. 

Arria (ar'e-a), a celebrated Roman ma¬ 
tron, wife of Csecinna Psetus, consul during 
the reign of Claudius, about a. d. 41. Psetus 
having raised an unsuccessful revolt against 
Claudius, in Illyria, was condemned to die 
He was, however, allowed the option of end¬ 
ing his life by suicide, which the Romans 
did not deem a crime. Psetus hesitated; 
Arria seized the dagger, plunged it into her 
bosom, and then presenting it to her hus¬ 
band, said, “ It is not painful, Psetus.” 
This, with other 'instances of her conjugal 
devotion, has immortalized her. 

Arrianus, Flavius (ar-i-a'nus), a Greek 
philosopher and historian (95-180), born 
at Nicomedia. He aimed to imitate Xeno¬ 
phon in the direction of his studies; and as 
Xenophon recorded the sayings of Socrates, 
so Arrianus became the reporter of the 
“ Discoveries of Epictetus.” These were 
comprised in eight books, but only the first 
four remain. He next wrote “ Epictetus’ 
Handbook,” a compendium of that teacher’s 
moral doctrine. He wrote also an “ Anab¬ 
asis,” a history of Alexander’s conquests 
in Asia; this is still extant complete. 

Arrow, a missile weapon, designed to be 
propelled by the impulse communicated by 
the snapping of the string of a bow, tem¬ 
porarily bent into an angular form, back 
to its normal state of rest in a straight line. 
To make the wound it inflicts more deadly, 
and prevent its being easily pulled out, it is 
barbed at the tip, and often poisoned, while 
at the other extremity it is feathered, to 
make it move more directly forward. In 
Scripture, arrows signify or symbolize (1) 
bitter words (Ps. lxiv: 3) ; (2) false fords 
(Jer. ix: 8); (3) a false witness; (4) 

affliction divinely sent (Lam. iii: 12, 13; Job 
vi: 4; Ps. xxxviii: 2) ; (5) the judgments 
of God on sinful nations or individuals 
(Num. xxiv: 8; Deut. xxxii: 23), or more 
specifically (a) famine (Ezek. v: 16, etc.), 
(b) lightning (II Sam. xxii: 14, 15; Ps. 
xviii: 14; Zech. ix: 14) ; (6) children, 

especially stalwart sons (Ps. cxxvii: 4). 
Arrows are often represented on coats of 
arms, either singly or in sheaves, i. e., in 
bundles. A broad arrow is one with a head 
resembling a pheon, except in wanting the 
engrailing or jagging on the inner edge. 

Arrowhead, a genus of aquatic plants 
found in all parts of the world within the 
torrid and temperate zones, natural order 
a lismacece, distinguished by possessing bar¬ 
ren and fertile flowers, with a three-leaved 
ealyx and three colored petals. The com¬ 


mon arrowhead (S. sagittifolia) has a tu¬ 
berous root, nearly globular, and is known 
by its arrow-shaped leaves with lanceolate 
straight lobes. 



Arrow Lake, an expansion of the Colum¬ 
bia river, in British Columbia, Canada; 
about 95 miles long from N. to S.; often re¬ 
garded as forming two lakes — Upper and 
Lower Arrow Lake. 

Arrow Poison, a poisonous substance into 
which Indians at war dipped their arrow¬ 
heads. The substance differs with different 
tribes. By some the poison capsicum and 
infusions of a strong kind of tobacco and 
of cuphorbiacece are mixed together, with 
the poisonous emmet, and the teeth of the 
formidable serpent called by the Peruvian 
Indians miuamaru , the jergon-lachesis 
picta of Tschudi. The arrow-poison of Bor¬ 
neo is called there dajashsch; that obtained 
by Dr. Kirk, of the Zambesi expedition, 
manganja. 

Arrowroot. (1) In botany, the English 
name of the botanical genus maranta, the 
type of the endogenous order Marantacece, 
called by Lindley, in his “ Natural System 
of Botany,” the arrowroot tribe; but al¬ 
tered in his “ Vegetable Kingdom ” to ma- 
rants. The flowers of maranta are in long, 
close, spike-like panicles, with irregular 
corollas, each having a single perfect sta¬ 
men, with half an anther. The veins of 
the leaves run out obliquely from the mid¬ 
rib to the margin. The root is a fleshy 
corm, which, when washed, grated, strained 
through a sieve, and again repeatedly 
washed, furnishes the substance so much 
prized as food for invalids, which is de¬ 
scribed under 2. 

(2) In commerce, the starch extracted from 
the rhizomes of a maranta, and exported 
to England in large quantities from the 
East and West Indies, and from Africa, 
each importation taking the name of the 
place from which it comes. Thus they have 
East Indian arrowroot, Bermuda arrowroot, 
St. Vincent arrowroot, Natal arrowroot, 
etc. Attempts have been made to call every 



















Arrows mith 


Arsenal 


starch “ arrowroot,” which bore the slightest 
resemblance to the true maranta; for ex¬ 
ample, potato, or British arrowroot, from 
the solarium tuberosum; tous-les-mois, or 
French arrowroot, from the Canna edulis; 
tapioca, or Brazilian arrowroot, from the 
Manihot utilissima, etc. This has failed 
since the passing of the adulteration act, 
and it is now understood by public analysts, 
magistrates, etc., that arrowroot must con¬ 
sist entirely of the starch which is extracted 
from the rhizomes of a maranta, and that 
any admixture of potato or other starch is 
regarded as an adulteration. 

Arrowroot is adulterated either by the 
mixing together of various qualities of ar¬ 
rowroot, or by the admixture of other 
starches, such as potato or tapioca. Neither 
of these methods renders the arrowroot dele¬ 
terious; but when we consider that the price 
of the different qualities of genuine arrow- 



ARROWROOT. 


A, flowering branch; B, base of flower stem: 
C, rhizome. (From Bentley and Trimen’s “ Medi¬ 
cine.”) 

root varies from 12 cents to 00 cents per 
pound, and that the price of potato or tap¬ 
ioca flour seldom exceeds 12 cents per pound, 
we then see how the public may be cheated 
in pocket. The adulteration by potato or 
tapioca flour is readily detected by the mi¬ 
croscope. 

Arrowsmith, Aaron, an English car¬ 
tographer, born in 1750, died in 1823. He 
raised the execution of maps to a perfec¬ 
tion it had never before attained. His 
nephew, John, born in 1700, died in 1873, 
was no less distinguished in the same field; 
his “ London Atlas of Universal Geography ” 
may be especially mentioned. 

Arroyo Molinos (ar-oi'o-mo-le'nos), a 
town of Spain, in Estremadura, 27 miles 
S. S. E. of Caceres. Here, on Oct. 28, 1811, 
a body of the French sent out by Soult on 


a foraging expedition was surprised by a 
much larger English force under Lord Hill. 
An engagement took place, the result of 
which is differently appreciated by the his¬ 
torians of the two nations. The English took 
1,300 prisoners, but the French retreated in 
good order. 

Arru Islands -(ar'b), a group of over 
80 islands in the Dutch East Indies, lying 
W. of New Guinea, with a united area of 
about 2,050 square miles and a population 
of some 15,000. The largest island is Tanna- 
Besar (77 miles long by 50 broad). The 
surface is low, and the coasts are steep and 
inaccessible, on the E. side fringed with 
coral reefs. The soil is covered with the 
most luxuriant vegetation. The islands are 
remarkably rich in animal life, especially 
birds, mostly related to those of New 
Guinea. The inhabitants resemble the Mel¬ 
anesians of New Guinea more than the 
natives of the Moluccas. On the ground of 
this inclination to the Papuan type, in con¬ 
nection with the peculiar formation of the 
Archipelago, Wallace has advanced the sup¬ 
position that the Arru Islands formed or¬ 
iginally a part of New Guinea. There is an 
active trade, but not in native hands. Cot¬ 
ton and woolen goods, iron and copper 
wares, Chinese pottery, knives, rum, rice, 
opium and arrack are imported, and bart¬ 
ered for mother-of-pearl, trepang, edible 
nests, pearls, tortoise-shell, and the skins of 
birds of paradise. 

Arsaces, founder of the Parthian mon¬ 
archy. He induced his countrymen to rise 
against the Macedonian yoke, 250 b. c., on 
which they raised him to the throne. Ar¬ 
saces was slain in battle, after a reign of 
38 years. He was the first of a long line 
of monarchs of the same name, the last of 
whom was put to death about 22G A. d. 

Arsaces Tiranus, King of Armenia, 
who, being taken prisoner by Sapor, King 
of Persia, was cast into prison at Ecba- 
tana, where he died 302 b. c. His country 
then became a Persian province. There 
were many other Armenian kings of his 
name, but they are not easily distinguish¬ 
able from each other, and are generally of 
small historical importance. 

Arsenal, a place appointed for the mak¬ 
ing, repairing, keeping and issuing of mili¬ 
tary stores. An arsenal of the first class 
should include factories for guns and gun- 
carriages, small-arms, small-arms ammuni¬ 
tion, harness, saddlery, tents and powder; a 
laboratory and large store-houses. In ar¬ 
senals of the second class workshops take 
the place of the factories. The Poyal Arsenal 
at Woolwich, England, which manufactures 
warlike implements and stores for the English 
army and navy, was formed about 1720, and 
comprises factories,laboratories, etc., for the 
manufacture and final fitting up of almost 








Arsenic 


Arsenical Poisoning 


every kind of arms and ammunition. Great 
quantities of military and naval stores are 
kept at the dockyards of Chatham, Ports¬ 
mouth, Plymouth and Pembroke. In France 
there are various arsenals or depots of war 
material, which latter is manufactured at 
Mezieres, Toulouse, Besangon, etc.; the 
great naval arsenals are Brest and Toulon. 
The chief German arsenals are at Spandau, 
Strasburg, and Dantzig, that at the first- 
mentioned place being the great center of 
the military manufactories. The chief Aus¬ 
trian arsenal is the immense establishment 
at Vienna, wnich includes gun factory, lab¬ 
oratory, small arms and carriage factories, 
etc. Bussia has her principal arsenal at St. 
Petersburg, with supplementary factories 
of arms and ammunition at Briansk, Kiev, 
and elsewhere. In Italy Turin is the center 
of the military factories. 

The principal arsenals of the United 
States in 1904 were the Allegheny (Pa.) ; 
Augusta (Ga.) ; Benecia (Cal.) ; Columbia 
(Tenn.) ; Fort Monroe (Va.) ; Frankford 
(Pa.) ; Indianapolis (Ind.) ; Kenebec (Me.); 
New York (N. Y.) ; Pock Island (Ill.) ; 
San Antonio (Tex.) ; Watertown (Mass.) ; 
and Watervliet (N. Y.). There were also 
powder depbts at St. Louis (Mo.), and 
Dover (N. J.) ; a noted armory at Spring- 
field (Mas3.), and an ordnance proving 
ground at Sandy Hook (N. J.). 

Arsenic, (symbol As, at. wt. 75, sp. gr. 
5.76), a metallic element of very common oc¬ 
currence, being found in combination with 
many of the metals in a variety of minerals. 
It is of a dark grey color, and readily tar¬ 
nishes on exposure to the air, first changing 
to yellow, and finally to black. In hardness 
it equals copper; it is extremely brittle, and 
very volatile, beginning to sublime before it 
melts. It burns with a blue flame, and emits 
a smell of garlic. It forms alloys with most 
of the metals. Combined with sulphur it 
forms orpiment and realgar, which are the 
yellow and red sulphides of arsenic. Orpi¬ 
ment is the true arsenicum of the ancients. 
With oxygen arsenic forms two compounds, 
the more important of which is arsenious ox¬ 
ide or arsenic trioxide (As 2 0 3 ) which is the 
white arsenic or simply arsenic of the 
stores. It is usually seen in white, 
glassy, translucent masses, and is obtained 
by sublimation from several ores con¬ 
taining arsenic in combination with metals, 
particularly from arsenical pyrites. It is 
used as a flux for glass, and also for form¬ 
ing pigments. The arsenite of copper 
(Scheele’s green) and a double arsenite and 
acetate of copper (emerald green) are 
largely used by painters; they are also used 
to color paper hangings for rooms, a prac¬ 
tice not unaccompanied with considerable 
danger, especially if flock papers are used 
or if the room is a confined one. Arsenic 
has been too frequently used to give that 


bright green often seen in colored confec¬ 
tionery, and to produce a green dye for arti¬ 
cles of dress and artificial flowers. 

Arsenical Poisoning, a noxious conse¬ 
quence of the absorption by the human sys¬ 
tem of the drug. Although arsenic is 
classed as a metallic irritant poison, its 
action is by no means limited to that of an 
irritant. It acts specifically on the gastro¬ 
intestinal mucous membrane whatever be 
the channel of entrance to the system. The 
most usual source of acute arsenical pois¬ 
oning is the administration of white ar¬ 
senic, or arsenious acid; but the sulphides, 
various arsenites, and impure dyes, wall¬ 
papers, and pigments, Paris green, rat and 
roach poisons, may be sources of arsenical 
poisoning. 

Acute Arsenical Poisoning .— This is the 
usual form of poisoning ensuing on the ne¬ 
farious administration of any preparation 
of arsenic, but usually arsenious acid is 
employed. A half-hour or an hour after 
poison has been introduced the symptoms 
come on. The quantity and its state, as re¬ 
gards solubility, also have an obvious rela¬ 
tion to the appearance of the symptoms. 
Most commonly, after a sense of faintness 
and depression, intense burning pain is felt 
in the epigastric region, accompanied by 
tenderness on pressure; nausea and vomit¬ 
ing quickly supervene, increased by every 
act of swallowing. Unlike an ordinary bili¬ 
ous attack, the nausea and pains are not 
relieved by vomiting. Ordinarily the vomit¬ 
ing is followed by violent purging, the mo¬ 
tions being often streaked with blood. Purg¬ 
ing may, however, be entirely absent. Other 
prominent symptoms are great thirst, a 
feeble, irregular pulse, and cold, clammy 
skin. The patient dies usually within 18 
to 12 hours in a state of collapse; but te¬ 
tanic convulsions are not uncommon, and 
even coma and paralysis may close the 
scene. 

Treatment .— Emetics, diluents and de¬ 
mulcents are the appropriate remedies. The 
stomach-pump may be usefully employed. 
In administering emetics tartar emetics 
should be avoided, as it increases the de¬ 
pression, and its presence complicates a 
chemical analysis. Moreover, tartar emetic 
frequently contains traces of arsenic, and in 
the event of an analysis being made an un¬ 
founded suspicion may be raised. Hy¬ 
drated oxide of iron (freshly made) or 
dialized iron may be given ad libitum. 
Pest should be secured later on, and stimu¬ 
lants given if necessary. 

Chronic Arsenical Poisoning .— This is 
generally accidental. The inhalation of 
arsenical vapors in factories, or of arsenic 
dust, as from green and other wall-papers, 
and in the process of artificial flower mak¬ 
ing, is a common source of chronic arseni¬ 
cal poisoning, The symptoms of chronic 




Arsenious Add 


Art 


arsenical poisoning are, first, loss of appe¬ 
tite, pains about the heart, looseness of 
bowels, and occasional headache. Suffusion 
of the eyes and intolerance of light are 
early present. The muscular powers of the 
limbs become impaired, sometimes progress¬ 
ing to paralysis; a characteristic vesiculous, 
eczematous eruption appears on the skin. 
Green arsenical pigments sometimes cause 
bleeding from the nose. 

Treatment .—Remove the patient from the 
source of infection. Quinine, or other tonics, 
iron, and attention to the digestive system 
will be needed. Removal to fresh country 
air is of marked benefit. Soothing lotions 
to the skin and careful attention to eroding 
ulcers, especially of the cheek, may be neces¬ 
sary. Shampooing and warm baths form 
the best treatment for the paralytic con¬ 
ditions. 

Arsenious Acid, the arsenical compound 
most familiarly known and popularly called 
arsenic. It is obtained principally during 
the roasting of the arsenican nickel ores in 
Germany in furnaces communicating with 
flues. Ordinary arsenious of the stores 
(which is what is popularly known as ar¬ 
senic) is a white crystalline powder, which 
feels decidedly gritty, like fine sand, when 
placed between the teeth, and has no well- 
marked taste. It is very heavy, so much so 
as at once to be noticeable when a • paper 
or bottle containing it is lifted by the 
hand. It is soluble in water, to the extent 
of 1 part of acid in about 100 parts of 
cold water, and 1 part of acid in about 
10 parts of boiling water. When placed in a 
spoon or other vessel, and heated, it vola¬ 
tilizes and condenses in crystals on any cool 
vessel held above. By this means it can be 
distinguished from ordinary flour, which, 
when heated, chars and leaves a coal be¬ 
hind ; and from chalk, stucco, baking-soda, 
tooth-powder, and other white substances, 
which, when heated, remain in the vessel 
as a non-volatile white residue. In medicine 
it is tonic and escharotic, and is the most 
virulent of mineral poisons. It is used in in- 
termittents, periodical headaches, neuroses, 
etc. Dose, one-tenth to one-eighth grain 
in pill. In some countries, as in the moun¬ 
tainous regions of Austria, Styria and the 
Tyrol, arsenic is eaten habitually, beginning 
with small doses and gradually increasing 
them. It is said to favor nutrition, and to 
improve the respiration in ascending 
heights. Some of the “ arsenicopbages ” can 
take great quantities with impunity. 

Arsinoe (ar-sin'o-e), a city of ancient 
Egypt, on Lake Mceris, said to have been 
founded about b. c. 2,300, but renamed af¬ 
ter Arsinoe, wife and sister of Ptolemy II, 
of Egypt, and called also Crocodilopolis, 
from the sacred crocodiles kept at it. 

Arsinoe, daughter of Ptolemy I., King 
of Egypt, born 316 B. c., married at 16 the 


aged Lvsimachus, King of Thrace, whose 
eldest son, Agathocles, had already wedded 
Lysandra, her half-sister. Desirous of se¬ 
curing the throne for her own children, Ar¬ 
sinoe prevailed on her husband to put Aga¬ 
thocles to death; whereupon Lysandra fled 
with her chil¬ 
dren to Seleucus 
in Asia, and in¬ 
duced him to de¬ 
clare war against 
her unnatural 
father - in - law. 

Lysimachus was 
slain, and Seleu¬ 
cus seized the 
kingdom. Arsin¬ 
oe now sought 
refuge in Mace¬ 
donia, which, 
however, was also arsinoe and ptolemy ii. 
taken possession 

of by Seleucus; but on his assassination, a 
few months later, by Ptolemy Ceraunus, her 
half-brother, she received a hypocritical of¬ 
fer of marriage from the usurper, who 
wanted to destroy her two sons lest they 
should prove formidable rivals to his am¬ 
bition. She consented to the union, and 
opened the gates of the town in which she 
had taken refuge, but her children were 
butchered before her eyes. She then fled to 
Egypt, where, in 279, she married her own 
brother, Ptolemy II. Philadelphus. 

Arson, the malicious and willful burning 
of a dwelling-house or out-house belonging 
to another person by directly setting fire to 
it, or even by igniting some edifice of one’s 
own in its immediate vicinity. If a person, 
bv maliciously setting fire to an inhabited 
house, cause the death of one or more of the 
inmates, the deed is murder, and capital 
punishment may be inflicted. When no one 
is fatally injured the crime is not capital, 
but is still heavily punishable; it is a penal 
offense also to attempt to set a house on 
fire, even if the endeavor do not succeed. 

Art, the power of doing something not 
taught by nature or instinct; as, to walk 
is natural, to dance is an art; —power or 
skill in the use of knowledge; the practical 
application of the rules, or principles of 
science. A system of rules to facilitate the 
performance of certain actions; contrivance; 
dexterity; address; adroitness. 

In esthetics, art as distinguished from 
science, consists of the truths disclosed by 
that species of knowledge disposed in the 
most convenient order for practice, instead 
of the best order for thought. Art pro¬ 
poses to itself a given end, and, after de¬ 
fining it, hands it over to science. Science, 
after investigating the causes and conditions 
of this end, returns it to art, with a theorem 
of the combination of circumstances under 
which the desired end may be effected. Af¬ 
ter receiving them, art inquires whether any 





Art 


Artavasdes 


or all of those scientific combinations are 
within the compass of human power and 
human means, and pronounces the end in¬ 
quired after attainable or not. It will be 
observed here, that all that art supplies is 
the major premise, or the assertion that 
the given aim is the one to be desired. The 
grounds of every rule of art are to be found 
in the theorems of science. An art can then 
only consist of rules, together with as much 
of ithe speculative propositions (which lose 
all their speculative look as soon as they 
come into the artist’s hands) as comprises 
the justification of those rules. Though art 
must assume the same general laws as sci¬ 
ence does, yet it follows them only into such 
of their detailed consequences as have led 
to certain practical rules, and pries into 
every secret corner, as well as into the open 
stores of the household of science, bent on 
finding out the necessities of which she is 
in search, and which the exigencies of hu¬ 
man life demand. Hence, as Edmund Burke 
remarks, in his “ Treatise on the Sublime 
and Beautiful,” “ Art can never give the 
rules that make an art.” It must always 
owe them to science. Whatever speaks in 
precepts or rules, as contrasted with asser¬ 
tions regarding facts, is art; and hence it 
always adopts the imperative mood, 
whereas, science almost invariably adopts 
the indicative. Science is wholly occupied 
with declarations, while art is wholly en¬ 
gaged with injunctions that something 
should be done. Thus, the builder’s art de¬ 
sires to have houses, the architect’s art de¬ 
sires to have them beautiful; and the medi¬ 
cal art desires to cure diseases of the hu¬ 
man bodv. 

In a special sense the principles of science 
practically carried out; a series of rules de¬ 
signed to aid one in acquiring practical 
skill or dexterity in performing some speci¬ 
fied kind of work, manual or mental. The 
several arts may be arranged in two groups 
— (a) the mechanical, and, (b) the liberal 
or fine arts. The mechanical arts are those 
which may be successfully followed by one 
who does not possess genius, but has ac¬ 
quired the facility of working with his 
hands which long practice imparts. Such 
are the arts of the carpenter, the blacksmith, 
the watchmaker, etc. They are often called 
trades. The liberal or fine arts are such as 
give scope not merely to manual dexterity, 
but to genius; as music, painting, sculpture, 
architecture, etc. 

In medieval education, the arts signified 
the whole circle of subjects studied by those 
who sought a liberal education. This in¬ 
cluded science as well as art. The seven 
liberal arts, which, in the palmy days of 
Rome, plebeians were not allowed to study, 
were thus divided: (1) The Trivium — 

viz., grammar, rhetoric, and logic. (2) 
The Quadrivium — viz., arithmetic, music, 


geometry and astronomy. It is a remnant of 
this classification, which was in vogue as 
early as the 5th century, that we still 
speak of as the curriculum of arts at a 
university, and that graduates become bach¬ 
elors or masters of arts. 

Art, Metropolitan Museum of, a spa¬ 
cious edifice in Central Park, New York, 
erected by the city for the purpose to which 
it is devoted. It was incorporated in 1870, 
and possesses an art collection amounting in 
value to over $2,000,000, including the Ces- 
nola collections. The treasures to be found 
here are various in character and of most 
profound interest, especially the ancient 
sculptures and relics from the island of 
Cyprus. These, in the study of antiquities, 
are of much value, and many of the other 
departments possess rare attractions. 

Artabanus (-ba'nus) IV., the last of the 
Parthian monarchs, who a. d. 217, escaping 
with great difficulty from a perfidious mas¬ 
sacre begun by the Romans under Caracalla, 
mustered an army, and engaged his foes in a 
battle which lasted for two days; but, as the 
armies were preparing to renew the combat, 
Artabanus was informed of Caracalla’s 
death. Peace was then made on honorable 
terms. Artabanus afterward incited his 
subjects to revolt, and in a battle, in 226, 
was taken and put to death. Thus ended, 
in the 3d century, the Parthian empire. 

Artabazus (-ba'zus), the name of several 
distinguished Persians under the dynasty of 
the Achsemenidfle. When Xerxes advanced 
against Greece, an Artabazus led the Par¬ 
tisans and Chorasmians. At a later period 
he warned Mardonius, but in vain, against 
engaging in battle at Platfea; and on his de¬ 
feat fled with 40,000 men, and reached Asia 
in safety. Another Artabazus was general 
under the Persian king, Artaxerxes II., 
and afterward revolted against Artax¬ 
erxes III. For this offense he was forgiven, 
through the exertions of his brother-in-law, 
Mentor, a favorite and staunch supporter of 
the next king, Darius, whom we subse¬ 
quently find Artabazus faithfully attending 
after the battle of Arbela. Alexander re¬ 
warded his fidelity by appointing him satrap 
of Bactria. 

Artasires (-sl'res), the last Arsacid King 
of Armenia. He was placed on the throne 
by Bahram V. of Persia, who afterward de¬ 
posed him and annexed his dominions to 
Persia, under the name of Persarmenia, 248 
b. c. 

Artavasdes (-vas'des) I., a King of Ar¬ 
menia, who succeeded bis father Tigranes. 
He joined the Roman forces commanded by 
Crassus, but deserted to the enemy, causing 
the defeat of the Romans, and the death of 
Crassus. He similarly betrayed Mark An¬ 
tony when engaged against the Medes; but 
afterward falling into Antony’s power, Art&- 



Artaxerxes 


Artemisia 


vasdes was taken with his wife and children 
to Alexandria, where they were dragged at 
the victor s chariot-wheels in golden chains. 
After the battle of Actium, Cleopatra caused 
his head to be struck off and sent to the 

King of Media. Reigned in the 1st century 

o* 

Artaxerxes (-zerks'ez) I., surnamed 
Longimanus, was the third son of Xerxes, 
King of Persia, and, having murdered his 
brother Darius, ascended the throne 465 
b. c. lie died in 424 b. c., and was suc¬ 
ceeded by his only son, Xerxes. This prince 
is generally supposed to have been the Aha- 
suerus of Scripture, who married Esther, 
and by whose permission Ezra restored the 
Jewish religion at Jerusalem. Some modern 
authors, nevertheless, identify Ahasuerus 
with Xerxes. 

Artaxerxes II., surnamed Mnemon, was 
the eldest son of Darius Nothus, and began 
his reign 405 B. c. His brother Cyrus 
formed a conspiracy against him, for which 
he was sentenced to death; but at the inter¬ 
cession of his mother, Parysatis, the sen¬ 
tence was commuted to banishment to Asia 
Minor. Cyrus repaid this act of clemency by 
mustering a large army of Asiatics, and 
some Greek troops under Clearchus, with 
whom he marched to Babylon; but, being en¬ 
countered by Artaxerxes, he was defeated 
and slain. The Greeks, however, escaped 
and reached their own country, under Xeno¬ 
phon. Artaxerxes died at the age of 94, af¬ 
ter reigning 62 years. 

Artaxerxes III., succeeded Artaxerxes 
II., his father, 359 b. c. To pave his way 
to the succession, he murdered two of his 
brothers, and afterward put to death all the 
remaining branches of the family. He sup¬ 
pressed several insurrections which were 
raised against him, and in Egypt slew the 
sacred bull Apis, and gave the flesh to his 
soldiers. For this, his eunuch, Bagoas, an 
Egyptian, caused him to be poisoned, and, 
after giving his carcass to cats, made knife- 
handles of his bones, 339 b. c. 

Artaxerxes Bebegan, or Ardshir, the 

first King of Persia of the race of Sassani- 
des, was a shepherd’s son; but his grand¬ 
father, by the mother’s side, being governor 
of a province, he was sent to the court of 
King Ardavan. On his grandfather’s death, 
Artaxerxes, being refused an appointment, 
retired to Persia proper, where, exciting the 
people to revolt, he defeated and slew Ar¬ 
davan and his son, on which he assumed the 
title of King of Kings. He made vast con¬ 
quests, and wisely administered the affairs 
of his kingdom. He died b. c. 240. 

Artedi, Peter (ar'te-de), a Swedish nat¬ 
uralist, born in 1705. He studied for the 
church at Upsala, but soon betook himself to 
the natural sciences, having Linnaeus for fel¬ 
low-student and friend. He became espe¬ 


cially distinguished in ichthyology; and, hav¬ 
ing gone to England in 1734, he there com¬ 
pleted his great work, the “ Ichthyologia,” 
the first which gave a truly scientific char¬ 
acter to the study of fishes. He was also a 
distinguished botanist. He went to Leyden 
in 1735, and in the same year was drowned 
in a canal near Amsterdam. 

Artemis (ar'te-mis), an ancient Greek 
divinity, identified with the Roman Diana. 
She was the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) 
and Leto or Latona, and was the twin 
sister of Apollo, born in the island of De¬ 
los. She is variously represented as a 
huntress, with bow and arrows; as a goddess 



ARTEMIS. 


of the nymphs, in a chariot drawn by four 
stags; and as the moon goddess, with the 
crescent of the moon above her forehead. 
She was a maiden divinity, never conquered 
by love, except when Endymion made her 
feel its power. She demanded the strict¬ 
est chastity from her worshippers, and she 
is represented as having changed Actaeon 
into a stag, and caused him to be torn in 
pieces by his own dogs, because he had 
secretly watched her as she was bathing. 
The Artemisia was a festival celebrated in 
her honor at Delphi. The famous temple of 
Artemis at Ephesus was considered one of 
the wonders of the world, but the goddess 
worshipped there was very different from 
the huntress goddess of Greece, being of 
Eastern origin, and regarded as the symbol 
of fruitful nature. 

Artemisia (ar-te-me'ze-a), wormwood; 
named after Artemis, the Greek goddess, cor¬ 
responding to the Roman Diana. (Worm- 















Artemisia 


Artesian Wells 


wood, southernwood, or mugwort.) A 
genus of plants belonging to the order as- 
teracece, or composites. It contains four 
British species, the A. campestris, or 
field southernwood; the A. vulgaris , or com¬ 
mon mugwort; the A. absinthium , or com¬ 
mon wormwood; and the A. maritima, or 
sea-wormwood. Numerous species are na¬ 
tives of the temperate regions of Europe and 
Asia; the A. absinthium grows wild in 
Great Britain and the United States; the 
A. santonica is a native of Tartary; the 
A. indica grows on the Himalaya moun¬ 
tains; the A. vulgaris is a native of Great 
Britain; and several species, locally known 
as sage brush, the largest of which is the 

A. trident ata, are found on the table-lands 
of the Rocky mountains and on the West¬ 
ern plains of the United States. 

Artemisia I., daughter of Lygdamis, and 
Queen of Caria, who assisted Xerxes in per¬ 
son again the Greeks, and behaved with such 
valor that the Athenians offered a reward 
for her capture, and the Spartans erected a 
statue to her. Lived in the 5th century 

B. c. 

Artemisia II., Queen of Caria; sister and 
wife of Mausolus, whose death she lamented 
in the most tender manner, and to whom 
she erected, in her capital, Halicarnassus, a 
monument, which was reckoned among the 
seven wonders of the world. The principal 
architects of Greece labored on it. Bry- 
axis, Scopas, Leochares, and Timotheus 
made the decorations on the four sides of 
the edifice; Pythes, the chariot drawn by 
four horses, which adorned the conical top. 
Vitruvius thought that Praxiteles was also 
employed on it. After the death of Arte¬ 
misia the artists finished it without any 
compensation, that they might not be de¬ 
prived of the honor of their labor. It was 
an oblong square, 411 feet in compass, and 
130 feet high. The principal side was 
adorned with 36 columns, and 24 steps led 
to the entrance. Artemisia died soon after 
her husband, in the monument which she 
had erected to him, 351 b. c. 

Artemisium, a promontory in Euboea, an 
island of the iEgean, near which several 
naval battles between the Greeks and Per¬ 
sians were fought, b. c. 480. 

Artemus Ward. See Browne, Charles 
Farrar. 

Arteritis, an inflammation occurring in the 
arteries. It may be acute or chronic. Its 
anatomical characters are redness of the 
internal membrane of the heart and arteries, 
an effusion of plastic, pseudo-membranous 
lymph on its surface, and thickening and 
ulceration of its substance. In chronic, 
which is much more common than acute in¬ 
flammation, the internal membrane of the 
artery is thickened, softened and colored 


a deep, dirty red, especially in the vicinity 
of calcareous and other degenerations. 

Artery (from aer —air, and tereo — to 
watch over; teros — a watch, a guard. So 
called because the ancients, finding that, in 
the dead bodies which they examined, the 
arteries were empty of blood, took up the 
very erroneous notion that they were de¬ 
signed for the circulation of air through 
the system. Thus Cicero says, “ Spiritus 
ex pulmone in cor recipitur et per arterias 
distribuitur, sanguis per venas.” This er¬ 
ror was not shaken by Herophilus), one of 
the vessels designed to convey the blood from 
the heart. The arteries are long, cylindrical 
tubes, with three coats, an external tunic 
commonly called the cellular coat, a middle 
or fibrous tunic or coat, and an epithelial 
tunic. The coating of the arteries is very 
elastic. The largest arteries which leave 
the heart are the aorta and the pulmonary 
artery; both spring from the base of the 
heart in front. They branch and anasto¬ 
mose to a large extent. The contractility 
of the arteries forces the blood to the ex¬ 
tremities from the heart, the valves of which 
prevent its return. The prominent differ¬ 
ence between blood drawn from the arteries 
and that from the veins is to be found in the 
bright scarlet color of the former and the 
dark red, almost black, of the latter. 

Artesian Wells, deep wells bored through 
impervious rock strata to a porous water 
bearing rock stratum whence the water flows 
to the surface and is discharged from the 
bore. It is also applied, though less cor¬ 
rectly, to deep wells where the waters rise 
to within a short distance of the surface 
even if no real flow is established. The 
principal condition of an artesian well is a 
pervious stratum protected above and be¬ 
low by a water-tight bed. These layers come 
to the surface in some elevated region where 
they get their rain flow, then pitch down¬ 
ward to a considerable depth and then rise 
again, thus forming a great basin which re¬ 
tains the water. Rain water and sur¬ 
face water fill the porous stratum to the 
brim. If it be tapped any, the water will 
rise in the bore and be discharged as long 
as the supply equals the demand. The whole 
Mississippi valley is ideally adapted for 
wells of this kind. Artesian wells are prob¬ 
ably of considerable antiquity, as it has been 
asserted that in the Desert of Sahara there 
are remains of borings which were origin¬ 
ally flowing wells. The Chinese and Egyp¬ 
tians were early acquainted with artesian 
wells. The oldest known in Europe is at 
Lillers, in Artois (hence the name artes¬ 
ian), and was sunk in 1126. They have 
been in use for centuries in Austria, es¬ 
pecially in the neighborhood of Vienna, 
where formerly the boring for them was 
conducted in a rude and empirical man¬ 
ner. 



Artesian Wells 


Artesian Wells 


As soon as geology took the position of a 
science, and the theory of artesian wells was 
propounded, the engineer was able, after the 
geological survey of a district, to discover 
whether a supply of water could there be 
obtained in this way. Already, districts 
formerly dry and arid have received a plen¬ 
tiful supply of water by means of such wells 
and many more applications have yet to be 
made. In 1836, the first artesian well was 
dug in the Eastern Sahara and at a depth 



ARTESIAN WELLS. 

(a) water; (b) strata; (c) flow. 


of nearly 200 feet struck water which 
poured forth 4,500 liters a minute. In 1860 
there were 50 wells, averaging 735 liters a 
minute. In the province of Constantine 
alone there are more than 150. The result 
is proving beneficial not only to the coun¬ 
try materially, but also to the character 
and habits of its nomadic Arab inhabitants. 
Several tribes have already settled down 
around these wells, and, forming thus the 
centers of settlements, have constructed vil¬ 
lages, planted date palms, and entirely re¬ 
nounced their previous wandering existence. 
The earliest exploration for artesian water 
in Colorado was at Kit Carson Station on 
the Kansas Pacific railroad. It was sunk 
to a depth of 1,300 feet without obtaining 
water. The next attempt was near Denver 
in 1870, and was drilled to a depth of 
755 feet. In 1871), a w^ell was drilled for pe¬ 
troleum at South Pueblo, in the Arkansas 
valley. At a depth of 1,180 feet a flow 
of mineral water (82°) was struck yield¬ 
ing 160,000 gallons per 24 hours. In 
1880, a well was bored for water at Coal 
Creek, Fremont county, to a depth of 1,278 
feet, but without surface flow. At 350 feet 
the water rose to within 15 feet of the sur¬ 
face. In 1881, a second well at Pueblo on 
a mesa 120 feet above Arkansas river ob¬ 
tained water at a depth of 1.200 feet. In 
March, 1883, a well bored for coal in 
North Denver was abandoned on account 
of the large flow of water. Others were 
sunk, and it was shown that Denver was 
underlaid by a body of artesian water. 
Since then 400 wells have been bored 40 
miles along the Platte river. Most were 
strong at first, but now only a few yield a 
surface flow. In the San Luis valley, 
Col., boring began in 1886 to 1887. In De¬ 
cember, 1888, there were 12 wells flowing 
at the rate of from 1 to 40 gallons per 
minute; one, 400 gallons. In December, 
1890, there were 394 of these wells; and now 
there are several thousand of them. The 


thickness of formation under Denver is 
about 1,500 feet, so that it is estimated that 
the average amount of water permanently 
available from artesian wells in and around 
the city is 180,000 cubic feet daily. The 
American Desert, also, which includes one- 
fifth of the total area of the United States, 
has deep artesian wells, which were bored 
for the purpose of irrigation, and it is mak¬ 
ing a great change in the whole region. 

Many such wells exist in London and its 
vicinity; those which, since 1844, have sup¬ 
plied the ornamental fountains in Trafalgar 
Square descend into the upper chalk to a 
depth of 393 feet. The most famous ar¬ 
tesian well, perhaps, is that of Grenelle, 
near Paris, which was bored in 1833-1841, 
and whose water is brought from the Gault 
at a depth of 1,798 feet. It yields 516% gal¬ 
lons of water per minute, projected 32 feet 
above the surface; temperature, 81° 7' F. 
An artesian well bored at Pest in 1868-1879 
yields, at a depth of 3,182 feet, water of a 
temperature of 165° F. In the United States, 
numerous artesian wells have been sunk, 
some of great depth, among which are two 
in St. Louis, Mo., 2,197 and 3,843% feet 
deep, respectively; several in Chicago of 
from 700 to 1,200 feet in depth; one in 
Louisville, Kv., 2,086 feet deep; one in 
Columbus, Ohio, 2,775 % feet in depth, 
with many others from 500 to 2,000 feet 
deep. 

The life of artesian wells has been known 
to vary, ranging from two months to six 
years. In December, 1890, out of 209 in the 
vicinity of Denver, only six were flowing, 
119 had to be pumped, and the rest were 
plugged. The Windsor Hotel well, which 
was dug Aug. 30, 1883, was originally 
530 feet. It struck a flow at 342 feet with 
a head of 25 feet. In February, 1886, it 
discharged 17,581 gallons; in December, 
1890, it was pumped and the water-take was 
92 feet below the surface. In Ohio, the 
best fields of flowing water are found in the 
N. W. corner. At Bryan, the water is reached 
at 43 feet. In Mercer County, hundreds of 
wells have been bored 100 to 400 feet in 
depth and tapping a great reservoir. At 
the Barrington well, when the drill reached 
the old channel of the subterranean river at 
a depth of 350 feet, a flood of water rushed 
into the casing and spouted up 20 feet, 
carrying with it great loads of gravel and 
stone, some of which weighed 6% pounds. 
At 360 feet, a large log was found. The 
Carpenter well in Brule County, S. D., was 
sunk in 1896 and reached a depth of 
907 feet. It was 10 inches in diameter and 
the flow was 1,386% gallons a minute. At 
present it is much less. It is saline, but 
adapted to irrigation, and cost $5,200. At 
Newark, S. D., is a lake supplied by an 
artesian well. Many of the wells in the 
South Dakota basin have a pressure of 150 








Arteveld 


Arthur 


pounds to the square inch, which equals a 
head of 350 to 400 feet. At Chamberlain, 
the head of water was 1,000 feet above the 
sea. In Brule county 25 wells produced 26,- 
000,000 gallons per diem, sufficient to flood 
80 acres one foot deep every day. 

Artesian wells have supplied a portion of 
the data upon which the internal tem¬ 
perature of the earth has been calculated. 
Thus the Crenelle well has a temperature 
of 81° F., while the mean temperature 

of the air in the cellar of the Paris ob¬ 
servatory is only 53°. MM. Arago and 
Walferdin observed the temperature as the 
work proceeded, and found that there was 
a gradual and regular increase downward. 
Walferdin also made a series of very ac¬ 
curate and careful observations on the tem¬ 
perature of two borings at Creuzot, within 
a mile of each other, commencing at a 
height of 1,030 feet above the sea, and going 
down to a depth, the one of 2,678 feet, the 
other about 1,900 feet. The results, after 
every possible precaution had been taken 
to insure correctness, gave a rise of 1° 
F. for every 55 feet down to a depth 
of 1,800 feet, beyond which the rise was 
more rapid, being 1° for every 44 feet 
of descent; but at Fort Randall the tempera¬ 
ture at 80° increased at the rate of 1° every 
lT 1 /^ feet. In Chester, S. C., a well was 
sunk during six months 500 feet, and a 
supply of 30,000 gallons a day was obtained. 
It was abandoned and a well a mile away 
was sunk 400 feet and obtained a supply 
of 250,000 gallons. It has often been found 
that where wells are sunk to the same depth 
in the same vicinity one diminishes the 
flow of the other and their productiveness 
is diminished. It was once supposed that 
water from artesian wells was much purer 
than from ordinary wells; but it is found 
to be a mistake. The lower the water goes, 
the more impregnated it is with saline and 
other matter. 

Arteveld, or Artevelde (ar'te-velt, 
ar'te-vel-de), the name of two men distin¬ 
guished in the history of the Low Countries. 
(1) Jacob van, a brewer of Ghent, born 
about 1300; was selected by his fellow- 
townsmen to lead them in their struggles 
against Count Louis of Flanders. In 1338 
he was appointed captain of the forces of 
Ghent, and for several years exercised a 
sort of sovereign power. A proposal to 
make the Black Prince, son of Edward III. 
of England, governor of Flanders led to an 
insurrection, in which Arteveld lost his 
life (1345). (2) Philip, son of the former, 
at the head of the forces of Ghent, gained 
a great victory over the Count of Flanders, 
Louis II., and for a time assumed the state 
ot a sovereign prince. His reign proved 
short-lived. The Count of Flanders re¬ 
turned with a large French force, fully dis¬ 
ciplined and skillfully commanded. Arte¬ 


veld was rash enough to meet them in the 
open field at Roosebeke, between Courtrai 
and Ghent, in 1382, and fell with 25,000 
Flemings. 

Arthralgia, pain in a joint. The term is 
more particularly applied to articular pain 
in the absence of objective disease. 

Arthritis, any inflammatory distemper 
that affects the joints, particularly chronic 
rheumatism or gout. 

Arthrodia, a species of articulation, in 
which the head of one bone is received into 
a shallow socket in another; a ball-and- 
socket joint. 

Arthrogastra, in Prof. Huxley’s clas¬ 
sification, an order of arachnida (spiders), 
in which the abdomen is distinctly divided 
into somites— i. e., into segments—each 
with an upper and lower pair of appen¬ 
dages. The leading genera are Scorpio, 
chclifer, plirynus, phalangium, and galeodes. 

Arthropoda, a subdivision of the annu- 
losa, or articulate, containing the classes 
belonging to that sub-kingdom which are of 
the highest organization. The body is very 
distinctly divided into rings or segments, 
sometimes, as in the myriapoda (centipedes 
and millepedes), mere repetitions of each 
other, but more frequently with some of 
them differentiated for special ends. In 
general, the head, thorax, and abdomen are 
distinct. Under the subdivision arthropoda 
are ranked in an ascending series the classes 
myriapoda, Crustacea, arachnida, and in¬ 
sect a. 

Arthur, a prince of the Silures, and King 
of Britain in the time of the Saxon in¬ 
vasions in the 5th and 6th centuries. He 
was the son of Uther Pendragon, by Ignera, 
wife of Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall, and was 
elected King of Britain at the age of 15. 
He immediately declared war against the 
Saxons in the North of England, and de¬ 
feated them so completely, that in one battle 
alone, it is said, he slew 500 Saxons with 
his own sword, the famous Calibur. He 
subdued the Piets and the Scots, and also 
Ireland and Iceland. After a long peace, 
during which he married the fair Guinevere, 
Arthur conquered Gaul and Norway, and 
even fought against the Muscovite hordes. 
On the Romans demanding tribute, he 
crossed into Gaul, and defeated them in a 
mighty battle. Recalled to England by the 
revolt of his nephew, Modred, allied to the 
Scots and Piets, Arthur fought against him 
in Cornwall, his last battle, in which Mo¬ 
dred was slain, and Arthur himself mortally 
wounded. He was buried at Glastonbury. 
It was long believed by his countrymen that 
he was not dead, but carried to fairyland, 
there to repose on flowers until his deep 
wounds were healed, and that he would yet 
reappear, and, with his mighty sword, again 
lead them to victory over their enemies. 




Arthur 


Articles of War 


The existence and exploits of Arthur and 
of his paladins, the Knights of the Round 
Table, whether they have any real founda¬ 
tion or are but a mere historical fable, have 
been for ages the theme of minstrels and 
poets, even down to the present day; exam¬ 
ples of which are the famous romaunt of 
the “ Mort d’Arthur ” and the “ Idylls of 
the King.” 

Arthur, Chester Alan, 21st President of 
the United States, born in Fairfield, Vt., 
Oct. 15, 1830; was the son of Scottish pa¬ 
rents, his father being pastor of Baptist 
churches in Vermont and New York. He 
chose law as a profession, and practiced in 
New York. As a politician, he became a 
leader in the Republican party. During 
the Civil War he was energetic as quarter- 



CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 


master-general of New York in getting 
troops raised and equipped. He was after¬ 
ward collector of customs fox the port of 
New York. In 1880 he was elected Vice- 
President, succeeding as President on the 
death of James A. Garfield, in 1881, and in 
this office he gave general satisfaction. He 
died in New York city, Nov. 18, 1886. 

Arthur, Joseph Charles, an American 
botanist, born in 1850; was graduated at 
the Iowa Agricultural College in 1872; took 
advance courses at Johns Hopkins, Harvard, 
and Bonn Universities; was instructor in 
botany at the Universities of Minnesota and 
Wisconsin, and for several years botanist 
to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Ge¬ 
neva, N. Y., subsequently becoming Pro¬ 
fessor of Vegetable Physiology and Pathol¬ 
ogy at Purdue University, and botanist to 
the Indiana Experiment Station. 

Arthur, Timothy Shay, an American 
author, born in Newburg, N. Y., in 1809. 
In 1852 he founded “ Arthur’s Home Maga¬ 
zine.” He was a voluminous writer of tales 
of domestic life. His works are over 100 
in number, and have had a large sale in 


England as well as in the United States, 
His most popular work was the famous “Ten 
Nights in a Bar-Room.” Among his other 
publications were “ Tales for Rich and 
Poor,” “Tales of Married Life,” and “Lights 
and Shadows.” He died in Philadelphia, 
Pa., March C, 1885. 

Artichoke, a well-known plant, of the 

order Compositce, cultivated in Europe 
chiefly for culinary purposes. The parts 
that are eaten are the receptacle of the 
flower, called the bottom, and a fleshy sub¬ 
stance on the scales of the calyx. The 
choke consists of the unopened florets and 
the bristles that separate them from each 
other. These stand upon the receptacle, 
and must be cleared away before the bottom 
can be eaten. For winter use they may be 
slowly dried in an oven, and kept in paper 
bags in a dry place. On the continent of 
Europe artichokes are frequently eaten raw 
with salt and pepper. By the country peo¬ 
ple of France the flowers of the artichoke 
are sometimes used to coagulate milk for 
the purpose of making cheese. The leaves 
and stalks contain a bitter juice, which, 
prepared with bismuth, imparts a perma¬ 
nent gold color to wool. Artichokes were 
introduced into England early in the 16th 
century. 

The so-called Jerusalem artichoke is a 
species of sunflower (Eelianthus tubero- 
sus), which grows wild in parts of South 
America and yields roots or tubers resem¬ 
bling those of the potato and used as food. 
This plant bears single stalks, which are 
frequently eight or nine feet high, and yel¬ 
low flowers, much smaller than those of the 
common sunflower. 

Article, in grammar, a part of speech 
used before nouns to limit or define their 
application. In English a, or an, is usually 
called the indefinite article (the latter form 
being used before a vowel sound), and the, 
the definite article, but they are aDo de¬ 
scribed as adjectives. An was originally 
the same as one, and the as that. In Latin 
there were no articles, and Greek has only 
the definite article. 

Articles of Confederation, the title of 
the compact which was made by the 13 
original States of the United States of 
America. It was adopted and carried into 
force on March 1, 1781, and remained as 
the supreme law until the first Wednesday 
of March, 1789. 

Articles of War, a code of laws for the 
regulation of the military forces of a coun¬ 
try. Those of Great Britain and Ireland 
were issued prior to 1879, in pursuance of 
the annually renewed mutiny act. In 1879 
the army discipline act consolidated the pro¬ 
visions of the mutiny act with the articles 
of war. This act was amended in 1881, and 
now the complete military code is contained 






Articles 


Artificial Flowers 


in the army act of 1881. In the United 
States, the articles of war form an elaborate 
code, thoroughly revised in 1880, but sub¬ 
ject at all times to the legislation of Con¬ 
gress. 

Articles, The Six, in English ecclesias¬ 
tical history, articles imposed by a statute 
(often called the Bloody Statute) passed in 
the year 1539, under the reign of Henry 
VIII. They decreed the acknowledgment of 
transubstantiation, the sufficiency of com¬ 
munion in one kind, the obligation of vows 
of chastity, the propriety of private masses, 
celibacy of the clergy, and auricular con¬ 
fession. Acceptance of these doctrines was 
made obligatory on all persons under the 
severest penalties; the act, however, was 
relaxed in 1544, and repealed in 1547. 

Articles, The Thirty=nine,of the Church 

of England, a statement of the particular 
points of doctrine, 39 in number, main¬ 
tained by the English Church; first pro¬ 
mulgated by a convocation held in London 
in 1562-1563, and confirmed by royal au¬ 
thority; founded on and superseding an 
older code issued in the reign of Edward VI. 
The first five articles contain a profession 
of faith in the Trinity; the incarnation of 
Jesus Christ, His descent to Hell, and His 
resurrection; the divinity of the Holy 
Ghost. The three following relate to the 
canon of the Scripture. The eighth article 
declares a belief in the Apostles’, Nicene, 
and Athanasian creeds. The ninth and fol¬ 
lowing articles contain the doctrine of orig¬ 
inal sin, of justification by faith alone, of 
predestination, etc. The 19th, 20th, and 
21st declare the Church to be the assembly 
of the faithful; that it can decide nothing 
except by the Scriptures. The 22d rejects 
the doctrine of purgatory, indulgences, the 
adoration of images, and the invocation of 
saints. The 23d decides that only those 
lawfully called shall preach or administer 
the sacraments. The 24th requires the lit¬ 
urgy to be in English. The 25th and 26th 
declare the sacraments effectual signs of 
grace (though administered by evil men), 
by which God excites and confirms our faith. 
They are two: baptism and the Lord’s Sup¬ 
per. Baptism, according to the 27th ar¬ 
ticle, is a sign of regeneration, the seal of 
our adoption, by which faith is confirmed 
and grace increased. In the Lord’s Supper, 
according to article 28th, the Dread is the 
communion of the Body of Christ, the wine 
the communion of His Blood, but only 
through faith (article 29) ; and the com¬ 
munion must be administered in both kinds 
(article 30). The 28th article condemns 
the doctrine of transubstantiation, and the 
elevation and adoration of the Host; the 31st 
rejects the sacrifice of the mass as blas¬ 
phemous ; the 32d permits the marriage of 
the clergy; the 33d maintains the efficacy 
of excommunication. The remaining ar¬ 


ticles relate to the supremacy of the king, 
the condemnation of Anabaptists, etc. They 
were ratified anew in 1604 and 1628. All 
candidates for ordination must subscribe 
these articles. 

Articulata, Cuviers name for the third 
great division or sub-kingdom of animals. 
The species so designated have their body 
divided into rings, with the muscles at¬ 
tached to their interior. Their nervous sys¬ 
tem consists of two cords extending along 
the under part of their body, and swelled 
out at regular intervals into knots or gan¬ 
glia. One of these is the brain, which is 
not much larger than the other ganglia. Cu¬ 
vier divided the articulata into four classes, 
arranged in an ascending order — the an- 
nelida, the Crustacea, the arachnida, and the 
insecta. Prof. Owen includes under the 
province articulata four classes: (1) an- 
nulata, (2) cirripedia, (3) Crustacea , and 
(4) insecta. With the insects proper, he 
combines also the myriapoda, or centipedes, 
and the arachnida, or spiders. The name 
articulata (jointed animals) being some¬ 
what indefinite, annulosa (ringed animals) 
has been substituted for it by Macleay 
and other naturalists. Prof. Huxley di¬ 
vides Cuvier’s articulata into annuloida and 
annulosa. 

Articulation, in anatomy, a joint; the 
joining or junction of the bones. This is 
of three kinds: (1) Diarthrosis, or a mov¬ 

able connection, such as the ball-and-socket 
joint; (2) Synarthrosis, immovable connec¬ 
tion, as by suture, or junction by serrated 
margins ; (3) Symphysis, or union by means 
of another substance, by a cartilage, ten¬ 
don, or ligament. 

Artificial Flowers, products of an indus¬ 
try which has been carried to a wonderful 
degree of perfection, the imitation of nat¬ 
ural flowers being so exact as to mislead 
even artists. The greatest ingenuity is dis¬ 
played in the imitation of certain flowers; 
even in a common cheap sprig, consisting 
of several materials well put together and 
arranged. The leaves and petals are gen¬ 
erally made of silk, or cambric, punched 
out to proper shapes and sizes. These are 
tinted with a brush and color, and, if nec¬ 
essary, glazed with gum, or sprinkled with 
fine flock, to imitate the glossy or velvety 
surface of natural flowers. The ribs, where 
present, are indented with a warm iron. 
The stamens and pistils are formed of wire 
covered with silk, and dipped in gum-water 
to form the anthers. The stalk is then made 
of wire, coated with green paper, and fixed 
to the stamens and pistil, around which are 
attached the petals, and, lastly, the calyx. 
Buds are made of cotton or glass balls, cov¬ 
ered with cambric of a proper color. The 
French excel in the manufacture of these 
pretty frivolities. This industry has been 



Artificial Limbs 


Artigas 


successfully carried on in the United States, 
where a large number of girls are constantly 
employed in making flowers. The coloring 
matter, however, used for these articles is 
often nothing less than the deadly poison 
arsenic. Hoffman and other chemists have 
shown that the most terrible effects may 
spring from the use of these arsenical com¬ 
pounds, and it is to be hoped that their use 
will be speedily discontinued. 

Artificial Limbs, substitutes for human 
arms and legs, and parts thereof, the manu¬ 
facture of which has received the attention 
of surgeons and mechanics from a very early 
date. In the great work on surgery, by Am¬ 
brose Pare, in 1579, he refers to, and gives 
detailed illustrations of, an artificial arm 
and leg, and although the construction was 
of a rude character, they showed a very good 
attempt to conceal the mutilation. In 1696 
an artificial leg was invented by Verduin, 

a Dutch sur¬ 
geon. It was 
composed of a 
wooden foot, to 
which was fast¬ 
ened two strips 
of steel extend¬ 
ing up to the 
knee. To these 
strips was riv¬ 
eted a copper 
socket to receive 
the stump; a 
leather for lac¬ 
ing around the 
thigh was con¬ 
nected to the 
socket by two 
steel side-joints, 
thus dividing 
the points of 
support between 
the thigh and 
stump. The 
construction of 
this leg was im¬ 
proved later by 
Prof. Serre, of 
Montpelier. Im¬ 
provements and 
new limbs were 
more recently 

artificial LEG. introduced into 

England and 
France by Fred. Martin, M. Charriere, 
MM. Mathieu and Becliard. These were 
mostly unprotected by patents. We next 
notice Thomas Mann, whose patents were 
issued Jan. 20, 1790, and later in 1810. 
James Potts, of England, patented a new 
leg Nov. 15, 1800. This soon became cele¬ 
brated as the “ Anglesea leg,” because it 
was so long 'worn by the Marquis of Angle- 
sea. An improvement on this leg was pat¬ 
ented by William Selpho, who was the first 
29 


manufacturer of note in New York, where 
he established himself in 1839. Other in¬ 
ventors and manufacturers soon took a great 
interest in the business — so many, in fact, 
that the American patent office shows a 
record of about 150 patents on artificial 
legs, or more than double that of all Euro¬ 
pean patents on limbs. The Civil War, which 
caused the mutilation of so many soldiers 
and sailors, and the liberality of the govern¬ 
ment in supplying their losses with arti¬ 
ficial limbs, naturally stimulated the efforts 
of inventors in producing such substitutes 
as would be accepted. These soldiers and 
sailors are supplied once in every five years, 
and to this demand is added that of those 
who have lost limbs from disease or acci¬ 
dent, making in all about 100,000 in the 
United States who have to be supplied with 
new limbs on an average of about once in 
every five to eight years. The perfection to 
which limbs have been brought is wonder¬ 
ful and very interesting. A person with 
two artificial legs can walk so perfectly as 
to avoid detection, and a person with a sin¬ 
gle amputation can almost defy detection. 
Notable improvements in artificial limbs, 
and more particularly in legs, were made 
by C. A. Frees, of New York. One of these 
improvements, and one of the most import¬ 
ant, consists in the movements of the knee 
and ankle joints, by which the whole limb 
is strengthened and made more durable. An 
important feature of this piece of mechan¬ 
ism consists in the introduction of a univer¬ 
sal motion at the ankle-joint, imitating the 
astragalus movement with an additional 
joint, and thus producing a most perfect ar¬ 
tificial substitute. Another of his improve¬ 
ments, which is of equal importance, is in 
the knee-joint of the leg for thigh amputa¬ 
tion, which is so arranged that when in a 
sitting position, the cord and spring are 
entirely relaxed, relieving all strain and 
pressure ; and, when rising to an upright 
position the cord and spring are again 
brought into proper position without strain 
or unnatural movement, no extra attach¬ 
ments being required. iVrtificial arms and 
extension apparatus for short legs are also 
wonderful examples of American ingenuity. 

Artigas (-te'-), Fernando Jos6 (ho-sa'), 
dictator of Uruguay, born 1755 at Mon¬ 
tevideo, of a rich family; became a wild 
herdsman, then captain of provincial cav¬ 
alry, and in 1811 joined the revolt of Buenos 
Ayres against Spain, whose troops he re¬ 
peatedly defeated; but acting for himself 
was outlawed by the insurrectionary junta, 
whose troops in turn he routed, compelled it 
to cede Uruguay to him (1814), and as¬ 
sumed the dictatorship In 1820 he was 
crushed and fled to Paraguay, where the 
dictator Francia banished him to Can¬ 
delaria. He devoted himself to agriculture 
and philanthropy, and died in 1851. 













Artillery 


Arundo 


Artillery, all sorts of great guns, cannon, 
or ordnance, mortars, howitzers, machine-guns, 
etc., together with all the apparatus and stores 
thereto belonging, which are taken into the 
field, or used for besieging and defending forti¬ 
fied places. It is often divided into (1) horse 
artillery; (2) field artillery; and (3) garrison 
artillery. 

Field artillery is artillery designed to be 
taken with an army to the field of battle ; a 
park of artillery is artillery with the carriages, 
horses, and stores of all kinds necessary for its 
effective use; siege artillery is artillery of heavy 
metal designed to be employed in breaching 
fortifications; a train of artillery is a certain 
number of pieces of cannon mounted on car¬ 
riages, with all their furniture fit for marching. 

Artillery Company, The Honorable, 

the oldest existing body of volunteers in Great 
Britain, instituted in 1585 ; revived in 1610. 
It comprises six companies of infantry, besides 
artillery, grenadiers, light infantry ; and yagers, 
and furnishes a guard of honor to the sovereign 
when in London. 

The Ancient and Honorable, of Boston, 
Mass., copied from that of London, was formed 
in 1637, and was the first regularly organized 
military company in America. 

Artillery Schools, institutions established 
for the purpose of giving a special training to 
the officers, and, in some cases, the men, be¬ 
longing to the artillery service. In Great 
Britain the artillery schools are at Woolwich 
and Shoeburyness. The Department of Artil¬ 
lery studies at Woolwich give artillery officers 
the means of continuing their studies after they 
have completed the usual course at the Royal 
Military College, 6nd of qualifying for appoint¬ 
ments requiring exceptional scientific attain¬ 
ments. The school of gunnery at Shoeburyness 
gives instruction in gunnery to officers and men, 
and conducts all experiments connected with 
artillery and stores. An artillery school at 
Fort Monroe, Va., first established in 1823, 
discontinued, and re-established in 1867, gives 
instruction, both theoretical and practical. 
The artillery regiments of the regular army 
have each one foot-battery at the school; term 
of instruction, one year. 

Artlodactyla, a section of the ungulata or 
hoofed mammals, comprising all those in which 
the number of the toes is even (two or four), 
including the ruminants, such as the ox, sheep, 
deer, etc., and also a number of non-ruminating 
animals. 

Artocarpaceae, a natural order of plants, 
the bread-fruit order, by some botanists 
ranked as a sub-order of the urticacece, or 
nettles. They are trees or shrubs, with a 
milky juice, which in some species hardens 
into caoutchouc, and in the cow-tree ( brosi - 
mum galactodendron) is a milk as good as 
that obtained from the cow. Many of the 


plants produce an edible fruit, of which the 
best known is the bread-fruit {artocarpus ). 

Artois, a former province of France, an¬ 
ciently one of the 17 provinces of the Neth¬ 
erlands, now almost completely included in 
the Department of Pas de Calais. 

Arts, the name given to certain branches 
of study in the Middle Ages, originally 
called the liberal arts to distinguish 
them from the servile arts or mechanical 
occupations. These arts -were usually given 
as grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, music, 
arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. 
Hence originated the terms “ art classes,” 
“ degrees in arts,” “ master of arts,” still in 
common use in universities, the faculty of 
arts being distinguished from those of di¬ 
vinity, law, medicine, or science. 

Arum, a genus of plants belonging to the 
order aracecc, or arads. It contains the 
well known A. maculatum, the cuckoo-print 
(meaning point), lords and ladies, or 
wake robin. The solitary spikes of bright 
scarlet berries may often be seen under 
hedges in winter, after the leaves and spadix 
have disappeared. They are poisonous. 
The rhizomes are used in Switzerland for 
soap. There is in them an amylaceous sub¬ 
stance, which, after the acrid matter has 
been pressed out, may be employed in lieu 
of bread flour. 

Arundel, Thomas, third son of Richard 
Fitz-Alan, Earl of Vrundel, born in 1352, 
died in 1413. He was Chancellor of Eng¬ 
land and Archbishop of Canterbury. He 
concerted with Bolingbroke to deliver the 
nation from the oppression of Richard II., 
and was a bitter persecutor of the Lollards 
and followers of Wyclif. 

Arundelian Marbles, a series of ancient 
sculptured marbles discovered by William 
Petty, who explored the ruins of Greece at 
the expense of and for Thomas Howard, 
Earl of Arundel, who lived in the time of 
James I. and Charles I., and was a liberal 
patron of scholarship and art. After the 
Restoration they were presented by the 
grandson of the collector to the University 
of Oxford. Among them is the ‘ Parian 
Chronicle,” a chronological account of the 
principal events in Grecian, and particularly 
in Athenian,history,during a period of 1318 
years, from the reign of Cecrops (b. c. 
1450) to the archonsliip of Diognetus (3. c. 
264). 

Arundel Society, a society instituted in 
London in 1848 for promoting the knowl¬ 
edge of art by the publication of fac-similes 
' and photographs. 

ArunJo, a Linnrean genus of grasses. 
One species (A. donax) supplies material 
for fishing-rods, and is imported for the pur¬ 
pose from the S. of Europe, where it is 
indigenous. The striped-leaved variety, for- 




Aruspices 


Arzachel 


merly more common than it now is in gar¬ 
dens, is called gardener’s garters. 

Aruspices (a-rus'pe-sez), or Haruspices, 
a class of priests in ancient Home, of Etrur¬ 
ian origin, whose business was to inspect the 
entrails of victims killed in sacrifice, and 
by them to foretell future events. 

Aruwimi (ar-o'e-me), a large river of 
Equatorial Africa, a tributary of the Kongo, 
which it enters from the N. 

Arval Brothers ( fratres arvales) , a col¬ 
lege or company of 12 members elected for 
life from the highest ranks in ancient Rome, 
so called from offering annually public sac¬ 
rifices for the fertility of the fields. 

Arvicola, a genus of rodent mammalia 
belonging to the family castoridce, though 
they have also close affinities with the 
muridce, or mice. 

Aryan, in general language, pertaining to 
the old race speaking the primeval Aryan 
tongue, or any of the numerous forms of 
speech which have sprung from it. The an¬ 
cestors of most modern Europeans lived to¬ 
gether as one people, speaking the primeval 
Aryan tongue, in Central Asia, and appar¬ 
ently near the Pamir steppe. Their separa¬ 
tion took place at so remote a period that, 
while they seem to have known gold, silver, 
and copper, they were unacquainted with 
iron, the name of which is different in all 
the leading Aryan tongues. 

In a special sense, the Aryan race which 
invaded India at a period of remote anti¬ 
quity, possibly 1700 b. c., and still remains 
the dominant Hindu race there. 

Aryan Languages, a great family of lan¬ 
guages, sometimes, though rarely, and not 
quite accurately, called Japhetic; more fre¬ 
quently designated as the Indo-European or 
Indo-Germanic family of tongues. They 
have reached a higher development than 
those of the second great family, the Se¬ 
mitic, better described as the Syro-Arabian 
family, and are far in advance of the next 
one — that comprising the Turanian 
tongues. Like the Syro-Arabian forms of 
speech, they are inflectional; while those of 
Turanian origin are only agglutinate. Max 
Miiller separates the Aryan family of lan¬ 
guages primarily into a southern and a 
northern division. The former is subdi¬ 
vided into two classes: (1) The Indie, and 
(2) the Iranic; and the latter into six: 
(1) the Celtic; (2) the Italic; (3) the 
Illyric; (4) the Hellenic; (5) the Windic; 
and (6) the Teutonic. It is often said that 
Sanskrit, spoken by the old Brahmins, is 
the root of all these classes of tongues. It 
is more correct to consider it as the first 
branch, and assume the existence of a root 
not now accessible to direct investigation. 
As an illustration of the affinity among the 
Aryan tongues, take the common word 
daughter. It is in Swedish, dotter; Danish, 


datter ; Dutch, dochter; German, tocHiterf 
Old Hebrew German, tohtar; Gothic, dauh - 
tar; Lithuanian, duktere; Greek, thy gator; 
Armenian, dustr; Sanskrit, duhitri; the 
last-named word signifying, primarily, 
“ milkmaid,” that being the function, in the 
early Brahman or Aryan household, which 
the daughter discharged. Not only are the 
roots of very many words akin throughout 
the several Aryan tongues, but (a more im¬ 
portant fact) so also are the inflections. 
Thus the first person singular of a well- 
known verb is in Latin, do; Greek, didomi; 
Lithuanian, dumi; Old Slavonic, damy; 
Zend, dadhami; Sanskrit, dadami; and the 
third person singular, present indication of 
the substantive verb is in English, is; 
Gothic, ist; Latin, est; Greek, esti; San¬ 
skrit, asti. 

Aryan Race, a designation, since about 
1845, of the ethnological division of man¬ 
kind otherwise called Indo-European or 
Indo-Germanic. That division consists of 
two branches geographically separated, an 
eastern and western. The western branch 
comprehends the inhabitants of Europe, 
with the exception of the Turks, the Mag¬ 
yars of Hungary, the Basques of the Pyre¬ 
nees, and the Finns of Lapland; the eastern 
comprehends the inhabitants of Armenia, of 
Persia, of Afghanistan, and of Northern 
Hindustan. The evidence on which a family 
relation has been established among these 
nations is that of language, and from a 
multitude of details it lias been proven that 
the original mother tongue of all these peo¬ 
ples was the same. It is supposed that the 
Aryan nations were at first located some¬ 
where in Central Asia, probably E. of the 
Caspian, and N. of the Hindu Kush and 
Paropamisan Mountains. From this center 
successive migrations took place toward the 
N. W. The first swarm formed the Celts, 
who at one time occupied a great part of 
Europe; at a considerably later epoch came 
the ancestors of the Italians, the Greeks and 
the Teutonic people. The stream that 
formed the Slavonic nations is thought to 
have taken the route by the N. of the Cas¬ 
pian. At a later period the remnant of the 
primitive stock would seem to have broken 
up. Part passed southward and became the 
dominant race in the valley of the Ganges, 
while the rest settled in Persia and became 
the Medes and Persians of history. It is 
from these eastern members that the whole 
family takes its name. In the most an¬ 
cient Sanskrit writings (the Veda), the 
Hindus style themselves Aryas, the word 
signifying “ excellent,” “ honorable,” orig¬ 
inally “ lord of the soil.” 

Arzachel (ar-thach-el'), a Jewish astro¬ 
nomer, born in Spain, about 1050. He dis¬ 
covered the obliquity of the ecliptic, and 
compiled certain astronomical tables, called 
the “ Toledo Tables. 1 ’ 



As 


Asbestos 


As, among the Romans, a weight, coin, or 
measure. (1) As a weight of 12 ounces, 
the same as a libra or pound, and divided 
into 12 parts called untied or ounces. These 




as poiNS. 


were: TJntia = 1 oz.; sextans (1 -6th) = 2 
oz.; quadrans ( % ) =3 oz.; quincunx — 5 
oz.; semis (%)=6 oz.; scptwix — 7 oz.; 
bes = 8 oz.; dodrans = 9 oz.; dextans, or 
decunx = 10 oz.; deunx— 11 oz. (2) As a 
coin, which, in the time of Tullus Hostilius, 
is said to have weighed 12 ounces. After 
the first Punic War had exhausted the treas¬ 
ury, it was reduced to two ounces. The 
second Punic War brought it to one ounce; 
and, finally, the Papirian law fixed it at 
half an ounce only. At first it was stamped 
with a sheep, an ox, a ram, or a sow, but 
under the empire it had on one side a two- 
faced Janus, and on the other the rostrum 
or prow of a ship. 

Asa, son of Abijah, and third King of 
Judah, conspicuous for his earnestness in 
supporting the worship of God and rooting 
out idolatry, and for the vigor and wisdom 
of his government. He reigned from 955 to 
914 b. c. 

Asaba (as-a-ba/), a town and capital of 
the Niger Territories, in West Africa, on the 
Niger river, 150 miles from the coast and 
75 miles above the delta. It is the seat of 
the Supreme Court, and contains the cen¬ 
tral prison, civil and military hospitals, and 
other public buildings. It is a place of 
large present importance, and, in the evolu¬ 
tion of new British interests in Africa, 
seems destined to become still more con¬ 
spicuous. 

Asafetida, Asafoetida, or Assafoetida, 

the English name of two, if not more, plants 


growing in Persia and the East Indies, the 
ferula asafwtida and the F. persica. They 
belong to the order apiacece, or umbeilifers. 
The word is also applied to the drug made 
from them. Old plants being cut across, 
juice exudes from the wound. This being 
scraped off, is exposed to the sun to harden 
it, and is sent in large irregular masses to 
this country for sale. It is a useful medi¬ 
cine in hysteria, asthma, tympanites, etc. 

Asama=Yama, an active volcano of 
Japan, about 50 miles N. W. of Tokyo; 
height 8,260 feet. 

Asaph, a Levite and psalmist appointed 
by David as leading chorister in the temple. 
His office became hereditary in his family, 
or he founded a school of poets and musi¬ 
cians called “the sons of Asaph.” 

Asarabacca, a small, hardy European 
plant, natural order Aristolochiacece (Asa- 
rum europceum ). Its leaves and root are 
acrid. Both leaves and root were formerly 
used as an emetic. A. canadense, the Can¬ 
ada snakeroot, is found in the Western 
States. 

Asben, or Air, a hilly oasis in the Sa¬ 
hara; lat. about 20° N.; long., 7° E. The 
region has a native Sultan, and the inhabi¬ 
tants, chiefly Tuaregs, number about 100,- 
000 . 

Asbestos, a fibrous mineral belonging 
to the hornblende family, and including 
several species of amphibole, notably 
tremolite and actinolite, when the alumina 
in their composition tends to give them a 
fibrous character. The chemical composition 
of asbestos is chiefly silica, magnesia, 
alumina, and ferrous oxide, this combina¬ 
tion rendering it infusible and incombusti¬ 
ble. It presents great diversity in struc¬ 
ture and color, occurring in long, parallel, 
extremely slender and flexible fibers, in inter¬ 
woven and closely matted filaments, in fibers 
so interlaced that it resembles cork, in a 
hard, brittle, slightly curved form, or in 
compact masses, usually harder and heavier 
when so found than in other varieties. 
Commonly its colors are gray, yellow, green¬ 
ish or blue, intermingled with white. It 
exists, vein-like, in serpentine, mica-slate, 
and primitive limestone rocks. Asbestos is 
.widely distributed throughout the world, 
the most delicate, silky variety, called 
amiantus, coming from Savoy and Corsica, 
while the stronger and more useful kind 
employed in the manufacture of fireproof 
cloths and curtains is principally supplied 
by Canada. Asbestos is also found in Alpine 
countries, Russia, New South Wales, and 
in many parts of the United States, partic¬ 
ularly in the Carolinas, Georgia, California, 
Vermont, and Wyoming. Fireproof paints, 
papers, putty, cloths, gloves, ropes, plaster, 
and many other materials are partly or en¬ 
tirely made of asbestos. It is employed for 
fireproof roofing and flooring, for non-con- 



















Asbjornsen 


Ascension 


ducting envelopes of steam-pipes, and for 
the packing in fireproof safes. Consult 
Jones, “Asbestos and Asbestic” (1890). 

Asbjornsen, Peter Kristen, (as-byern'- 
sen), a Norwegian folklorist, born in Chris¬ 
tiania, Jan. 15, 1812. While pursuing 

botanical and zoological studies, and subse¬ 
quently during various travels at govern¬ 
ment expense, he eagerly collected folk tales 
and legends, aided by his lifelong friend 
Jorgen Moe, with whom he published “ Nor¬ 
wegian Folk Tales” (1842-1844; 5th ed., 
1874), and “Norwegian Gnome Stories 
and Folk Legends” (1845-1848; 3rd ed., 
1870), pronounced by Jacob Grimm the best 
fairy tales in existence. He died in Chris¬ 
tiana, Jan. 6, 1885. 

Asbury, Francis, the first Methodist 
bishop consecrated in America, born at 
Handsworth, Staffordshire, Aug. 20, 1745. 
When 16 years old he became an itinerant 
Wesleyan preacher, and in 1771 he was 
sent as a missionary to America, where he 
was consecrated in 1784. During a long 
life of almost incessant labor it is esti¬ 
mated by his biographer that he traveled 
about 270,000 miles (mostly on horseback), 
preached about 16,500 sermons, and or¬ 
dained more than 4,000 preachers. Of great 
natural ability and indomitable enercry, he 
ranks with Wesley, Whitefiekl, and Coke in 
the Methodist movement of his time. He 
died in Richmond, Va., March 31, 1816. 

Asbury Park, a city and popular summer 
resort in Monmouth county, N. J.; on the 
Atlantic Ocean, 6 miles S. of Long Branch, 
and on several railroads. It adjoins Ocean 
Grove on the N., being separated from it 
by Wesley Lake. It was founded in 1869, 
and given a city charter in 1897. The city 
contains a large number of hotels and 
boarding-houses, many attractive summer 
dwellings, electric lights and street rail¬ 
ways, a National bank, and several periodi¬ 
cals. It has trolley connections with a 
cluster of summer resorts extending down 
to Atlantic Highlands, and property valua¬ 
tion of more than $3,000,000; and is rapidly 
becoming nearly as popular a winter as a 
summer resort. Asbury Park and Ocean 
Grove were originally laid out bv members 
of the Methodist Episcopal Church for camp 
meetings and other purposes. Pop. (1910) 
10,150; in summer, 25,000 and upward. 

Ascalaphus (as-kal'a-fus), son of Acheron 
and Nox, turned into an owl by Ceres, be¬ 
cause, according to the legend, he disclosed 
the fact that Proserpine had eaten some 
pomegranate seeds, when Pluto had carried 
her off into the lower world. 

Ascalon (as'kal-on), Ashkelon, or As= 
kelon, one of the five cities of the Philis¬ 
tines, on the Mediterranean, W. S. W. of 
Jerusalem, on the main road from. Egypt 
through Gaza to Central Palestine. Very 


often mentioned in Scripture, it rose to 
considerable importance in past Biblical 
times. Near the town were the temple and 
sacred lake of Derceto, the Syrian Venus. 
A great victory was won here by the cru¬ 
saders in 1099. The position of Ascalon is 
naturally very strong. Near the ruins of 
the city stand now a village of the same 
name. The eschalot or shallot, a kind of 
onion ( allium escalonicum) , was first grown 
there. 

Ascanius (as-ka'ne-us), a son of HUneas 
and Creusa, who accompanied his father in 
his flight from the burning of Troy, and 
landed in Italy. He ably supported Aeneas 
in his war with the Latins, and succeeded 
him in the government of Latium. He af¬ 
terward build Alba Longa, to which he 
transferred his seat of government from 
Lavinium, and reigned there 38 years. His 
descendants ruled over Alba for 420 years. 

Ascaris, a genus of intestinal worms, the 
typical one of the family ascaridce. A. 
lumbricoides, or round worm, is the com¬ 
monest intestinal parasite of the human 
species, generally occupying the small intes¬ 
tines; it is found also in the hog and ox. 
In the human species it is much more com¬ 
mon in children than in adults, and is ex¬ 
tremely rare in aged persons. It reaches 
seven inches in length. A second species, 
the ascaris or oxyurus vermicularis, is one 
of the most troublesome parasites of chil¬ 
dren, and occasionally of adults. It in¬ 
fests the larger intestines, especially the 
rectum. The male is two or three lines 
long, and the female five. 

Ascension (discovered on Ascension Day), 
an island of volcanic origin belonging to 
Great Britain, near the middle of the South 
Atlantic Ocean, lying about lat. 7° 55' 
S.; long. 15° 25' W.; 800 miles N. W. of 
St. Helena; area, about 36 square miles; 
pop. 165. It is retained by Great Britain 
mainly as a station at which ships may 
touch for stores. It has a steam factory, 
naval and victualling yards, hospitals, and 
a coal depot. It is celebrated for its turtles, 
which are the finest in the world. Wild 
goats are plentiful, and oxen, sheep, pheas¬ 
ants, guinea-fowl, and rabbits have been in¬ 
troduced, and thrive well. Georgetown, the 
seat of government, stands on the W. side 
of the island, which is governed under the 
admiralty by a naval officer. 

Ascension, in astronomy, right ascension 
is the distance of a heavenly body from the 
first point of Aries (the ram), measured 
upon the equator. The arc of the equi¬ 
noctial included between a certain point in 
that circle, called the vernal equinox, and 
the point in the same circle to which it is 
referred by the circle of declination passing 
through it. Or the angle included between 
two hour-circles, one of which, called the 



Ascension Day 


Aschatn 


equinoctial eolure, passes through the ver¬ 
nal equinox, and the other through the body. 
It is opposed to oblique ascension. The 
terms, right ascension and declination, are 
now generally used to point out the posi¬ 
tion in the heavens of any celestial object, 
in preference to the old method of indi¬ 
cating certain prominent stars by proper 
names or by Greek letters. By means of the 
transit instrument, or by an equatorially- 
mounted telescope, a star or planet may be 
readily found, when once its right ascension 
and declination are known. Oblique ascen¬ 
sion is the arc of the equator intercepted be¬ 
tween the first point of Aries and the point 
of the equator which rises with a star or 
other heavenly body, reckoned according to 
the order of the signs. 

Ascension Day, the day on which our 
Saviour’s ascension is commemorated — the 
Thursday but one before Whitsuritide, some¬ 
times called Holy Thursday. It is one of 
the six leading festivals for which services 
are assigned in the Liturgy of the Episco¬ 
pal Church. 

Ascetics, a name given in ancient times 
to those Christians who devoted themselves 
to severe exercises of piety and strove to 
distinguish themselves from the world by 
abstinence from sensual enjoyments and by 
voluntary penances. They, therefore, ab¬ 
stained from wine, flesh, matrimony, and 
worldly business; and, moreover, emaciated 
their bodies by long vigils, fasting, toil, and 
hunge”. Both men and women embraced 
this austere mode of life. During the 2d 
century of the Christian Era, when they first 
attracted notice, they lived by themselves 
and dressed differently from others, but 
did not altogether withdraw from the so¬ 
ciety and converse of ordinary men. Dur¬ 
ing the course of the 3d century they gradu¬ 
ally withdrew to the Egyptian desert, and 
early in the 4th (about a. d. 305), were 
associated by Anthony into monastic com¬ 
munities. 

Asceticism, the condition or practice of 
ascetics. Among the Greeks, the word as¬ 
ceticism was at first applied to those ath¬ 
letes and wrestlers who were accustomed, 
by rigid abstinence from all sensual and en¬ 
ervating indulgences, to harden their bodies 
for the personal competition in the public 
games; but it soon came to bear a deflected, 
or secondary, meaning. Among the Stoics 
and Cynics it became applied to that severe 
discipline to which those persons subjected 
themselves, by mastering their passions and 
appetites for the sake of that ideal virtue 
sought for them all. It was afterward ap¬ 
plied by the Christians to all who wrestled 
with Satan, with the world, and with the 
flesh, and thus endeavored to exalt themselves 
by a severe course of personal renunciation 
above this world, where they were strangers 


and sojourners. But the earliest ascetics 
we read of had an Eastern origin. The 
Brahmins, and other sects in Asia, carried 
this practice to a monstrous extent, even 
long before authentic history begins. The 
vogis and fakirs of the present time, the 
suicides in the sacred Ganges and under the 
wheels of the car of Juggernaut, are only 
a repetition, in a civilized age, of what was 
done by their remote ancestors long anterior 
to any authentic record we have of the 
country. The Buddhists, who for the most 
part dwell considerably to the E. of India, 
carried the principle of asceticism to an 
extreme height. They despised the world; 
lived a life of solitude and beggary; morti¬ 
fied the flesh, and abstained from all un¬ 
cleanness. And so they do at the present 
day. In the early centuries of Christianity, 
the adherents of the comparatively new re¬ 
ligion were more exemplary for purity of 
morals than for the practice of ascetic se¬ 
verities. But, before long, in Egypt and 
elsewhere, they endeavored to escape from 
the sinful world in which they lived, and 
by fasting and prayer sought for divine aid 
around the shores of Lake Maroetis, and in 
other parts of the Christian world. Asceti¬ 
cism assumed a more intellectual shape among 
the Neo-Platonists of Egypt than it has ever 
done in any other part of the world. Its 
greatest names are Philo the Jew, the father 
of the system, Plotinus, Porphyry, Iam- 
blichus, and Proclus. Philo has left us a 
history of it in his “ De Vita Contempla¬ 
tive.” Even in the 2d century of the Chris¬ 
tian Era we find societies of men and women 
living together under vows of continence. 
The tendency to outward manifestation and 
to inward and spiritual life, began to de¬ 
cline in Christian communities. This gave 
rise to the chief manifestations of asceti¬ 
cism, namely, monasticism. The essence 
of asceticism is to hold self-denial and suf¬ 
fering to be meritorious in the sight of God, 
in and for itself, without regarding whether 
it promotes in any way the good of others, 
or the improvement of the individual’s own 
character. Ascetic practices have been 
modified in recent times; nevertheless, its 
spirit often shows itself as still alive, even 
in Protestantism. In some religious orders 
of the Roman Catholic Church, as the Car¬ 
melites, asceticism is actually practiced in 
its greatest severity. 

Ascham, Roger, an English scholar and 
author, born at Kirby Wiske, near Northal¬ 
lerton, in 1515; graduated at Cambridge, 
and struggled with poverty until patrons 
came to his relief. He was famous for his 
general knowledge and acquirements in 
Greek and Latin, and is classed with Spen¬ 
ser, Sir Thomas More, and Sir Philip Sid¬ 
ney. . Though he wrote Latin with ease and 
elegance at a time when custom favored the 



Ascher 


Asclepiadaceae 


use of that language for important works, 
he urged and practiced the writing of Eng¬ 
lish, and his beautiful style in his own 
language has given him the name of the 
“ Father of English Prose.” In 1548-1550 
he was tutor of the Princess (afterward 
Queen) Elizabeth, by whom he was much 
beloved. His most noted works are: “ Tox- 
ophilus,” a treatise on archery (his favorite 
exercise), in the form of a dialogue (1545), 
and “ The Scholemaster,” a treatise on edu¬ 
cation, which, though completed, he did not 
publish. To this work, conceived with 
vigor and executed with accuracy, he princi¬ 
pally owes his modern reputation. His 
death, in London, Dec. 30, 1568, was occa¬ 
sioned by his too close application to the 
composition of a poem, which he intended 
to present to the queen on the anniversary 
of her accession. His works are valuable 
not only on account of the style in which 
they are written, but also for the amount 
of historical information which they con¬ 
tain. 

Ascher, Isidore G., author, born in Glas¬ 
gow, Scotland, in 1835; removed to Mon¬ 
treal, Canada, in childhood ; was graduated 
at McGill University; and was called to 
the bar in 1862. He began publishing his 
literary works in the daily press and maga¬ 
zines at Montreal, and removed to England 
in 1864. His publications include “ Voices 
from the Hearth, and Other Poems,” “A 
Cure for a Title,” “ An Emigrant’s Story,” 
and other works in fiction; and, in 1888, a 
comedietta, “ Circumstances Alter Cases,” 
which was produced at the Crystal Palace, 
London. 

Ascian, plural Ascians, in the plural, 
those who at midday of one or two days of 
the year are destitute of a shadow. Those 
living in the Tropics of Cancer and Capri¬ 
corn are so at midday once a year, and 
those living between those circles are so 
twice a year. 

Ascidia, or Ascidiae, the first order of 
the tunicated class of mollusca. It con¬ 
tains four families, the ascidiadce, or sim¬ 
ple ascidians; the clavellinidce , or social 
ascidians; the botryllidce, or compound asci¬ 
dians ; and the pyrosomatidce, an aberrant 
family tending to the order biphora. 

Ascidiadae, simple ascidians; the typi¬ 
cal family of the ascidian order of tuni¬ 
cated mollusca. Prof. Garrod considers 
them to be degenerate vertebrata, which 
should be placed quite at the end of that 
sub-kingdom, after amphioxus. The ani¬ 
mals are simple and fixed; they are solitary 
or gregarious, with their branchial sac sim¬ 
ple or disposed in 8 — 18 deep and regular 
folds. Their external integument is pro¬ 
vided with two apertures, making them 
look like double-necked jars. When touched 
they squirt a stream of water to some dis¬ 


tance. They look like shapeless carti¬ 
laginous masses. Some are highly colored. 
In Brazil, China, and the Mediterranean 
they are eaten as food. 

Ascitse (Latin, Ascitans), a sect of 
Montanists who arose in the 2d century. 
Their name was designed to express the 
fact that some bacchanals of their party 
believed the passage in Matt, lx: 17, which 
speaks of pouring new wine into new 
bottles, required them to blow up a skin or 
bag, and dance around it when inflated, 
which accordingly they did with suitable 
vigor, as an act of solemn worship. 

Ascites, an effusion of fluid of any kind 
into the abdomen; especially effusion of fluid 
within the cavity of the peritoneum, as dis¬ 
tinguished from ovarian dropsy and dropsy 
of the uterus. There is an idiopathic ascites, 
which may be of a chronic or acute form, or 
of an asthenic type; and a sympathetic or 
consequential ascites. Another division is 
into active ascites, that in which there is a 
large effusion of serum into the cavity of 
the peritoneum, after undue exposure to 
cold and Avet; and passive ascites, that pro¬ 
duced by disease of the heart or liver. 

Asclepiad, a kind of Averse used by Horace 
and other writers, and divided into tAVO 
primary types: (1) Asclepiadeus minor, 

consisting of a spondee, a choriambus, a 
dactyl, a trochee, and a caesura, as Maece | 
nas St&vTs || edite | regT | bus, and (2) 
the asclepiadeus major, consisting of a 
spondee, tAvo choriambuses, a trochee, and 
a caesura, as quis p5st | vina gravSm 
militi&m aut | pauperiem | crepat? 

Asclepiadaceae (as-klep-e-a-das'e-i), an 
order of plants closely allied to the 
apocynacece, or dogbanes. Lindley places 
them under his alliance solanales. They have 
a fiAe-divided persistent calyx; a monopet- 
alous five-lobed regular corolla; five sta¬ 
mina, with the filaments usually connate; 
anthers tAvo — sometimes almost four — 
celled; the pollen at length cohering in 
masses, or sticking to five processes of the 
stigma; styles, two; stigma, one, tipping 
both styles, dilated, fHe-cornered; ovaries, 
tAvo; fruit, two follicles, of Avliich one is 
sometimes abortive; seeds numerous. 
Shrubs, or more rarely herbs, almost al- 
Avavs milky, and frequently tAvining. 
Leaves entire, opposite; floAvers umbellate, 
fascicled, or racemose. Their favorite habi¬ 
tat is Africa. They occur also in India, and 
the tropics generally. In 1846 Lindley esti¬ 
mated the known species at 910; noAV fully 
1,000 or knoAvn. The milk, Avhich in some 
species furnishes caoutchouc, is usually 
acrid and bitter, though apparently not so 
deleterious as that of apocynacece. That of 
calotropis yigantea, the akund, yercum, or 
mudar plant of India, has been used with 
effect in leprosy, elephantiasis, and some 



Asclepiades 


Asdood 


other diseases. The roots of cynanchum 
tomcntosum, and periploca emetica are 
emetic. Gymnema lactiferum is the cow- 
plant of Ceylon. Pergularia edulis and peri¬ 
ploca esculenta are eatable. Diplopepis 
vomitoria is expectorant and diaphoretic, 
and is used like ipecacuanha in dysentery. 
Hemidesmus indica is the Indian sarsa¬ 
parilla. The leaves of cynanchum argel are 
used in Egypt for adulterating senna. 
Mardenia tcnacissima is employed for bow¬ 
strings by the mountaineers of Rajmahal, 
while ill. tinctoria and gymnema tingens 
yield an indigo of excellent quality. 

Asclepiades (as-klep-e'a-dez), the de¬ 
scendants of the god of medicine, iEscula- 
pius, by his sons Podalirius and Machaon, 
spread, together with the worship of the 
god, through Greece and Asia Minor. They 
formed an order of priests, which preserved 
the results of the medical experience ac¬ 
quired in the temples as an hereditary se¬ 
cret, and were thus, at the same time, phy¬ 
sicians, prophets, and priests. They lived in 
the temple of the god, and by exciting the 
imaginations of the sick, prepared them to 
receive healing dreams and divine appari¬ 
tions; observed carefully the course of the 
disease; applied, as it is believed, besides 
the conjurations and charms usual in an¬ 
tiquity, real magnetic remedies, and noted 
down the results of their practice. They 
were, accordingly, not only the first phy¬ 
sicians known to us, but, in fact, the 
founders of scientific medicine, which pro¬ 
ceeded from their society. At first, this 
order of priests was confined to the family 
of the Asclepiades, who kept their family 
register with great care. Aristides cele¬ 
brated them by his eulogiums at Smyrna. 
Hippocrates of Cos, the founder of scien¬ 
tific physic, derived his origin from it, and 
the oath administered to the disciples of 
the order (jusjurandum Hippocratis ) is 
preserved in his writings. 

Asclepiades, a Greek physician, born at 
Prusa, Bithynia, who flourished during the 
early part of the 1st century b. c. He 
seems to have wandered about as a not very 
successful teacher of rhetoric, before he 
finally settled at Rome, where, by the prac¬ 
tice of medicine, he had risen in Cicero’s 
time to considerable fame and wealth. He 
was opposed to the principles of Hippo¬ 
crates. Pliny, who professes very little re¬ 
spect for him, reduces his medicinal reme¬ 
dies to five, abstinence from flesh, absti¬ 
nence from wine under certain circum¬ 
stances, friction, walking, and gestation, 
or carriage exercise, by which he proposed 
to open the pores, and let the corpuscles 
which caused disease escape in perspiration; 
for his leading doctrine was, that all dis¬ 
ease rose from an inharmonious distribution 
of the small, formless corpuscles of which 
the body was composed. He also employed 


emetics and bleeding, but in general con¬ 
sulted the tastes and whims of his patients; 
his maxim being, that a physician ought to 
cure surely, swiftly, and agreeably. He is 
said to have been the first who distinguished 
between acute and chronic diseases, and 
the invention of laryngotomy is also ascribed 
to him; but his knowledge of anatomy was 
apparently very slight. 

Asclepias, a genus of plants, the typical 
one of the order asclepiadacece. The species 
are found chiefly along the eastern portion 
of North America, in Bermuda, etc. 
Though all more or less poisonous, they are 
used medicinally. A. dccumbens excites 
general perspiration without in any per¬ 
ceptible degree increasing the heat of the 
body. It is used in Virginia as a remedy 
against pleurisy. Another variety, A. 
tuberosa, is a mild cathartic and diapho¬ 
retic. The root and tender stalks of A. 
volubilis create sickness and expectoration. 
A. tuberosa (butterfly weed) and A. curas- 
savica, sometimes but incorrectly called 
ipecacuanha, are also medicinal plants, 
while A. lactifera yields a sweet, copious 
milk used by the Indians, etc.; hence the 
ordinary name milkweed. A. aphylla and 
stipitacea are eatable. 

Ascoli (as'ko-le), a frontier town of Cen¬ 
tral Italy, in the Marches, 53 miles S. of 
Ancona. It is a handsome place, well built 
and strongly fortified. Ascoli is the ancient 
Asculum Picenum, described by Strabo as a 
place of almost inaccessible strength. It 
sustained a memorable siege against the 
Romans under Pompey. 

Ascolidi Satriano (sat-re-a'no) a very 
ancient town of South Italy, in the Province 
of Capitanata, 13 miles S. E. of Rovino. 
It was here that Pyrrhus encountered for a 
second time the Roman legion, but with 
no decisive result to either side. It was 
destroyed by an earthquake in 1400. 

Ascot Heath, a race-course in Berkshire, 
England, 29 miles W. S. W. of London, and 
6 miles S. W. of Windsor. It is circular, 
only 66 yards short of 2 miles in length; 
the races, which take place early in June, 
are generally attended by the royal family 
in semi-state. From the accounts of the 
Master of Horse for the year 1712, it 
would appear that they were instituted, not 
in 1727 as is commonly supposed, but by 
Queen Anne on Aug. 6, 1711. 

Asdood, or Asdoud, a small seaport of 
Palestine, on the Mediterranean, 35 miles 
W. of Jerusalem. It was the Ashdod of 
Scripture, one of the five confederate cities 
of the Philistines, and one of the seats of the 
worship of Dagon (1 Sam. v: 5). It oc¬ 
cupied a commanding position on the high 
road from Palestine to Egypt, and was never 
subdued by the Israelites. It sustained 
against Psammetichus a siege of 29 years, 



Asellio 


Ashanti 


B. C. 630; was destroyed by the Maccabees 
(1 Mac. v: 08, x: 84), and restored by 
the Romans, b. c. 55. It is now an insig¬ 
nificant village, from which the sea is con¬ 
stantly receding. 

Asellio, Gasparo (a-sel'yo), an Italian 
physician, born at Cremona about 1581; be¬ 
came Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at 
Padua. In 1622, while at Milan, he discov¬ 
ered the lacteal vessels, which he seems, 
however, never to have understood or de¬ 
scribed with complete accuracy. He left 
a treatise, “ He Lactibus ” (1G27 ). He died 
in 162G. 

Asellus, a generic name now disused, 
formerly applied to the cod and other 
gadidee. It is retained in the pharmaco¬ 
poeias, in the name of cod-liver oil, oleum 
jecoris aselli. The same generic name is 
also employed to denote a genus of small 
isopod crustaceans, one of which, A. aquati- 
cus, is common in stagnant ponds in Great 
Britain, and is sometimes calle'cl the water 
hog-louse. This genus is the type of a fam¬ 
ily, ascllidce. 

Asgard, the Heaven of Scandinavian 
mythology. 

Ash, a genus of deciduous trees (Fraxi- 
nus) of the natural order Oleaceoe, having im¬ 
perfect flowers and a seed vessel prolonged 
into a thin wing at the apex (called a 
samara). There are a good many species, 
chiefly indigenous to Europe and North 
America. The common ash ( F . excelsior), 
indigenous to Great Britain, has a smooth 

bark, and grows 
tall and rather 
slender. The 
branches are 
flattened; the 
leaves have five 
pairs of pinnae, 
terminated by 
an odd one, 
dark green in 
color; lanceo¬ 
late, with ser¬ 
rated edges. 
The flowers are 
produced in 
loose spikes 
from the sides 
of the branches, 
and are suc¬ 
ceeded by flat 
seeds which 
ripen in autumn. It is one of the most 
useful of British trees on account of the 
excellence of its hard, tough wood and 
the rapidity of its growth. There are many 
varieties of it, as the weeping ash, the 
curled-leaved ash, the entire-leaved ash, etc. 
The flowering or manna ash (F. ornus) , by 
some placed in a distinct genus (ornus), 
is a native of the S. of Europe and 


Palestine. It yields the substance called 
manna, which is obtained by making in¬ 
cisions in the bark, when the juice exudes 
and hardens. Among American species are 
the white ash (F. americana), with lighter 
bark and leaves; the red or black ash (F. 
pubescens), with a brown bark; the black 
ash (F. sambucifolia), the blue ash, the 
green ash, etc. They are all valuable trees. 
The mountain ash, or rowan, belongs to a 
different order. 

Ash, or Ashes, the incombustible residue 
of organic bodies (animal or vegetable) re¬ 
maining after combustion; in common 
usage, any incombustible residue of bodies 
used as fuel; as a commercial term, the word 
generally means the ashes of vegetable sub¬ 
stances, from which are extracted the alka¬ 
line matters called potash, pearl-ash, kelp, 
barilla, etc. 

Ashango, a region in the interior of 
Southern Africa, lying between lat. 1° and 
2° S., and between the Ogowe and the 
Lower Kongo. The inhabitants belong to 
the Bantu stock, and among them are a 
dwarfish people, the Obongo, said to be 
about 4Yj feet high at most. 

Ashanti, or Ashantee, formerly a king¬ 
dom, now a British protectorate, in West Af¬ 
rica, on the Gold Coast, and to the N. of the 
river Prah; area about 70,000 square miles. 
It is in great part hilly, well watered, and cov¬ 
ered with dense tropical vegetation. The 
country round the towns, however, is care¬ 
fully cultivated. The crops are chiefly rice, 
maize, millet, sugar-cane, and yams, the last 
forming the staple vegetable food of the 
natives. The domestic animals are cows, 
horses of small size, goats, and a species of 
hairy sheep. The larger wild animals are 
the elephant, rhinoceros, giraffe, buffalo, 
lion, hippopotamus, etc. Birds of all kinds 
are numerous, and crocodiles and other rep¬ 
tiles abound. Gold is abundant, being found 
either in the form of dust or in nuggets. 
The Ashantis are warlike and ferocious, 
with a love of shedding human blood amount¬ 
ing to a passion, human sacrifies being com¬ 
mon. Polygamy is practiced by them to an 
enormous extent. They make excellent cot¬ 
ton cloths, articles in gold, and good earth¬ 
enware, tan leather, and make sword blades 
of superior workmanship. The government 
is a despotic monarchy. The chief town is 
Kumasi or Coomassie, which, before being 
burned down in 1874, was well and regu¬ 
larly built with wide streets, and had from 
70,000 to 100,000 inhabitants. The British 
first came in contact with the Ashantis in 
1807, and hostilities continued off and on 
till 182G, when they were driven from the 
seacoast. Immediately after the transfer 
of the Hutch settlements on the Gold Coast 
to Great Britain in 1872 —when the entire 
coast remained in British hands — the 




Ashburnham 


Ashland 


Ashantis reclaimed the sovereignty of the 
tribes round the settlement of Elmina. This 
brought on a sanguinary war, leading to a 
British expedition in 1874, in which Ku- 
masi was captured, and British supremacy 
established along the Gold Coast. In 1895- 
1896 another British expedition, from the 
Gold Coast, took possession of Kumasi, 
forced the submission of the King, who, with 
his principal chiefs, was sent to Sierra 
Leone, and established a protectorate over 
the country. In 1900 an uprising of native 
tribes was precipitated as a result of the 
British Governor’s efforts to gain possession 
of the golden stool upon which the exiled 
King and his predecessors had been crowned. 
The Governor, Sir Frederick M. Hodgson, 
found himself practically besieged in Ku¬ 
masi, a British force subsequently relieving 
him. The pacification of the country must 
be a matter of considerable time. Pop. 
est. at between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000. 

Ashburnham, Sir Cromer, a British mil¬ 
itary officer ; born in 1831; served with dis¬ 
tinction in the Indian Mutiny campaign, 
Afghanistan campaign, Boer War (1881), 
and Egyptian and Eastern Sudan campaigns, 
and later was governor of Suakim. 

Ashburton, Alexander Baring, Lord, a 

British statesman and financier; born in 
London, Oct. 27, 1774; second son of Sir 
Francis Baring. He was bred to commercial 
pursuits, which for some years kept him in 
the United States, and in 1810 he became 
head of the firm of Baring Brothers & Co. 
He served for many years in Parliament, 
was president of the Board of Trade in 
1834-35, and in 1835 was raised to the peer¬ 
age. With Daniel Webster he negotiated the 
Ashburton Treaty. He died May 13, 1848. 

Ashburton Treaty, a treaty concluded at 
Washington in 1842 between the United 
States and Great Britain. It defined the 
boundaries between the United States and 
Canada. See Northeast Boundary Dis¬ 
pute. 

Ashby=de=la=Zouch (-zosli), a town of 
Leicestershire, England, near the source of 
the Mease, a tributary of the Trent, 
18 miles N. W. of Leicester. It owes its 
suffix to the Norman family of La Zouch. 
Their ruined castle, celebrated in Scott’s 
“ Ivanhoe,” and rebuilt in 1480 by Sir Wil¬ 
liam Hastings, crowns a height to the S. of 
the town. Mary, Queen of Scots, was im¬ 
prisoned here. In the church are the tombs 
of the Hastings or Huntingdon family. 
Leather is the staple industry. Pop. (1891), 
4,535. 

Ashdod,the New Testament Azotus, now 
Esdud, or Asdood. 

Ashera (ash-e'ra), an ancient Semitic 
goddess, whose symbol was the phallus. In 
the Revised Version of the Old Testament 
this word is used to translate what in the 


ordinary version is translated “ grove,” as 
connected with the idolatrous practices into 
which the Jews were prone to fall. 

Asheville, city and county-seat of Bun¬ 
combe Co., N. C.; on the Southern rail¬ 
road, near the French Broad river; 275 
miles W. of Raleigh. It is in a tobacco- 
growing region; has manufactories of cot¬ 
ton goods, shoes, ice, tobacco, and flour; 
and is widely noted as a winter and sum¬ 
mer resort, especially for invalids from the 
Northern States. The city is more than 
2,000 feet above the level of the sea, is 
surrounded by impressive mountain scen¬ 
ery, and has the Asheville College for 
Young Women, Bingham Military Academy, 
Normal College and Collegiate Institute 
for Young Women, Home Industrial School 
for Girls, Asheville Farm School for Boys, 
Industrial School for Colored Youth, a Na¬ 
tional bank, electric lights, and nearly 
50 hotels and boarding-houses. In the sub¬ 
urbs are the grand estate of Biltmore, es¬ 
tablished by George Vanderbilt of New 
York City; one of the finest botanical gar¬ 
dens in the world; Pisgah forest, a hunting 
preserve of 84,000 acres; Battery and 
Riverside parks; and Mount Beaumont, 
2,800 feet high. Pop. (1890), 10,235; 

(1900) 14,694; (1910) 18,762. 

Ashford, Cyril Ernest, an English edu¬ 
cator, born in Birmingham, June 17, 1867; 
was graduated at Trinity College, Cam¬ 
bridge; senior science master at Harrow in 
1894-1903; head master, Royal Naval Col¬ 
lege, Osborne, till 1905; then the same, 
Royal Naval College, Dartmouth. 

Ashhurst, John, Jr., an American sur¬ 
geon, born in 1839; was graduated at the 
Universitv of Pennsylvania in 1857; served 
as an army surgeon in the Civil War; be¬ 
came surgeon of several Philadelphia hos¬ 
pitals after his return; and was made Pres¬ 
ident of the College of Physicians in Phila¬ 
delphia in 1898. Dr. Ashhurst had held 
surgical chairs in the University of Penn¬ 
sylvania; was a member of the principal 
medical and surgical associations of the 
country; and, besides many individual pub¬ 
lications, edited the “ International Ency¬ 
clopedia of Surgery” (6 vols., 1881-1886; 
rev. ed., 1888) and “ Lippincott’s New Med¬ 
ical Dictionary.” He died July 8, 1900. 

Ashira (ash-e'ra), a region in the W. 
part of Equatorial Africa, S. of the Ogowe 
river. Its inhabitants are said to be indus¬ 
trious, peaceable and intelligent. The coun¬ 
try is now within the French sphere of 
influence. 

Ashland, town and county-seat of Ash¬ 
land Co., O.; on the Erie railroad; 6 miles 
S. W. of Cleveland. It has important 
manufactures, large trade, a National bank, 
and several newspapers, and is the seat of 



Ashland 


Ashtaroth 


Ashland University (non-sectarian), founded 

in 1878. Pop. (1910) (3,795. 

Ashland, a borough in Schuykill co., Pa.; 
in the valley of the Mahanoy, and on sev¬ 
eral railroads; 12 miles N. W. of Potts- 
ville, the county-seat. It is in the center 
of the great anthracite coal field; has ex¬ 
tensive mining industries, large machine 
shops, foundries, and factories; and contains 
the State Miners’ Hospital, a National bank, 
public hall, and several churches. Pop. 
(1900) 0,438; (1910) 0,855. 

Ashland, city and county-seat of Ash¬ 
land co., Wis.; on Chequamegon Bay, Lake 
Superior and several railroads; 80 miles 
E. of Duluth, Minn. It has one of the 
finest harbors on the lake, and, besides its 
general lake traffic, it is a shipping port for 
the hematite ore of the great Gogebic Iron 
Range. To accommodate its iron interests, 
it has a number of enormous ore docks. 
Other special interests are lumber and 
brown stone. It has very large charcoal 
blast furnaces, used for the manufacture of 
pig iron, and, since 1885, when the real de¬ 
velopment of the Gogebic iron mines began, 
the city has had a rapid growth. Near by 
is the group of Apostles’ Islands. The in¬ 
stitutions include the North Wisconsin 
Academy, Sisters’ Hospital (Roman Cath¬ 
olic), and Rhinehart Hospital. Pop. (1890) 
9,950; (1900) 13,074; (1910) 11,594. 

Ashley, Lord. See Shaftesbury. 

Ashley, William James, an American 
educator, born in London, England, in 1800; 
was educated at Oxford; became a private 
tutor in history and afterward lecturer in 
history in Corpus Christi College. In 1888 
he became Professor of Political Economy 
and Constitutional History in the University 
of Toronto; in 1892, was called to the new 
chair of Economic History in Harvard Uni¬ 
versity; and in 1901 became head of the 
new faculty of Commerce in the University 
of Birmingham, England. 

Ashmole, Elias, an English antiquary, 
born in 1617; became a chancery solicitor 
in London, but afterward studied at Ox¬ 
ford, taking up mathematics, physics, chem¬ 
istry, and particularly astrology. He pub¬ 
lished “ Theatrum Chymicum ” in 1652. On 
the Restoration he received the post of 
Windsor herald, and other appointments, 
both honorable and lucrative. In 1672 ap¬ 
peared his “ History of the Order of the 
Garter.” He presented to the University of 
Oxford his collection of rarities, to which 
he afterward added his books and MSS., 
thereby commencing the Ashmolean Mu¬ 
seum. He died in 1692. 

Ashmun, Jehudi, an American mission¬ 
ary, born at Champlain, N. Y., in April, 
1794; graduated at the University of Ver¬ 
mont, in 1816, and later became a professor 
in the Bangor Theological Seminary. He 


resigned this chair to unite with the Protes¬ 
tant Episcopal Church. On June 19, 1822, 
he sailed for Liberia, and there founded a 
colony, which, when he left, six years later, 
had increased to 1,200 inhabitants. He was 
the author of Memoirs of Samuel Bacon ” 
(1822). He died in New Haven, Conn. Aug. 
25, 1828. 

Ashraf, a town in the Persian province 
of Mazanderan, near the S. coast of the Cas¬ 
pian Sea, 56 miles W. of Astrabad. It was 
a favorite residence of Shah Abbas the 
Great, and was adorned by him with splen¬ 
did buildings, of which only a few miserable 
ruins now remain. It still contains over 
800 houses, and has some trade in the cotton 
and silk produced in its vicinity. 

Ashtabula, a city in Ashtabula co., O., 
on Lake Erie, and several important rail¬ 
roads; 55 miles N. E. of Cleveland. It is in 
an agricultural and dairy region, and has 
an excellent harbor where the river of the 
same name enters the lake. The city is 
noteworthy for the facts that it receives the 
largest amount of iron ore of any port in 
the United States, and the amount of its 
shipment of the same is surpassed by few 
on the Great Lakes. Its extensive railroad 
and lake communications give it a special 
importance in the industrial world, as it 
stands between the great coal and iron-min¬ 
ing regions and the extensive manufacturing 
districts of Pennsylvania. On Dec. 29, 1876, 
there was a terrible railroad accident here, 
which resulted in the loss of over 100 lives. 
Pop. (1900) 12,949; (1910) 18,266. 

Ashtaroth (ash'ta-rot), or Astaroth, 
plurals of Ashtoreth and Astarte, a god¬ 
dess worshipped by the Jews in times when 
idolatry prevailed; the principal female di¬ 
vinity of the Phoenicians, as Baal was the 
principal male divinity; and the plural Ash¬ 
taroth indicate probably different modifica¬ 
tions of the divinity herself. Ashtoreth is 
the Astarte of the Greeks and Romans, and 
is identified by ancient writers with the 
goddess Venus (Aphrodite). She is prob¬ 
ably the same as the Isis of the Egyptians, 
and closely connected with the Asherah of 
Scripture; Ashtoreth being, according to 
Berthau, the name of the goddess, and Ash¬ 
erah, the name of her image or symbol. In 
Scripture, she is almost always joined with 
Baal, and is called god, Scripture having 
no particular word for expressing goddess. 
She was the goddess of the moon; her tem¬ 
ples generally accompanied those of the 
sun. and while bloody sacrifices or human 
victims were offered to Baal, bread, liquors, 
and perfumes were presented to Astarte. 
She was also goddess of woods, and in groves 
consecrated to her, such lasciviousness was 
committed as rendered her worship infam¬ 
ous. Cicero says (lib. iii, de Nat. Deorum ), 
that their Astart§ was the Syrian Venus, 




Ashton 


Asia 


born at Tyre, and wife of Adonis; very dif¬ 
ferent from the Venus of Cyprus. On med¬ 
als she is represented in a long habit; at 
other times with a short one; sometimes 
holding a large stick; sometimes she has a 
crown of rays; sometimes she is crowned 
with battlements, as the Venus of Ascalon. 
In a medal of Caesarea she is in a short 
dress, with a man’s head in her right hand, 
and Sanchoniathon says that she was rep¬ 
resented with a cow’s head, or only with 
horns, intended to represent the lunar rays. 

Ashton, John, an English antiquarian, 
born in London, Sept. 22, 1834; has pub¬ 
lished a long list of works on history, chap- 
books, legends, ballads, manners and cus¬ 
toms, caricature and satire, etc. 

Ashwanipi, or Hamilton, the great river 
of Labrador, has its source near the head 
waters of the E. branch of the Moisic, and 
after a course of COO miles, enters the At¬ 
lantic through Esquimaux Bay, or Ham¬ 
ilton Inlet. At its mouth it is nearly 1H> 
miles wide, and 25 miles up its breadth va¬ 
ries from V 4 to V -2 mile. About 100 miles 
up occur the falls, one of the grandest spec¬ 
tacles in the world. Six miles above the 
falls, the river suddenly contracts to about 
100 yards, then, rushing along in a contin¬ 
uous foaming rapid, finally contracts to a 
breadth of 50 yards ere it precipitates it¬ 
self over the rock which forms the fall, 
when, still roaring and foaming, it contin¬ 
ues its maddened course for about 30 miles, 
pent up between walls of rock that rise 
sometimes to the height of 300 feet on either 
side. This stupendous fall exceeds in height 
the Falls of Niagara. 

Ash Wednesday, the first day of Lent, 
so called from a custom in the Western 
Church of sprinkling ashes that day on the 
heads of penitents, then admitted to pen¬ 
ance. The period at which the fast of Ash 
Wednesday was instituted is uncertain. In 
the Roman Catholic Church the ashes are 
now strewn on the heads of all the clergy 
and people present. In the Anglican Church 
Ash Wednesday is regarded as an important 
fast day. 

Asia, the largest of the land divisions 
of the world, occupies the northern portion 
of the Eastern Hemisphere in the form of a 
massive continent, which extends beyond the 
Arctic circle, and by its southern peninsulas 
nearly reaches the equator. The origin of 
its name remains unknown. Europe and 
Asia constitute but one continent, extend¬ 
ing from W. to E., and having the shape of 
an immense triangle, the angles of which 
are Spain in the W., the peninsula of the 
Tchuktchis in the N. E., and that of Ma¬ 
lacca in the S. E. The Arctic Ocean in the 
N., the Pacific in the E., and the Indian 
Ocean, continued by its narrow gulf, the 
Red Sea, which nearly reaches the Mediter¬ 


ranean, inclose the continent of Asia. The 
area covered by Asia and its islands is 
17,255,890 square miles; that is, almost ex¬ 
actly one-third of the land surface of the 
globe (32 per cent). It is one-seventh larger 
than the surface of both Americas together, 
by one-half larger than that of Africa, and 
more than four times larger than Europe. 
Geographically speaking, Europe is a mere 
appendix to Asia, and no exact geographical 
delimitation of the two continents is pos¬ 
sible. The line of separation from Africa 
is better defined by the narrow Red Sea; 
but Arabia participates so largely in the 
physical features of Africa that it is in a 
sense intermediate between the two con¬ 
tinents. 

Peninsulas .— Asia has 1 mile of coast¬ 
line for every 337 square miles of its area; 
that is, three times less than Europe; be¬ 
sides one-fifth of its shores is washed by 
the ice-bound Arctic Ocean (9,900 miles out 
of 51,000), or by the foggy and icy Sea of 
Okhotsk, where navigation is possible only 
for a few months, or even weeks, in each 
year. Its peninsulas comprise nearly one- 
fifth of its surface (19 per cent., as against 
28 in Europe), but they partake of the mas¬ 
sive structure of the continent. Three im¬ 
mense olTsets continue the continent of Asia 
into more tropical latitudes, Arabia, India, 
and the Indo-Chinese peninsula, and some 
likeness exists between them and the three 
southern peninsulas of Europe, Spain, Italy, 
and the Balkan peninsula, surrounded by 
its archipelago of hundreds of islands. Asia 
Minor protrudes between the Black Sea and 
the Mediterranean as a huge mass of table¬ 
land, broken by narrow gulfs in its western 
parts. In the Pacific are three large penin¬ 
sulas, Korea, Kamchatka, and that of the 
Tchuktchis. The flat, ever frozen, uninhab¬ 
itable peninsulas of the Arctic Ocean, 
Taimyr and Yalmal, could play no part in 
the growth of civilization. 

Seas and Gulfs .— The early inhabitants 
of Asia had no Mediterranean Sea to serve 
as a highway of communication between the 
southern peninsulas. The gulfs which sep¬ 
arate them, the Arabian Sea and the Bay of 
Bengal, are wide open divisions of the Indian 
Ocean. The Red Sea penetrates between 
Africa and Arabia; and only now, since it 
has been brought into communication with 
the Mediterranean by the Suez Canal, has 
it become an important channel of traffic. 
Asia’s true Mediterranean is on the E., 
where several archipelagoes, like so many 
chains of islands, mark off from the ocean 
the Southern and Eastern China Seas, whose 
Gulfs of Siam and Tonkin, and, especially, 
the Yellow Sea, with the Gulf of Pechili, 
penetrate into the continent. Those gulfs, 
since the dawn of history, have promoted 
the development of marine traffic in these 
regions, and would have done so still more 







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Asia 


Asia 


but for the typhoons, the constant danger 
of these seas. The Sea of Japan is less 
favored by climate and currents, and it has 
on its W. the inhospitable coasts of North¬ 
ern Manchuria, where Russia is trying to 
establish a maritime center at Peter the 
Great Bay. The Sea of Okhotsk and that 
of Bering, although possessing fine gulfs 
(Ghizhiga, Anadyr), have no importance 
for the maritime traffic of nations. 

Islands .— The islands of Asia cover an 
aggregate of no less than 1,023,000 square 
miles (nearly 6 per cent, of Asia’s surface). 
The coasts of Asia Minor are dotted with 
islands, of which the Sporades connect it 
with Greece. Cyprus was from remote an¬ 
tiquity a center of civilization; so also 
Ceylon. The Laccadives and Maldives are 
mere coral atolls, rising amid the Indian 
Ocean and sheltering some 200,000 inhabit¬ 
ants. The islands of East Asia are much 
more important. A narrow strip of islands, 
some large like Sumatra (177,000 square 
miles) and Java, others mere reefs, extend 
in a wide semicircle, under the name of 
Andaman and Sunda Islands, from Burma 
to Australia, separating the Indian Ocean 
from' the shallow Java Sea and the Malay 
Archipelago. This last immense volcanic 
region, inhabited by the Malay race, com¬ 
prises the huge Borneo, the ramified Cel¬ 
ebes, and the numberless small islands of the 
Moluccas, the Philippines, etc., connected 
on the N. W. with the Chinese coast by the 
Island of Formosa. This latter, as well 
as Hainan, may be properly considered as 
part of the Chinese mainland. The Loo- 
choo (Liu-Kiu) Islands and the Japanese 
Archipelago, the latter joining Kamchatka 
by the Kuriles, continue farther N. E. 
this chain of islands which border the coast 
of Asia. In the Arctic Ocean, the small 
Bear Islands, the archipelago of the Liak- 
hof, Anjou, and Do Long Islands, as also 
those of the Kara Sea, are lost amid ice¬ 
fields, and are but occasionally visited by 
whalers. Kellett’s, or Wrangel’s Land, off 
the peninsula of the Tchuktchis, was thor¬ 
oughly explored by Lieut. R. M. Berry, 
United States navy. 

Orography .— If the whole mass of the 
mountains and plateaus of Asia were uni¬ 
formly spread over its surface, the con¬ 
tinent would rise no less than 2,885 feet 
above the sea, while Africa and North Amer¬ 
ica would respectively reach only 2,105 and 
1,950 feet. High plateaus occupy nearly 
two-fifths of its area. One of them, that of 
Western Asia, including Anatolia, Armenia, 
and Iran, extends in a southeasterly direc¬ 
tion from the Black Sea to the valley of the 
Indus; while the other, the high plateaus of 
Eastern Asia, still loftier and much more 
extensive, stretches N. E. from the Himal¬ 
ayas to the northeastern extremity of Asia, 
resembling in shape a South America point¬ 


ing N. E., and meeting Bering Strait, the 
northwestern extremity of the high plateau 
of North America. 

Rivers .—Only four rivers, the Mississippi, 
Amazon, Kongo, and Nile, surpass the larg¬ 
est rivers of Asia, the Yenisei and the Yang- 
tse-kiang, both as to length and drainage 
areas; but owing to the scarcity of rain 
over large parts of* Asia, the amount of 
water carried down by the largest rivers is, 
as a rule, disproportionately small as com¬ 
pared with American or European rivers. 
The predominant feature of Asia’s hydrog¬ 
raphy is the existence of very wide areas 
having no outlet to the sea. On the great 
plateau of Eastern Asia, the region which 
lias no outlet from the plateau, and whose 
water does not reach even Lake Aral or the 
Caspian, covers a surface larger than that 
of Spain, France, and Germany together. 
It is watered only by the Tarim, which sup¬ 
plies some irrigation works in its upper 
parts, and enters the rapidly drying marshes 
of Lob-nor. This area is steadily increas¬ 
ing, and since 1802 we have had to add to 
it the drainage area (as large as England 
and Wales) of the Kerulen, which empties 
into Dalai-nor, but no longer reaches the 
Argun, a tributary of the Amur. The Ulya- 
sutai River and the Tchagantogoi now no 
longer reach Lake Balkash; and the Ur- 
ungu, which obviously joined the Upper 
Irtysh at no very remote date, empties into 
a lake separated from the Black Irtysh by 
a low isthmus not 5 miles wide. If we 
add to this the drainage basins of Lake 
Balkash with its tributaries, the Hi and 
other smaller rivers; the great Lake Aral, 
with the Syr-daria (Jaxartes) and Amu- 
daria (Oxus), as also the numerous rivers 
which flow toward it or its tributaries, but 
are desiccated by evaporation before reach¬ 
ing them, and finally the Caspian with its 
tributaries, the Volga, Ural, Kura, and 
Terek, we find an immense surface of more 
than 4,000,000 square miles; that is, much 
larger than Europe, which has no outlet to 
the ocean. The plateaus of Iran and Ar¬ 
menia, two separate areas in Arabia, and 
one in Asia Minor, represent a surface of 
5,507,000 square miles. 

The drainage area of the Arctic Ocean in¬ 
cludes all the lowlands of Siberia, its plains 
and large portions of the great plateau. 
The chief rivers flowing N. to the Arctic 
Ocean are the Obi, with the Irtysh; the 
Yenisei, with its great tributary, the An¬ 
gara, which brings to it the waters of Lake 
Baikal, itself fed by the Selenga, the Up¬ 
per Angara, and hundreds of small streams; 
and finally the Lena, with its great trib¬ 
utaries, the Vitim, Olekma, Vilui, and Al¬ 
dan. Owing to their great tributaries and 
to the fact that each of them is formed by 
two great rivers of nearly equal importance, 
navigation is carried on over wide distances 




Asia 


Asia 


in Siberia. Three great navigable rivers 
enter the Pacific: the Amur, composed of 
the Argun and Shilka, and receiving the 
Sungari, a great artery of navigation in 
Manchuria, the Usuri and the Zeya; the 
Hoang-ho; and the Yang-tse-kiang, the last 
two rising on the plateau of Tibet. 
Freighted boats penetrate from the sea- 
coast to the very heart of China. The Cam¬ 
bodia, or Me-kong, the Salwen, and the 
Irawadi, rising in the eastern parts of the 
high plateau, water the Indo-Chinese penin¬ 
sula. Rising on the same height, the Indus 
and the Brahmaputra flow through a high 
valley in opposite directions along the 
northern base of the Himalayas, until both 
pierce the gigantic ridge at its opposite 
ends, and find their way, the former to the 
lowlands of the Punjab, where it is joined 
by the Sutlej, and the latter to Assam and 
Bengal, where it joins the great river of 
India, the Ganges, before entering the Gulf 
of Bengal by a great number of branches 
forming an immense delta. The plateau 
of the Deccan is watered by the Godavari 
and Krishna, flowing E., the Narbada, flow¬ 
ing W., and a great number of smaller 
streams. The Tigris and Euphrates, both 
rising in the high plateau of Armenia, flow 
parallel to each other, bringing life to the 
;valley of Mesopotamia, and join before en¬ 
tering the Persian Gulf. Arabia proper has 
no rivers worthy of notice; only the ivadys, 
or dry channels of former rivers, show that 
there was a time not far distant when it 
was well watered. The Irmah, which en¬ 
ters the Black Sea, is the only river worthy 
of notice in Asia Minor. In Caucasus, the 
Rion and Kuban enter the Black Sea, and 
the Kura and Terek, the Caspian. 

Inland Seas and Lakes .— A succession of 
great lakes or inland seas are situated all 
along the northern slope of the high plat¬ 
eaus of Western and Eastern Asia, their 
levels becoming higher as we advance farther 
E. The Caspian, 800 miles long and 270 
wide, is an immense sea, even larger than 
the Black Sea, but its level is now 85 feet 
below the level of the ocean; Lake Aral, 
nearly as wide as the JEgean Sea, has its 
level 157 feet above the ocean; farther E. 
we have Lake Balkash (780 feet), Zaison 
(1,200 feet), and Lake Baikal (1,550 feet). 
Many large lakes appear on the plateau of 
Tibet (Tengri-nor, Bakha), and on the high 
plateau of the Selenga and Vitim (Ubsa-nor, 
Ikhe-aral, Kosogol, Oron) ; and smaller 
lakes and ponds are numerous also in the 
plateau of the Deccan, Armenia, and Asia 
Minor. Three large lakes, Urmia, Van, and 
Goktcha, and many smaller ones, lie on the 
highest part of the Armenian plateau. On 
the Pacific slope of the great plateau, the 
great rivers of China and the Amur, with 
its tributaries, have along their lower 


courses some large and very many small 
lakes. 

Geology .— The great plateaus, built up 
of crystalline unstratified rocks, granites, 
granitites, syenites, and dionites, as well 
as of gneisses, talc, and mica-schists, clap- 
slates and limestones, all belong to the 
Archtean formation (Huronian, Laurentian, 
Silurian, and partly Devonian), and have 
been submerged by the sea since the De¬ 
vonian epoch. The higher terrace of the 
plateau of Pamir and the plateaus of the 
Selenga and Vitim are built up only of 
Huronian and Laurentian azoic schists; and 
even Silurian deposits, widely spread on the 
plains, are doubtful on the plateaus. Their 
upheaval dates from an earlier age, and 
they arose above the sea during the De¬ 
vonian epoch, while parts at least of the 
lpwer terrace were under the sea at that 
period. During the Jurassic period, im¬ 
mense fresh water basins covered the sur¬ 
face of those plateaus, and have left their 
traces in Jurassic coal beds, which are found 
in the depressions of the plateaus and low¬ 
lands. Carboniferous deposits are met with 
in Turkestan, India, and Western Asia; 
while in Eastern Asia the numerous coal¬ 
beds of Manchuria, China, and the archi¬ 
pelagoes are all Jurassic. During the Cre¬ 
taceous and Tertiary period an immense 
mediterranean sea spread over the surface 
of the plateau, and penetrating through the 
Zungarrian trench, it covered the Han-hai. 
This interior sea persisted until earlier 
parts of the Tertiary epoch, when new up¬ 
heavals broke its connection with the Ter¬ 
tiary seas which covered what are now 
plains and lowlands. Thick layers of Ter¬ 
tiary deposits are found at great heights in 
the alpine tracts which fringe the plateau. 
These chains of mountains are of the same 
geological origin. They arose above the 
carboniferous Triassic chalk and Jurassic 
seas which covered what are now the low¬ 
lands and lower terraces of Asia; but their 
upheaval has continued throughout these 
epochs, so that in the outer chains of Asia 
we see carboniferous and younger deposits, 
up to Tertiary, lifted to great heights. 

More than 120 active volcanoes are known 
in Asia, chiefly in the islands of the S. E., 
the Philippines, Japan, the Kurile, and 
Kamchatka, and also in a few islands of 
the Seas of Bengal and Arabia, and in West¬ 
ern Asia. Numerous traces of volcanic 
eruptions are found in Eastern Tian-shan 
in tlie northwestern border ridges of the high 
Siberian plateau, and in the S. W. of Aigun, 
in Manchuria. Earthquakes are frequent, 
especially in Armenia, Turkestan, and 
around Lake Baikal. 

Minerals .— There are gold mines of great 
wealth in the Urals, the Altai, and Eastern 
Siberia; and auriferous sands are found in 
Korea, Sumatra, Japan, and in the Cau- 



Asia 


Asia 


casus Mountains. Silver is extracted in 
Siberia; platina, in the Urals; copper, in 
Japan, India, and Siberia; tin, in Banca; 
mercury, in Japan. Iron ore is found in 
nearly all the mountainous regions, espe¬ 
cially in Asia Minor, Persia, Turkestan, In¬ 
dia, China, Japan, and Siberia; but iron 
mining is still at a rudimentary stage. Im¬ 
mense coal-beds are spread over China and 
the islands of the Pacific (Hainan, Japan¬ 
ese Archipelago, Sakhalin), Eastern Si¬ 
beria, Turkestan, India, Persia, and Asia 
Minor. They cover no less than 500,000 
square miles in China alone; but the ex¬ 
traction of coal is as yet very limited. 
Graphite of very high quality is found in the 
Sayans and Northern Siberia. The dia¬ 
monds of India, the sapphires of Ceylon, 
the rubies of Burma and Turkestan, the 
topazes, beryls, etc., of the Urals and Nert- 
chinsk, have a wide repute. Layers of 
rock-salt are widely spread, and still more 
so the salt lakes and springs. The petro¬ 
leum wells of the Caspian shores already 
rival those of the United States. A variety 
of mineral springs, some of them equal to 
the best waters of Western Europe, are 
widely spread over Asia. 

Climate .— On account of the immense 
area of Asia, great differences of climate are 
met with, and, therefore, the meteorologists 
subdivide the continent into several climatic 
regions. 

Flora .— There is little difference between 
the vegetation of the E. of Europe and 
that of Northwestern Asia. Forests cover 
extensive tracts, and consist of pine, fir, 
larch, cedar, silver fir, birch, aspen, and 
poplars. The red beech does not penetrate 
into Siberia; and the oak does not cross the 
Ural. The forests of Siberia differ widely 
from those of Europe in the predominance 
of the larch, the rarity of the Scotch fir, 
which grows only on the drier ground, and 
the very characters of the trees compelled 
to accommodate themselves to a harsh cli¬ 
mate, and to soil either stony or swampy. 
The underwood of the Siberian forests also 
offers a richer variety of species, and many 
a bush, now a favorite in our gardens for 
its wealth of blossom, has its home in the 
alpine tracts which border the great plateau 
on the N. W. 

In the region to the E. of the high plat¬ 
eau, including China, Manchuria, and Japan, 
oak reappears. So also the walnut, the 
hazel, the lime-tree, and the maple; while 
several new species of poplars, willows, 
acacias, and many others, make their ap¬ 
pearance. The forests become really beau¬ 
tiful. In Japan a variety of species of 
pine, and the reappearance of the beech, add 
to their beauty. A rich underwood of lianas, 
ivies, wild vines, roses, and so on, renders 
the forests quite impassable, especially in 
the littoral region, submitted to the influ¬ 


ence of the monsoons. In the lower parts 3 
rich prairies cover immense spaces; the 
grass vegetation becomes luxuriant; and in 
the virgin prairies of the Amur man and 
horse are easily concealed by the stems of 
grasses of gigantic size. Rice and cotton 
are cultivated in the southern parts of the 
region. The gradual disappearance of the 
southern species; and the prevalence of 
northern ones, permits the division of the 
region into two parts: the Chinese flora, and 
that of Manchuria and the Okhotsk littoral. 

The beech is characteristic of the forests 
of Western Asia. Here also are found all 
the trees of Southern Europe. The vine 
and several of the European fruit-trees 
(plum, cherry, apricot, pear) are regarded 
by botanists as belonging originally to this 
region. The flora of Asia Minor combines 
those of Southern Europe and Northern 
Africa, owing to its evergreen oaks, laurels, 
olive-trees, myrtles, oleanders, and pis¬ 
tachio-trees, as also to its variety of bul¬ 
bous plants. 

Southern and Southeastern Asia, with 
their numerous islands, display the richest 
flora, which seems quite distinct from the 
above, and extends as a separate domain of 
vegetation over India, the Indo-Chinese pe¬ 
ninsula, and the archipelagoes, and reaches 
Northwestern Australia. The hot climate 
and the great amount of the summer rains, 
with a relatively dry winter, contribute to 
the development of a rich tropical vegeta¬ 
tion. The higher parts of the region, par¬ 
ticularly the Himalayas, are clothed on 
their southern slopes with forests up to the 
heights of 12,000 and 13,000 feet. In the 
lower parts of the region, and especially the 
neighborhood of the seacoasts, the tropical 
vegetation reaches the variety and size of 
the American. Here the sugar cane, the 
cotton shrub, and the indigo had their 
origin. The cocoanut palm and the banyan- 
tree are the most striking feature of the 
coast vegetation. Ferns reach the size of 
large trees. The gigantic banyan, the screw 
pine, the India rubber, and the red cotton 
trees occur in immense forests; and bam¬ 
boos grow thick and high. 

In Borneo, Java, and the islands of the 
archipelago, the tropical vegetation is like 
that of India. The mountain flora also re¬ 
sembles that of the Himalayas; rich forests 
clothe the volcanoes up to their tops. The 
sago palm, the bread tree, imported from 
the South Sea Islands, and the tamarind, 
also imported, are largely cultivated, as also 
the cocoanut palm and the sugar palm. 
Orchids appear in their full variety and 
beauty. The swamps are covered with man¬ 
groves or with the nipa or susa palm; and 
vanilla, pepper, clove, and nearly all the 
spices are native to this region. 

Asia has given to Europe a variety of use¬ 
ful plants; among them, wheat, barley, oats, 



Asia 


Asia 


and millet, onions, radishes, peas, beans, 
spinach, and other vegetables. Nearly all 
our fruit trees have the same origin; the 
apple, pear, plum, cherry, almond, pistachio, 
and mulberry, the raspberry, and even lu¬ 
cerne, were imported from Asia to Europe. 

Fauna .— The fauna of nearly the whole of 
continental Asia belongs to one single do¬ 
main. Animals could easily spread over the 
plains of Europe and Siberia on the one 
side, ?nd on the other along the high pla¬ 
teau which stretches from Tibet to the land 
of the Tchuktchis. This wide region can 
be easily subdivided into the Arctic region, 
the Boreal, embracing the lowlands of West¬ 
ern Siberia; the Daurian, in the northern 
parts of the great plateau; and the Central 
Asian. The fauna of Siberia is much like 
that of Eastern Europe, and would be still 
more like were it not for the disappearance 
from Europe of several species still existing 
in Siberia. It is the true habitat of all fur¬ 
bearing animals, as the bear, wolf, fox, sable, 
ermine, otter, beaver, common weasel and 
squirrel; also the hare, wild boar, the stag, 
the reindeer, and the elk, all belonging to 
the European faunus, with the addition of 
several species common to the Arctic fauna. 
In Eastern Siberia, i. e., in the N. parts 
of the high plateau, are representatives of 
the fauna of Central Asia, which spread 
from the S. W. (see Siberia). A further 
addition of Mongolian species is found on 
the lower plateau in Transbaikalia, where 
the fauna of the Central Asian depression 
meets with that of Siberia. 

The Central Asian plateau has a fauna of 
its own. We find there the wild ancestors 
of several of our domestic animals, viz., the 
wild horse, discovered by Przewalski (Pre- 
jevalsky) in the Ala-shan Mountains, the 
wild camel and donkey, and the capra cegar- 
gus, from which our common goat is de¬ 
scended. The yak, several species of ante¬ 
lopes, and the roebuck are characteristic 
of the Central Asian fauna; so also are the 
huge sheep, now disappearing, which found 
refuge in the wilder parts of the plateaus. 
In the Steppe region we find the same fauna 
as in Siberia, with the addition of the tiger, 
which occasionally reaches Lake Zaisan, and 
even Lake Baikal; the leopard and hyena 
coming from warmer regions; and a variety 
of endemic birds; while in Arabia there is 
an admixture of African species. Several 
Indian species also penetrate within this 
region. The Caucasus has a fauna belonging 
to the Circum-Mediterranean region. The 
bison, which has now completely disappeared 
from Europe (with the exception of the 
Byelovyezh forests in Western Russia), is 
still found in the forests of Caucasus; also 
the same abundance of pheasants as on the 
Pacific littoral. 

Southern and Southeastern Asia belong to 
a separate zoological domain. The heights 


of the Himalayas have the fauna of the 
Tibet portion of the high plateau; but on 
their S. slopes the fauna is purely Indian 
and Transgangetic, while a few African 
species are found on the plains of India 
and in the Deccan. As a whole the tropi¬ 
cal fauna of Asia is richer than the African, 
and the American tropical fauna surpasses 
it only in the number of parrots and the 
family of picarice. It is characterized by the 
great number of carnivora, which find 
refuge in the jungles, and by the elephant, 
rhinoceros, wild buffalo, red deer, many 
long-armed apes and half-apes, huge bats, 
genets, and a variety of serpents and croco¬ 
diles; the bird fauna includes vultures, a 
variety of parrots, pelicans and flamingoes. 
The fauna is still richer in the Indo-Chi¬ 
nese Peninsula, while in the archipelagos of 
Southeastern Asia several Australian species 
add to its extent. Since the glacial period 
the mammoth and hairy rhinoceros have 
disappeared, also the cave-bear, tiger, wolf, 
and hyena. Even within historic times, 
several species of mammals, like the bison 
and the aurochs, have all but disappeared, 
while others are found only in very small 
numbers in the wildest parts of the high 
plateau. 

Ethnography .— The aggregate population 
of Asia is estimated at 865,000,000, being 
thus more than one-half of the entire popu¬ 
lation of the globe. This population how¬ 
ever, is small, giving only an average of 49 
inhabitants per square mile. It is unequally 
distributed, and reaches 557 per square mile 
in some provinces of China, denser than in 
Belgium (539 per square mile), and 520 in 
some parts of Northwestern India. It is 
greatest in those parts of Asia which are 
most favored by rains, the densest popula¬ 
tion being met with to the S. and S. E. 
of the great plateau on an area comprising 
only one-fifth of Asia’s surface. Seven- 
tenths have scarcely more than from 3 to 
20 inhabitants per square mile; and nearly 
one-tenth is almost quite uninhabited. The 
inhabitants of Asia belong to five different 
groups; the so-called Caucasian (fair type) 
in Western Asia and India; the Mongolian 
in Central and Eastern Asia, as also in the 
Indo-Chinese Peninsula; the Malay in Mal¬ 
acca and the Indian Archipelago; the Dravi- 
das in Southeastern India and Ceylon; and 
the Negritos and Papuas in the virgin for¬ 
ests of the Philippine Islands and Celebes; 
also a sixth great division comprising the 
stems which inhabit Northeastern Asia, the 
Hyperboreans, whose affinities are not yet 
well known. The Mongolian race alone em¬ 
braces nearly seven-tenths of the population 
of Asia; the Malay, about two-tenths, and 
the Caucasian about one-tenth. The Euro¬ 
peans reckon about 6,000,000 (Russians) in 
Caucasus, Turkestan and Siberia; some 
150,000 (English) in India; and 45,000 in 
the Dutch Indies. 



Asm 


Asia 


Religions. — Asia has been the birthplace 
of religions; the Jewish, Buddhist, Christian 
and Mohammedan having their origin in 
Asia, where they grow up under the influ¬ 
ence of still older religions, the Babylonian 
and that of Zoroaster, both also of Asiatic 
origin. At present the inhabitants of Asia 
belong chiefly to the Buddhist religion, 
which has 530.000.000 to 500,000,000 of 
followers, i. c., nearly one-third of mankind. 
The old faith of Hinduism has 187,000,000 
of followers in India. Most of the inhabit¬ 
ants of Western Asia, as also of part of 
Central Asia, follow the religion of Islam; 
they may number about 90,000,000. The 
Christians number about 20,000,000 in Ar¬ 
menia, Caucasus, Siberia and Turkestan. 
Jews are scattered mostly in Western and 
Central Asia. A few fire-worshippers, 
Guebres or Parsi of India and Persia, are 
the sole remnant of the religion of Zoro¬ 
aster; while vestiges of Sabseism are found 
amidst the Gesides and Sabians on the 
Tigris. 

Civilization .—At present one finds in Asia 
all varieties of civilization, the primitive 
tribes, of Northeastern Siberia, the confed¬ 
erations of nomadic shepherds, and great na¬ 
tions in possession of a common stock of 
national customs, beliefs and literature, like 
China; the tribal stage; the compound 
family, forming the real basis of China’s 
social organization; the rural community, 
both of the Indian and Mussulman type; 
the loose aggregations of Tchuktchis, having 
no rulers and no religion beyond the worship 
of forces of nature, but professing with re¬ 
gard to one anothei principles of morality 
and mutual support often forgotten in 
higher stages of civilization; and despotic 
monarchies with a powerful clergy. So 
also in economic life. While the tribes of 
the N. E. find their means of subsistence ex¬ 
clusively in fishing and hunting, carried on 
with the simplest implements, among which 
stone weapons have not yet quite disap¬ 
peared, and the tribes of Central Asia carry 
on primitive cattle breeding and lead a half- 
nomadic life, others are agriculturists, and 
have brought irrigation (in Turkestan) to 
a degree of perfection hardly known in 
Europe. 

Political Conditions .— While the coun¬ 
tries beyond the great plateau entered but 
quite recently within the domain of Western 
history, those on its Mediterranean slope 
have never ceased to exercise a powerful 
influence on Europe. At the very dawn of 
written history, that is, 50 centuries before 
our era, the great Akkadian Empire al¬ 
ready influenced the inhabitants of the 
coasts of the Mediterranean. Later on the 
Phoenicians extended their authority over 
Northern Africa, and the Aegean Sea; the 
Persians modified the development of Egypt; 
and at a very remote epoch an oasis of high 

30 


civilization, grown up at the base of the 
Altai Mountains, spread itself to the W. 
over Northern Europe. Alexander of Mace- 
don pushed his conquests as far as Turkes¬ 
tan; and, later on, Rome conquered West¬ 
ern Asia. But the Greek and Arabian civi¬ 
lization in Central Asia decayed under the 
raids of Mongolian tribes; tne Roman em¬ 
pire was absorbed by the East, and fell into 
decay at the very confines of Asia, on the 
shores of the Bosphorus; the Arsacides and 
Sassanides of Persia repulsed the Roman ag¬ 
gression and conquered Roman provinces, 
while the great migrations of the first cen¬ 
turies of our era were due to mass move¬ 
ments from Asia into Europe. Ural-Al- 
taians migrated to the Urals and thence to 
Hungary. Other Turanians, the Mervs, the 
Alans, the Avars, penetrated into Europe 
from the S. E. Mongols abandoned pla¬ 
teaus, and invaded the Russian plains; the 
Arabs, following the S. coast of the Medi¬ 
terranean, invaded Spain; and the empire of 
the Osmanlis arose on the ruins of the East¬ 
ern Roman empire. By these invasions, 
Asia arrested the free development of 
Europe, and compelled the Germanic, Gallic, 
and Slavonic federations to gather into pow¬ 
erful States of the Roman monarchical type. 

Portuguese ships, rounding the Cape, 
founded the first European colonies in India. 
They were soon followed by the Spaniards, 
the Dutch, the French, the Danes and the 
British, all endeavoring to seize the rich¬ 
est colonies in Asia, and all involved in in¬ 
terminable struggles for preponderance in 
her lands and on her seas; while Russia, in 
the course of a few centuries, conquered and 
colonized the northwestern slopes of the high 
plateau and reached the Pacific. Great 
Britain established herself in India, and 
took possession of the whole of the peninsula, 
and extended her power over the western 
parts of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. The 
Portuguese retain in India only Diu, Da¬ 
man and Goa; and the French keep Chan- 
dernagore, Yanaon, Pondicherry, Charical 
a nd Mahe. The next colonial power in Asia is 
the Dutch, who have under their dominion 
most of Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Celebes, the 
Moluccas and the small Sunda Islands. 
British and French interests are rivals in 
the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, and, while 
Burma has become English, the annexation 
by France of Tonkin and of Siamese ter¬ 
ritory E. of the Mekhong has consolidated 
French power in Indo-China. The joint in¬ 
tervention by Russia and France in Chinese 
affairs after the Japanese War of 1894- 
1895 has further extended both French and 
Russian influence in Asia. China, till then 
regarded as forming, with Great Britain and 
Russia, the third great power in Asia, has 
assumed, temporarily at least, a quite sub¬ 
ordinate place, while Japan has become the 
foremost native Asiatic power. 



Asia 


Asia Minor 


Ways of Communication .— Caravans of 
camels are the chief means of transport for 
goods and travelers in the interior; donkeys, 
yaks and even goats and sheep are employed 
in crossing the high passages of the Hima¬ 
layas , horses are the usual means of trans¬ 
port in most parts of China and Siberia, 
and in the barren tracts of the 1ST. the rein¬ 
deer and, still farther N., the dog, are made 
use of. Fortunately the great rivers of 
Asia provide water communication over im¬ 
mense distances. The deep and broad 
streams of China, allowing heavy boats to 
penetrate far into the interior of the 
country, connect it with the sea; a brisk 
traffic is carried on along these arteries. In 
Siberia, the bifurcated rivers supply a 
water way, not only N. and S. along the 
course of the chief rivers running toward 
the Arctic Ocean, but also W. and E.; thus 
a great line of water communication crosses 
Siberia, and is, with but a few interrup¬ 
tions, continued in the E. by the Amur, navi¬ 
gable for more than 2,CCD miles. In the 
winter the rivers and plains of Siberia be¬ 
come excellent roads for sledges, on which 
goods are still chiefly transported. 

Railways .— In 1900 the lines in existence 
had .a total length of about 30,000 miles, of 
which two-thirds belonged to British India. 
The portions of the Trans-Caspian and 
Trans-Siberian railways already constructed 
had a length of 3,200 miles. A number of 
European syndicates held concessions for 
3,600 miles of railroads in China, which will 
traverse regions rich in minerals and agri¬ 
culture; many of these lines were then in 
process of construction. The Chinese Gov¬ 
ernment owned about 300 miles of railway. 
The lines are very remunerative, especially 
that from Peking to Tien-Tsin. Japan is 
well provided with railroads; the length be¬ 
ing 3,200 miles. French Indo-China had 
only 120 miles, but the French possessions 
in Cochin-China, Anam, and Tonkin were ex¬ 
pected soon to have 2,400 miles, which will 
greatly help to develop their mineral and' 
agricultural resources. The Dutch Indies 
are well supplied. Java alone has 1,000 
miles. There are as yet no railroads in 
Persia of any consequence; but Turkey oper¬ 
ates 1.500 miles in Asia, and 600 miles more 
were in construction or projected. 

Telegraph communications are in a much 
more advanced state than the roads. St. 
Petersburg is connected by telegraph with 
the mouth of the Amur and Vladivostok (on 
the frontier of Korea) ; while another 
branch, crossing Turkestan and Mongolia, 
runs on to Tashkend, Peking and Shanghai, 
Constantinople is connected with Bombay, 
Madras, Singapore, Saigon, Hong-Kong and 
Nagasaki in Japan; and Singapore stands 
in telegraphic communication with Java, 
and Port Darwin in Australia. Finally, 
Odessa is connected by wire with Tiflis in 
Caucasus, Teheran, and Bombay. 


Trade .— Notwithstanding the difficulties 
of communication a brisk trade is carried on 
between the different parts of Asia, but 
there is no possibility of arriving at even 
an approximate estimate of its aggregate 
value. The maritime exports to Europe, the 
United States, and overland to Russia, have 
an annual value of about $900,000,000, and 
the imports of about $750,000,000. Asia 
deals chiefly in raw materials, gold, silver, 
petroleum, teak, and a variety of timber- 
wood, furs, raw cotton, silk, wool, tallow, 
and so on; the products of her tea, coffee 
and spice plantations; and a yearly increas¬ 
ing amount of wheat and other grain. 
Steam industry is only now making its ap¬ 
pearance in Asia, and, although but a very 
few years old, threatens to become a rival to 
European manufacture. Indian cottons of 
European patterns and jute-stuffs already 
compete with those of Lancashire and Dun¬ 
dee. Several of the petty trades carried on 
in India, China, Japan, Asia Minor and 
some parts of Persia, have been brought to 
so high a perfection that the silks, printed 
cottons, carpets, jewelry and cutlery of par¬ 
ticular districts far surpass in their artistic 
taste many like productions of Europe. The 
export of these articles is steadily increas¬ 
ing, and Japan supplies Europe with thou¬ 
sands of small articles — applications of 
Japanese art and taste to objects of Euro¬ 
pean household, furniture. 

Asia Minor (Asia the Less, as distin¬ 
guished from Asia in the widest extent), is 
the name usually given to the western pen¬ 
insular projection of Asia, forming part of 
Turkey in Asia. The name is not very an¬ 
cient; originally the Greeks seem by Asia 
to have meant only the western part of Asia 
Minor, but with their geographical knowl¬ 
edge, the scope of the name Asia gradually 
widened. The late Greek name for Asia 
Minor is Anatolia — AnatoM, “the East.” 
whence is formed the Turkish Anaddli. 
Asia Minor includes the peninsula; the 
eastern boundary, somewhat artificial, being 
a line from the Gulf of Skanderoon to the 
Upper Euphrates, and thence to a point' E. 
of Trebizond. The area of the peninsula ex¬ 
ceeds 220.000 square miles. It constitutes 
the western prolongation of the high table¬ 
land of Armenia, with its border mountain- 
ranges. The interior consists of a great 
plateau, or rather series of plateaus, rising 
in graduation from 3,500 to 4.000 feet, with 
bare steppes, salt plains, marshes and lakes; 
the structure is volcanic, and there are sev¬ 
eral conical mountains, one of which, the 
Ergish-dagh (Argceus), with two craters, 
attains a height of 11,830 feet, towering 
above the plain of Kaisarieh, which has it¬ 
self an elevation of between 2,000 and 3,000 
feet. The plateau is bordered on the N. by 
a long train of parallel mountains, 4,000 
to 6,000 feet high, and cut up into groups 
by cross valleys. These mountains sink 




Asia Minor 


Asinarii 


abruptly down on the N. side to a narrow 
strip of coast; their slopes toward the in¬ 
terior are gentler and bare of wood. Simi¬ 
lar is the character of the border ranges on 
the S., the ancient Taurus, only that they 
are more continuous and higher, being, to 
the N. of the Bay of Skanderoon, 10,000 to 
12,000 feet, and, farther to the W., 8,000 
to 9,000 feet. The W. border is intersected 
by numerous valleys opening upon the 
archipelago, to the northern part of which 
Mounts Ida and Olympus belong. Between 
the highlands and the sea lie the fertile 
coast-lands of the Levant. Of the rivers 
the largest is the Kizil Irmak (Halys), 
which, like the Yeshil Irmak (Iris), and the 
Sakaria (Sangarius), flows into the Black 
Sea; the Sarabat (Hermus) and Meinder 
(Meander) flow into the Aegean. 

The climate has, on the whole, a South 
European character; but a distinction must 
be made of four regions. The central pla¬ 
teau, nearly destitute of wood and water, 
has a hot climate in summer, and a cold in 
winter; the S. coast has mild winters and 
scorching summers; while on the coast of 
the iEgean there is the mildest of climates 
and a magnificent vegetation. On the N. 
side the climate is not so mild, but the vege¬ 
tation is most luxuriant. 

In point of natural history, Asia Minor 
forms the transition from the continental 
character of the East to the maritime char¬ 
acter of the West. The forest-trees and 
cultivated plants of Europe are seen mingled 
with the forms characteristic of Persia and 
Syria. The central plateau, which is bar¬ 
ren. has the character of an Asiatic steppe, 
more adapted for the flocks and herds of 
nomadic tribes than for agriculture; while 
the coasts, rich in all European products, 
fine fruits, olives, wine, and silk, have quite 
the character of the S. of Europe, which on 
the warmer and drier S. coast shades into 
that of Africa. 

The inhabitants, some 7,000,000 in num¬ 
ber, consist of the most various races. The 
dominant race are the Osmanli Turks, who 
number about 1.200.000. and are spread over 
the whole country; allied to these are the 
Turkomans and Yuruks, speaking a dialect 
of the same language. The latter are found 
chiefly on the tableland, leading a nomadic 
life; there are also hordes of nomadic Kurds. 
Among the mountains E. of Trebizond are 
the robber tribes of the Lazes. 

The Greeks and Armenians are the most 
progressive elements in the population, .and 
have most of the trade. While the Greeks 
monopolize the professions, the ownership 
of the land is larging passing into the hands 
of Greeks, Armenians and Jews. Adminis¬ 
tratively the country falls into eight vila¬ 
yets or government, with their capitals in 
Brusa, Smyrna, KonTeh (Teonium), Adana, 
Sivas, Angora, Trebizond and Kastamuni 
respectively. In ancient times the divisions 


were Pontus, Paphlagonia, Bithynia, in the 
N.; Mysia, Lydia, Caria, in the W.; Pisi- 
dia with Pamphylia, and Cappadocia, in the 
S.; and Galatia with Lycaonia and Phrygia, 
in the center. The Turkish islands of the 
archipelago belong, most of them, to Asia 
Minor. 

Here, especially in Ionia, was the early 

seat of Grecian civilization, and here were 

«• _ ' 

the countries of Phrygia, Lycia, Caria, 
Paphlagonia, Bithynia, Lydia, Pamphylia, 
Isauria, Cilicia, Galatia, Cappadocia, etc., 
with Troy, Ephesus, Smyrna, and many 
other great and famous cities. Here, from 
the obscure era of Semiramis (about 2,000 
years b. c.), to the time of Osman (about 
1,300 a. n.), the greatest conquerors of the 
world contended for supremacy; and here 
took place the wars of the Modes and Per¬ 
sians with the Scythians; of the Greeks with 
the Persians; of the Romans with Mithri- 
dates and the Parthians; of the Arabs, Sel- 
julcs, Mongols and Osmanli Turks with the 
weak Byzantine Empire. Here Alexander 
the Great and the Romans successfully con¬ 
tended for the mastery of the civilized 
world. But, notwithstanding all these wars, 
the country still continued to enjoy some 
measure of prosperity till it fell into the 
hands of the Turks, under whose military 
despotism its ancient civilization has been 
sadly brought to ruin. Recently, consider¬ 
able portions of Armenia have been absorbed 
by Russia. In 1878 Great Britain made a 
secret engagement to guarantee against Rus¬ 
sian aggression the Asiatic dominions of the 
Porte. 

Asiarch, under the Romans, the director- 
general of religious ceremonies in the pro¬ 
vince of Asia. The expression occurs in 
the Greek Testament, Tines de kai ton Asi- 
archon, “ And certain also of the Asiarchs ” 
(Acts xix: 31). Properly speaking, there 
was but one Asiarch residing at Ephesus; 
the others referred to were his subordinates. 

Asiatic Societies, learned bodies insti¬ 
tuted for the purpose of collecting informa¬ 
tion respecting the different countries of 
Asia, such as the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 
founded in 1784 by Sir William Jones; and 
the Royal Asiatic* Society of Great Britain 
and Ireland, established by Mr. Colebrooke, 
and opened in 1823. There are similar so¬ 
cieties on the European continent and in 
the United States, such as the Soci£t6 Asia- 
tique at Paris, founded in 1822; the Ori¬ 
ental Society of Germany (Deutsche Mor- 
genlandische Gesellschaft), founded in 1845; 
and the Oriental Society at Boston, founded 
in 1842. 

Asinarii (as-in-ar'S-e), a name given in 
derision to the Jews because they were said 
to worship an ass; subsequently the same 
term was applied to Christians, who were also 
accused of the same thing. Tertullian tells 
the story, which was illustrated by a draw* 




Asinius 


Asparagus 


ing, made in the 2d century, in the palace of 
Caesar, in Rome. The drawing represented a 
Christian convert bowing to a man with an 
ass’s head, hanging on a cross. Underneath 
is the Greek inscription “ Alexamenos is 
worshiping God.” This drawing was dis¬ 
covered in 1856, and is now in the library of 
the Collegio Romano. 

Asinius. See Pollio. 

Asiphonata, or Asiphonida, an order of 
lamellibranchiate, bivalve mollusks, desti¬ 
tute of the siphon or tube through which, 
in the siphonata, the water that enters the 
gills is passed outward. It includes the 
oysters, the scallop shells, the pearl oyster, 
the mussels, and in general the most useful 
and valuable mollusks. 

Ask, in Scandinavian mythology, the 
name of the first man created. According to 
the legend, one day three gods, Odin, Hamer 
and Loder, found two trees by the seaside, 
an ash and an elm. From these trees they 
created the first man and first woman, Ask 
and Embla, and gave them the earth as 
their dwelling place. 

Askabad, the administrative center of 
the Russian province of Transcaspia, situ¬ 
ated in the Akhal Tekke oasis, and occu¬ 
pied by Skobeleff in January, 1881, after the 
sack of Geok Tepe. Its distance from Merv 
is 232 miles, from Herat 388 miles. 

Askew, Anne, a victim of religious per¬ 
secution, born in 1521; was a daughter of 
Sir William Askew of Lincolnshire, and was 
married to a wealthy neighbor named Ivyme, 
who, irritated by her Protestantism, drove 
her from his house. In London, whither she 
went, probably to procure a divorce, she 
spoke against the dogmas of the old faith, 
and, being tried, was condemned to death 
as a heretic. Being put to the rack to extort 
a confession concerning those with whom 
she corresponded, she continued firm, and 
was then taken to Smitlifield, chained to a 
stake, and burned, in 1546. 

Askja (ask'ya), a volcano near the center 
of Iceland, first brought into notice by an 
eruption in 1875. Its crater is 17 miles in 
circumference, surrounded by a mountain¬ 
ring from 500 to 1,000 feet high, the height 
of the mountain itself being between 4,000 
and 5,000 feet. 

Astnodai (az-mo'di), or Asmodeus, an 
evil spirit, who, as related in the book of 
Tobit, slew seven husbands of Sara, daughter 
of Raguel, but was driven away into the 
uttermost parts of Egypt by the young To¬ 
bias under the direction of the angel Ra¬ 
phael. Asmodai signifies a desolator, a 
destroying angel. He is represented in the 
Talmud as the prince of demons who drove 
King Solomon from his kingdom. 

Asmonaeans (az-mon-e'ans), a family of 
high priests and princes who ruled over the 
Jews for about 130 years, from 153 b. c., 


when Jonathan, son of Mattathias, the 
great grandson of Chasmon or Asmonams, 
was nominated to the high priesthood. They 
were also known as the Maccabees. 

Asmus, Georg (as'mos), a German poet, 
born at Giessen, Nov. 27, 1830; was em¬ 
ployed as an engineer in 1854-1862; came 
to the United States to conduct some mining 
operations in the copper region of Lake 
Superior; then lived in New York until 
1884, when he returned to Europe. Among 
the German population of the United States 
he had an enormous success with his “ Am¬ 
erican Sketch-Booklet” ( 1875), an epistle 
in verse, written in Upper Hessian dialect 
and overflowing with delicious humor. It 
was followed by “ New American Sketch- 
Booklet ” (1876). Besides these lie wrote 
“Camp Paradise” (1877), a story, and 
a collection of miscellaneous poems (1891). 
He died in Bonn, May 31, 1892. 

Asnyk, Adam (as-nik), a Polish patriot 
and poet, born at Kalish, Sept. 11, 1838. He 
participated in the insurrection of 1863, for 
which he had to spend some years in exile 
in Germany. He is the author of “ Poezve ” 
(3 vols., 1872-1880), and several historical 
works. He died in Cracow, Aug. 2, 1897. 

Asoka, an Indian sovereign, who reigned 
255—223 b. c. over the whole of Northern 
Hindustan, grandson of Chandragupta or 
Sandracottus. lie embraced Buddhism, 
and forced his subjects also to become con¬ 
verts. Many temples and topes still re¬ 
maining are attributed to him. 

Asp, or Aspic, the kind of serpent pe¬ 
culiar to Egypt and Libya, which has ob¬ 
tained great celebrity from having been 
chosen by Cleopatra to give her an easy 
death. Its poison is so quick and deadly in 
its operation that it kills without a possi¬ 
bility of applying any remedy. It is be¬ 
lieved to have been the naia haje. It is the 
same genus as the cobra capello but dif¬ 
fers in having the neck less wide, and having 
the color greenish, bordered with brown. It 
is probably the asp ( aspis ) of the New 
Testament (Rom. iii: 13), and the asp 
( pethen) of the Old (Dent, xxxii: 33; Job 
xx: 14, 16; Isa. xi: 8). The com¬ 

mon asp or chersoea (vipera aspis) is olive 
above, with four rows of black spots. Its 
poison is severe. It is common in Sweden 
and some other parts of Europe. 

Asparagus, a plant of the order lilia- 
ccce, the young shoots of which, cut as they 
are emerging from the ground, are a favor¬ 
ite culinary vegetable. In Greece, and es¬ 
pecially in the southern steppes of Russia 
and Poland, it is found in profusion; and its 
edible qualities were esteemed by the an¬ 
cients. It is mostly boiled and served with¬ 
out admixture, and eaten with butter and 
salt. It is usually raised from seed; and 
the plants should remain three years in the 
ground before they are cut; after which, for 



Aspasia 


Aspern 


10 or 12 years, they will continue to afford 
a regular annual supply. The beds are pro¬ 
tected by straw or litter in winter. Its diu- 



ASPARAGUS. 


fa) Upper end of a stem, showing leaves, etc.; 
(b) young shoot. 

retie properties are ascribed to the presence 
of a crystalline substance found also in the 
potato, lettuce, etc. 

Aspasia (as-pa'ze-a), a celebrated Gre¬ 
cian, belonging to a family of some note in 
Miletus, and was early distinguished for her 
graces of mind and person. She went to 
Athens after the Persian War, and, by her 
beauty and accomplishments soon attracted 
the attention of the leading men of that city. 
She engaged the affections of Pericfles, who 
is said to have divorced his former wife in 
order to marry her. Their union was har¬ 
monious throughout; he preserved for her 
to the end of his life the same tenderness; 

she remained the con¬ 
fidant of the states¬ 
man’s schemes, and the 
sharer of his struggles. 
Their house was the re¬ 
sort of the wisdom and 
wit of Athens. Orators, 
poets and philosophers 
came to listen to the 
eloquence of Aspasia; 
and in their conversa¬ 
tion, which turned upon 
the politics, literature, 
and metaphysics of the 
age, they deferred to 
her authority. Plato 
says that she formed 
the best speakers of her time, and, chief 
among them, Pericles himself. The sage Soc¬ 
rates was a frequent visitor at her salons, 


drawn thither, it is insinuated, by the double 
attraction of eloquence and beauty. Anaxa¬ 
goras, Phidias and Alcibiades were also 
numbered among her admirers. The envy 
which assailed the administration of Peri¬ 
cles was unsparing in its attacks on his 
mistress. Jealousy of foreigners, and dis¬ 
like of female influence, combined to offend 
the prejudices of the masses. Her fearless 
speculation aroused their superstitious zeal. 
She shared the impeachment, and narrowly 
escaped the fate, of her friend Anaxagoras. 
She was accused by Hermippus of dis¬ 
loyalty to the gods, and of introducing free 
women into her house to gratify the impure 
tastes of Pericles. He himself pleaded her 
cause triumphantly, and Aspasia was ac¬ 
quitted. She survived Pericles some years, 
and is reported to have married an obscure 
Athenian, Lysicles, whom she raised by her 
example and precept to be one of the leaders 
of the republic. 

Aspen, a tree, the populus tremula or 
trembling poplar. The leaves are nearly 
orbicular, and are bluntly sinuate-toothed. 
They soon become glabrous on both sides. 
The tremulous movement of the leaves which 
exists in all the poplars, but culminates in 
the aspen, mainly arises from the length and 
slender character of the petiole or leaf-stalk, 
and from its being much and laterally com¬ 
pressed. 

Aspen, city and county-seat of Pitkin 
co., Col., on the Roaring Fork of Grand 
river, and the Atchison, Topeka and Sante 
Fe, and the Denver and Rio Grande rail¬ 
roads; 30 mile? W. of Leadville. It became 
a mining camp in 1880; was incorporated 
in 1883; and has since become the center of 
one of the richest mining sections in the 
country. In the city and vicinity are more 
than 20 mines, for which there are a number 
of gold, silver, copper and lead ore mills. 
While the smelting and concentrating of 
ores is the distinctive industry, the city has 
several minor factories, and it is also the 
principal mining trade center of the Roaring 
Fork Valley. Pop. (1890) 5,108; (1900) 
3,303. 

Aspendos, or Aspendus, a city of Pam- 
phylia, Asia Minor, in ancient geography, 
on the Eurymedon river. It contains one 
of the best preserved Roman theaters. There 
is also an ancient aqueduct built in a long 
range of arches. 

Aspergillus, the brush used in Ro¬ 
man Catholic churches for sprinkling holy 
water on the people. It is said to have been 
originally made of hyssop. 

Aspern, a small village of Austria, on 
the Danube, about 2 miles from Vienna. 
Here, and in the neighboring village of 
Esslingen, were fought the tremendous bat¬ 
tles of the 21st and 22d of May, 1809, be¬ 
tween the French grand army, commanded 
















Asphalt 


Aspidium 


by Napoleon, and the Austrians under the 
Archduke Charles. The French, after this 
continuous fighting, with vast loss to both 
sides, were obliged to retreat, and occupy 
the island of Lobau. 

Asphalt, or Asphaltum, the most com¬ 
mon variety of bitumen; also called mineral 
pitch. Asphalt is a compact, glossy, brittle, 
black or brown mineral, which breaks with 
a polished fracture, melts easily with a 
strong pitchy odor when heated, and when 
pure burns without leaving any ashes. It 
is found in the earth in many parts of Asia, 
Europe and the United States, and in a soft 
or liquid state on the surface of the Dead 
Sea, which, from its circumference, was 
called Asphaltites. It is of organic origin, 
the asphalt of the great Pitch Lake of 
Trinidad being derived from bituminous 
shales, containing vegetable remains in the 
process of transformation. Asphalt is pro¬ 
duced artificially in making coal gas. Dur¬ 
ing the process, much tarry matter is 
evolved and collected in retorts. If this be 
distilled, naphtha and other volatile mat¬ 
ters escape, and asphalt is left behind. 

What is known as asphalt rock is a lime¬ 
stone impregnated with bitumen, found in 
large quantities in Switzerland, France, Al¬ 
sace, Hanover, Holstein, Sicily, and other 
parts of Europe, and in the United States, 
the purest forms taking the names of elater- 
ite, gilsonite, albertite, maltha, brea, etc. 
In the trade there is wide distinction be¬ 
tween these and the sandstones, and lime¬ 
stones impregnated with bitumen, which 
are known as bituminous or asphaltic lime¬ 
stone, sandstone, etc. The latter are usually 
shipped without being previously treated or 
refined, and are used principally in street 
paving. This class is known to the trade as 
bituminous rock, and of its entire product 
California yields about 90 per cent. In 
1908, the production of asphalt in its vari¬ 
ous forms was 185,382 short tons, valued at 
$1,888,881, of which oil asphalt yielded 102,- 
281 short tons, valued at $1,322,610. The pro¬ 
ductive States, with values, were: California, 
$1,347,257; Texas, $350,440 ; Utah, $100,324; 
Kentucky, $67,040; and Oklahoma, $23,820. 

Asphodel, the English name of the plants 
belonging the the genus asphodelus. The 
yellow and white species were introduced 
into this country during the 16th century — 
the former about the year 1590, and the 
latter in 1551. Immense tracts of land in 
Apulia are covered with white asphodel, 
which affords good nourishment to sheep. 
The asphodels, being sacred to Proserpine, 
were used in classic times in funeral cere¬ 
monies, and the souls of the departed were 
supposed by the poets to wander in meadows 
adorned with these beautiful flowers. 

In botany, a genus of plants belonging to 
the order liliacece and the section anther - 
icece. About eight species are familiar, the 


best known being A. luteus, the yellow; A. 
albas, the white; and A. ramosus, the 
branched lily, or asphodel, called also king’s 



rod. To this family belong the garlic, the 
hyacinth, the squill, and the Star of Beth¬ 
lehem. 

Asphyxia, suspended animation; an in¬ 
terruption of the arterialization of the 
blood, causing the suspension of sensation 
and voluntary motion. It may be produced 
by breathing some gas incapable of furnish¬ 
ing oxygen, by submersion under water, by 
suffocation, from an impediment to breath¬ 
ing applied to the mouth and nostrils, by 
strangulation, or by great pressure, external 
or internal, upon the lungs. If asphyxia 
continue unrelieved for a short period, it is 
necessarily followed by death. 

Aspidium, a genus of ferns belonging to 
the order polypodiacece. The sori are round¬ 
ish, and the involucre covering them or¬ 
bicular or kidney-shaped. There are 10 
British species. Some have orbicular reni- 
fonn involucres fixed by their sinuses, while 
others have orbicular and peltate involucres. 
To the former, sometimes called lastrea, 
belong the A. filix mas, or blunt; the A. 
spiculosum, or prickly toothed; the A. oreop- 
teris, or heath; and the A. thelypteris, or 
marsh shield fern, with other species more 
rare; and to the latter, the A. lonchitis, or 
rough alpine; the A. lobatum, or close 
leaved prickly; the A. aculeatum, or soft 
prickly; and the A. angular e, or angular 
leaved shield fern. 









Aspinwall 


Ass 


Aspinwall, or Colon, a town in the Re¬ 
public of Panama, at the Atlantic end of 
the Panama railway (1849-1855), and of 
the American Panama Canal (see article 
on Panama), on the island of Manzanilla, 
in Limon Bay, 8 miles N. E. of the old 
Spanish port of Chagres, 47 miles N. W. 
of Panama by rail, and equidistant from the 
great trading capitals of Valparaiso and 
San Francisco. From its commanding posi¬ 
tion as a place of transit, Aspinwall bene¬ 
fits by the traffic in both directions. The 
climate, formerly very unhealthy, has been 
greatly improved by drainage. In 1870 the 
Empress Eugenie presented the town with 
a statue of Columbus, after whom it is 
named officially Colon. The name Aspin¬ 
wall is derived from a New York merchant, 
the originator of the Panama railway; the 
company having founded the town in 1850. 
It was burned by insurgents in 1885. 

Aspinwall, William, an American phy¬ 
sician, born in Brookline, INI ass., May 23, 
1743; was graduated at Harvard University 
in 17G4; studied medicine in Philadelphia; 
was a volunteer in the fight at Lexington; 
and afterward became surgeon in the Revo¬ 
lutionary army, having partial charge of 
the military hospital at Jamaica Plains. 
After the war, he became deeply interested 
in the subject of vaccination, and, building a 
smallpox hospital at Brookline, established 
that remedy in American practice. He died 
April 16, 1823. 

Aspinwall, William H., an American 
merchant, born in New York city, Dec. 1G, 
180V ; was trained to commercial business 
by his uncles, and became a member of the 
firm of Howland & Aspinwall in 1837. He 
is best remembered as the chief promoter 
of the Panama railroad, and of the Pacific 
Mail Steamship Company. The eastern ter¬ 
minus of the railroad was named in his 
honor, but has since officially been given the 
name of Colon. He died in New York city, 
Jan. 18, 1875. 

Aspirator, an instrument invented by 
Dieulafoy, of France, in 1869, and used in 
chemistry to draw gases through bottles or 
other receptacles. It is a tight vessel con¬ 
taining water; a tube with a stop cock ex¬ 
tends from the upper end and another tube 
also with a stop cock from the lower end. 
The first tube is fastened to the receptacle 
from which gas is to be drawn; both stop 
cocks are opened, and the water flowing 
from the lower tube acts as a suction and 
draws the gas. It is also the name of a 
modern appliance which firemen attach to 
their faces to prevent suffocation from 
smoke while working at large fires. 

Aspis, or Clupea, an ancient city of the 
Carthaginians, on the Mediterranean Sea, 
about 50 miles E. of the city of Carthage. 
It was founded about 310 b. c., and was a 
place of much importance, because of its 


large and accessible harbor, which was 
strongly fortified. Here Manlius and Regu- 
lus landed in the first Punic War, and in 
the third one it sustained a determined 
siege. The place is mentioned in the records 
of the Julian Civil War. From 411 to 646 
a. d., it was an Episcopal see, and it was 
the last place where the Christians resisted 
the Moslems. 

Asplenium, a genus of ferns, of the nat¬ 
ural order polypodiacece. Several are na¬ 
tives of the United States. 

Aspromonte, a mountain of Italy, in the 
S. W. of Calabria, where Garibaldi was 
taken prisoner in August, 1862. 

Asquith, Herbert Henry, an English 
statesman, born in Morley, Sept. 12, 1852; 
was educated at Oxford University, became 
a barrister at Lincoln’s Inn in 1876, and a 
queen’s counsel in 1890; was secretary of 
state for the Home Department, 1892-95; 
ecclesiastical commissioner in 1892-95. En¬ 
tering Parliament in 1886, he became a 
conspicuous figure in the Home Rule de¬ 
bates, and his subsequent activities kept him 
prominently before the British public. In 
1908 he succeeded Sir H. Campbell-Banner¬ 
man as Liberal prime minister. 

Ass ( asinus ), a genus of perissodactyla 
closely related to the horse. It differs from 
the latter in having short hair at the root 
of the tail and a long tuft at the end, in 
the absence of warts on the hind legs, and 
in the persistence of stripes, except in al¬ 
binos. The upright mane, the long ears, 
the cross stripe on the shoulders, and the 
dark bands on the back, are also character¬ 
istic. The domestication took place at an 
early date, probably before that of the horse, 
from a type like the present Abyssinian ass . 
(A. tceniopus ), and apparently in Asia; but 
the donkev has been common in England 
only since Queen Elizabeth’s time. The 
dwarfing and degeneration so generally ex¬ 
hibited are the results rather of ill-treat¬ 
ment and careless breeding than of uncon¬ 
genial climate, as the condition of the do¬ 
mesticated forms in some favorable parts 
of the East plainly indicates. In Arabia, 
Syria, Egypt, Spain, Kentucky, and else¬ 
where, the asses are well cared for, and the 
breed has been considerably varied and im¬ 
proved ; a Spanish he-ass of a good breed 
may be worth $1,000. In Great Britain not 
a little improvement has been due to the 
kindly interest of the late Lord Shaftes¬ 
bury. The stupidity for which the animal 
has for long been proverbially reproached 
seems largely the result of human influence. 
The male ass is capable of procreation at 
two years old; the female carries her foal 
11 months. The mule is a hybrid bred be¬ 
tween mare and male ass; while the hinny 
is the rarer result of hybridism between 
horse and female ass. The mule is much 
nearer in temper and appearance to the ass 



Assab Bay 


Assas 


than to the horse; the hinny in some points 
resembles the horse more, as it neighs, while 
the mule brays like the ass. The ass is ad¬ 
mirably adapted for a beast of burden, be¬ 
ing remarkable for endurance, hardiness, 
and docility under kind treatment. The pe¬ 
culiar pace, the quaint intelligence, often 
superior in spite of ill-usage to that of the 
horse, curious traits of character, such as 
the aversion to cross water, which is prob¬ 
ably an unconscious recollection of ancestral 
nomadic life, the longevity and general har¬ 
diness, are facts as familiar as the names 
donkey, dicky, neddy, cuddy, etc., of these 
useful animals. 

The various species of wild asses are hand¬ 
somer in form than the familiar degenerate 
donkey. They have shorter ears, and longer, 
finer limbs. The shy, swift A. onager oc¬ 
curs in herds in the Asiatic deserts, migrat¬ 
ing southward in winter. The large, hand¬ 
some A. hemionus, with dark stripes on its 
back, inhabits high plateaus from Tibet to 
Mongolia. The Abyssinian form has been 
already noted as the probable ancestor of 
the donkey. The even wilder zebras and 
quaggas will be discussed separately. The 
wild ass is hunted in the East — e. g., in 
Persia; and the flesh of the liardly-won 
booty is much esteemed. The milk of the 
ass is more sugary and less cheesy than that 
of the cow, and is on that account recom¬ 
mended to some invalids — e. g., consump¬ 
tives. The leather called shagreen is made 
by a peculiar process from the skin, which 
is also utilized for shoes and drums. The 
ancients are said to have used the bones for 
making flutes. From early times, white 
(albino) asses were reserved for the use 
of the honored. 

Assab Bay, an Italian trading station on 
the W. coast of the Red Sea, 40 miles N. 
W. of the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. The 
district around it, with an area of 243 
square miles, and 1,300 inhabitants, was 
sold in 1870 by some Danakil chieftains to 
an Italian steamship company for a coal¬ 
ing station on the road to India. In 1880 
it was taken over by the Italian Government, 
who, since 1884, have improved the harbor 
and erected a lighthouse. 

Assal, a large salt lake in the district 
of Adal, in Eastern Africa, neayly 9 miles 
from the coast of the Bay of Tajurrah. It 
is nearly GOO feet below the level of the sea. 
Abyssinian caravans resort to Assal for the 
purpose of carrying off the salt, which is 
thickly incrusted on its shores. 

Assam, a province at the N. E. extremity 
of British India, stretching in N. lat. 
between 23° and 28°, and in E. long, 
between 89° and 97°, with an area of 46,341 
square miles. In 1874 it was formed into 
a separate administration (including Ca- 
char) under a chief commissioner. It con¬ 
sists of a fertile series of valleys, watered 
by the Brahmaputra and more than 60 lea¬ 


ser rivers. It is thus very fertile, and 
abounds in wood. The tea-plant is indi¬ 
genous, and some believe that the thea as- 
saniiensis is the original of the Chinese 
plant. Since 1840, when its commercial cul¬ 
tivation was begun, 600,000 acres have been 
taken up for tea; in 1882 there were over 
1,000 gardens. Some three-fourths of the 
tea grown in India is the produce of Assam: 
and, between 1875 and 1895, the total ex¬ 
ports of Indian tea increased from 25,000,- 
000 pounds to near 120,000,000 pounds. 
Coolies are imported from Western Bengal 
for the work in the tea gardens. The other 
products are rice, mustard, gold, ivory, am¬ 
ber, musk, iron, lead, petroleum, and coal. 
From Bengal, the principal imports are 
woolens, India fabrics, salt, opium, glass, 
earthenware, tobacco, betel, etc. For want 
of population, scarcely a fourth of the fer¬ 
tile area is cultivated. There is railway 
and steamboat communication with Cal¬ 
cutta. The development of the rich coal¬ 
fields is of increasing importance; the an¬ 
nual output is now over 170,000 tons. 

In 1826, at the close of the first Burmese 
war, Assam was ceded to the British. The 
upper portion of the province, however, was 
conferred, as a separate principality, on the 
native Rajah, whom the Burmese had ex¬ 
pelled; and it was only in 1838, that, in 
consequence of his misgovernment, the en¬ 
tire country was placed under British ad¬ 
ministration. Since then, the province has 
exhibited a noticeable improvement. The 
population being rural and agricultural, the 
only towns of any size are Gauh&tf (12,000) 
and Sebsftgar (6,000). The peasantry are 
indolent, good-natured, and fairly prosper¬ 
ous, short and robust in person, with a flat 
face and high cheek-bones, and coarse, black 
hair. A majority of the people are Hindus. 
In 1883 there were 1,500 educational insti¬ 
tutions, with an attendance of 50,000 pu¬ 
pils. One of the most striking features of 
Assam is the abundance of wild animals, 
such as tigers, rhinoceroses, leopards, bears, 
buffaloes, and elephants. The snakes are 
the most destructive to human life. Some 
400 people are killed every year by wild ani¬ 
mals. for whose destruction about $5,000 is 
yearly paid as a reward. The forests teem 
with game, and the rivers with fish. Pop. 
(1891) 5,476,833; (1901) 6,122,201. 

Assas, Nicolas, Chevalier d’ (its-R'), a 
French officer, celebrated for an act of pa¬ 
triotism which cost him his life, was cap¬ 
tain in the regiment of Auvergne when the 
French army was stationed near Gueldres, 
in 1760. On Oct. 15, while engaged in 
reconnoitering, he was taken prisoner by a 
division of the enemy advancing to surprise 
the French camp, and was threatened with 
death if a word escaped him. He shouted, 
“A mot, Auvergne , voila les ennemis!” and 
was instantly struck down. An annual pen* 
sion was allowed to his descendants. 




Assassination 


Assassins 


Assassination, the act of taking the life 
of anyone by surprise or treacherous vio¬ 
lence, either by a hired emissary, by one de¬ 
voted to the deed, or by one who has taken 
the task upon himself. Generally, the term 
is applied to the murder of a public per¬ 
sonage by one who aims solely at the death 
of his victim. In ancient times, assassina¬ 
tion was not unknown, and was often even 
applauded, as in the Scriptural instances of 
Ehud and Jael, and in the murder of Hip¬ 
parchus by Harmodius and Aristogeiton; 
but assassination by enthusiasts and men 
devoted to an idea first became really 
prominent in the religious struggles of the 
10th and 17th centuries. To this class be¬ 
long the plots against the life of Queen 
Elizabeth ; while the horrible succession of 
assassinations of Roman emperors is simply 
a scries of murders prompted by self-interest 
or revenge. Omitting these last, which are 
noted elsewhere, the following list includes 
the most important assassinations. 


Julius Caesar . 

Mar. 15 b. c. 

44 

Thomas Becket. . 

Dec. 29, a . d 

1170 

Albert I., Emperor of Germany. 


1, 

1308 

James I., of Scotland. 


21, 

1437 

Alessandro de Medici. 

« t 1 1 «J (ill • 

5, 

1537 

Cardinal Beaton. 


29, 

1546 

David Riccio. . 


9, 

1566 

Lord Darnley . . . 


10, 

1567 | 

James, Earl of Murray, Regent. 


23, 

1570 

William of Orange . 

. July 

10, 

1584 

Henry TTI., of France . 


1-2, 

1589 

Ilenry IV., of France . . 


14, 

1610 

Villiers, Duke of Buckingham. .. 

. Aug 

23, 

1628 

Wallenstein . 


25, 

1634 

Archbishop Sharp . 


3, 

1679 


Gustavus III.,of Sweden. Mar. 16; died Mar. 29, 1793 

Marat, by Charlotte Corday. July 13, 1793 

General Kleber, at Cairo. .Tune 14, 1800 

Paul, Czar of Russia. Mar. 24, 1801 

Spencer Perceval, premier. May 11, 1812 

Kotzebue, the dramatist. Mar. 23, 1S19 

Due deBcrri..... . Feb. 13, 1820 

Charles III., Duke of Parma, Mar. 

20; died. Mar. 27, U54 

President Abraham Lincoln, April 14; 

died. April 15, 1865 

Michael, Prince of Servia. June 10, 1861 

Marshal Prim. Dec. 28; died Dec. 30, 1870 

Georges Darboy, Archbishop of Paris. May 24, 1871 
Earl of Mayo, governor-general of 

India. Feb. 8, 1872 

Sultan Abdul-Aziz. June 4, 1876 

Alexander II., Czar of Russia.. Mar. 13, 1881 

President James Abraham Garfield, 

July 2; died.Sept. IS, 1881 

Lord Frederick Cavendish and T. H. 

Burke, in Phoenix Park, Dublin_May 6, 1822 

President Sadi Carnot, France. June 24,1894 

Ex-Premier Stefan Stainbuloff, Bul¬ 
garia, July 15; died .July 18, l c 95 

Premier Canovas del Castillo, Spain. April 2?, 1897 

President Juan Idiarte. Uruguay-Aug. 25, 1897 

Empress Elizabeth of Austria, in 

Geneva. Sept. 10, 1898 

President Ulisses Heureaux, Santo 

Domingo.. .. .... .July 26, 1899 

King Humbert, of Italy.July 29, 1900 

President McKinley, shot Sept. 0; 

died.. ...Sept 14, 1901 

King and Queen of Servia. June 10, 1903 

King and Crown Prince, Portugal ...Feb. 1, 1908 


In the foregoing list, no mention is made 
of plots or attacks ending in failure. Sev¬ 
eral of those who fell had previously es¬ 
caped more than once. The “ Assassination 
Plot,” in English history, was a conspiracy 
by some Jacobites to murder William III, in 
1 GOG. It is doubtful whether Louis XIV. 
and James II. were privy to the scheme; 
the chief conspirator was Sir George Bar¬ 
clay. The King was to have been assassin¬ 
ated at Turnliam Green, on his return from 
a hunting-party; but one of the 40 con¬ 
spirators sent word to the King, the hunt¬ 
ing was postponed, a number of the con¬ 
spirators wore arrested, and nine of them 
executed. A catalogue of unsuccessful at¬ 
tempts at assassination would be too long 
for insertion here; but the most important 
within the last hundred years have been di¬ 
rected as follows: Against Alexander III., 
of Russia, repeatedly; Alfonso XII., of 
Spain, 1878 and 1870; Amadeus of Spain, 
1872; Due d’Aumale, 1841; Prince Bis¬ 
marck, I860 and 1874; Francis Joseph, of 
Austria, 1853; George III., of England, 178G 
and 1800; George IV. (when Regent), 1817; 
Humbert I., of Italy, 1878 and 1897; Isa¬ 
bella II., of Spain, 1847, 1852, and 1850; 
Louis Philippe, six attempts, from 1835 to 
1840; Lord Lytton, Viceroy of India, 1878; 
Napoleon I., by infernal machine, 1800; 
Napoleon III., twice in 1855, and Orsini’s 
attempt in 1858; Queen Victoria, June 10, 
1340, May 30, 1842, July 3, 1842, May 19, 
1849, and March 2, 1882; William i., of 
Germany, 1861, 1875, and twice in 1878; 
Presidents Diaz, of Mexico, and Morales, 
of Brazil, both in 1897; the Prince of 
Wales, in 1900; King Alphonso, of Spain, 
and his bride, in 1900; and William 
J. Gaynor, Mayor of New York City, in 
1910. ‘ 

Assassins, or Ismaili, a sect of religious 
fanatics who existed in the 11th and 12th 
centuries. They derived their name of as¬ 
sassins originally from their immoderate 
use of hasheesh, which produces an intense 
cerebral excitement, often amounting to 
fury. Their founder and law giver was llas- 
san-ben-Sabah, to whom the Orientals gave 
the name of Sheikh-el-Jobelz, but who was 
better known in Europe as the “ Old Man of 
the Mountain; ” he was a wily impostor, 
who made fanatical and implicit slaves of 
his devotees, by imbuing them with a re¬ 
ligion compounded of that of the Christians, 
the Jews, the Magi, and the Mohammedans, 
The principal article of their belief was that 
the Holy Ghost was embodied in their chief, 
and that his orders proceeded from the 
Deity, and were declarations of the divine 
will. They believed assassination to be 
meritorious when sanctioned by his com¬ 
mand, and courted danger and death in the 
execution of his orders. In the time of the 
crusades, they mustered to the number of 







































Assault 


Assay Offices 


50,000. So great was the power of the 
Sheikh, that the sovereigns of every quar¬ 
ter of the globe secretly pensioned him; and 
Philip Augustus, King of France, hearing 
that the Sheikh had ordered his assassina¬ 
tion, instituted a new bodyguard, distin¬ 
guished for their courage and activity, 
called sergens d’armes, who were armed with 
bows and arrows and brass clubs; and he 
himself never ventured in public without a 
club loaded with gold or iron. The Knights 
Templars alone dared bid defiance to this 
terrible and subtle foe. Among their vic¬ 
tims was Conrad, Marquis of Montferrat, 
who was murdered in the market-place at 
Tyre, in 1192, although some historians have 
attributed the crime to Richard Cceur de 
Lion. For a long time this fearful sect 
reigned in Persia, and on Mt. Lebanon. 
Holagoo, or Hulaka, a Mogul Tartar, in 
1254, dispossessed them of several of their 
strongholds; but it was not till some years 
after that they were extirpated partially 
by the Egyptian forces sent against them by 
the great Sultan Bibars. A feeble residue 
of the Ismaili, from whom proceeded the 
Druses, about a. d. 1020, has survived in 
Persia and Syria. The Syrian Ismaili dwell 
around Mesiode, W. of Hamah, and on 
Lebanon; they are under Turkish dominion, 
with a sheik of their own, and formerly en¬ 
joyed a productive and flourishing agricul¬ 
ture and commerce. Since the war with the 
Nassarians, 1809-1810, they have dragged 
out a miserable existence, but are com¬ 
mended by modern travelers for their hos¬ 
pitality, frugality, gentleness, and piety. 

Assault, in military language, a furious 
effort to carry a fortified post, camp, or for¬ 
tress, where the assailants do not screen 
themselves by any works. It is the appro¬ 
priate termination of a siege which has not 
led to the capitulation of the garrison. To 
give an assault: To attack any post. To 
repulse an assault: To cause the assailants 
to retreat; to beat them back. To carry by 
assault: To gain a post by storm. 

In fencing, an assault of arms, is an at¬ 
tack on each other (not in earnest), made 
by two fencers to exhibit or increase their 
skill. (Sometimes it is used in a wider 
sense for other military exercises.) 

In law r , an assault is a movement which 
virtually implies a threat to strike one, as 
when a person raises his hand or his cane 
in a menacing manner, or strikes at another 
but misses him. It is not needful to touch 
one to constitute an assault. When a blow 
actually takes effect, the crime is not simple 
assault, but assault and battery. A person 
assaulting another may be prosecuted by 
him for the civil injury, and may also be 
punished by the criminal law for the injury 
done to the public. 

Assaying, the estimation of the amount 
of pure metal, and especially of the precious 


metals in an ore or alloy. In the case of 
silver, the assay is either by the dry or by 
the wet process. The dry process is called 
cupellation, from the use of a small and 
very porous cup, called a cupel, formed of 
w r ell burned and finely ground bone ash made 
into a paste with w r ater. The cupel, being 
thoroughly dried, is placed in a fire clay 
oven about the size of a drain tile, with a 
flat sole and arched roof, and with slits at 
the sides to admit air. This oven, called 
a muffle, is set in a furnace, and when it is 
at a red heat the assay, consisting of a 
small weighted portion of the alloy wrapped 
in sheet lead, is laid upon the cupel. The 
heat causes the lead to volatilize or com¬ 
bine with the other metals, and to sink 
with them into the cupel, leaving a bright 
globule of pure metallic silver, which gives 
the amount of silver in the alloy operated 
upon. In the wet process, the alloy is dis¬ 
solved in nitric acid, and to the solution are 
added measured quantities of a solution of 
common salt of known strength, which pre¬ 
cipitates chloride of silver. The operation 
is concluded when no further precipitate is 
obtained on the addition of the salt solu¬ 
tion, and the quantity of silver is calculated 
from the amount of salt solution used. An 
alloy of gold is first cupelled with lead as 
above, with the addition of three parts of 
silver for every one of gold. After the cu¬ 
pellation is finished, the alloy of gold and 
silver is beaten and rolled out into a thin 
plate, which is curled up by the fingers into 
a little spiral, or cornet. This is put into 
a flask with nitric acid, which dissolves 
away the silver and leaves the cornet dark 
and brittle. After washing with water, the 
cornet is boiled with stronger nitric acid to 
remove the last traces of silver, well 
washed, and then allowed to drop into a 
small crucible, in which it is heated, and 
then it is weighed. The assay of gold, there¬ 
fore, consists of two parts: cupellation, by 
which inferior metals (except silver) are 
removed; and quartation, by which the 
added silver and any silver originally pres¬ 
ent are got rid of. The quantify of silver 
added has to be regulated to about three 
times that of the gold. If it be more, the 
cornet breaks up; if it be less, the gold pro¬ 
tects small quantities of the silver from the 
action of the acid. Where, as in some gold 
manufactured articles, these methods of as¬ 
say cannot be applied, a streak is drawn 
with the article upon a touchstone, consist¬ 
ing of coarse-grained Lydian quartz, sat¬ 
urated with bituminous matter, or of black 
basalt. The practiced assayer will detect 
approximately the richness of the gold from 
the color of the streak, which may be fur¬ 
ther subjected to an acid test. The Gold- 
smith’s Company, of London, is the statu¬ 
tory assay master of England. 

Assay Offices, in the United States, gov¬ 
ernment establishments in which citizens 



Assay Offices 


Assay Offices 


may deposit gold and silver bullion, receiv- 
ing in return its value, less charges. The 
ollices are in New York city; Boise City, 
Ida; Helena, Mont.; Denver, Col.; Seattle, 
Wash.; San Francisco, Cal.; Charlotte, N. 
C.; and St. Louis, Mo. 

The Assay Ollice in New York was es¬ 
tablished by law in 1853, and was opened in 
the autumn of 1854. The first assayer of 
the New York Assay Ollice was Dr. John 
Toney, of Columbia College, who was ap¬ 
pointed in 1854 and held his position till 
1873. On his death he was succeeded by his 
son, Herbert Gray Torrey, who has been in 
the office for 40 years. The superintendent 
of the Assay Office is Andrew Mason, who 
was appointed to his present position in 
1883, having previously been assistant-as- 
sayer and melter and refiner. While hold¬ 
ing the latter office he substituted the use 
of sulphuric for nitric acid in the refining 
process, thus saving this one Assay Offico 
$100,000 per annum. 

The United States Assay Office is in a 
low modest-looking marble building lo¬ 
cated beside the more imposing Sub-Treas¬ 
ury building at the intersection of Wall and 
Broad streets, which marks one of the most 
historic spots in the country, namely, the 
site of the old Federal Hall where Wash¬ 
ington took the oath as first President of 
the United States. Although the building 
is small, yet it only masks a really large, 
inner building surrounded on all sides by 
office buildings and the Sub-Treasury. The 
Assay Offices, and particularly this one, 
have an important position in the world of 
finance, for here the precious metals — gold 
and silver — in all forms and conditions of 
fineness are assayed and refined. In brief, 
the work of this office consists in assaying 
or determining the value of gold and silver, 
in whatever form presented, as coin, jewel¬ 
ry, or in any other shape. Any one wishing 
to have gold or silver assayed in quantity 
or wishing to sell to the government, may 
present his property at the Assay Office, 
where he may have the metal reduced and 
made into bars, or if he prefers, he may sell 
his bullion to the government. The charge 
for doing the work is merely nominal, and 
is based on the actual cost. Mil lions of dol¬ 
lars are stored at all times In the vaults. 
When the metal is received, the first step 
consists in weighing the coin, bars, jewelry, 
or tableware. This is done with great ex¬ 
actness and a receipt is given. Each per¬ 
son’s holdings are placed in a box and are 
taken to the melting room, where they are 
placed in crucibles with a flux and smelted 
and cast in ingot molds, the pouring being 
a highly picturesque operation. A small 
chip is taken from the bar for assay. 

The chip is taken to the assay room, 
where a hydraulic press reduces the sample 
to a size which permits of it being run 
through drawing rollers, so that the sam¬ 


ple may be cut from the ribbon with the 
weight of one gram. This is placed in a 
small unglazed earthen cup termed a cupel, 
and a known quantity of silver, copper, 
and lead is added before firing, for the fol¬ 
lowing reasons: The function of the lead, 
which is in the form of a thin sheet, is two¬ 
fold ; first, it serves as an envelope to hold 
the particles of bullion, silver, and copper 
together, while melting, and the lead also 
oxidizes freely, dissolving the copper oxide 
and making it possible for both oxides to 
be absorbed by the porous body of the cupel. 
Silver is added so that the proportion of 
silver in the sample of bullion shall be ap¬ 
proximately two of silver to one of gold, 
and that in the subsequent acid bath the 
gold shall not surround or mask the silver 
so as to prevent it from dissolving. In 
cooling, the button which remains in the 
cupel after firing is apt to spurt up, thus 
wasting a portion of its weight and de¬ 
stroying the value of the assay. The lead 
oxide assists the copper oxide to be ab¬ 
sorbed by the cupel. The cupel and its 
contents are now placed in a muffle furnace, 
and heated for a period sufficient to insure 
complete melting. If there be any copper 
or lead present in the sample, they will be¬ 
come alloyed with the copper and lead 
added by the assayer, and will become oxi¬ 
dized and absorbed. The gold and silver, 
together with the known quantity of silver 
which has been added by the Assay Office, 
remain in the cupel in the form of a but¬ 
ton. Each button is placed in a special 
tray which keeps each sample by itself 
and is then flattened and rolled, boiled in 
nitric acid, 32° Baume, for 10 minutes, 
and then in fresh acid for 10 minutes 
more. The silver is dissolved by the acid, 
forming silver nitrate, while the gold re¬ 
mains intact because only nitro-hydro- 
chloric acid, so-called “ aqua regia,” dis¬ 
solves it. Gold is left in the flask and is 
washed and weighed. The loss of weight 
in the furnace is base metal — lead and cop¬ 
per. The loss of weight in the nitric acid 
is silver, and the remainder is gold. In the 
case of silver bullion it is subjected to the 
humid test as well. 

So far the government has been acting as 
an assayer, but if the depositor wishes to 
part with his bullion, which is now of 
known value, the government pays for it at 
the prevailing price and proceeds to separ¬ 
ate or part the gold from the silver. The 
price of gold never varies, costing $20.67 a 
fine ounce. Silver fluctuates with the mar¬ 
ket. 

The importance of the Assay Office in its 
relation to the financial world, the Treas¬ 
ury and the Mint cannot be overestimated. 
During the fiscal year ending June 30, 
1000, the fineness of 11,802 melts of gold 
and silver deposits, 903 melts of fine gold 




Assegai 


Assiento 


and silver, also 1,050 melts of mixed metal, 
about 500 special deposits, 350 barrels of 
sweeps, 83,178 gold and silver bars were 
estimated, and about 60,000 cupels and the 
necessary “proof” gold and silver were 
made. 

Assegai, a spear used as a weapon among 
the Kattirs of South Africa, made of hard 
wood tipped with iron, and used for throw¬ 
ing or thrusting. 

Assemani. (1) Joseph Simon, a famous 
Orientalist, born of a Maronite family at 
Tripoli, in Syria, in 1687. After complet¬ 
ing his studies at Rome, he traveled on the 
Pope’s commission through Egypt and 
Syria, collecting many oriental manuscripts 
and coins for the Vatican library, of which 
he was appointed keeper. He died at Rome, 
Jan. 14, 1768. Of his numerous learned 
works, the most important is his “ Bib¬ 
liotheca Orientalis Clementino-Vaticana ” 
(4 vols., Rome, 1719-1728), containing 
the Syrian manuscripts of the Vatican. 
He was succeeded as keeper of the Vatican 
library by his nephew. (2) Stephen 
Ephodius (1707-1782), also a learned au¬ 
thor of books on Oriental learning. Yet 
another nephew and Orientalist was (3) 
Joseph Aloysius (1710-1782), professor at 
Rome. (4) Simon, a relative of the pre¬ 
ceding, was born at Tripoli in 1752, filled the 
chair of Oriental Languages at Padua, and 
died there, April 8, 1821. One of the great¬ 
est Orientalists of his time, he wrote an im¬ 
portant work on ancient coins, “ Museo 
Cufico Naniano Illustrato ” (2 vols., Padua, 
1787-1788). 

Assembly, Constituent. See Assembly, 
National. 

Assembly, General, official name of the 

supreme ecclesiastical court of the Estab¬ 
lished Church of Scotland, of the Free 
Church of Scotland, of the Presbyterian 
Church in Ireland, and of the two Presby¬ 
terian Churches in the United States. The 
term is also used in the United States to 
designate the dual legislative body of the 
several States, the branches being commonly 
spoken of as the Senate and the House (of 
Representatives). 

Assembly, National, a body set up in 
France on the eve of the Revolution. Upon 
the convocation of the States-General by 
Louis XVI., the privileged nobles and clergy 
refused to deliberate in the same chamber 
with the commons, or tiers-etat (third es¬ 
tate). The latter, therefore, on the proposi¬ 
tion of the Abbe Sieyes, constituted them¬ 
selves an Assemblee Nationale, with legis¬ 
lative powers (June 17, 1789). They bound 
themselves by oath not to separate until 
they had furnished France with a constitu¬ 
tion, and the court was compelled to give 
its assent. In the 3,250 decrees passed by 
the Assembly were laid the foundations of 


a new epoch, and having accomplished this 
task, it dissolved itself, Sept. 30, 1791. The 
term is also applied to a joint meeting of 
the Senate and Corps Legislatif, for the 
purpose of electing a chief magistrate or 
the transaction of other extraordinary busi¬ 
ness. 

Assent, The Royal, is the approbation 
given by the sovereign in Parliament to a 
bill which has passed both Houses, after 
which it becomes a law. It may either be 
done in person, when the sovereign goes to 
the House of Peers and the assent (in Nor¬ 
man French) is declared by the clerk of 
Parliament; or it may be done by letters- 
patent under the Great Seal, signed by the 
sovereign. In the United States, executive 
assent is given when the President approves 
an act of Congress by signing an especially 
prepared copy of it, or a Governor does the 
same with an act of a State Legislature. In 
all cases an act is not deemed a law till it 
has received executive approval, excepting 
when the enacting body readopts an act af¬ 
ter it has been vetoed or disapproved by 
the executive. 

Asser, John, a learned British ecclesi¬ 
astic, originally a monk of St. David’s, dis¬ 
tinguished as the instructor, companion, and 
biographer of Alfred the Great, who ap¬ 
pointed him abbot of two or three different 
monasteries, and finally Bishop of Sher¬ 
borne, where he died in 908 or 910. His 
life of Alfred, written in Latin (“An- 
nales Rerum Gestarum iElfredi Magni”), 
is of very great value, though its authenti¬ 
city has been questioned. There is an Eng¬ 
lish translation in Bohn’s “ Antiquarian 
Library.” 

Assets (French, assez, enough), property 
or goods available for the payment of a 
bankrupt or deceased person’s obligations. 
Assets are personal or real, the former com¬ 
prising all goods, chattels, etc., devolving 
upon the executor as salable to discharge 
debts and legacies. In commerce and bank¬ 
ruptcy the term is often used as the anti¬ 
thesis of liabilities, to designate the stock 
in trade and entire property of an individual 
or an association. 

Assideans, Ghasideans, or Chasidim, 

one of the two great sects into which, after 
the Babylonish captivity, the Jews were di¬ 
vided with regard to the observance of the 
law — the Chasidim accepting it in its later 
developments, the Zadikim professing ad¬ 
herence only to the law as given by Moses. 
From the Chasidim sprang the Pharisees, 
Talmudists, Rabbinists, Cabbalists, etc. 

Assiento (as-yen'to), the permission of 
the Spanish Government to a foreign nation 
to import negro slaves from Africa into the 
Spanish colonies in America, for a limited 
time, on payment of certain duties. It was 
accorded to the Netherlands about 1552, to 



Assignats 


Assisi 


the Genoese in 1580, and to the French 
Guinea Company (afterward the Assiento 
Company), in 1702. In 1713 the celebrated 
Assiento treaty with Britain for 30 years 
was concluded at Utrecht. By this contract 
the British obtained the right to send yearly 
a ship of 500 tons, with all sorts of mer¬ 
chandise, to the Spanish colonies. This led 
to frequent abuses and contraband trade; 
acts of violence followed, and in 1739 a war 
broke out between the two powers. At the 
peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, four years 
more were granted to the British; but in 
the Treaty of Madrid, two years later, 
£100,000 sterling were promised for the re¬ 
linquishment of the two remaining years, 
and the contract was annulled. 

Assignats (as-e-nyii'), the name of the 
national paper currency in the time of 
the French Revolution. Assignats to the 
value of 400,000,000 francs were first struck 
off by the Constituent Assembly, with the 
approbation of the King, April 19, 1790, 
to be redeemed with the proceeds of the sale 
of the confiscated goods of the Church. 
On Aug. 27, of the same year, Mirabeau 
urged the issuing of 2,000,000,000 francs of 
new assignats, which caused a dispute in 
the Assembly. Vergasse and Dupont, who 
saw that the plan was an invention of 
Claviere for his own enrichment, particu¬ 
larly distinguished themselves as the oppo¬ 
nents of the scheme. Mirabeau’s exertions, 
however, were seconded by Pethion, and 
800,000,000 francs more were issued. They 
were increased by degrees to 45,578,000,000, 
and their value rapidly declined. In the 
winter of 1792-1793 they lost 30 per cent., 
and in spite of the law to compel their ac¬ 
ceptance at their nominal value, they con¬ 
tinued to fall till in the spring of 179G they 
had sunk to one three hundred and forty- 
fourth their nominal value. This deprecia¬ 
tion was due partly to the want of confi¬ 
dence in the stability of the government, 
partly to the fact that the coarsely-executed 
and easily counterfeited assignats were 
forged in great numbers. They were with¬ 
drawn by the Directory from the currency, 
and at length redeemed by mandate at one- 
thirtieth of their nominal value. 

Assignee, a person appointed by another 
to transact some business, or exercise some 
particular privilege or power. Formerly the 
persons appointed under a commission of 
bankruptcy, to manage the estate of the 
bankrupt on behalf of the creditors, were so 
called, but now trustees, or receivers. 

Assignment, in law and commerce, the 
act of signing over to another, rights or 
property which have hitherto belonged to 
one's self. An assignment of estate is a 
transfer, or making over to another, of the 
right a person has in any estate. It is 
usually applied to an estate for life or years. 
It differs from a lease, for in a lease he 


grants an interest less than his own, re¬ 
serving to himself a reversion; while in an 
assignment he parts with the whole prop¬ 
erty, which from that time absolutely be¬ 
longs to the assignee. 

In the United States, assignment is of 
broader signification; it applies also to the 
transfer of real property by certain convey¬ 
ance. In general, every right of property, 
real or personal, and every demand con¬ 
nected with a right of property, real or 
personal; and all choses in action, as bonds, 
notes, judgments, mortgages, debts, con¬ 
tracts, agreements, relating both to real 
and personal property, are assignable, and 
the assignment thereof will pass to the as¬ 
signee a right of action in the name of such 
assignee against all parties liable to an 
action. Assignment carries with it all col¬ 
lateral securities held by the assignor for 
the collection of a debt or the fulfillment 
of a contract, and is subject to all the equi¬ 
ties and charges which attached in the 
hands of the assignor. A personal trust, as 
the right of a master in his indentured ap¬ 
prentice, or the duties of a testamentary 
guardian, or the office of executor, trustee, 
etc., is not assignable. The validity of an 
assignment must be determined by the law 
of the State in which it was made, provided 
the thing assigned is subject of municipal 
or State law; but copyrights, patents, and 
government claims are governed by acts of 
Congress. In general, assignments should 
be recorded in the office prescribed by law, 
or are void as against those claiming un¬ 
der subsequent assignments. See Bank¬ 
ruptcy Laws. 

Assiniboia, the smallest of the four dis¬ 
tricts into which a portion of the North¬ 
west Territories of Canada was divided 
in 1882. It lies immediately to the W. of 
Manitoba, with Saskatchewan and Alberta 
as its N. and W. boundaries. It is inter¬ 
sected by the Saskatchewan (South Branch) 
and the Qu’Appelle rivers, and contains 
much good wheat land. Some coal is 
mined. Area, 89,535 square miles. Pop. 
(1901 ) 67,385. Capital, Regina, on the Ca¬ 
nadian Pacific railway, which intersects the 
district. 

Assiniboin, a tribe of North American 
Indians, living principally in the N. W. part 
of the Dominion of Canada. 

Assiniboine, a river of Canada, which 
flows through Manitoba and joins the Red 
river at Winnipeg, about 40 miles above 
the entrance of the latter into Lake Winni¬ 
peg, after a somewhat circuitous course of 
about 500 miles from the W. and N. W. 
Steamers ply on it for over 300 miles. 

Assisi (as-se'se), a small town in Italy, 
in the Province of Umbria, 20 miles N. of 
Spoleto, the see of a bishop, and famous as 
the birthplace of St. Francis d’Assisi. The 
splendid church built over the chapel where 



Assizes 


Assumpsit 


the Baint received his first impulse to devo¬ 
tion is one of the finest remains of medieval 
Gothic architecture. 

Assizes, a term chiefly used in England 
to signify the sessions of the courts held at 
Westminster prior to Magna Charta, but 
thereafter appointed by successive enact¬ 
ments to be held annually in every county. 
Twelve judges, who are members of the high¬ 
est courts in England, twice in every year 
perform a circuit into all the counties into 
which the kingdom is divided (the counties 
being grouped into seven circuits), to hold 
these assizes, at which both civil and crim¬ 
inal cases are decided. Occasionally this 
circuit is performed a third time for the 
purpose of jail delivery. In London and 
Middlesex, instead of circuits, courts of nisi 
prius are held. At the assizes all the jus¬ 
tices of the peace of the county are bound 
to attend. Special commissions of assize are 
granted for inquest into certain causes. 

Associated Press. See Press Associ¬ 
ations. 

Association of Ideas, a term used in psy¬ 
chology to comprise the conditions under 
which one idea is able to recall another to 
consciousness, llecently psychologists have 
been disposed to classify these conditions 
under two general heads: the law of con¬ 
tiguity and the law of resemblance. The 
first states the fact that mental states of 
any sort — actions, sensations, emotions, 
and ideas — which have occurred together, 
or in close succession, tend to suggest each 
other when any one of them is afterward 
presented to the mind. The second indi¬ 
cates that present actions, sensations, emo¬ 
tions, or ideas tend to recall their like from 
among previous experiences. Other laws 
have at times been enunciated, Aristotle 
having suggested contiguity, resemblance, 
and contrast; but they are reducible to 
these: thus, the “law of contrast or con¬ 
trariety ” is properly a case of continuity. 
On their physical side, the principles of as¬ 
sociation correspond with the physiological 
facts of re-excitation of the same nervous 
centers, and in this respect they have played 
an important part in the endeavor to place 
psychology upon a basis of positive science. 
The laws of association, taken in connec¬ 
tion with the law of relativity, are held by 
many to be a complete exposition of the 
phenomena of intellect. A different point 
of view, which emphasizes Apperception 
(q. v.) reduces all cases of association to 
a mere general law of assimilation, accord¬ 
ing to which all conscious or nervous states 
having elements in common tend to flow to¬ 
gether. J. Mark Baldwin. 

Assollant, Alfred (it-so-liin'), a French 
novelist and political writer, born at Au- 
busson, March 20, 1827; taught for a num¬ 
ber of years in Paris and other cities; then 
set out for America j and, having traveled 


extensively over the United States, pub¬ 
lished, on his return, “ Scenes From Life in 
the United States ” (1858), a series of tales 
which attracted a good deal of attention. 
Among his numerous novels are “ Two 
Friends in 1792 ” (1859), a story of the 
Reign of Terror; “ Brancas ” (1859), a pic¬ 
ture of the corruption under Louis Philippe; 
“ Gabrielle de Chenevert ” (1865), portray¬ 
ing the provincial nobility before the Revo¬ 
lution ; “ Pendragon ” (1881), and “ Planta- 
genet ” (1885). He died in Paris, March 
4, 1886. 

Assonance, in poetry, a term used when 
the terminating words of lines have the 
same vowel sound, but make no proper 
rhyme. Such verses, having what we should 
consider false rhymes, are regularly em¬ 
ployed in Spanish poetry; but cases are not 
wanting in leading British poets. Mrs. 
Browning not only used them frequently, 
but justified the use of them. 

Assos, a ruined town on the Gulf of Ed- 
remid, from the still imposing remains of 
which the successful excavations, in 1881- 
1883, of the American Institute of Archaeol¬ 
ogy have brought to light the agora, with 
Senate house and colonnade, a bath, theater, 
gymnasium, statues of heroes, and seven 
Christian churches. 

Assouan (as-6-an'), (also Eswan; the an¬ 
cient Syene), is the southernmost city of 
Egypt proper, on the right bank of the Nile, 
and beside the first or lowest cataract. Near 
are the islands of Philae and Elephantine. 
On the left bank are catacombs. There are 
some remains of the ancient city, as gran¬ 
ite columns and part of a temple. In the 
neighborhood are the famous granite quar¬ 
ries from which so many of the huge obel¬ 
isks and colossal statues were cut to adorn 
the temples and palaces of ancient Egypt. 
A great dam and reservoir were completed 
here in 1902. Pop. about 4,000. 

Assumpsit, a verbal promise made by 
anyone, or which he may in justice be held 
to have more or less directly made. In the 
former case, the assumpsit or promise is 
said to be explicit, and in the latter, im¬ 
plied. One may actually promise to pay 
a sum of money or build a house by a cer¬ 
tain day, in which case the promise is 
deemed explicit, and an action lies against 
him if he violate his verbal engagement. 
Certain contracts are, however, so important 
that the law requires them to be in writ¬ 
ing. Implied promises are such as the fol¬ 
lowing: A person, when in want of cer¬ 
tain articles, is in the habit of obtaining 
them at a certain shop. Having done so, 
it is not legally competent for him to turn 
around on the shopman and say, “ Prove 
that I ever promised to pay for the articles 
I received.” The law rightly judges that if 
there was not an explicit, there was at least 
an implied, promise to pay for the goods, 



Assumption of the Virgin 


Assyria 


else the shopman would not have given 
them. So, also, if a person contract to 
build a house, and, erecting it in defiance 
of the principle of gravity, see it tumble to 
pieces before his eyes, he is not allowed to 
plead that he knew nothing of building. 
His having taken the contract is held to im¬ 
ply that he gave himself out as competent 
to perform the work which he undertook to 
do. 

Assumption of the Virgin, the subject 
of a number of paintings by the most cele¬ 
brated artists in history. The following are 
the best known: (1) Titian: in the Ac- 
cademia in Venice; represents the Virgin 
being carried on bright clouds to heaven, 
surrounded by rejoicing angels, while the 
apostles look up from earth in amazement; 
(2) Titian: another painting in the Cathe¬ 
dral of Verona; (3) Correggio: frescoes in 
the cupola of the Cathedral in Parma, It¬ 
aly; (4) Rubens: painting in the Cathedral 
at Antwerp, Belgium: representing the Vir¬ 
gin being carried up to Heaven, surrounded 
by angels, while several apostles and wo¬ 
men are gathered at the empty tomb below; 
(5) Perugino: in the Accademia, in Flor¬ 
ence; showing, in addition to the Virgin, 
four saints in the foreground; the repre¬ 
sentation of the Virgin is considered one 
of Perugino’s most beautiful figures; (G) 
Guido Reni: a large canvas in Bridgewater 
House, in London ; (7 ) Gaudenzio Ferrari: 
fresco in the Church of San Cristoforo, in 
Vercelli, Italy; showing figures of the 
Father, the Virgin, the angels, and the 
apostles: (8) Murillo: painting in the Her¬ 
mitage Museum, St. Petersburg; represent¬ 
ing the Virgin floating upward on clouds, 
with bands of cherubs above and below her; 
considered a typical display of the painter’s 
qualities of grace and expression ; (9) Guer- 
cino: a painting, also in the Hermitage Mu¬ 
seum; showing the Virgin, with uplifted 
face, being borne upward on a cloud, with 
angel attendants, and the apostles stand¬ 
ing about her empty tomb. 

Assyria, an ancient Semitic kingdom of 
Asia, the native name of which was Ashur 
or Asshur, and thus also called by the He¬ 
brews. It was intersected by the middle * 
course of the Tigris with its two affluents, 
the Upper Zab and the Lower Zab, and had 
the Armenian Mountains on the N. and 
Babylonia on the S. The area was fluctuat¬ 
ing— at first small but, though it gradually 
increased, it probably never exceeded about 
200,000 square miles; the surface was partly 
mountainous, hilly, or undulating, partly a 
portion of the fertile Mesopotamina plain. 
The numerous remains of ancient habita¬ 
tions show how thickly this vast flat must 
have once been peopled; but, under the Mo¬ 
hammedans, it became a mere wilderness. 
The Assyrian conquests during the 8t,h and 
7th centuries b. c. enlarged its boundaries, 


and at one time it included Babylonia, parts 
of Elam, Palestine, Egypt, parts of Arabia 
and Asia Minor. The chief cities of As¬ 
syria in the days of its prosperity were As- 
shur the most ancient, then Nineveh, the 
site of which is marked by mounds opposite 
Mosul (Nebi Yunus and Koyunjik), Calah 
or Kalakh (the modern Nimrud'), Dur-Sar- 
gina (Khorsabad), and Arbela (Arbil). 
Lower down the Tigris exhibits a line of 
ruins from Telkrit to Bagdad. Light has 
been thrown on the history of Assyria by 
the decipherment of the inscriptions ob¬ 
tained by excavation. The assertion of the 
Bible that the early inhabitants of Assyria 
went from Babylon is in conformity with 
the traditions of later times, and with in¬ 
scriptions on the disinterred Assyrian monu¬ 
ments. The country, probably some time be¬ 
fore the 16th century b. c., became inde¬ 
pendent. At the end of the 14th century 
its king, Shalmaneser, is said to have 
founded the city of Calah; his son Tiglath- 
ninip conquered the whole of the valley 
of the Euphrates. The following five reigns 



ASSYRIAN CAVALRY FIGHT. 


were chiefly occupied by wars with the 
Babylonians. About 1120, a date fixed by 
Sennacherib, 705-681 b. c., Tiglath-pil- 
eser I., one of the greatest of the sovereigns 
of the first Assyrian monarchy, ascended the 
throne, and carried his conquests to the 
Mediterranean on the one side and to the 
Caspian and the Persian Gulf on the other. 
At his death ensued a period of decline, 
which lasted over 150 years. 

Era of Grandeur .— Under Assur-nasir-pal, 
who reigned from 884 to 859 b. c., Assyria 
once more advanced to the position of the 
leading power in the world, his kingdom be¬ 
ing greater in extent than that of Tiglath- 
pileser. The magnificent palaces, temples, 
and other buildings of his reign prove the 
advance of the nation in wealth, art, and 
luxury. 

History .— In 859 Assur-nasir-pal was suc¬ 
ceeded by his son Shalmaneser II. (860- 
824), who was the first Assyrian king to 
have relations with Israel, and whose annals 
are found inscribed on the famous Black 
Obelisk in the British Museum, and on the 
bulls and slabs from his palace at Calah. 
His career of conquest was equally success¬ 
ful. He reduced Babylon to a state of vas¬ 
salage. and came into hostile contact with 
Benhadad and Hazael of Damascus, and 








Assyria 


Assyria 


with Ahab, son of Omri, and Jehu of Is¬ 
rael, from whom he exacted tribute, as also 
fiom the kings of Tyre and Sidon. The old 
dynasty came to an end in the person of 
Assurnirari II., who was driven from the 
throne by a usurper, Tiglath-pileser III., 
in 745, after a struggle of some years. He 
was the first Assyrian king mentioned by 
the Hebrews, identical with Pul (II Kings, 
xv: 9). No sooner was this able ruler 
firmly seated on the throne than he made 
an expedition into P>abylonia, followed by 
another to the East in 744. A year later 
he defeated the confederate princes of Ar¬ 
menia, Syria, etc., and, advancing against 
Syria, overthrew the ancient kingdoms of 
Damascus and Hamath, and in 733 he placed 
his vassal Hosea on the throne of Samaria. 
A protracted campaign in Media (737-735), 
another in Armenia, and the expedition into 
Syria mentioned in II Kings, xvi, are among 
the most important events of the latter 
years of his reign. The Assyrians appear in 
Syria in 734 or 733 as the allies of Ahaz, 
called Yahuhazi or Yanhaze by the Assyrian 
scribes. The result of this campaign was 
the siege of Damascus, and the ravaging of 
the kingdoms E. of the Jordan. The fall 
of Damascus, in 733, made Syria a province 
of the court of Nineveh, and the tribute- 
lists discovered by Sir Henry Layard at 
Nineveh show Carchemish, Damascus, Ar- 
pad, Arvad, Hamath, Tyre, Sidon and Sa¬ 
maria as contributing a regular sum to the 
national revenue. Having reduced the West 
to submission the Assyrian King now at¬ 
tacked Chaldea, and, after a severe war, 
commencing in 731 b. c., he defeated and 
slew Ukin-ziru, the Kinziros of the Canon 
of Ptolemy, and was proclaimed King of 
Sumir and Akkad, in 729 B. c. Tiglath- 
pileser carried the Assyrian arms from Lake 
Van on the N. to the Persian Gulf on the 
S., and from the confines of Susiana on the 
E. to the Nile on the W. He was, how¬ 
ever, driven from his throne by Shalman¬ 
eser IV. (727), who blockaded Tyre for 
five years, invaded Israel, and besieged Sa¬ 
maria, but died before the city was re¬ 
duced. 

Conquests under 8argon .— His successor, 
Sargon (722-705), a usurper, claimed de¬ 
scent from the ancient Assyrian kings. 
After taking Samaria and leading over 
27,000 people captive, he overthrew the 
combined forces of Elam (Susiana) and 
Babylon. He defeated the King of Hamath, 
who, with other princes, had revolted, took 
him prisoner, and flayed him alive; advanced 
through Philistia, and captured Ashdod; 
then, pushing southward, totally defeated 
the forces of Egypt and Gaza, at Raphia 
(719). The revolted Armenians had also 
more than once to be put down. In 710 
Merodach-baladan was driven out of Baby¬ 
lonia by Sargon, after holding it for 12 
years as an independent king, and being sup¬ 


ported by the Kings of Egypt and Palestine; 
his allies were also crushed, Judah was over¬ 
run, and Ashdod leveled to the ground. 
Sargon afterward crossed over and took 
Cyprus, where he left an inscription telling 
of his expedition. He spent the latter years 
of his reign in building, in the midst of 
which he was murdered during a revolt of 
the soldiers in the new palace, in 705 b. c. 
Sennacher-ib at once had to take up arms ' 
against Merodach-baladan, who had again 
obtained possession of Babylon. In 701 
fresh outbreaks in Syria led him in that di¬ 
rection (cf. Isa. xxxvi and xxxvii). He 
captured Sidon and Askelon, defeated Heze- 
kiah and his Egyptian and Ethiopian al¬ 
lies, and forced him to pay tribute, after 
which he returned to Assyria to overawe the 
Babylonians, Elamites, and the northern 
hill tribes. A second expedition into Pal¬ 
estine is briefly recorded in II Kings, xix, 
where we are told that, as his army lay be¬ 
fore Libnah, in one night the angel of Je¬ 
hovah went out, and smote in the camp of 
the Assyrians 185,000 men (II Kings, xix: 
35). In the Babylonian account, on Dec. 
20, 681, he was murdered by his two sons, 
Adrammelech and Sharezer, but they were 
defeated by their brother Esar-haddon, who 
then mounted the throne. Esar-haddon 
took the title King of Sumer and Akhad. 
It may have been that during a temporary 
residence at Babylon Manasseh was brought 
there a prisoner, as related in II Cliron. 
xxxiii: 11. A son of Merodach-baladan had 
attempted, during the period of anarchy, to 
seize the throne of Babylon, but, being de¬ 
feated, he fled to Elam, where he was put 
to death by the Elamite King, who wished to 
preserve the friendship of the King of 
Assyria. The most important event of this 
reign was the conquest of Egypt, about 
670. It was reduced to a state of vassalage; 
the Ethiopian ruler, Tirhakah, was driven 
out and the land was divided into 20 sepa¬ 
rate kingdoms, the rulers of which were the 
vassals of Esar-haddon. He associated the 
eldest of his four sons, Asshur-banipal, with 
him in the government of the kingdom (669), 
and, one year later, this prince (the Sar- 
danapalus of the Greeks) became king. 

Beginning of the Decline .— In 652 a gen¬ 
eral insurrection broke out, headed by Sam- 
mughes, governor of Babylonia, Assur-bani- 
pal’s own brother, and including Babylonia, 
Egypt, Palestine, and Arabia. Egypt was 
the only powar, however, which regained its 
independence; fire, sword and famine re¬ 
duced the rest to submission. The rebel¬ 
lious prince burned himself in his palace 
with many of his folloA\ T ers. Egypt de¬ 
clared her independence, Syria was in revolt, 
Elam and the N. E. proAunces refused 
tribute, and Kandalanu, the new Vice¬ 
roy of Babylon, proclaimed himself King, 
Avhile his successor, Nabopolassar, father of 
Nebuchadnezzer, openly threw off all sem- 



Assyria 


Assyria 


blance of his allegiance and declared himself 
king. The year of Asshur-banipal’s death, and 
the names of his successors, are not known. 
Ten of his sons were named Asshur-etil-elani 
and Sin-shar-iskun, but no definite state¬ 
ments regarding them can be made. The last 
Syrian King was Esar-haddon II. (the Sara- 
kos of Ctesias), in whose reign Babylon 
definitely threw off the Assyrian yoke. 
There are some tablets relating to this 
prince which show that during his rule 
the N. E. provinces were invaded by a 
powerful confederation of Aryan and Tu¬ 
ranian tribes, Medes, Gimmerians, and Ar¬ 
menians, under the command of Cyaxares. 
The meager character of the inscriptions 
about this date, and the apparent number of 
claimants to the throne, indicate that after 
the death of Asshur-banipal a period of dis¬ 
ruption and anarchy set in, followed, about 
G06 b. c., by the siege and destruction of 
Nineveh bv the combined forces of Cyaxares 
and Nabopolessar. After this Assyria be¬ 
came a Median province. The Mespila men¬ 
tioned by Xenophon, in his account of the 
“ Retreat of the Ten Thousand,” (Anabasis: 
3, 4, 10), was probably the Musapbi of the 
inscriptions, “ the lower town,” the acro¬ 
polis having been destroyed. The art re¬ 
mains found by explorers on the site indi¬ 
cate that it was occupied in Roman and 
Sassanian times. Assyria became a Median 
province in 606 b. c., and afterward, in 
conjunction with Babylonia, formed one of 
the satrapies of the Persian Empire. In 
331 b. c., at Gaugamela, near Arbela, in 
Assyria, Alexander defeated Darius Codo- 
inannus. In 312 b. c. Assyria became part 
of the kingdom of the Seleucidoe, whose 
capital was Seleucia, on the Tigris. 
It was afterward subject to the Par¬ 
thian kings, whose capital was Ctesiphon, 
and was more than once temporarily in 
possession of the Romans. When the Per¬ 
sian monarchy of the Sassanidse, which suc¬ 
ceeded that of the Parthians, was destroyed 
by the Mohammedans, Assyria was subject 
to the caliphs, whose seat was at Bagdad 
from 762 a. d. till 1258. It has been under 
the Ottoman Turks from 1638, at which 
period it was wrested from the Persians. 

People and Language .— The Assyrians 
belonged to the northern branch of the 

o 

Semitic family, a race of people who spread 
over the country and mingled with or sup¬ 
planted the original inhabitants, while their 
language took the place of the Akkadian, the 
latter becoming a dead language. Their 
language differed little from the Babylonian, 
and both retained traces of the Akkadian. 
There are no records of the Assyrian lan¬ 
guage doting back earlier than the 19th 
century b. c. It continued to be written 
with the cuneiform or arrow-headed char¬ 
acters down to the 3d century b. c. The 
vocabulary has a close affinity with that of 
the Hebrew and Phoenician, while in the 

31 


full development of the richness of syno¬ 
nyms it approaches nearer to the Arabic. 
The predominant features of the Assyrian 
ethnic type are the Semitic, but modified by 
intermixture with Akkadian and other ele¬ 
ments. 

Religion .— The 
religion of Assy¬ 
ria, though es¬ 
sentially of Baby¬ 
lonian origin, 
was much sim¬ 
pler, and, al¬ 
though p o 1 y- 
theistic in char¬ 
acter, was free 
from the multi¬ 
tudinous panthe¬ 
on of the more 
ancient empire. 

At the head of 
the pantheon was 
the god Assfir, 
the national 
deity, always in¬ 
voked first in the 
royal inscriptions 
and regarded as 
the divine found¬ 
er of the nation. 

He is called the 
holy one, the glori¬ 
ous chief of the 
gods. He was symbolically represented by a 
winged circle inclosing the figure of an 
archer. His name does not appear in the 
Chaldean creation tablet, unless it is the 
same as the Babylonian Ansliar. The As¬ 
syrian pantheon contained two principal 
triads, with numerous minor deities: (1) 
The Nature triad, whose birth is described 
in the creation tablet — Anu, “ the father of 
all the gods,” “ the Heaven; ” Bel, or Marduk 
(Merodack) called “ lord of the world; ” 
Ea, one of the most important gods in the 
pantheon, “ lord of the sea, of rivers and 
fountains,” “ lord of wisdom and knowl¬ 
edge.” (2) The Celestial triad; this triad 
consisted of the moon god, Sin, called the 
“ illuminator of earth,” “ the god of laws; ” 
the sun god, Shamash, “ the illuminator of 
heaven and earth,” “ the great judge of 
heaven and earth,” “ the god of light,” 
“ the driver away of evil,” one of the gods 
most worshipped in the Assyrian pantheon; 
and Ramman, god of storms. Other deities 
were Istar, a powerful goddess with various 
attributes — the goddess of love and war; 
Ninip, god of hunting (the man-bull) ; 
Nergal, god of war (the man-lion) ; Nabu 
(Nebo) the god of learning. A number of 
spirits, good and evil, presided over the 
minor operations of nature. There were 
set forms of regulating the worship of all 
the gods and spirits, and prayers to each 
were inscribed on clay tablets with blanks 
for the names of the persons using them. 



ASSYRIAN CUNEIFORM 
INSCRIPTION. 



Assyria 


Assyria 


The morning and evening sacrifice, the offer¬ 
ing of cakes, wines, milk, and honey, are 
found in the liturgies of the temple. 



SCULPTURED WINGED BULL. 


Art and Industry .— The Assyrians were 
far advanced in art and industry, and in 
civilization. They constructed large build¬ 
ings, especially palaces, of an imposing 
character, the materials being burned or 
sun-died brick, stone, alabaster, slabs for 
lining and adorning the walls internally 
and externally, and timber for pillars and 
roofs. These alabaster slabs were elabo¬ 
rately sculptured with designs serving to 
throw much light on the manners and cus¬ 
toms of the people. A most characteristic 
feature of the palaces were gigantic figures 



ASSYRIAN RELIEF SCULPTURE. 


of winged, human headed, bulls, placed at 
gateways (often arched over) or other im¬ 
portant points. Figures of lions were also 
similarly employed. The palaces were 
raised on high terraces, and often com¬ 
prised a great number of apartments; there 
were no windows, light being obtained by 
carrying the walls up to a certain height 
and then raising on them pillars to support 
the roof and admit light and air. The As¬ 
syrian sculptures, as a rule, were in relief, 
figures in the full round being the excep¬ 
tion. Tn many cases, however, as in those 
of winged bulls and other monsters, a com¬ 


promise was attempted 
round and relief, the heads 
free and the body in 
ditional leg to 
meet the exigen¬ 
cies of different 
points of view. 

More than three- 
quarters of the 
reliefs are of 
warlike scenes; 
occasionally in¬ 
dustrial scenes 
in connection 
with palace 
building are rep¬ 
resented, and, 
less frequently, 
religious cere¬ 
monials. The 
artists had no 
conception of 
perspective. In 


between the full 
ung worked 
relief, with an ad- 


hunting scenes 
an 
high 



ASSYRIAN CLAY COFFIN. 


exceedingly 
level of 
art is attained. 

The vestiges of Assyrian painting con¬ 
sist of fragments of stucco and glazed 
tiles, on which are bands of ornament, 
rows of rosettes and anthemions, woven 
strap-work, conventionalized mythic ani¬ 
mals, and occasionally figures. In these 
traces of Egyptian influence are to be found, 
but the Assyrian figure type is, for the most 
part, of a more voluptuous and vigorous 
fullness than the Egyptian. The Assyrians 
understood and applied the arch; con¬ 
structed tunnels, aqueducts, and drains; 
used the pulley, the lever, and the roller; 
engraved gems in a highly artistic way; un¬ 
derstood the arts of inlaying, enameling, 
and overlaying with metals; manufactured 
porcelain, transparent and colored glass, 
and were acquainted with the lens; and 
possessed vases, jars, and other dishes, 
bronze and ivory ornaments, bells, gold ear¬ 
rings and bracelets of excellent design 
and workmanship. They had also silver or¬ 
namental work. Their household furniture 
also gives a high idea of their skill and 
taste. 

Assyrian Astronomy .— The cities of Nine¬ 
veh, Assur, and Arbela had each their royal 
observatories, superintended by astrono- 
mers-royal, who had to send in their re¬ 
ports to the king twice a month. At an 
early date the stars were numbered and 
named; a calendar was formed, in which 
the year was divided into 12 months (of 
30 days each) called after the zodiacal 
signs, but, as this division was found to be 
incorrect, an intercalary month was added 
every six years. In every month there were 
five tabu days or days of restriction or pro¬ 
hibition, but the prohibitions were few and 
were not probably applied to all the people. 






























































































Assyria 


Assyria 


The Assyrians employed both the dial and 
the clepsydra. Eclipses were recorded from 
a very remote epoch, and their recurrence 
roughly determined. The principal astro¬ 
nomical work, called the “ Illumination of 
Bel,” was inscribed on more than 100 tab¬ 
lets, and which exists only in very frag¬ 
mentary form, was a book of omens. It 
probably went through numerous editions, 
one of the latest being in the British Mu¬ 
seum. It treats, among other things, of 
comets, the Polar star, the conjugation of 
the sun and moon, and the motions of Venus 
and Mars. 

Literature and Civilization .— One of the 
most important results of the explorations 
has been the discovery in the palace of 
Asshur-banipal at Nineveh, of a large li¬ 
brary consisting of many thousand tablets 
of baked clay inscribed with minute charac¬ 
ters ; large numbers of these are now stored 
in the British Museum. This library, in 
all probability, OAves its origin to the keen 
political insight of Esar-haddon, but Avas 
completed by his son Asshur-banipal, Avhose 
name most of the tablets bear. In the 
libraries of NineA T eh and other cities there 
are found many tablets in Avhich Nabu 
(Nebo), the god of learning, and his con¬ 
sort, Tasmitu\ r , are im T oked and the epi¬ 
thets applied to him indicate that he was 
the Assyrian Hermes. He is called “ the 
Avise god,” “ the lord of illustrious birth,” 
“ the enlarger of the mind,” “ the writer of 
inscriptions.” The tablets in this library 
were chiefly copied from more ancient orig¬ 
inals in the temple libraries of Chaldea, 
each being stated to be “ like its old copy,” 
or “ like the ancient tablets of Simir and 
Akkad.” That such aaxis the case is now 
demonstrated by the discovery of duplicate 
copies in the libraries of Babylonian cities. 
The library was evidently founded with 
some intention of preventing the youth of 
Assyria from going to be taught at Babylon 
or Borsippa, where they would be subjected 
to dangerous political influences, but liter¬ 
ary feeling also had its part in collecting 
these works. Its educational character is 
shown by the discovery of a number of 
syllabaries, dictionaries, and text-books for 
instruction in the ancient Akkadian and 
Sumirian languages. These tablets, called 
by the Assyrians “ tablets to be with him ” 
(handbooks), Avere the class-books of the 
students in Nineveh, and ha\'e been the 
medium by which the decipherers haA r e 
learned the older languages of Chaldea 
(Lernormant’s “ Etudes Accadiennes ”). 
There have been found also works on mathe¬ 
matics, tables of square and cube roots, as 
Avell as lists of plants, metals, and precious 
stones, animals, and birds; records of 
eclipses and other astral phenomena, brief 
lists of laws and various contract tables. 

The geographical works are limited to 


lists of countries Avith their products, such 
as “ Lebanon, cedar; ” “ Elam, horses; ” 
“ Cilicia, tin and silver,” and “ Arabia, 
camels.” The section most prolific in dis¬ 
coveries has been that of poetic and 
mythological literature. In 1872 the late 
George Smith, of the British Museum, dis¬ 
covered a series of poetic legends relating 
to the great Chaldean hero Gilgamesh (Giz- 
dubar, or Izdubar), the 11th tablet of 
which contained a legend of the deluge, very 
closely resembling the HebreAV account. 
This series of tablets Avas found to consist 
of 12 books of an epic poem, describing the 
labors of Gilgamesh; \ r arious episodes of his 
career are arranged according to the 
sun’s passage through the signs of the Zo¬ 
diac, the deluge tablet being the 11th, 
corresponding to the sign Aquarius. From 
three duplicate copies and numerous frag¬ 
ments, scholars have been able to obtain a 
nearly complete text of this important tab¬ 
let, and the resemblance it bears to the He- 
breAV narrath r e is even more striking than 
was at first recognized. The flood is sent 
as a punishment for sin; the builder of the 
ark Avas called Parnapishtem, “offspring of 
life ; ” he gathers into the vessel all his male 
and female seiwants, and young men, and 
all the beasts of the field. The preparation 
of the ark occupies seA^en days, the rain lasts 
seven days, seven days are occupied in 
reaching the Mount Nizir (safety). 

Chronology. — The chronology of the As¬ 
syrian empire hoav rests upon a firm basis, 
being founded on seA r eral carefully prepared 
chronological inscriptions. The most im¬ 
portant of these is the “ Eponym Canon,” 
a tablet containing a list of the archons, or 
eponyms of Nineveh, or Calah, giving an 
exact chronology from 913-G59 b. c. As 
each of these officials AA r as in office only one 
year, the year A\ r as named after them; and, 
as the date of the Bursagalu is fixed by a 
solar eclipse, the dates of all the officials 
can be ascertained. Fragments of seven 
copies of it Avere disco\ r ered by Sir Henry 
Rawlinson in 18G2. An historical inscrip¬ 
tion of Rimmonnirari I., dated on the side 
by the name of the eponym of the years, 
enables us to go back as far as 1330 b. . c. 
A recent discovery has brought to light a 
table of Semitic Babylonian kings, arranged 
in dynasties, traced back as far as 2330 b. 
c. The dated contract tablets give us 
further help for the later dates. The paral¬ 
lel Assyrian inscriptions gi\ T e much help in 
settling the chronology of Babylonia. 

Assyriology. — The department \\ T hich 
deals with Assyrian antiquities and history 
is entirety a modern study. Until 1842 the 
materials for Assyrian history Avere derived 
from the Jewish records of the Old Testa¬ 
ment and from such comparatively late 
writers as Herodotus and Ktesias. In 1843— 
184G M. Botta, the French consul at Mosul, 
made the first successful explorations at 



Astarte 


Asteracece 


Koyunjik and Khorsabad, and came upon 
the palace of Sargon, the objects thus 
obtained being transported to the Louvre. 
In 1845 and 1849, valuable researches 
were conducted by Ledyard at Nine¬ 
veh, and copies of bas reliefs found 
were placed in the Boston Museum of Fine 
Arts, and elsewhere in the United States. 
The researches of Ledyard were subsequently 
continued by the government, and included 
George Smith’s discoveries, above noted. 
More recently Mr. Rassam carried on the 
work of discovery. In the decipherment and 
translation of the cuneiform inscriptions 
among the most distinguished names are 
those of Sir Henry Rawlinson, H. Fox Tal¬ 
bot, George Smith, M. Jules Oppert, Dr. 
Schrader, Dr. IJincks, Prof. A. JI. Sayce, Le 
Page Renouf, Prof. Terrien de la Couperie, 
Mr. Boscawen, Mr. Pinches, and Prof. 
Friedrich Delitzsch. Miss Catherine Wolfe 
paid the expenses of an American party to 
Babylon, led by the Rev. William Hayes 
Ward, D. I)., the result of which are the 
purchased seals and tablets now in the 
Metropolitan Museum in New York. The 
expedition which the Germans sent to 
Babylon proved, by excavating an ancient 
Babylonian burial mount, that cremation 
was much employed. In the University of 
Pennsylvania are thousands of fragments 
and clay tablets which are the results of the 
excavations at Nippur (S„ E. of Babylon), by 
Prof. John P. Peters, of Philadelphia, and 
Mr. Havnes, in 1889—1892. C. H. Toy. 

Astarte, a genus of bivalve mollusks be¬ 
longing to the family cyprinidce. They have 
2—2 hinge teeth, and are suborbicular, com¬ 
pressed, thick, smooth, or concentrically fur¬ 
rowed shells. Tate estimated the recent 
species known at 20 and the fossil at 2S5. 
The former belong to the Temperate and 
Arctic zones, and the latter to the rocks 
from the Carboniferous formation upward. 
See also Asiitaroth. 

Asten, Friedrich Emil von, a German 
astronomer, born at Koln, 1842. From 
1866, when he was graduated at the Uni¬ 
versity of Bonn, and where he had the ad¬ 
vantage of studying under the great Arge- 
lander, until 1870, he was best known as an 
assistant at the observatories of Bonn and 
Berlin, as computer on the “ Berliner 
Jahrbuch,” and as a private investigator in 
astronomical fields, into all of which work 
a remarkable degree of thoroughness and 
laborious research was thrown. His inves¬ 
tigations related mostly to comets. In 1870 
he went to the Imperial Russian Observa¬ 
tory at Pulkowa, and from then until his 
death in 1878 he turned out a prodigious 
amount of work as computer and original 
investigator. He will be best remembered 
for his work upon Encke’s comet, the results 
of which were published in 1877, and in¬ 
cluded an elaborate discussion of all the ap¬ 


pearances of this interesting body from 1819 
to 1875. 

Aster, a genus of plants, the type of the 
order asteracece, or composites. It is so 
called because the expanded flowers resemble 
stars. There is but one British species, the 
A. tripolium, sea starwort, or Michelmas 
daisy. In the United States these asters 
grow wild in the meadows and on the 
prairies. They grow to beautiful forms 
under cultivation. The popular name aster 
is applied to some species not of this genus. 
Thus the China aster is callistephus chinen- 
sis, and the Cape aster arjathcea amelloides. 

Aster, Ernst Ludwig von, a German 

military engineer, born in Dresden, Oct. 5, 
1778. His first service was in the Saxon 
army. While there he attracted the atten¬ 
tion" of Napoleon by a plan for fortifying 
Torgau. Subsequently he entered the Rus¬ 
sian service, and, soon after 1815, the Prus¬ 
sian. While in the last service he undertook 
the fortification of Coblentz and Ehrenbreit- 
stein, and in 1842 was appointed General 
of Infantry and Inspector-General of all 
the Prussian fortresses. He died in Berlin, 
Feb. 10, 1855. 

Asteraceae (as-ter-as'e-i), formerly, an 
order, the fourth of five arranged under the 
alliance composites, or asterales, the others 
being calyceracece, mutisiacece , cichoraccce, 
asteracece, and cynaracees. These, exclud¬ 
ing cynaracccc, constitute the compositce 
proper. The term asteracece in this sense 
is called alsa corymbifcrce, and comprehends 
the larger portion of the modern tubuli- 
ftorce. 

Now, it is a vast order, comprising the 
whole of the compositce proper. It is placed 
by Lindlev, in his “ Vegetable Kingdom ” 
(1S4G), as the last order of his campanales, 
or campanal alliance. It includes plants 
like the daisy, the thistle, the dandelion, and 
others, possessing what, to a superficial ob¬ 
server, appears like a calyx, but is in real¬ 
ity an involucre, surrounding a receptacle 
on which are situated not, as might at first 
sight appear, numerous petals, but many 
florets. Their calyxes very frequently take 
the form of pappus; the corollas are tubu¬ 
lar, ligulate, or both; the stamina, four or 
five, syngenesious, that is, united by the 
anthers into a tube; their style simple; and 
the ovaries single, one-celled, with a soli¬ 
tary erect ovule. In 1846, Bindley esti¬ 
mated the known species at 9,000, placed in 
1.005 genera. They are believed to consti¬ 
tute about one-tenth of the whole vegetable 
kingdom. They are everywhere diffused, 
but in different proportions in different 
countries; thus they constitute one-seventh 
of the flowering plants of France, and half 
those of tropical America. The order is 
divided into three sub-orders: (1) tubuli - 
florae; (2) labiatifJorce; and (3) liguli- 
florcs. All are bitter. For more specific in- 




Asteroids 


Astop 


formation regarding their qualities see the 
sub-orders and some of the genera. 

Asteroids. See Planetoids. 

Asterolepis, a genus of ganoid fishes 
named on account of the starry color of its 
scales. A bone of a species belonging to 
this genus, found at Stromness, the capital 
of Orkney, suggested to Hugh Miller the 
writing of his beautiful volume entitled 
“Footprints of the Creator; or, the Astero¬ 
lepis of Stromness.” It was an elaborate 
argument against the development hypothe¬ 
sis. According to that hypothesis, the first 
species of any class appearing on the scene 
should be low in organization, and proba¬ 
bly small in size. Mr. Miller showed that 
the asterolepis was large in size and high in 
organization, and yet it was at that time 
believed to be the oldest fossil vertebrate 
found in Scotland. His argument was sub¬ 
sequently weakened by the discovery that 
the Stromness rocks were less ancient than 
the Forfarshire beds, containing cephalaspis 
and other fish genera subsequently discov¬ 
ered, mostly of small size, though not of 
low organization. 

Asterophyllites (-fil-i'tez), a genus of 
cryptogamous plants, allied to calamites, 
belonging to the order equisetcicece. All are 
fossil, and belong to the carboniferous pe¬ 
riod. Their name was given on account of 
the starry appearance of the verticillate 
foliage. Their stems were articulated and 
branched, and it is now known that the 
fossils termed volkmannia constituted their 
fructification. 

Asthma, a chronic shortness of breath, 
from whatever cause it may arise. Till a 
comparatively recent period good medical 
writers used the term in this wide sense, and 
non-professional writers and the public do 
so still. Asthma, or spasmodic asthma, is 
“ a difficulty of breathing, recurring in 
paroxysms, after intervals of comparatively 
good health, and usually accompanied by 
fever.” It is most common in persons pos¬ 
sessing the nervous temperament. After 
some precursory .symptoms, it commences, 
often at night, with a paroxysm in which 
there is a great tightness and constriction of 
the chest. The patient breathes with a 
wheezing sound, and flings open the door 
or throws up the window in the effort to 
obtain more air. After a time the paroxysm 
passes away. Other fits of it probably suc¬ 
ceed on subsequent days, but by no means 
with the regularity of intermittent fever. 
It is produced by a morbid contraction of 
the bronchial muscles. There are two lead¬ 
ing varieties of the disease, a nervous and 
a catarrhal, the former of pure sympathetic 
and symptomatic forms, and the latter la¬ 
tent, humeral, and mucous chronic sub- 
varieties, besides an acute congestive, and 
an acute catarrhal, form. 


Asti (as'te) (Asfa Pompeia), a city of Pied¬ 
mont, Italy, in the Province of Alessan¬ 
dria, on the left bank of the Tanaro, 35 
miles E. S. E. of Turin by rail. It is a 
large city, with walls considerably dilapi¬ 
dated, and the streets generally very nar¬ 
row and irregular. It has a large Gothic 
cathedral, which was completed about 1348, 
and a royal college. There is carried on a 
considerable trade in silk and woolen fab¬ 
rics, hats, leather, and agricultural produce. 
The vino d’Asti, a kind of Muscatel, is 
highly esteemed. The city is of high an¬ 
tiquity, having been famous for its pottery 
before its capture by the Gauls in 400 b. c. 
On the occasion of its being again taken 
and destroyed in an irruption of the Gauls, 
it was rebuilt by Pompey, and received the 
name of Asta Pompeia. In the Middle 
Ages, Asti was one of the most powerful 
republics of Upper Italy. It was captured 
and burned by the Emperor Frederick I. in 
1155, and, after a series of vicissitudes, came 
into the possession of the Visconti of Naples; 
by them it was ceded to the French, in whose 
hands it remained till the middle of the 
lGtli century, when the Dukes of Savoy 
acquired it. Allieri was born here, 1749. 
Pop. over 17,000. 

Aston, William George, an English au¬ 
thor, born near Londonderry, in 1841; was 
educated at Queen’s College, Belfast; be¬ 
came a student interpreter in Japan in 
1SG4; interpreter and translator to the Brit¬ 
ish Legation at Yedo, in 1870; assistant 
Japanese secretary at Yedo, in 1875-1882; 
Consul-General for Korea, in 1884; Japa¬ 
nese secretary at Tokio, in 188ff; and was 
retired in 18S9. lie published “A Grammar 
of the Japanese Spoken Language,” “A 
Grammar of the Japanese Written Lan¬ 
guage,” “A Translation of the Nihongi; or, 
Annals of Ancient Japan,” “ History of 
Japanese Literature,” etc. 

Astor, John Jacob, an American mer¬ 
chant, born in Waldorf, Germany, July 17, 
17G3. In 1783 he came to the United States 
intending to engage in the selling of mu¬ 
sical instruments; but while on the voyage 
was induced by a fellow passenger to en¬ 
gage in buving furs from the Indians and 
selling them to dealers. On reaching New 
York he entered the employ of a Quaker 
furrier, with whom he learned the details 
of the trade, and then began business on 
his own account. Soon afterward he be¬ 
came American agent for a London fuf 
house, and, while arranging for his supplies, 
he opened the first wareroom for the sale 
of musical instruments in the United 
States. His success in the fur business led 
him to become the owner of a number of 
vessels, in which he shipped furs to London 
and brought merchandise therefrom. In 
furtherance of a scheme for becoming inde¬ 
pendent of the Hudson’s Bay Company and 



Astor 


Astragalomancy 


establishing a thoroughly American system 
of fur trading, he sent out expeditions to 
open up intercourse with the Indians on the 
Pacific coast, by which the present city of 
Astoria at tne mouth of the Columbia river 
in Oregon was planted in 1811. An inter¬ 
esting outline of his projects in this con¬ 
nection is given in Washington Irving’s 
“ Astoria.” Mr. Astor acquired large 
wealth, invested heavily in real estate in 
New York city; and at his death left a 
fortune estimated at $20,000,000, and the 
sum of $400,000, with which to found a 
public library in New York city. He died 
March 29, 1848. See New York Public Li¬ 
brary. 

Astor, John Jacob, an American capi¬ 
talist, born in Rhinebeck, N. Y., July 13, 
1804; son of William, grandson of John 
Jacob, and cousin of William Waldorf As¬ 
tor; was graduated at Harvard University 
in 1888; spent three years in European 
travel; and then became manager of the 
family estate. In 1897 he built the As¬ 
toria Hotel in New Y T ork, adjoining the Wal¬ 
dorf Hotel, which had been built by his 
cousin, and subsequently the two were 
united under the name of the Waldorf- 
Astoria Hotel, probably the most costly 
building of its kind in the world. He was 
appointed Colonel on the staff of Gov. Mor¬ 
ton ; was commissioned a Lieutenant-Colonel 
of Volunteers in May, 1898, and served on 
inspection and staff duty in the United 
States and Cuba till the surrender of San¬ 
tiago. He presented the United States Gov¬ 
ernment with a completely equipped moun¬ 
tain battery which cost over $75,000, and 
which was sent to the Philippine Islands, 
and rendered the government valuable ser¬ 
vices in other directions during the war 
with Spain. He published “ A Journey to 
Other Worlds; a Romance of the Future” 
(1894). 

Astor, William Backhouse, an Ameri¬ 
can capitalist, born in New Y r ork city, Sept. 
19, 1792; eldest son of John Jacob Astor; 
was associated with his father in business; 
increased the family fortune to $45,000,000; 
and gave $550,000 to the Astor Library. He 
died in New York, Nov. 24, 1875. 

Astor, William Waldorf, capitalist, 
born in New York city, March 31, 1848; 
received a private education; was admitted 
to the bar in 1875. He was elected to the 
New York Assembly in 1871, and to the 
Senate in 1879; was defeated for Congress 
in 1881, and was United States Minister to 
Italy in 1882-1885. On the death of his 
father, John Jacob Astor, in 1890, he be¬ 
came the head of the Astor family, and in¬ 
herited a fortune said to aggregate $100,- 
000,000. He removed to England in 1890; 
became the owner of the “ Pall Mall Ga¬ 
zette ” and “ Pall Mall Magazine; ” and 


was naturalized a British subject on July 1, 
1899. He published “Valentino” (1885), 
and “ Sforza ” (1889), both romances. 

Astoria, Ore., a city, port of entry, and 
county-seat of Clatsop Co., in the N. W. 
corner of the State, on the S. shore of the 
estuary by which the Columbia river 
enters the Pacific Ocean, and 9 miles from 
its mouth. The Astoria and Columbia River 

R. R. connects it with Portland, 101 miles 

S. E., while the 5 miles of water front is 
made available for ocean steamers by a 
jetty, which has opened a commodious 
channel. Foreign and coast lines of steam¬ 
ers are thus in constant traffic. Astoria 
was founded in 1811 as a fur-trading sta¬ 
tion by John Jacob Astor {q. v.). It was 
occupied by the English from 1813 to 1818 
as Fort St. George, and, being in disputed 
territory, was not in American control un¬ 
til 1846; it was chartered in 1876. Its pres¬ 
ent trade is extensive salmon catching and 
canning, employing about $2,000,000 capi¬ 
tal, with an output of 15,000,000 cans 
annually. It has great can-factories, iron¬ 
works, lumber and flouring mills, breweries, 
etc., and is a point of export for large 
amounts of lumber and agricultural produce. 
Pop. (1900) 8,381; (1910) 9,599. 

Astor Place Riot, a fatal affray which 
took place in New York City, May 10, 1854, 
in which the participants were the parti- 
cans of the actors, Edwin Forrest and Wil¬ 
liam C. Macready. Twenty-two were killed 
and 36 wounded. 

Astraea (as-tre'a), in Greek mythology, 
the daughter of Zeus and Themis, and god¬ 
dess of justice. During the golden age she 
dwelt on earth, but on that age passing 
away she withdrew from the society of 
men and was placed among the stars, where 
she forms the constellation Virgo. The 
name was given to one of the asteroids, 
discovered in 1845. It revolves round the 
sun in 1,511.10 solar days, and is about 
2y 2 times the distance of the earth from 
the sun. 

Astrasidae, in zoology, a family of radi¬ 
ated animals belonging to the class Polypi 
and the order Helianthoida. It is especially 
to this family that the formation of coral 
reefs is to be attributed. It contains the 
genera Astrcea, Meandrina, etc. 

Astragal, in architecture, a small semi¬ 
circular molding, with a fillet beneath it, 
which surrounds a column in the form of 
a ring, separating the shaft from the capital. 

Astragalomancy (Greek, astragales, in 
the plural = dice, and mcinteia = divina¬ 
tion), a pretended divination performed by 
throwing down small dice with marks CQr- 
responding to letters of the alphabet, and 
observing what words they formed. It was 



Astragalus 


Astrology 


practiced in the temple of Hercules, in 
Achaia. 

Astragalus, the upper bone of the foot, 
supporting the tibia; the huckle, ankle, or 
sling bone. It is a strong, irregularly- 
shaped bone, and is connected with the 
others by powerful ligaments. 

Astragalus, a genus of papilionaceous 
plants, herbaceous or shrubby, and often 
spiny. A. gummifer yields gum tragacanth. 

Astrakhan (as-tra-kan'), a Russian city, 
capital of the government of the same name, 
on an elevated island in the Volga, about 
30 miles above its mouth in the Caspian, 
communicating with opposite banks of the 
river bv numerous bridges. It is the seat 
of a Greek archbishop and has a large 
cathedral, as well as places of worship for 
Mohammedans, Armenians, etc. The manu¬ 
factures are large and increasing, and the 
fisheries (sturgeon, etc.), very important. 
It is the chief port of the Caspian, and has 
regular steam communication with the 
principal towns on its shores. Pop. ( 1897) 
113,001, composed of various races. The 
government has an area of 91,327 square 
miles. It consists almost entirely of two 
vast steppes, separated from each other by 
the Volga, and forming for the most part 
arid, sterile deserts. Pop. (1897) 994,775. 

Astrakhan, a name given to sheep-skins 
with a curled wooly surface obtained from 
a variety of sheep found in Bokhara, Per¬ 
sia, and Syria; also a rough fabric with a 
pile in imitation of this. 

Astral Spirits. The star (Greek, astron) 
and fire worship of the Eastern religions 
rested on the doctrine that every heavenly 
body is animated by a spirit, forming, as it 
were, its soul; this doctrine passed into the 
religio-physical theories of the Greeks and 
Jews, and even into the Christian world. 
In the demonology of the Middle Ages, astral 
spirits are conceived of sometimes as fallen 
angels, sometimes as souls of departed men, 
sometimes as spirits originating in fire and 
hovering between heaven, earth and hell, 
without belonging to any one of these prov¬ 
inces. Much curious lore was connected 
with this notion. 

Astringents, substances which produce 
contraction and condensation of the muscu¬ 
lar fiber: for instance, when applied to a 
bleeding wound they so contract the tissues 
as to stop the hemorrhage. The contrac¬ 
tion thus produced is different from that 
effected by an ordinary stimulant, and from 
that caused by the administration of a 
tonic. They may be divided into (1) those 
which exert a tonic influence, as tannin 
combined with gallic acid; also sulphuric, 
acetic acids, etc.; (2) those which have a 
sedative effect, as the salts of lead; and 
(3) those which operate chemically, as 
chalk or other variety of carbonate of lime. 
Astringents are useful in various diseases, 


Astrolabe, in its etymological sense, any 
instrument for taking the altitude of a star 
or other heavenly body, a definition which 
would include not merely the astrolabe prop¬ 
erly so called, but also the sextant, the quad¬ 
rant, the equatorial, the altitude and the azi¬ 
muth circle, the theodolite, or any similar in¬ 
strument. But, practically, the word is limited 
to the three following significations: (1) A 
planisphere, a stereographic projection of 
the sphere upon the plane of one of its 
great circles. This may be either the plane 
of the equator, in which case the eye is 
supposed to be at the Pole; or the plane of 
the meridian, in which case the eye is con- ‘ 
sidered to be at the point of intersection of 
the equinoctial and the horizon. (2) An 
armillary sphere or any similar instrument. 
This type of astrolabe was in use among 
astronomers at least from the early part 
of the 2d century a. d., if not even from 
the 2d or 3d century b. c. (3) A gradu¬ 
ated circle, with sights attached, in use early 
in the 18th century for taking the altitude 
of the heavenly bodies at sea. It was ulti¬ 
mately superseded by Hadley’s quadrant, 
introduced to public notice about 1730. 

Astrology, originally a discourse con¬ 
cerning the stars; subsequently the true 
science of astronomy; now the pseudo sci¬ 
ence which pretends to foretell future events 
by studying the position of the stars, and 
ascertaining their alleged influence upon 
human destiny. Natural astrology pro¬ 
fesses to predict changes in the weather 
from studying the stars and judicial or 
judiciary astrology to foretell events bear¬ 
ing on the destiny of individual 'human be¬ 
ings or the race of mankind generally. 

In the infancy of the world, when the 
stars were assumed to be, as they seemed, 
sparkles of light, whose diminutiveness so 
markedly contrasted with the hugeness of 
the earth, it was a perfectly legitimate con¬ 
jecture or hypothesis that one main function 
which the shining speck served in the economy 
of nature might be to influence human desti¬ 
nies. Hence, the Chinese, the Egyptians, 
the Chaldaans, the Romans, and most other 
ancient nations, with the honorable excep¬ 
tion of the Greeks, became implicit believers 
in astrology. It was partly the cause and 
partly the effect of the prevalent worship 
of the heavenly bodies. The “ star-gazers,” 
sarcastically referred to by Isa. xlvii: 13, 
were evidently astrologers: so also were 
what are called in the margin “ viewers 
of the heavens; ” but the Hebrew word 
rendered “astrologers” in Dan. i: 20; 
ii: 2, 27; iv: 7; v: 7, is a much vaguer 
one, meaning those who practice incanta¬ 
tions, without indicating what the character 
of these incantations may be. The later 
Jews, the Arabs, with other Mohammedian 
races, and the Christians in medieval Eu¬ 
rope, were all great cultivators of astrology. 




Astronomy 


Astronomy 


The ordinary method of procedure in the 
Middle Ages was to divide a globe or a 
planisphere into 12 portions by circles run¬ 
ning from pole to pole, like those which now 
mark meridians of longitude. Each of the 
12 spaces or intervals between these circles 
was called a “ house ” of heaven. The sun, 
the moon and the stars all pass once in 
24 hours through the portion of heavens 
represented by the 12 “houses;” nowhere, 
however, except at the equator, are the same 
stars uniformly together in the same house. 
Every house has one of the heavenly bodies 
ruling over it as its lord. 

The houses symbolize different advantages 
or disadvantages. The first is the house of 
life; the second, of riches; the third, of 
brethren; the fourth of parents; the fifth 
of children; the sixth, of health; the sev¬ 
enth, of marriage; the eighth, of death; 
the ninth, of religion; the tenth, of digni¬ 
ties; the eleventh, of friends; and the 
twelfth, of enemies. The houses vary in 
strength, the first one, that containing the 
part of the heavens about to rise, being the 
most powerful of all; it is called the as¬ 
cendant. while the point of the ecliptic 
just rising is termed the horoscope. The 
important matter was to ascertain what 
house and star was in the .ascendant at the 
moment of a person's birth, from which it 
was deemed possible to augur his fortune. 
It followed that all people born in the same 
part of the world at the same time ought to 
have had the same future, an allegation 
which experience decisively contradicted. 
Even apart from this, astrological predic¬ 
tions of all kinds had a fatal tendency to 
pass away without being fulfilled; and when, 
finally, it was discovered that the tiny- 
looking stars were suns like that irradiat¬ 
ing our heavens, and the earth not the 
center of the universe, but only a planet 
revolving around another body, and itself 
much exceeded in size by several of its com¬ 
peers, every scientific mind in Europe felt 
itself unable any longer to believe in astrol¬ 
ogy, which has been in an increasingly lan¬ 
guishing state since the middle of the 17th 
century. It still flourishes, however, in Asia 
and Africa. 

Astronomy, the science that treats of all 
the heavenly bodies, including the earth, 
as related to them. It is the oldest of the 
sciences, and the mother of those generally 
called exact mathematics, geodesy and phy¬ 
sics. The problems presented in the motions 
and forces of the solar system have taxed 
the powers of the ablest mathematical 
minds of all the ages, and have been the 
primary cause of the development of this 
powerful engine of investigation. The mis¬ 
sion of astronomy in this direction is by 
no means ended. The development of a pure 
mathematical theory which shall fully rep¬ 
resent the moon’s motion is still a desidera¬ 


tum, while the geodist must yet furnish 
a more exact value of the figure and di¬ 
mensions of the earth to suit the demands 
of the astronomer as a base-line with which 
to measure the depths of space. In the op¬ 
posite direction, likewise, the constantly in¬ 
creasing revelations of the spectroscope, in 
what has been called the new astronomy, 
are the spur of the brightest minds among 
the mathematical physicists and chemists 
to tell us what is an atom, and what is 
the nature of the motions and forces at play 
among the last divisible units of so-called 
matter. 

Astronomy may to-day be broadly di¬ 
vided into two branches, mathematical and 
physical, and these are almost synonymous 
with two terms recently introduced, the old 
and the new astronomy, as defined by the 
statement that the old tells us where the 
heavenly bodies are, the new, what they are. 
This, of course, is a very incomplete state¬ 
ment of the whole scope of the old astron¬ 
omy, which, has, moreover, told us some¬ 
thing of what these bodies are so far as it 
could be revealed by inspection of their 
appearance in the field of the telescope. 
But this is very little compared with what 
the new has brought to light, by means of 
the spectroscope, polariscope, thermopile and 
bolometer. The characteristic feature of 
the instruments and methods of the new 
versus the old astronomy, is that the new 
deals with some special form of radiant 
energy, measuring or analyzing the vibra¬ 
tions transmitted throughout all space by 
means of the elastic medium called ether. 

Under the two broad divisions stated 
above, mathematical astronomy would in¬ 
clude the following divisions, which are 
not, however, mutually exclusive: Spherical 
astronomy, which treats of angles and direc¬ 
tions on the celestial sphere; practical as¬ 
tronomy, treating of the instruments, meth¬ 
ods of observation, and of calculation em¬ 
ployed to get at the facts and data of 
astronomy; theoretical astronomy, which 
deals with the orbits, tables and epheme- 
rides of the sun, moon, planets and comets, 
including the effect of their mutual attrac¬ 
tions, and gravitational or mechanical as¬ 
tronomy, which treats of the forces (prin¬ 
cipally gravitation) at work in space and 
the motions resulting therefrom. This last 
was formerly called physical astronomy, but 
the name has been monopolized by the new 
astronomy within the last few decades, and 
must now be reserved for it. This second 
branch, likewise called astronomical physics 
and astro-physics, attempts to answer the 
question of what the heavenly bodies are, 
the nature and constitution of their inte¬ 
riors, surfaces, atmosphere, their tempera¬ 
tures and radiations, and the effect of these 
radiations upon other bodies, and all allied 
questions arising out of these. Its princi- 



Astronomy 


Astronomy 


pal instrument, the spectroscope, has like¬ 
wise furnished data otherwise unattainable 
in the held of mathematical astronomy, viz., 
the determination of the motion to or from 
us of the heavenly bodies by displacement 
of the lines of their spectra due to this 
motion. 

History .—The Chinese, Hindus, Chalde¬ 
ans, Egyptians, and Greeks investigated the 
heavens long before the Christian era. In 
China astronomy was intimately associated 
with State politics; the Indians, Chaldeans 
and Egyptians made it a matter of religion. 
The Greek historians attribute the earliest 
knowledge of astronomical science to the 
Chaldeans and Egyptians. They say that 
the former discovered the Saros or cycle of 
223 lunations, nearly equal to 18 years, by 
which they predicted the return of pre¬ 
viously observed eclipses and made use of 
other empirical cycles or periods. Aristotle 
had transmitted to him from Babylon, by 
order of Alexander the Great, a catalogue 
of eclipses observed during 1,903 years pre¬ 
ceding the Macedonian conquest of that 
city. Ptolemy gives six of the eclipses 
from this catalogue, but the earliest does 
not extend further back than 720 b. c. 

Thales (040 b. c.), the founder of the 
Ionic school, laid the foundation of Greek 
astronomy. The successors of Thales held 
opinions which, in many respects, are won¬ 
derfully in accordance with modern ideas. 
Anaximander, it is said, held that the earth 
moved about its own axis, and that the 
moon’s light was reflected from the sun. 
To him is also attributed the belief in the 
plurality of worlds. Anaxagoras, who trans¬ 
ferred the Ionic school from Miletus to 
Athens, is said to have offered a conjecture 
that the moon had hills and valleys. 

Pythagoras and his Successors. —Pythag¬ 
oras (500 b. c.) promulgated the true 
theory that the sun is the center of the 
planetary world, and that the earth re¬ 
volves round it. But the views of Pythag¬ 
oras met with little or no support from his 
successors until the time of Copernicus. 
Betvceen Pythagoras and the advent of the 
Alexandrian school, nearly tv r o centuries 
later, among the most prominent names in 
astronomical annals is that of Meton, who 
introduced the Metonic Cycle, consisting of 
125 months of 30 days each, and of 100 of 
29 days, making a period of 0,940 days, 
nearly equal to 19 solar years. This w T as 
accepted throughout Greece, and w 7 as en¬ 
graved in golden letters in tablets of brass, 
■whence the name Golden Number; and this 
has been the basis of the calendars of mod¬ 
ern European nations. 

To the Alexandrian school, ow r ing its ex¬ 
istence to the Ptolemies, Ave are indebted 
for the first systematic observations in 
astronomy. The Alexandrian system was 
inferior to the Pythagorean notions, but 


it had the merit of being founded on a 
long and patient observation of phenomena, 
a principle which finally brought about its 
own destruction, while the previous theories 
were the result of pure hypothesis. The 
most interesting circumstances connected 
with the early history of the Alexandrian 
school are the attempts made to determine 
the distance of the earth from the sun and 
the magnitude of the terrestrial globe. 
Aristarchus of Samos, whom Humboldt 
called the pioneer of the Copernican sys¬ 
tem, wars the author of an ingenious plan 
to ascertain the sun’s distance by measuring 
tlie angle between the sun and the moon 
at the time when the moon is just half il¬ 
luminated by the sun. Though correct in 
theory, the measurement of the angle was 
subject to such error that the distance de¬ 
duced was far too small, though much 
nearer the truth than anything which had 
been taught up to that time. 

Hipparchus of Bithynia (1G0-125 b. c.) 
was a theorist, a mathematician, and an 
observer. He catalogued no less than 1,081 
stars. lie discovered the precession of the 
equinoxes; he determined the mean motion 
as Avell as the inequality of the motion of 
the sun, and the length of the year; also 
the mean motion of the moon, her eccentric¬ 
ity, the equation of her center, and the in¬ 
clination of her orbit; and he suspected 
the inequality aftenvard found by Ptolemy 
(the eA r ection). After the death of Hip¬ 
parchus, astronomy languished for nearly 
three centuries, no essential advance being 
made, though a few men are reported as 
making some observations, and the Roman 
calendar v/as reformed by Julius Caesar. 

Ptolemaic System. — Ptolemy (130-150 
a. d.), besides being a practical astronomer, 
Avas accomplished as a musician, a geogra¬ 
pher, and a mathematician. His most im¬ 
portant discovery in astronomy Avas the 
evection of the moon. He also Avas the first 
to point out the effect of refraction. He 
AA 7 as the founder of the false system knoAvn 
by his name, and Avhich Avas universally ac¬ 
cepted as the true theory of the universe 
until the researches of Copernicus exploded 
it. The Ptolemaic system placed the earth, 
immovable, in the center of the universe, 
making the entire heavens revolve round it 
in the course of 24 hours. The AA 7 ork by 
AA'hich he is best knoAArn, hoAvever, is the 
collection and systematic arrangement of 
the ancient observations in his great work, 
the “ Megale Syntaxis,” which gives a 
complete resume of the astronomical knoAA’l- 
edge of the day. This Avork was translated 
into Arabic in the first part of the 9th cen¬ 
tury, and was called by the Arabs the 
“ Almagest,” and by this name it is knoAA 7 n 
to-day in its various translations into Greek 
and Latin. The most important part of it 
is the seventh and eighth books, Avhich con* 





Astronomy 


Astronomy 


tain the catalogue of stars which bears 
Ptolemy’s name, though it is only a compil¬ 
ation of the catalogue of Hipparchus with 
the positions brought up to the time of 
Ptolemy. These latter are in use to-day, 
though the gaps between them have been 
filled up in some cases by more modern 
asterisms. The advance of astronomy almost 
ceased after the death of Ptolemy, and his 
“ Almagest,” together with the false system 
of the universe which it taught, continued 
to be the recognized authority in Europe 
for the next 14 centuries. 

Arabian Astronomy .— To the Arabs wc 
owe the next advances in astronomy. They 
began making observations 762 a. d. For 
four centuries the Arabs prosecuted the j 
study of the science assiduously. They had ! 
little capacity for speculation, and through¬ 
out held the Greek theories in superstitious 
reverence. The most illustrious of the 
Arabian school were Albategnus, or A1 
Batani (880 A. D.), who discovered the 
motion of the solar apogee, and who was 
also the first to make use of sines and 
versed sines instead of chords; and Ibn- 
Yunis (1000 A. d.), an excellent mathe¬ 
matician, who made observations of great 
knportance in determining the disturbances 
and eccentricities of Jupiter and Saturn, 
and who was the first to use cotangents and 
sectants. Likewise, at about the same time, 
Abul Wefa discovered the third ineqi,iality 
in the moon’s motion, the variation, and de¬ 
termined its amount. About four centuries 
later, in the first half of the 15th century, 
lived Ulugh Begh, a Tartar prince, who 
made important additions to astronomical 
knowledge. 

The revival of astronomy in Europe may 
be said to have begun with George Purbach, 
who translated the “ Almagest ” at Vienna. 
His pupil, John Muller, translated into 
Latin the works of Ptolemy and the conics 
of Appolonius, built an observatory at Nu-1 
remberg, and equipped it with instruments I 
of his own invention. He died in 1476.1 
Nuremberg also produced John Werner, who 
first explained the method of finding the 
longitude at sea by measuring the distance 
between a fixed star and the moon, and who 
made other important astronomical deter¬ 
minations. 

Copernican Theory .— Copernicus (1473- 
1543) exploded the Ptolemaic idea, and pro¬ 
mulgated a correct theory. His system is 
in some part a revival of the opinions said 
to have been held by Pythagoras. It makes 
the sun the immovable center of the uni¬ 
verse, around which all the planets revolve in 
concentric orbits, Mercury and Venus within 
the earth’s orbit, and all other planets with¬ 
out it. He was broken down in body and 
mind when his work “ On the Revolutions 
of the Heavenly Bodies ” was brought to 
him in proof. He died May 24, 1543. 


Decidedly the most industrious observer 
and eminent practical astronomer from the 
time of the Arabs to the latter half of the 
16th century was Tycho Brahe (1546-1601). 
Tycho’s system, which made the sun move 
round the earth, and all the other planets 
round the sun, explained all natural phe¬ 
nomena then observed equally well, while 
it must have appeared more probable than 
the crude, and, at that era, undemonstrable 
theories of Copernicus. He made the first 
table of refractions, and discovered the vari¬ 
ation and annual equation of the moon, the 
inequalities of the motion of the nodes, and 
of the inclination of the lunar orbit. He 
also demonstrated that the region of the 
comets is far beyond the orbit of the moon, 
and he determined the positions of 777 
stars with an accuracy far surpassing any¬ 
thing before done in that line. 

Galileo Galilei was the contemporary of 
Kepler, and, as his discoveries were of a 
more popular character, he obtained a more 
immediate fame and reputation. In the 
interval between the great discoveries of 
Kepler and Galileo and those of Newton 
various astronomers made valuable addi¬ 
tions to astronomical knowledge or invented 
new apparatus for observing the heavenly 
bodies. Perhaps the greatest of these was 
the invention of logarithms by Lord Napier. 
In 1603, John Bayer, of Augsberg, pub¬ 
lished his “ Uranometria,” or maps of the 
48 constellations which had been handed 
down from Hipparchus through Ptolemy in 
the “ Almagest,” and, on these maps, he for 
the first time assigned to the individual 
stars the letters that are used to-day. The 
researches of Descartes gave a new help to 
mathematical analysis. Horrox observed 
the transit of Venus in 1639, the first ever 
seen by man. 

The most accurate determinations of the 
positions of the heavenly bodies made with¬ 
out the help of the telescope were those of 
Hovelius, a rich citizen of Dantzic, who gave 
his life and wealth to astronomy, working 
steadily for more than 40 years. The cata¬ 
logue of stars which bears his name, and 
by whose numbers in the different constel¬ 
lations the individual stars are still called 
to-day with the distinguishing letter “ H,” 
is the greatest of the results of his labors. 

Newton’s fame rests on his discovery of 
the law of gravitation, announced in the 
“Principia” in 1677. This discovery is 
perhaps the grandest effort of human gen¬ 
ius of which we have any record. Newton 
also made the important discovery of the 
revolution of comets around the sun in 
conic sections, proved the earth’s form to 
be that of an oblate spheroid, gave a theory 
of the moon and tides, invented fluxions 
and wrote on optics. While the foundations 
of gravitational astronomy were thus 
broadly laid by Newton, Flamsteed, the first 






Astronomy 


Astronomy 


astronomer-royal at Greenwich, and Halley 
were greatly improving and extending the 
practical department of the science. To 
Flamsteed we are indebted for numerous 
observations on the fixed stars, on planets, 
satellites and comets, and for a catalogue 
of 2,884 stars. His “ Historia Caelestis ” 
formed an new area in sidereal astronomy. 
Dr. Halley, who succeeded Flamsteed as 
astronomer-royal, discovered the accelerated 
mean motion of the moon, and certain in¬ 
equalities in Jupiter and Saturn, but he is 
most famed for his successful investiga¬ 
tions into the motions and nature of comets. 
His successor was Dr. Bradley, who in the 
year of Newton’s death, made the important 
discovery of the aberration of light, which 
furnishes the most conclusive proof we have 
of the earth’s annual motion. 

While Bradley was at work at Green¬ 
wich, at the middle of the 18th century, 
Lacaille, a celebrated French astronomer, 
undertook a voyage to the Cape of Good 
Hope to determine the sun’s parallax, by 
observations of Mars and Venus simultane¬ 
ously with similar ones in Europe, and to 
form a catalogue of southern circumpolar 
stars. In a single year and single-handed 
he observed the positions of over 10,000 
stars and computed the places of 1,942 of 
them. The latter half of the 18th century 
was marked by the brilliant work of Sir 
William Herschel, who discovered the planet 
Uranus and its four satellites, and two ad¬ 
ditional satellites of Saturn; determined the 
direction of the motion of the solar system 
in space; resolved the Milky Way into count¬ 
less myriads of stars, and opened up a 
boundless field of discovery and research 
among the nebulae and double and multiple 
stars. His success was due to his remark¬ 
able skill in polishing and figuring his own 
mirrors, by which he produced telescopes 
(reflectors) far more powerful than any in 
use before. 

Many other lesser lights added to the bril¬ 
liancy of the 18th century. Maskelyne per¬ 
fected the method of reducing observations 
of lunar distances at sea for the determina¬ 
tion of longitudes, and had tables of lunar 
distances first published in the British 
“ Nautical Almanac.” Delambre, besides a 
large amount of other exceedingly valuable 
work, left, in the six large quarto volumes 
of his “ Historie,” a monument of profound 
research into the history of astronomy, from 
the earliest days, giving an abstract of all 
the important publications that had ever 
been issued. Lalande observed the posi¬ 
tions of by far the largest number of stars 
that had been catalogued up to the end of 
the 18th century. These were afterward 
reduced and published by Baily in a cata¬ 
logue which contains over 47,000 star posi¬ 
tions. Mayer, besides making a valuable 
catalogue of zodiacal stars at about the 


same time as those of Bradley and- Lacaille, 
perfected lunar tables which were for many 
years the most accurate in existence. The 
18th and 19th centuries were astronomically 
connected by the work of Piazzi in the ob¬ 
servatory established at Palermo in 1790, 
where he formed a catalogue of stars more 
accurately observed than any preceding him, 
with the exception of Bradley’s, and where 
he ushered in the 19th century by discover¬ 
ing, on the night of Jan. 1, 1801, a new 
planet, the first of the numerous belt of 
planetoids between Mars and Jupiter. 

Modern Astronomy .— Friedrich Wilhelm 
Bessel contributed more than any other to 
the solid advancement of the science in the 
19th century. Bessel combined in an ex¬ 
traordinary degree the qualities of an able 
mathematician and a skillful observer. Be¬ 
fore mentioning particularly any of the 
other prominent astronomers of the early 
part of the 19th century, the celebrated 
optician Fraunhofer, who contributed so 
much to their success, deserves special notice. 
In connection with his experiments on light 
for the further perfection of his lenses, 
Fraunhofer was led to the discovery of the 
host of lines of the solar spectrum, of which 
he counted 600 and mapped 324, and which 
are to-day known as the “ Fraunhofer 
Lines.” 

Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve ( 1793— 
1864) rendered his name immortal by the 
accurate determination, with the 9% inch 
Dorpat refractor, of the position-angles, 
distances, colors and relative brightness of 
3,112 double and multiple stars, about 2.200 
of which were new discoveries. Friedrich 
Wilhelm August Argelander (1799-1875) 
ranks next to Bessel among the great 
astronomers of the 19th century. A pupil 
of the latter, he thoroughly imbibed the 
ideas of exactitude in astronomical observa¬ 
tions for which his great master was pre¬ 
eminent, and he carried them out in all his 
subsequent work. His first work was the ob¬ 
servations, made while his observatory at 
Bonn was being completed, for the forma¬ 
tion of the “ Uranometria Nova,” the ac¬ 
cepted standard of stellar magnitudes. With 
the completion of the Bonn Observatory he 
took up the extension of Bessel's zone obser¬ 
vations, northward, to within 10° of the 
Pole and southward to —31° of declination. 
He then took up, and, with the help of two 
or three assistants carried to completion, 
that prodigious work, the “ Bonner Durch- 
musterung ” (the “ Bonn Muster ” or “ Sur¬ 
vey,” generally quoted as the “ D. M.”), a 
complete catalogue, with accompanying 
maps, of all the stars down to the ninth 
magnitude, and many of the tenth, which 
are situated between —2° of declination and 
the North Pole, and containing in all more 
than 320,000 stars. 

In the southern hemisphere little had 





Astronomy 


Astronomy 


been done since Lacaille swept over its 
heavens in zones with his little ^-inch 
telescope in 1751-1752. John F. W. Her- 
schel (1792-1871), following in the footsteps 
of his father, who had so thoroughly ex¬ 
plored the northern heavens, took advantage 
of this, and, in 1834, after eight years of 
work reviewing the work of the elder Her- 
schel in England, he began at the Cape of 
Good Hope a similar survey of the southern 
heavens, using an 18-inch reflector of his 
own construction. With this, in the course 
of four years, he accumulated a vast store 
of material, in the way of new double and 
multiple stars, nebulse and star-clusters, 
photometric measures of stellar brightness, 
“ soundings ” or “ star-gauges ” in the Milky 
Wav, to show the laws of the distribution 
of the stars in space, all of which form the 
starting point of our knowledge of the 
southern heavens in these respects, as the 
work of his father had been that of the 
northern. The work of Sir George Biddell 
Airy (1801-1892) next deserves attention. 
Appointed in 1835 to the directorship of the 
Royal Observatory of Greenwich, he first 
carried to completion the great work begun 
at his suggestion two years before — the 
complete reduction, on a uniform system, of 
all the Greenwich planetary observations 
from 1750 onward. The later years of his 
life were entirely absorbed in a struggle 
with that mountain of difficulties for all 
mathematicians: the theory of the moon’s 
motion. 

The greatest event of the century was the 
discovery of the planet Neptune. The work 
of Lagrange and Laplace in the domain of 
gravitational astronomy was continued and 
vastly extended in the 19th century by 
several eminent mathematicians and as¬ 
tronomers, notably by Leverrier. His life 
was devoted to the perfection of the theory 
of the planetary motions. Adams, the equal 
sharer with him in the glory of the dis¬ 
covery of Neptune, has also made very im¬ 
portant additions to our knowledge in the 
same field, and in the United States we 
have, in the persons of Simon Newcomb 
and George W. Hill, their worthy suc¬ 
cessors and collaborators. The amount 
of work which Newcomb published in 
the line of fundamental star places, the 
discussion of old eclipses and occupations, 
with their bearing on the theory of the 
moon’s motion, the motion of Mercury, etc., 
was prodigious. As superintendent of the 
“ American Epheineris and Nautical Al¬ 
manac ” he carried out a comprehensive 
revision of the whole system on a scale be¬ 
fore unattempted. In this he was assisted 
by Hill, whose profound and thorough work 
in the realm of celestial mechanics was at 
once a model of mathematical elegance and 
of rigorous analysis. 

The theory of the moon’s motion, or the 


lunar theory, as it is generally called, has 
from the beginning attracted the attention 
of the ablest mathematical investigators, 
and is likely to do so for some generations 
to come, before its difficult problems shall 
have been settled. In the 19th century the 
names of Carlini, Damoiseau, Plana, Adams, 
Pierce, Newcomb and Hill are well known 
in connection with various parts of this 
work, but the two who stand out promi¬ 
nently before all others are Hansen and 
Delaunay. In various other branches of 
gravitational astronomy, several names de¬ 
serve special mention. Olbers, besides be¬ 
ing the discoverer of several comets and of 
the second and fourth planetoid, is best 
known for his development of the best 
method of computing cometary orbits. 
Encke, a pupil of Gauss, and a natural-born 
geometer and computer, developed the best 
methods of applying the method of least 
squares to computation, determined a value 
of the solar parallax, which stood a longtime 
as giving the accepted value of 95,000,000 
miles as the distance of the sun, but is best 
known for the discovery of the remarkably 
short period of the comet which bears his 
name, and which has given rise to so much 
discussion of the question of a resisting me¬ 
dium in space. This same work was con¬ 
tinued by Friedrich Emil von Asten, after 
Encke’s death, and carried on by Backland, 
of Pulkova, since Von Asten’s death (Aug. 
15, 1878). 

Recent Discoveries .— Hall’s detection of 
the two minute and remarkable satellites of 
Mars ranks next to that of Neptune as the 
most brilliant of the century. It was not 
an accidental picking up of easily visible 
object in sweeps, but the result of a 
well planned and careful search at the most 
favorable time, the opposition of 1877, af¬ 
ter the erection of the 26-inch refractor of 
the LTnited States Naval Observatory. Hall 
also kept up systematically the observation 
of the difficult satellite systems of Saturn, 
Uranus, and Neptune after taking charge 
of the 26-inch Washington refractor, and in 
this, too, he was for some time alone, so 
that the future discussions of the motions 
and perturbations in these systems will rest 
almost entirely on his work as a starting- 
point. Next came the discovery of the fifth 
satellite of Jupiter, by Trof. Edward E. 
Barnard, of the Lick Observatory, Sept. 9, 
1892. This was followed by the discovery, 
March 18, 1899, of the ninth satellite of 
Saturn, by Prof. William H. Pickering, of 
the Harvard Observatory. 

The work done at Cordoba, in the Argen¬ 
tine Republic, by Dr. Benjamin Apthorp 
Gould and his assistants in 1870, must next 
be mentioned. Dr. Gould began the ob¬ 
servations for a uranometry of the southern 
heavens, to include all stars down to the 
seventh magnitude. This great work con- 





Astronomy 


Astronomy 


tains the names, positions, and magnitudes, 
to the nearest tilth, of 7,730 stars situ¬ 
ated between—10° and the (South .Pole, and 
the magnitudes, to the nearest quarter, of 
more than 1,000 others, mostly companions 
of these, or situated in clusters, the joint 
light of which equaled a seventh magnitude 
star. The accompanying maps are a marvel 
of clearness and accuracy. 

The iNew Astronomy .—The spectroscope 
has been the principal instrument of inves¬ 
tigation in the new astronomy. After the 
work of Kirchhoff and Bunsen, the next im¬ 
portant step was the investigation, with the 
diffraction spectroscope, by Angstrom and 
Thalen, of the formation of the so-called 
normal spectrum, in which the distances of 
the lines are proportional to their wave¬ 
lengths. The map of the solar spectrum 
constructed in this way has been the stand¬ 
ard for the wave-lengths of the Fraunhofer 
lines, until within a very few years. The 
work of Rowland at the Johns Hopkins Uni¬ 
versity, photographing directly the spectrum 
formed from his concave mirror-gratings 
(partly invented by him), has so far ex¬ 
ceeded the Angstrom maps that the latter 
may now be considered displaced. The phe¬ 
nomena attending the solar eclipses and of 
comets offered a new field for the spectro¬ 
scope, and in this a host of names at once 
claim attention, principal among which are 
those of Young, Hale, director of Yerkes, 
Keeler of Lick’s, Vogel, Secchi, Huggins, 
Lockyer, Janssen, and Langley. 

The simultaneous and independent discov¬ 
eries by Lockyer and Janssen in connection 
with the Indian solar eclipse of August, 
18G8 (that the solar prominences, or hy¬ 
drogen clouds surrounding the sun, can be 
studied at any time without tlie help of an 
eclipse), revolutionized the methods of 
studying that part of the sun’s surround¬ 
ings. To-day it is part of the duties of 
some of those who give their time princi¬ 
pally to solar observation to map the fan¬ 
tastic-shaped clouds that rise from the base 
of the chromosphere. This work is gener¬ 
ally done in the widened red line of hydro¬ 
gen, the Fraunhofer “C.” Tacchini, in It¬ 
aly, became the most assiduous observer of 
these phenomena. We have also learned con¬ 
siderable as to atmospheres surrounding 
some of the planets from the investigations 
of Vogel in the spectra of the light re¬ 
flected from them. The normal spectrum of 
sunlight is modified by the absorption in 
passing twice through the planet’s atmos¬ 
phere. Such differences from the solar 
spectrum indicate something as to the con¬ 
stitution of these atmospheres and their 
extent and density. The changes in the 
spectra of comets as they approach .to, and 
recede from, the sun, are also very instruc¬ 
tive and interesting. 

Photometry, or the measurement of the 


brightness of the different heavenly bodies, 
so lar as its results are concerned, is prop¬ 
erly classed under the new astronomy. It 
has, however, been employed from the 
earliest times, without instrumental as¬ 
sistance, in classifying the stars into a scale 
of magnitudes, and in later days in obser¬ 
vation of the changes in the light of the 
variable stars. Argelander first placed it 
upon a firm basis' in his investigations of 
variables, instituting the method of esti¬ 
mating small differences of brightness by 
steps, or grades, between two other stars, 
one brighter and the other fainter. As far 
as accuracy is concerned this method has 
not been much improved upon in any of the 
most modern ways of making the observa¬ 
tions. 

Solar Investigations .—There remains to 
be noticed the subject of the quantitive 
measurement of radiant energy in its \a- 
rious forms. It is one of the most inter¬ 
esting and important branches of the 
new astronomy. It includes the determina¬ 
tion of the amount and the effects of the 
energy which we receive from the sun upon 
which all life and power upon the earth 
depend. Only its most important results 
can here be noticed, and these in the brief¬ 
est way. 

Sir John Herschel and Rouillct were the 
first to measure the amount of heat which 
we receive from the sun by noting the in¬ 
crease in the temperature of a given amount 
of water upon which a given beam of sun¬ 
light is allowed to fall for a certain time. 
Using various forms of equivalent ap¬ 
paratus, Waterston, Ericcson, Secchi, Crova, 
Violle, Langley, and others have made dif¬ 
ferent determinations of the so-called 
“solar-constant,” or the amount of radiant 
energy which falls upon a square meter of 
surface at the upper limits of the atmos¬ 
phere. Langley’s result, determined in his 
expedition to Mount Whitney, is the most 
accurate, and makes this constant some¬ 
where near 30 calories (a calorie being de¬ 
fined as the amount of heat that will raise 
the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 
from 0° to 1° C.). The principal difficulty 
connected with the work is the determina¬ 
tion of the amount of solar radiation that 
is absorbed by the atmosphere of the earth. 
It was principally to investigate the amount 
and character of this that Langley’s Mount 
Whitney expedition was undertaken. The 
result was the determination of the fact 
that our previous estimates of solar radia¬ 
tion were too small, and also that the at¬ 
mosphere of the earth exercises a very 
marked selective absorption on radiations of 
different wave-length. 

Pickering, Secchi, Vogel, and Langley 
have been the principal investigators in 
this field. Vogel measured the absorption 
of the different parts of the sun’s disk for 
the different colors of light, and found, just 




Astronomy 


Astronomy 


as in the case of the earth’s atmosphere, 
that much more of the olue end of the spec- 
trum is cut off at the edge of the sun than 
at the center. Young, in his work, ‘‘The 
Sun,” after carefully weighing the results of 
these different observers, concludes that, 
according to the present state of our knowl¬ 
edge of the subject, if the solar atmosphere 
were removed, we should receive probably 
from two to five times as much light from 
it as at present, and this is as near as we 
can set the limit on account of the uncer¬ 
tainty as to the depth of the solar atmos¬ 
phere and as to the law by which the ab¬ 
sorption is governed. One of the most strik¬ 
ing experiments in the measurement of the 
intrinsic brightness of the sun, and of the 
amount of heat that we receive from it as 
compared with that from terrestrial sources 
was made by Langley at Pittsburg in 1878. 
He compared the sun directly with the 
white-hot surface of molten steel in a Besse¬ 
mer converter, a surface whose brightness is 
such that when a dazzling stream of molten 
iron is poured in front the iron appears 
“deep brown by comparison, presenting a 
contrast like that of dark coffee poured 
into a white cup.” Yet the surface of the 
sun was shown to be, foot for foot, more 
than 5,000 times as bright as the surface 
of the molten steel, and this, too, through 
the smoky sky of Pittsburg, and with every 
advantage given to the steel in the com¬ 
parison. At the same time observations 
with the thermopole showed that the sur¬ 
face of the sun was giving off, foot for foot, 
more than 87 times as much heat as the 
molten steel in the converter. 

The most remarkable work of all in the 
domain of radiant energy has been that of 
Langley with his bolometer. By means of 
this instrument minute amounts of such 
radiations, which were entirely beyond the 
reach of all previous experiments, can be 
detected and accurately measured. With 
this instrument of his own invention Lang¬ 
ley went into fields before untrodden. We 
are accustomed to think of bodies which 
radiate heat as hot. But with his delicate 
bolometer Langley was able to measure the 
amount of energy in the spectrum of melt¬ 
ing ice as it radiated its heat to the 
colder surroundings of a Pittsburg winter’s 
air. By a comparison with the spectrum of 
lunar radiations he found that the tem¬ 
perature of our satellite’s surface, even un¬ 
der the two weeks’ shining of the sun, is 
probably below that of freezing water. 

Further Progress .—In summarizing the 
growth of astronomy during the 10th cen¬ 
tury, we enumerate the researches of Hen¬ 
derson, Winnecke, Brunnow, Gill, and Elkin 
in stellar parallax; the double-star discov¬ 
eries and measures of Struve (Otto), Dawes, 
Dembowski, Burnham, and Stone; the dis¬ 
coveries of comets by Pons, Tuttle, Ternpel, 


Swift, Brooks, Barnard, and many others; 
the discovery and cataloguing of nebulae by 
Herschel, Lassel, Ternpel, Swift, Stone, and 
Dreyer; the elaborate work of Carrington 
on sun spots and the positions of nortnern 
circumpolar stars; the charting of faint 
ecliptic stars by Cliacornac > the Henry 
brothers, and especially Peters; Chanuler’s 
important work in variable stars and in 
variation of latitude; the work of Schmidt 
on various stars and in selenography; the 
discovery of difficult planetary satellites by 
Lassel and Bond; the spectroscopic re¬ 
searches of Young, Schuster, Draper, Thol- 
lon, and Lohse; the determinations of the 
velocity of light by Fizeau, Foucault, Michel- 
son, and Newcomb; Gill’s work upon the 
parallax of Mars and some of the asteroids; 
Elkin’s thorough remeasurement of the po¬ 
sition of the stars of the Pleiades with the 
heliometer; Darwin’s investigation of the 
entirely new subject of the bearing of tidal 
friction upon the development of planetary 
and satellite systems and Stone’s observa¬ 
tions at the Cape, resulting in the forma¬ 
tion of the “Cape Catalogue,” which ranks 
next to the work of Gould in furnishing us 
exact positions of the stars of the southern 
heavens. Darkness’ work upon the reduc¬ 
tion of the American observations of the 
transit of Venus should also be noted. 

Instruments .—The history of the progress 
of astronomy in the 19th century would be 
incomplete without a mention of the re¬ 
markable opticians and mechanicians whose 
handiwork has made it possible. We have 
already mentioned Fraunhofer. Pre-emi¬ 
nent among them all are the names of the 
late Alvan Clark, of Cambridge, Mass., and 
his sons, George B. and Alvan G. Their 
latest masterpieces are the huge 36-incli ob¬ 
jective of the Lick telescope, and that of 
the Yerkes instrument. See Clark, Alvan. 
Next to them in rank are the Henry broth¬ 
ers, of Paris, and Grubb, of Dublin, but 
their glasses are by no means so numerous 
or so large. 

In another line, that of the construction 
of instruments of precision, the Kepsolds, 
of Hamburg, stand pre-eminent. For years 
the diffraction gratings of Rutherford, of 
New York, far excelled anything of the 
kind produced in Europe. They have been 
surpassed only by the exquisite ones of 
Rowland, of Johns Hopkins University. The 
preparation of the surfaces of the metal for 
the reception of the ruling for these latter 
gratings was the work of Brashear, of Al¬ 
legheny. In the matter of the polishing of 
optical surfaces, the figuring of lenses, and 
the ruling of gratings, American artisans 
have excelled all others from their first at¬ 
tempts. Only in the production of in¬ 
struments of precision and in the making of 
optical glass do they still yield superiority 
to European artisans. In the latter branch 




Astronomy in the 19th Century 


Astronomy in the 19th Century 


Chace, of Birmingham, formerly, and later 
Foil and Mantois of Paris, have the credit 
of producing the glass disks from which all 
the large objectives have been made. The 
obtaining of a satisfactory disk of crown- 
glass for the 36-inch Lick glass was the 
labor of several years on the part of Feil, 
and only after a long series of failures. 

Among the modern successes in instru¬ 
ment construction may be included the 36- 
inch silver-on-glass reflector made by Com¬ 
mon, of Ealing, England, for his own use. 
Loewy’s invention of the different forms of 
the equatorial -coude, or elbow equatorial, 
which are so convenient in manipulation, 
and of the new instrument methods of de¬ 
termining the constants of refraction and 
aberration, are deserving of mention. War¬ 
ner and Swasey, of Cleveland, have also 
solved the difficult question of the success¬ 
ful construction and mounting of the huge 
domes that cover the great modern telescopes. 

Celestial Photography .— As early as 1840 
Dr. John W. Draper, of New York, obtained 
a few photographs of the moon about an 
inch in diameter. In 1845, at Cambridge, 
Mass., Bond obtained photographic impres¬ 
sions of Vega and Castor, and in 1850 ob¬ 
tained the picture of the moon, whose exhi¬ 
bition in London induced Warren de la Hue 
to take up the subject of celestial photo¬ 
graphy. The latter built an observatory 
devoted exclusively to this work, and intro¬ 
duced and developed many improvements in 
instruments and methods. He also con¬ 
structed for the Ivew Observatory the first 
heliograph for taking instantaneous pictures 
of the sun. Successful photography of the 
spectra of the stars was first attained by 
Dr. Huggins. 

The most recent successes of photography 
as an adjunct to the new astronomy have 
been photographs of stellar spectra by Pick¬ 
ering at the Harvard University Observa¬ 
tory, and the photographic normal spec¬ 
trum of the sun recently completed by Row¬ 
land at the Johns Hopkins University. 


Astronomy in the 19th Century. O 

hundred years ago, Sir William Herschel, 
then in the zenith of his fame, was inter¬ 
esting the whole world by his wonderful dis¬ 
coveries. With his great reflectors he ma e 
a step forward in the size and power of the 
telescope greater than any before or since 
Although his greatest and best instrument 
would be considered extremely imperfect at 
the present time, those which it superseded 
were hardly more than what we should now 
call spy glasses. Herschel was so far Hie 
greatest figure of the time in astronomical 
science, and his work so overshadowed that 
of his contemporaries on the Continent, that 
the work of everyone else at the time seems 
unimportant in comparison. Yet not only 
were great successors of Herschel coming on 
the stage, but important additions to our 


knowledge of the heavens were being made 
outside of England. William Herschel’s 
son, John, was a lad of eight years. In 
France, Arago, a boy of 14, was fitting him¬ 
self for the ficole Polytechnique. At Paris, 
Lalande, the leading astronomer of France, 
was actively preparing a catalogue of the 
fainter stars with an instrument which 
would now be consigned to the junkshop. 
But it was the first attempt that had ever 
been made to determine accurately the posi¬ 
tions of the many thousand telescopic stars 
invisible to the naked eye, and in conse¬ 
quence the “ Histoire Celeste ” is still one 
of the classics of the astronomical investi¬ 
gator. In Germany, Olbers combined the 
professions of physician and astronomer, 
and Bessel, a youth of 16, was clerk in a 
mercantile house. 

The. first day of the century was marked 
by a discovery of capital interest and im¬ 
portance. The wide gap between the plan¬ 
ets Mars and Jupiter had been a source of 
wonder, and the conviction that there must 
be a planet in it had become so strong that 
an association of astronomers was formed 
to search for it. But, on January 1, 1801, 
before they got to work, Piazzi, the Italian 
astronomer of Palermo, found Ceres. The 
year following Olbers discovered Pallas, 
and propounded his celebrated theory that 
the newly-formed bodies were fragments of 
a shattered planet, more of which might be 
found. This anticipation was amply justi¬ 
fied by the result, though the theory of a 
shattered planet has long been rejected. 
By 1868 the number reached 100. When 
the sky was systematically watched 100 
more were found. When the process of 
photographing the stars was perfected, so 
many new ones were found on the photo¬ 
graphic plates that it is almost impossible 
to follow them up. About 450 have had 
their orbits mapped out. 

In this country, David Rittenhouse, al¬ 
most the only American of Revolutionary 
times who has a place in scientific history, 
had been dead four years when the century 
began, and there was no one to take his 
place. He was one of the committee of the 
American Philosophical Society that made 
an extensive and well-planned set of ob¬ 
servations on the transit of Venus in 1769. 
But the period following the Revolution 
was not favorable to the development of 
scientific research, and, so far as important 
additions to natural knowledge are con¬ 
cerned our country might almost have been 
counted outside the civilized world. It is 
curious to trace the development of the 
scientific spirit among us in mathematics. 
A periodical called the “ Mathematical Cor¬ 
respondent ” was established by William 
Lenhart in 1804. The long title states 
that it is to be adapted to the present state 
of learning in America. In the preface to the 
volume, presumably accompanying the first 




Astronomy in the 19th Century 


Astronomy in the 19th Century 


number, it is stated that a number of this 
work containing one sheet of paper will be 
regularly published four times a year. In 
each number a prize question will be pro¬ 
posed, and whoever gives the best solution 
of that question one month previous to the 
next succeeding number shall receive a 
handsome silver medal, on which is the fol¬ 
lowing inscription: 

“ From the editors of the ‘ Mathematical 
Correspondent 5 to A- B-, as a re¬ 

ward for his mathematical merit.” 

Some time during the year it is an¬ 
nounced that the prize medal (value $6) 
has been awarded to Robert Adrain, Read¬ 
ing, Pa., and would be delivered by G. Bar¬ 
on, No. 24 Cedar street. New York, to any 
person authorized to receive the same. The 
problems and questions in the book were 
about of the order with which a pupil in 
the high school might now concern him¬ 
self. The patrons were evidently supposed 
to know something of arithmetic, elemen¬ 
tary geometry, and trigonometry, and to 
have some idea of Newton’s fluxions. This 
was America’s contribution to mathematical 
science when Laplace, Lagrange, and Euler 
had done most of their work. 

The first American after the Revolution 
to acquire eminence in any department of 
astronomical science was Nathaniel Bow- 
ditch. A Boston ship-captain by profes¬ 
sion, he first prepared his “ Navigator,” 
the standard work of the sailor through 
most of the century. He mastered the 
great work of Laplace, and made it acces¬ 
sible to students by a translation and com¬ 
mentary explaining the processes in detail. 
So far as practical astronomy was con¬ 
cerned, it might be regarded as non-existent 
among us during at least the first third of 
the century. We know little more of it 
than that Robert Treat Paine, grandson of 
the signer of the Declaration of Independ¬ 
ence, used to compute eclipses and publish 
the results in the “ American Almanac ” 
and the Boston “ Advertiser.” 

About 1840, Dr. Lardner paid a visit to 
this country and remained several years, 
delivering public lectures, which, though 
not of a high order when measured by the 
standard of today, were much above any 
our people had then heard. We may take 
a remark with which he opened one of his 
discourses as a starting-point from which 
to measure the progress since made. He 
announced that the credulity of his hear¬ 
ers would be taxed to the utmost limit 
when they were told that astronomers were 
able to weigh the planets. For him this was 
the last word of astronomy. We may take 
it for granted that if a hearer had arisen 
in the audience and said that he not only 
believed this, but believed that, by the time 
another generation had passed, men would 
determine of what substances the sun and 
stars were composed, and distinguish those 


which had much iron in their constitution 
or hydrogen in their atmosphere from those 
which had not, the lecturer would have 
replied that he himself could not believe 
such a thing possible. And yet, it was only 
a generation before the spectroscope, in the 
hands of Kirkhoff, Bunsen, and Huggins, 
was doing this very thing. 

But progress did not stop here. Had 
Kirkhoff or Bunsen been told that in an¬ 
other generation the instrument they first 
applied to research would be so used that 
we should discover absolutely invisible 
planets, revolving around stars so distant 
that even the effects they produce in chang¬ 
ing the position of the star would be im¬ 
perceptible in the most powerful telescope, 
— that not a trace of the effect could indeed 
be made evident to the vision — such an 
outcome might well have seemed incredible 
even to them. And yet this very thing is 
being done by our spectroscopists of to¬ 
day. If we could communicate with an 
inhabitant of one of these invisible planets, 
we could tell him more of the motions of 
the world on which he lives than men knew 
of the motion of our earth before the time 
of Copernicus. 

During the first half of the century, the 
advance of astronomical science consisted 
principally in a form of development which 
goes on without any striking discovery, 
and therefore has little interest for the 
general public. When bright comets ap¬ 
peared they were carefully studied by 
observers, at the head of whom were 
Bessel and Olbers. It was thus found that 
the tail of a comet was not an appendage 
carried along with it, like the tail of an 
animal, but merely a stream of vapor aris¬ 
ing from it and repelled by a force re¬ 
siding in the sun. The discovery of tele¬ 
scopic comets by observers, here and there, 
continually added to the number of these 
bodies known. Most of them were found 
to be moving in such orbits that they would 
require thousands of years, perhaps tens 
of thousands, to return to the sun, if, in¬ 
deed, they ever reappeared. But this, 
though the general rule, is far from being 
universal. From time to time comets were 
found moving in closed orbits and perform¬ 
ing their revolution in periods of a few 
years, mostly between 3 years and 10. 
Several of the orbits passed quite near to 
that of Jupiter. If, in such a case, the 
comet and the planet chanced to be to¬ 
gether at the point of intersection, the orbit 
of the former would be completely altered, 
so that the comet might never be seen 
again. 

Vice versa, it was found that comets 
of long period falling from unknown dis¬ 
tances in the celestial spaces might be 
caught, as it were, by the planet Jupiter 
and set to moving in small orbits with a 
short period. Thus new comets are from 





Astronomy in the 19th Century 


Astronomy in the 19th Century 

time to time adopted in the solar system, 
while old ones are liable to fade away and 
disappear entirely. The last and best-as¬ 
certained case of this kind was in 1886, 
when a comet was discovered by Brooks, 
with a period of seven years, which had 
been made a member of the family by the 
attraction of Jupiter a few years before. 
Of more than 20 periodic comets whose or¬ 
bits have been well ascertained, it is more 
or less probable that several will never be 
seen again. The most notable and best- 
established case of the disappearance of 
comets was that of Biela’s comet, which 
was observed at various returns from 1772 
till 1852. During this interval it had 
performed 12 revolutions. At the returns 
of 1846 and 1852 it was separated into two 
parts, and has never been seen as a comet 
since the latter date. 

One of the noteworthy discoveries of the 
third quarter of the century was that of the 
relation between comets and shooting stars. 
The first discovery of this relation came 
about in a curious way. The researches of 
Ii. A. Newton and others had made it quite 
clear that shooting stars were due to the 
impact of countless minute bodies revolving 
around the sun in various orbits and now 
and then encountering our atmosphere. It 
was also known that the great November 
meteoric showers must be due to a stream 
of such bodies. One astronomer computed 
the orbit of the November meteors; and an¬ 
other quite independently published the or¬ 
bit of a comet which appeared in 1866. A 
third astronomer, Schiaparelli, noticed that 
the two orbits were practically the same. 
The conclusion was obvious. The minute 
bodies which caused the shower moved in 
the path of the comet and were portions of 
its substance which had from time to time 
separated from it. The disappointing fail¬ 
ure of the shower in 1899 and 1900 can 
have but one cause — a small change in the 
orbit of the meteoric swarm caused by the 
attraction of the planets. Nor has the 
comet associated with them shown itself; 
it was perhaps dissipated like that of 
Biela’s. 

Apart from this, the question of the con¬ 
stitution of comets is still an unsolved 
mystery. Their spectrum is that of a body 
which shines by its own light. But no one 
can explain how a body in the cold and 
vacuous celestial spaces can so shine. The 
brighter comets may have a more or less 
massive nucleus. Yet it is not certain 
that the nucleus is entirely opaque. In 
1882, the astronomers at the Cape of Good 
Hope enjoyed an opportunity which no one 
of their brethren ever enjoyed before or 
since; that of seeing a comet enter on the 
disk of the sun. Unfortunately, the sun 
disappeared from view a very few minutes 
afterward. But not a trace of the comet 


could be seen on the sun as a spot. It was 
seemingly quite transparent to the solar 
rays. That the fainter comets have no nu¬ 
cleus and are merely composed of a collec¬ 
tion of foggy particles seems certain. How 
are these particles kept together through 
so many revolutions? This question has 
not yet been satisfactorily answered. 

r I he Greenwich Observatory was taken in 
charge by Airy in 1834. He immediately 
instituted a great improvement in its or¬ 
ganization and work, but it was not till 
1850 that he acquired for it new instru¬ 
ments of great importance. He was the 
founder of what has sometimes been called 
the Greenwich system: the astronomers of 
an institution taking a part like those of 
soldiers in an army, making all their ob¬ 
servations on a plan prescribed by the au¬ 
thority, and rarely using their own discre¬ 
tion in any way. The mathematical theory 
of the motions of the planets, and espe¬ 
cially of the moon, received its greatest im¬ 
provement from the hands of Hensen, born 
about 1795. He may fairly rank as the 
greatest of celestial mechanicians since the 
time of Laplace. Toward the middle of 
the century, he prepared the first tables 
of the moon which could satisfy the re¬ 
quirements of modern astronomic theory. 
These were published by the British govern¬ 
ment in 1857, and have now formed the 
basis of astronomical ephemerides for near¬ 
ly half a century. 

The most striking event of the mid-cen¬ 
tury period, and one which in the popular 
mind must long hold its place as among 
the greatest of intellectual achievements, 
was the computation by Leverrier of the 
position of an unknown planet from its at¬ 
traction on Uranus. The speedy discovery 
of the planet on the very night it was first 
looked for was, for the public, a proof of 
the absolute correctness of gravitational 
theories that surpassed all others. It was 
as a first and bold attempt to sail into an 
unknown sea ; yet, as in the case of Colum¬ 
bus and the Atlantic, its repetition would 
not now be generally considered a difficult 
matter. 

With the discovery of Neptune and with 
the advance in the art of astronomical ob¬ 
servation, improvements in the theories of 
the movements of the planets were neces¬ 
sary. The greatest step forward in this 
direction was taken by Leverrier. Among 
the results of his work was the discovery 
that the perihelion of Mercury moves more 
rapidly than it should under the influence 
of gravitation. This excess of movement 
has been abundantly proved by observa¬ 
tion since his time, but its cause is still one 
of the greatest mysteries of gravitational 
astronomy. 

As a general rule, it may be said that 
during the last half century the Germans 






Astronomy in the 19th Century 


Astronomy in the 19th Century 


have been the leaders in astronomical re¬ 
search. Their work on the subject has been 
more voluminous than that of any other 
nation. The leading astronomical journal 
of the world is still that of Germany. But 
when we consider not quantity of work, but 
the special importance of particular works, 
precedence has, from one point of view 
passed to America. While, perhaps, we 
still have fewer students pursuing astron¬ 
omy in the United States than in Germany, 
the number of men among us who have ac¬ 
quired the highest distinction and most 
skillfully made applications of this science 
is greater than in any other country. The 
rapidity of progress from small beginnings 
is very remarkable. 

In 1832, Professor Airy delivered, before 
the British Association :':or the Advance¬ 
ment of Science, an address on the progress 
of astronomy, which soon acquired celebri¬ 
ty. The state of astronomy in different 
countries was reviewed. America was dis¬ 
missed with the remark that he was not 
aware of any observatory existing in that 
country. In the revival of astronomy 
among us and its advance to its present 
position in popular favor, one agency has 
not been esteemed so highly as it deserves. 
Contemporaneous with the visit of Dr. 
Lardner were the lectures of Prof. Ormsby 
M. Mitchell. With unsurpassed eloquence 
he explained the wonders of astronomy to 
audiences intensely interested in the novel¬ 
ties of the subject. From a scientific point 
of view the lectures were probably not of a 
high order, nor could it be said that Mitch¬ 
ell himself, active and enthusiastic though 
he was, was a profound astronomer. Yet 
it may well be said that to him is due 
the ability of our astronomers since that 
time to secure the public support neces¬ 
sary to the erection of the fabric of their 
science. 

A few years after Airy’s address, little 
college observatories were founded at Will¬ 
iams College and at the Western Reserve 
College, Ohio. These were doubtless a 
stimulus to students, but can hardly have 
added to astronomical science. When the 
Wilkes Exploring Expedition was being or¬ 
ganized, it was found necessary to have a 
continuous series of observations made at 
home during the absence of the expedition 
which, compared with those made on the 
ships, would enable the navigators to de¬ 
termine the longitudes of the lands they 
discovered. A little wooden structure, 
erected by Captain Gilliss for this purpose, 
on Capitol Hill, Washington city, was in 
some sort the beginning of our National 
Observatory. 

The actual foundation of the latter was 
almost contemporaneous with that of the 
Harvard Observatory, both being com¬ 
menced about the year 1843. The Harvard 


Observatory was placed under the direction 
of William C. Bond, who had, for many 
years, made observations first at his own 
house in Dorchester, and then on top of a 
house at Cambridge. At Washington the 
Naval Observatory was placed under the 
charge of Lieutenant Maury. After get¬ 
ting its instruments in operation, he de¬ 
voted himself almost entirely to those re¬ 
searches on ocear. currents, which, so long 
as the commerce of the world was carried 
on mostly in sailing vessels, were of the 
first importance. But the institution soon 
acquired astronomical celebrity in other 
ways. Here Sears Cook Walker made the 
first thorough investigation of the orbit of 
Leverrier’s newly discovered planet, and 
showed that it had been twice observed by 
Lalande as far back as 1795, but without 
its character being suspected. Here also 
the device of recording the transits of stars 
by means of the chronograph and determin¬ 
ing the longitude of places by telegraph 
found their first application. 

New observatories, some founded in con¬ 
nection with colleges, others by private in¬ 
dividuals, now sprang up rapidly among us 
in every quarter. Twenty-four were enu¬ 
merated by Loomis in 185G. What figure 
the number has now reached it is impossible 
to say. Whatever it may be, it marks rath¬ 
er the interest taken by the intelligent pub¬ 
lic in astronomical science than the actual 
progress of knowledge. The number of 
these institutions which have actually made 
important contributions to astronomical 
knowledge is naturally very small. It is to 
a few leading ones that most of the progress 
is due. 

Two of these have put almost a new face 
upon astronomical science. These are the 
Harvard Observatory at Cambridge and the 
Lick Observatory of California. The for¬ 
mer, while a respectable institution from its 
foundation, and made famous by the works 
of the Bonds, had never commanded 
the means necessary to prosecute astronom¬ 
ical research on a large scale. When 
Pickering assumed the directorship in 1875, 
he devoted his energies to those branches 
of research which are now known 
under the general term of astro-physics, 
being concerned with the physical con¬ 
stitutions of the heavenly bodies rather 
than with their motions. The extension of 
his work was made possible by very large 
additions to the endowment of the observa¬ 
tory. It thus became one of the best-sup¬ 
ported institutions of the kind in the world. 
Photometry and spectroscopy have been its 
main subjects. With the aid of a branch 
established in Arequipa, Peru, the magni¬ 
tudes of all the stars in the heavens visible 
to the naked eyes, as well as many fainter 
ones, have been determined. Among its re¬ 
markable discoveries have been those of new 



Astronomy in the 19th Century 


Asturias 


stars. It was formerly known that at long 
intervals, sometimes more than a century, 
sometimes less, stars apparently new blazed 
out in the sky. Really the star was not 
new, but was an old and very small one of 
which the light was temporarily multiplied 
hundreds of thousands of times. A system 
of constantly photographing the heavens 
showed that such objects appear every few 
years, only they do not generally attain 
such brilliancy as to be noticed by the un¬ 
assisted eye. 

The success of the Lick Observatory in a 
different, yet not wholly dissimilar, direc¬ 
tion must be regarded as one of the most 
extraordinary developments of our time. 
Commencing work about the beginning of 
1888, under the direction of Holden, and 
supplied with the greatest telescope 
that human art had then produced, the 
observations of Burnham and Barnard ex¬ 
cited universal interest, both among 
astronomers and the public. The dis¬ 
covery of a fifth satellite of Jupiter, 
perhaps the most difficult object in the heav¬ 
ens, was made there by Barnard in 1892. 
Later, the optical discovery of the compan¬ 
ion of Procyon, an object known to exist 
from its attraction on that star, was made 
by Schaeberle. But its most epoch-making 
work is due in still more recent years to 
Campbell, by measurements of the motion of 
stars in the line of sight with the spectro¬ 
scope. 

The possibility of measuring such mo¬ 
tions was first demonstrated by Huggins, 
some 30 years ago, and was applied both 
by him and by the observers at Greenwich. 
Then a great step forward was made by 
photographing the spectrum instead of de¬ 
pending on visible observation. This step 
was mostly developed by Vogel, at the Pots¬ 
dam Observatory, near Berlin. In the case 
of the variable star, Algol, Vogel was thus 
enabled to show that the fading away of 
its light at regular intervals of something 
less than three days was really a 
partial eclipse of the star by a dark 
body revolving around it. He also 
showed that three other bright stars varied 
in their motions to and from the earth 
in a way that could arise only from the 
revolution of massive but invisible bodies 
around them. 

Now, at the Lick Observatory, Camp¬ 
bell, armed with the best spectrograph that 
human art could make, the gift of D. O. 
Mills, has, by the introduction of every 
refinement of his method, brought into 
these measures a degree of precision never 
before reached. The cases of variable 
motion, as found by him, are so numerous 
as to indicate that isolated stars may be 
the exception rather than the rule. It is 
true that up to the present time he detects 
variation in only about one star out of 13 
which he observes. But it is only in the 


exceptional cases, where the planet is al¬ 
most as massive as the star itself, that the 
motion can be detected. It is not at all un¬ 
likely that, for every spectroscopic binary 
system (as these pairs of objects are now 
called) we can detect, quite a number may 
exist in which the revolving planet is too 
small to affect the motion of the star. 

Taking a comprehensive view of the fu¬ 
ture of sidereaL research, the most note¬ 
worthy feature is the convergence of the 
most dissimilar lines of investigation 
toward the greatest of problems, that of 
the structure of the universe. Utility 
shows signs of being evolved from what has 
hitherto seemed an incoherent diversity 
among tens of millions of bodies. We now 
look upon the Milky Way not only as a 
whole in itself but as forming in some way 
the foundation of the universe. The tele¬ 
scope and the spectroscope, the balance of 
the chemist and the diversified apparatus 
of the physical laboratory, are assaulting 
the skies, with a prospect of results that 
no man can yet forecast. Thus, with the 
beginning of a new century, astronomy, the 
oldest of the sciences, seems to be entering 
upon a new career, with a prospect of a life 
before it the end of which no man can fore¬ 
see. Simon Newcomb. 

Astruc, Jean (as-triik'), a French phy¬ 
sician, born March 19, 1GS4; was educated 
at Montpelier, and acquired high reputa¬ 
tion as an anatomist. He was the author of 
“ Venereal Diseases,” and other medical 
works. The work, however, which has immor¬ 
talized him is purely theological and is en¬ 
titled “ Conjectures as to the Original Mate¬ 
rials of Which Moses Seems to Have Availed 
Himself in Composing the Book of Genesis ” 
(Brussels, 1753). In this work he divides the 
book of Genesis into two parts, on the ground 
of the use of Elohim (God) or Yahveh (Je¬ 
hovah). He holds that these two names 
for the Deity point to the fact that Genesis 
was compiled from two parallel, independ¬ 
ent documents. His memoir forms the ori¬ 
gin of modern criticism on the Pentateuch. 
He died in Paris, March 5, 1706. 

Astura (as-tb'ra), a maritime village of 
Italy at the mouth of a river of the same 
name, 40 miles from Rome. In its little 
harbor a high tower is said to stand on 
the site of the villa of Cicero, where he 
was slain by order of Antony b. c. 43. 
Her?, also, in 1268, after the battle of Taglia- 
cozzo, Conradin, the last of the Hohenstauf- 
fen family, was betrayed. 

Asturias (as-to're-az), or Oviedo, a north¬ 
ern Province of Spain, washed on the N. by 
the Bay of Biscay; area, 4,091 square miles; 
pop. 595,420. The low hills of Leon and 
Old Castile rise gradually to the mountain- 
chain which forms the S. boundary, and 
which is but a prolongation of the Pyrennean 




Astyages 


Atahualpa 


system. The 1ST. slopes are broken by steep 
and dark valleys or chasms, which are 
among the wildest and most picturesque in 
Spain. The chief rivers are the Nalon, Na- 
via, and Sella. Agriculture is the chief in¬ 
dustry. The coasts have good fisheries, but 
poor harbors. Asturias abounds in rich 
mines, which as yet are indifferently 
wrought. The chief minerals of the prov¬ 
ince are copper, iron, lead, cobalt, arsenic, 
antimony, and coal of excellent quality. A 
railway from Gijon connects Asturias with 
Leon and the Spanish railway system. The 
chief towns are Gijon, Amies, Llanes, and 
Luarca. Oviedo, the capital, has, since 
1833, given its name to the whole Province. 
The eldest son of the Spanish King has the 
title of Prince of Asturias, professedly an 
imitation of the English Prince of Wales, 
having been taken at the solicitation of the 
Duke of Lancaster in 1388, when his daugh¬ 
ter married the eldest son of Juan I. The 
Romans had great difficulty in subduing 
Asturias, about 22 b, c. Later it offered 
an asylum to the Goths, whose prince, Pe- 
layo, bravely withstood the Arabs (718 
a. d.) ; his successors carried on the con¬ 
test successfully, and became Kings of Leon 
in the 10th century. 

Astyages (as-ti'a-jez), son of Cyaxares, 
the last King of Media, reigned 594-559 
B. c. In the latter year he was dethroned 
by Cyrus, who, according to Herodotus, was 
his grandson. An old tradition has it that 
Astyages, having no male heir, married his 
daughter, Mandane, to Spitames, a Median, 
whom he declared his successor, and so 
aroused the jealousy of the other great 
nobles; that the Persian Cyrus revolted in 
559, and defeated Astyages, whom he took 
prisoner, but afterward appointed Governor 
of Hyrcania; and that Spitames was slain, 
and Mandane then became the wife of Cyrus. 

Asuncion (aa-on'shnn), or Assumption, 
the capital of the Republic of Paraguay; on 
a terrace skirting the left bank of the Para¬ 
guay river; has connection by steamers with 
Buenos Ayres, and a railway with Para- 
guari. It has a cathedral (1845) and a 
college. Its trade has recovered from the 
effects of the war with Brazil in 1865-1870; 
the principal articles of commerce being 
leather, tobacco, sugar, manioc, and mate or 
Paraguay tea. It was founded on Aug. 15, 
1537, the feast of the Assumption. Pop. 
(1905) 60,259. 

Atacama (at-a-ka'ma),the name, formerly, 
of two provinces, (1) Chilian and (2) Bo¬ 
livian; most of the latter was transferred 
to Chile in 1884. (1) A northern Province 

of Chile, with an area of 39,400 square miles, 
and a population (1895) of 76,566. About 
1,000 silver and 250 copper mines are 
worked, and gold is also found in consider¬ 
able quantities. Salt deposits cover some¬ 
times 50 square miles. Copper, to the value 


of over $7,500,000 annually, is the chief ex¬ 
port to England. Capital, Copiapo; pop. 
9,916. (2) The Bolivian Department, ex¬ 

tended as far N. as Peru, and E. to Argen¬ 
tine Republic and the Department of Potosi. 
In 1861 its area was put down as 70,181 
square miles, and its population as 5,273. 
No trustworthy figures are published re¬ 
garding the small portion, no longer a 
Province, still retained by Bolivia; all that 
part of the district W. of the Andes was 
ceded, in 1884, to the Chilians, and formed 
into the Department of Antofagasta, with an 
area of 60,770 square miles, and a popula¬ 
tion stated (1892) at 36,220. The recently 
discovered mines of Caracoles are said to be 
the most productive silver mines in the 
world. The former capital, Cobija (pop. 
2,380), was long the only port in the dis¬ 
trict; but the rival port of Antofagasto, 
founded in 1870, had by 1894 attained a 
population of 7,946. The Desert of Ata¬ 
cama extends through both Provinces, but, 
since the war of 1879, has belonged en¬ 
tirely to Chile From the steep, almost in* 
accessible coast, the land rises in rocky pla¬ 
teaus, broken at intervals by precipitous 
mountain-chains. Generally speaking, the 
soil is not at all sandy, but rocky; and the 
scanty rainfall of the district affords an 
additional reason for the growth of only the 
hardiest of desert plants, and for the fre* 
quency and extent of its dry salt marshes. 
In the war it was treated as important, 
owing to its silver and saltpetre works, 
which have, to some extent, peopled its once 
desert solitudes. 

Atacamite, an orthorhombic, translucent 
mineral, classed by Prof. Dana under his 
oxychlorids. The hardness is 3 to 3.5; 
the sp. gr., 3.7 to 4.3; the luster verg¬ 
ing from adamantine to vitreous; the color 
bright green, with an apple green streak. 
It is massive or pulverulent. Composition: 
Chlorine, 15.51 to 16.33; oxide of copper, 
50 to 66.25; copper, 13.33 to 56.46; water, 
16.91 to 22.60. It occurs in Atacama, in 
Chile; in Australia; in Africa; in Spain; 
and at St. Just, in Cornwall. 

Atahualpa (at-a-whal'pa), the last Inca 
of Peru, was the son of the 11th Inca, 
Manco Capac. His mother was of royal 
lineage, and through her he inherited ithe 
kingdom of Quito. With his elder brother 
Huascar, who succeeded to the throne of the 
Incas in 1523, he remained at peace for five 
years; but, on his being summoned to ac¬ 
knowledge the dependency of his kingdom 
on that of Peru, he prepared for war, en¬ 
tered the dominions of Huascar with 30,000 
men, defeated him in a pitched battle, and 
thrust him into prison. Three years after¬ 
ward, Pizarro captured the island of Pune, 
and Huascar, hearing in prison of the vic¬ 
torious stranger, sent ambassadors to Puna 
requesting assistance. The Inca also pro- 



Atalanta 


Atcheen 


posed an interview with the Spaniard, and 
thus was brought about for Pizarro the 
long desired opportunity of meddling in the 
affairs of Peru. By an act of base treachery, 
he succeeded in obtaining possession of the 
person of the Inca. His subsequent pro¬ 
cedure was summary in the extreme. Hu- 
ascar had been put to death by order of his 
brother, and now Atahualpa was declared 
guilty of treason to the Spanish crown, and 
sentenced to be burned alive, in 1533. The 
sentence was commuted to strangulation, in 
consideration of his professing Christianity 
and receiving baptism. 

Atalanta, the daughter of Zeus and Cly- 
mene, celebrated for her skill in archery, was 
a native of Arcadia. She slew the Centaurs, 
Rhcecua and Hylseus, who were about to of- 
fer violence to her; sailed to Colchis with 
the Argonauts, and was afterward present 
at the chase of the Calvdonian boar, which 
she was the first to wound; hence Meleager 

awarded to her the 
prize. Another Ata¬ 
lanta, daughter of 
Schoeneus, King of 
Scyros, was renowned 
for her beauty, and 
swiftness in running. 
She required each of 
her lovers to run a 
race with her. Her ad¬ 
mirer was to run be¬ 
fore, unarmed, while 
she followed him with 
a dart. If she could 
not overtake him, she 
was his own; but if 
he were outrun, he 
was doomed to death, 
and his head to be set 
up at the goal. Many 
had fallen victims in 
the attempt, when 
Hippomenes, the son 
of Maegareus, by the 
aid of Venus, over¬ 
came her. The god¬ 
dess gave him three golden apples, which he 
threw behind him, one after the other, as 
he ran. Atalanta stopped to pick them up, 
and Hippomenes reached the goal before her. 
Her former reserve now gave place to such 
ungovernable passion that the chaste Ceres, 
becoming offended, changed both the parties 
into lions, and compelled them from that 
time to draw her chariot. 

Atavism, in biology, the tendency to re¬ 
produce the ancestral type in animals or 
plants which have become considerably modi¬ 
fied by breeding or cultivation; the rever¬ 
sion of a descendant to some peculiarity 
of a more or less remote ancestor. 

Ataxia, in medicine, irregularity in the 
animal functions, or in the symptoms of a 
disease. See Locomotor Ataxia. 


Atbara (at-bar'a), the most northerly 
tributary of the Nile. It rises in the Abys¬ 
sinian highlands, receives several large 
tributaries, and enters the Nile about 18° 
N. 

Atchafalaya (ach-a-fal-a'a), (“ Lost Wa¬ 
ter”), a river of the United States, an 
outlet of the Red river, which strikes off 
before the junction of that river with the 
Mississippi, flows southward, and enters the 
Culf of Mexico by Atchafalaya Bay. Its 
length is 250 miles. 

Atcheen (also Acheen or Atciiin ; called 
by the Dutch Atjeii), until 1873 an inde¬ 
pendent State in the N. W. part of Suma¬ 
tra, now a Province of the Dutch Indies, 
with an area of 20,471 square miles, and a 
pop. (est. 1901) of 110,800. The sur¬ 
face is divided into an eastern and a west¬ 
ern half by the mountain chain which tra¬ 
verses the whole island, and which rises in 
Abong-Abong to 11,000 feet. On both sides 
are numerous stretches of level or undulat¬ 
ing soil, watered by small but deep streams, 
and admirably adapted for arboriculture, 
gardening, and the cultivation of rice. The 
flora and fauna agree with those of Suma¬ 
tra: pepper and areca nuts are produced in 
Atcheen. The natives employ themselves in 
agriculture, cattle rearing, trade, fisheries, 
weaving cloth, and working in gold, silver 
and iron. In appearance, dress, character 
and manners, they are distinct from the rest 
of the inhabitants of Sumatra. Of darker 
color and lower stature than the latter, 
they are also more active and industrious, 
good seamen and soldiers; but they are 
treacherous, revengeful, bloodthirsty, im¬ 
moral and inordinately addicted to opium. 
Their ethnological place is not yet settled; 
their speech, according to Van der Berg, 
belongs to the Polynesian family. The capi¬ 
tal of the government is Kota Radja or At¬ 
cheen, in the northwestern extremity, situ¬ 
ated on a stream navigable by boats, about 
4 1 /} miles from its port Oleh-leh, with which, 
since 1876, it has been connected by a rail¬ 
way. Formerly a large and flourishing city, 
it was almost entirely destroyed during the 
war, but is now beginning to revive. It 
contains a Dutch garrison of 2.000 men. 

During the earlier half of the 17th cen¬ 
tury Atcheen was a powerful sultanate, with 
supremacy over several islands and a part 
of the Malay Peninsula. Its power gradu¬ 
ally declined; but an attempt was made by 
the treaty between the English and the 
Dutch, in 1824, to reserve its independence. 
The inevitable war, however, broke out in 
1873, and ended as inevitably, though not 
without a desperate resistance, in the con¬ 
quest and annexation of the sultanate. 
Yet, in 1895, the resistance was not wholly 
overcome; and it was calculated that the 
enterprise had cost $100,000,000 and 80,000 
1 iveo. 














Atchison 


Athabasca 


Atchison, city and county-seat of Atchi¬ 
son co., Kan.; on the Missouri river and 
the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, the 
Burlington Route, the Chicago, Rock Island 
and Pacific and the Missouri Pacific rail¬ 
roads ; 25 miles N. by N. W. of Leavenworth. 
The city is an important commercial cen¬ 
ter, by reason of its excellent river and ex¬ 
tensive railroad facilities, and has a whole¬ 
sale trade of more than $50,000,000 per an¬ 
num. It exports largely grain, flour, live 
stock, and dressed meats, and has more than 
50 important manufacturing establishments. 
There are gas, electric light, sewer, water 
and electric railway plants; several public 
parks; a noteworthy bridge across the Mis¬ 
souri river; an attractive Union depot; 2 
National banks; and daily, weekly and 
monthly periodicals. Atchison is the seat 
of the State Soldiers’ Orphans’ Home, of 
Midland College (Lutheran) and St. Bene¬ 
dict’s College (Roman Catholic), and has a 
public library, public high and graded 
schools, and a number of high graded pri¬ 
vate schools. Pop. (1890) 13,963; (1900) 
15,722; (1910) 10,429. 

Atchison, David R., an American legis¬ 
lator, born in Frogtown, Ky., Aug. 11, 1807; 
was educated for the bar, and began prac¬ 
ticing in Missouri, in 1830. He was elected 
to the Legislature in 1834 and 1838; was 
appointed judge of the Platte County Cir¬ 
cuit Court; and, in 1843, while holding this 
office, was appointed United States Senator 
to fill a vacancy. He was twice elected to 
the last office, and during several sessions 
was President pro tern, of the Senate. Dur¬ 
ing Sunday, March 4, 1849, he was the legal 
President of the United States, as Gen. 
Taylor, the President-elect, was not sworn 
into office until the following day. Senator 
Atchison became conspicuous in the slavery 
debates and in the Kansas-Nebraska strug¬ 
gle, because of his strong pro-slavery views. 
The city of Atchison, Kan., was named after 
him. He died in Clinton county, Mo., June 
26, 1886. 

Ate (a'te), in Greek mythology, the god¬ 
dess of hate, injustice, crime and retribu¬ 
tion. At the birth of Hercules she led Zeus 
to make a rash oath, in consequence of which 
she was hurled from Olympus to the earth, 
where she still worked mischief. The Litai, 
daughters of Zeus, followed her, and, if 
prayed to, repaired the evil she had per¬ 
petrated. 

Ateles (at'e-les), a genus of South Amer¬ 
ican monkeys, of the division with long pre¬ 
hensile tails, to which the name Sapajou is 
sometimes collectively applied. The head is 
round, and the facial angle about 60 de¬ 
grees; the limbs are remarkably long and 
slender, upon which account the English 
name of spider-monkey is sometimes used as 
a generic designation; the fore-limbs are 


either destitute of a thumb or have a rudi¬ 
mentary one. 

Atelier (at-el-ya'), in French, a work¬ 
shop; a studio; more especially applied to 
an artist’s work-room. Ateliers Nationaux, 
or National Workshops: Since 1845, it has 
been the custom in France, during severe 
winters, or in times of distress caused by 
stagnation of trade, to open temporary 
workshops, in order to give employment to 
mechanics who were out of work. These 
workshops were called Ateliers de Charite, 
until 1848, when the Provisional Government 
of the Republic reopened a vast number of 
these establishments under the name of 
Ateliers Nationaux. They were under the 
control of a department called “ The Com¬ 
mittee of the Government for the Work¬ 
men; ” they were all, however, badly or¬ 
ganized, and failed calamitously. The prin¬ 
ciple on which they were conducted was, 
that every workman should have a living 
provided for him on a fixed scale. The re¬ 
sult w r as, that workmen soon left private 
employers, and entered the national work¬ 
shops. The numbers who flocked in soon 
became alarming. More than 100,000 men 
enrolled themselves, and insubordination 
soon began to show itself. Danger was im¬ 
minent, and the National Assembly ordered 
the dissolution of the ateliers nationaux, 
an act which became the pretext for the 
terrible insurrection which ensanguined 
Paris in June, 1848. 

Atellanae Fabulae (at-el-an'e[i] fab'- 
o-le[i], called also Oscan plays), a kind of 
light interlude, in ancient Rome", performed, 
not by the regular actors, but by freeborn 
young Romans; it originated from the 
ancient Atella, a city of the Oscans. 

Ateshga (at-esh'ga), a sacred place of 
the Guebres or Persian fire-worshippers, 
on the peninsula of Apsheron, on the W. 
coast of the Caspian, visited by large num¬ 
bers of pilgrims, who bow before the sacred 
flames which issue from the bituminous soil. 

Atha (at'a), a daring impostor in the 
reign of the Caliph Mehedy, or his predeces¬ 
sor, Al-mansur. He taught the doctrine of 
metempsychosis, and claimed to be himself 
an incarnation of divinity. He had lost one 
of his eyes, on account of which he always 
wore a veil, whence he received the epithet 
of Mokanna. Atha is the hero of Moore’s 
“ Veiled Prophet of Khorassan ” in “ Lalla 
Rookh.” 

Athabasca, a river, lake and district of 
Canada. The Athabasca river rises on the 
E. slopes of the Rocky Mountains in the 
district of Alberta, flows in a N. E. direc¬ 
tion through the district of the same name, 
and falls into Lake Athabasca after a course 
of about 600 miles. Lake Athabasca, or 
Lake of the Hills, is about 190 miles S. S. E. 
of the Great Slave Lake, with which it is 





Athabascan Indians 


Athanasius 


connected by means of the Slave river, a 
continuation of the Peace. It is about 200 
miles in length from E. to W., and about 
35 miles wide at the broadest part, but 
gradually narrows to a point at either extrem¬ 
ity. The district of Athabasca, formed 
in 1882, lies immediately E. of British Col¬ 
umbia and N. of Alberta; area about 
251,300 square miles. It is intersected by 
the Athabasca and Peace rivers and, as yet, 
has a scanty population. The name is also 
given to a family of Indians. 

Athabascan Indians, a linguistic stock 
of North American Indians, extending from 
British North America and Alaska to 
Mexico, who derive their name from Lake 
Athabasca in British North America. The 
locations of this Indian family are best 
given under three groups: Northern, Paci¬ 
fic and Southern. (1) The Northern group 
includes all the Athabascan tribes of Alaska 
and British North America, among which 
are the Ah-tena, K’naiakhotana, Kutchin, 
Kaiyvh-khotana, Koyu-khotana, Montagnais, 
Una-khotana, Montoguards and Takulli. 
(2) The Pacific group consists of the tribes 
inhabiting the present States of Washing¬ 
ton, Oregon, and California, to which reg¬ 
ions they migrated upon the advent of the 
white man. Among the tribes of this divi¬ 
sion are Chasta Costa, Kaltserea tunne, 
Ilupa, Chetco, Kenesti, Kwatami, Kwalhio- 
kwa, Micikqwutme, Mikono tunne, Owil- 
apsh, Qwinctunnetun, Tecenie, Naltunne, 
Saiaz, Tcetlestcan tunne, Tolowa, Glata- 
kanai, Yukitce and Tutu (3 ) The Southern 
group, which is the best known, is composed 
of the various Apache, Navajo and Lipan 
tribes, who inhabit Oklahoma, Arizona, New 
Mexico, and Mexico. The number of these 
Indians is about 32,000, of whom over 8,000 
from the northern group; less than 1,000 
the Pacific group; and about 23,000 the 
southern group. Some of the Oregon tribes 
have fought against the United States, but 
the more notable foes have been the Apaches 
of the southern division. 

Athaliah, daughter of Ahab, King of 
Israel, and wife of Jehoram, King of Judah, 
was born about 927, and died about 878 
B. c. She was a woman of abandoned 
character, and fond of power; who, after 
the death of her son Ahaziah, opened her 
way to the throne by the murder of every 
prince of the royal blood. She reigned 
six years; in the seventh, the high-priest 
Jehoiada placed Joash, the young son of 
Ahaziah, on the throne of his father. This 
prince had been preserved and brought up 
secretly in the temple by Jehosheba, the 
sister of Joram and wife of Jehoiada. Atha¬ 
liah, attracted by the noise of the people, 
who were crowding to the coronation of 
Joash, entered with them into the temple, 
wlmre the ceremony was going on. At the 
sight of the new king, surrounded by 


priests, Levites, great officers of the king¬ 
dom, and the joyful people, she was beside 
herself; she tore her hair and cried out 
“ Treason! ” Jehoiada ordered her to be im¬ 
mediately led from the temple by the offi¬ 
cers, and commanded that all who should 
offer to defend her be slain; and she 
was put to death, at the gate of her palace, 
without opposition. The altars of Baal, 
which she had erected, were thrown down, 
and the worship of the true God restored 
(II Kings, xii: 13-18). On this story, Ra¬ 
cine has written his best tragedy, considered 
as the chef-d'oeuvre of the French school of 
tragic poetry. 

Athanasian Creed, a formulary or con¬ 
fession of faith, said to have been drawn up 
by Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, in the 
4th century, to justify himself against the 
calumnies of his Arian enemies. That it 
was really composed by this father seems 
more than doubtful; and modern divines 
generally concur in the opinion of Dr. Wat- 
erland, that it was written by Hilary, 
Bishop of Arles, in the 5th century. It is 
certainly very ancient; for it had become so 
famous in the Gth century as to be com¬ 
mented upon, together with the Lord’s 
Prayer and Apostles’ Creed, by Venantius 
Fortunatus, Bishop of Poitiers. It was not, 
however, then styled the Athanasian Creed, 
but simply the Catholic Faith. It is sup¬ 
posed to have received the name of Athana¬ 
sius on account of its agreeing with his 
doctrines, and being an excellent summary 
of the subjects of controversy between him 
and the Arians. The true key to the Atha¬ 
nasian Creed lies in the knowledge of the 
errors to which it was opposed. The Sabel- 
lians considered the Father, Son and Holy 
Spirit as one in person; this was “ confound¬ 
ing the persons: ” the Arians considered 
them as differing in essence; this was “di¬ 
viding the substance; ” and against these 
two errors was the creed originally framed. 
This creed was used in France about the 
year 850; was received in Spain about 
100 years later, and in Germany about 
the same time. It was both said and sung 
in England in the 10th century: was com¬ 
monly used in Italy at the expiration of 
that century, and at Rome a little later. 
This creed is appointed to be read in the 
Church of England. 

Athanasius, St., (ath-a-na'she-us), one 
of the fathers of the Christian Church, born 
at Alexandria about 29G a. d. He dis¬ 
tinguished himself by his eloquence at the 
Synod of Nice (325), where his efforts were 
instrumental in securing the acceptance of 
the Nicene Creed. The creed which bears 
his name was supposed to have been formu¬ 
lated by him, but the term Athanasian was 
not applied to it until some centuries after 
his death. He became Patriarch of Alexan- 



Atharvana 


Athena 


dria in 328, being afterward deposed and re¬ 
instated five times. His chief works, in¬ 
cluding “ Orations Against the Arians”and 
“ Festal Letters,” appeared in an English 
translation by Archibald Robertson (New 
York, 1892). He died in Alexandria, May 
2, 373. 

Atharvana (at-a'van-e), the fourth of 
the Indian Vedas. Its language is more 
modern than that of the other three. The 
Sanhith, or collection of prayers and invo¬ 
cations, is comprised in 20 books. The num¬ 
ber of verses is stated as 6,015; the sections 
more than 100; and the hymns upward of 
700. The theological treatises, regarded as 
52 in number, called Upanishads, are ap¬ 
pended to the Atharvan Veda. 

Atheism, literally, disbelief in a God, if 
such an attainment is possible; or, more 
loosely, doubt of the existence of a God; 
practically, a denial that anything can be 
known about the supernatural, supposing it 
to exist. Among the Greeks atheism con¬ 
sisted in a denial or non-recognition of the 
gods of the State. Socrates was put to 
death for asserting the superiority of the 
Divine wisdom to the other gods, as the 
ruler and disposer of the universe, thus 
contradicting Greek mythology, which as¬ 
signed that office to Zeus. In Latin times 
atheism still continued to be a negation, 
with no pretension to rank as a system. 
Voltaire speaks of it as having destroyed the 
republic, and says that it was factious in 
the time of Sulla and of Caesar, and slavish 
under Augustus and Tiberius. It was 
closely akin to that cultured unbelief which 
extensively prevailed at the Roman Curia 
during the early part of the renaissance. 
Macaulay is very severe on the “ men who, 
with the Latinity of the Augustan age, ac¬ 
quired its atheistical and scoffing spirit.” 
The atheism of the 18th century was a pro¬ 
test against the persecution of fanaticism; 
and, like its predecessors, put forward lit¬ 
tle or nothing to replace the system it at¬ 
tempted to destroy. The atheism of the 19th 
century may be taken to include every philo¬ 
sophic system which rejects the notion of a 
personal Creator; in this sense it ranks as a 
genus, of which Atomism, Pantheism, Posi¬ 
tivism, etc., are species. Strictly, it is the 
doctrine that sees in matter the sole prin¬ 
ciple of the universe. Popularly, atheism 
consists in the denial of a God; this view is 
probably founded on the mistranslation of 
Ps. xiv: 1, and liii: 1, which should be 
“ The fool hath said in his heart, No God 
for me”— i. e., he willfully rejects God, at 
the same time knowing that He is. 

Athel, or /Ethel, an Old English word 
meaning noble, eminent not only in blood or 
by descent but in mind; frequently a part 
of Anglo-Saxon proper names. 

Atheling, a title of honor among the 
Anglo-Saxons, meaning one who is of noble 


blood. The title was gradually confined to 
the princes of the blood royal, and in the 
9th and 10th centuries is used exclusively 
for the sons or brothers of the reigning king. 
It was first conferred on Edgar by Edward 
the Confessor, his grand-uncle, who bestowed 
it when he designed to make him successoi 
to himself on the throne. 

Atheling, Edgar. See Edgar ATHEL¬ 
ING. 


Athelney, formerly an island in the midst 
of fens and marshes, now drained and cul¬ 
tivated, in Somersetshire, England, about 
7 miles S. E. of Bridgwater. Alfred 
the Great took refuge in it during a Danish 
invasion, and afterward founded an abbey 
there. 

Athelstan, Adelstan, /Ethelstan, or 
Ealstan, an Anglo-Saxon King, the son and 
successor of Edward the Elder, and grand¬ 
son of Alfred the Great; born in 895, and, 
on Edward's death, in 925, was chosen king 
by the people of Mercia, and Wessex. 
Northumbria, Scotland, and the British 
States of Cumberland, Wales and Cornwall, 
acknowledged him as their superior lord, 
and his alliance was courted by all the 
princes of Western Europe*. Louis IV. of 
France was protected by Athelstan during 
the usurpation of Raoul, and recovered the 
throne by his 
aid. The Em¬ 
peror Otho the 
Great married 
his sister El- 
giva. In 937, 

Constantine of 
Scotland, and 
other princes, 
forme d a 
league against 
Athelstan, who 
totally defeat¬ 
ed them. He 
died at Glou¬ 
cester, A. D. 

941. 

Athena (ath- 
e'na), or Ath= 
ene, a Greek 
goddess, iden¬ 
tified by the 
Romans with 
Minerva, the 
represen- 
t a t i v e of the 
intellectual 
powers; the 
daughter of 
Zeus (Jupiter) 
and Metis 
(that is, wis¬ 
dom or clever¬ 
ness). According to the legend, before her 
birth Zeus swallowed her mother, and Ath¬ 
ena afterward sprang from the head of Zeus 



ATHENA. 








































Athenaeum 


Athens 


with a mighty war shout and in complete 
armor. In her character of a wise and pru¬ 
dent warrior she was contrasted with the 
fierce Ares (Mars). In the wars of the 
giants she slew the famed Enceladus. In 
the wars of the mortals she aided and 
protected heroes. She is also represented 
as the patroness of the arts of peace. 
The sculptor, the architect, and the painter, 
as well as the philosopher, the orator 
and the poet, considered her their tutelar 
deity. She is also represented among the 
healing gods. In all these representations 
she is the symbol of the thinking fac¬ 
ulty, the goddess of wisdom, science, and 
art; the latter, however, only in so far as 
invention and thought are comprehended. 
In the images of the goddess a manly gra¬ 
vity and. an air of reflection are united with 
female beauty in her features. As a warrior 
she is represented completely armed, her 
head covered with a gold helmet. As the 
goddess of peaceful arts she appears in the 
dress of a Grecian matron. To Imr insignia 
belong the segis, the Gorgon's head, the 
round argive buckler; and the owl, the cock, 
the serpent, an olive branch, and a lance 
were sacred to her. All Attica, but particu¬ 
larly Athens, was sacred to her, and she had 
numerous temples there. Her most brilliant 
festival at Athens was the Panathencea, par¬ 
ticipated in by all the tribes of the City- 
State. Races, gymnical exercises, and imi¬ 
tations of naval fights were exhibited with 
great splendor, and there were contests in 
music, declamation, and the drama. Pris¬ 
oners were released from the prisons, and 
gold crowns were conferred on men of dis¬ 
tinguished merit. 

Athenseum (ath-en-e'um), or Atheneum, 
a public place frequented by professors of 
the liberal arts, and where rhetoricians de¬ 
claimed, and the poets read aloud their 
works. At Athens these assemblies first 
took place in the temple of Minerva, whence 
the name. The Athenaeum at Rome was 
founded upon the Capitoline Hill, by the. 
Emperor Hadrian. It was a school or col¬ 
lege, furnished with a complete staff of pro¬ 
fessors for the several branches of study. 
Like its Athenian prototypes, this establish¬ 
ment was frequented by the Roman orators, 
poets and other learned men, who there de¬ 
claimed their compositions, the emperors 
themselves frequently honoring the assem¬ 
blies by their presence. At a subsequent 
period, another celebrated Athenaeum was 
erected at Lyons. These institutions gen¬ 
erally appear to have retained their high 
reputation until the 5th century. At the 
present time, the term has been revived as 
a name for certain establishments connected 
with learning, as well as for clubs and lib¬ 
raries. It is also the not inappropriate title 
of several literary journals published in va¬ 
rious countries. 


Athemeus (ath- e-ne'us), a Greek writer 

of the 3d century, reputed to have been 
born at Naucratis in the Nile Delta, and to 
have lived at Alexandria and afterward at 
Rome. He is famous for one work, his 
“ Feast of the Learned,” a series of books 
giving with little connection or literary art 
a vast assemblage of quotations from nearly 
800 writers and 2,400 distinct writings, 
covering practically every department of an¬ 
cient learning. It has been valued by schol¬ 
ars of all succeeding times as a treasure- 
house of quotation and anecdote. 

Athenagoras (ath-en-ag'o-ras), a Platonic 
philosopher of Athens, a convert to Christi¬ 
anity, who wrote a Greek Apology for the 
Christians, addressed to the Emperor Mar¬ 
cus Aurelius, in 177, one of the earliest that 
appeared. 

Athenais (ath-en-a'is), an Athenian lady 
of distinguished beauty and learning, who, 
in 421 A. D., became the wife of the Em¬ 
peror Theodosius II., and assumed the name 
of Eudocia. 

Athenodorus, the son of Agesander, a 
Greek sculptor of the Rhodian school, who, 
with his father and Polydorus, executed the 
celebrated group of the “ Laocoon,” the best 
specimen now extant of the third stage of 
sculpture in Greece, during which the high¬ 
est display of execution was successfully 
coupled with the utmost pathos of concep¬ 
tion. Athenodorus is supposed to have lived 
about 220. b. c. 

Athens, anciently the capital of Attica 
and center of Greek culture, now the capital 
of the Kingdom of Greece. It is situated 
in the central plain of Attica, about 4 
miles from the Saronic Gulf or Gulf of 
TEgina, an arm of the HCgean Sea running 
in between the mainland and the Peloponne¬ 
sus. It is said to have been founded about 
1550 b. c. by Cecrops, the mythical Pelas- 
gian hero, and to have borne the name Ce- 
cropia until under Erechtheus it received the 
name of Athens in honor of Athene. 



COIN OF ATHENS. 


Topography .— The Acropolis, an irregular 
oval crag, 150 feet high, with level sum¬ 
mit 1,000 feet long by 500 in breadth, was 
the original nucleus of the city, which, ac¬ 
cording to tradition, was extended by The¬ 
seus when Athens became the head of the 
confederate Attic States. The three chief 
eminences near the Acropolis — the Areopa¬ 
gus to the N. W., the Pnyx to the S. W.j 







Athens 


Athens 


and the Museum to the S. of the Pnyx— 
were thus included within the city boundary 
as the sites of its chief public buildings, 
the city itself, however, afterward taking 
a northerly direction. On the E. ran the 
liissus and on the W. the Cephissus, while 
to the S. W. lay three harbors — Phalerum, 
the oldest and nearest; the Piraeus, the most 
important; and Munychia, the Piraean Ac¬ 
ropolis. At the height of its prosperity the 
city was connected with its harbors by three 
massive walls (the “long walls”). 

Architecture .— The architectural develop¬ 
ment of Athens may be dated from the rule 
of the Pisistratids (560-G10 B. C.) ? who 
are credited with the foundation of the huge 
temple of the Olympian Zeus, completed by 
Hadrian seven centuries later, the erection 
of the Pythium or temple of Pythian Apollo, 
and of the Lyceum or temple of Apollo 
Lyceus — all near the liissus ; and to whom 
were due the inclosure of the academy, a 
gymnasium and gardens to the N. of the 
city, and the building of the Agora with its 
Portico or Stoa, Bouleuterium or Senate- 
house, Tholus and Prytanium. With the 
foundation of Athenian democracy under 
Clisthenes, the Pnyx or place of public as¬ 
sembly, with its semicircular-area and cyclo- 
pean wall, first became of importance, and 
a commencement was made to the Dionysiac 
theater (theater of Dionysus or Bacchus) 
on the S. side of the Acropolis. 



ATHENE PARTHENOS. 

Reconstruction .— After the destruction 
wrought by the Persians in 480 b. c., The- 
mistocles reconstructed the city upon prac¬ 
tical lines and with a larger area, inclos¬ 
ing the city in new walls 7 V 2 miles in cir¬ 
cumference, erecting the N. wall of the 
Acropolis, and developing the maritime re¬ 


sources of the Piraeus; while Cimon added 
to the southern fortifications of the Acrop¬ 
olis, placed on it the temple of Wingless Vic¬ 
tory, planted the Agora with trees, laid out 
the Academy, and built the Theseum on an 
eminence N. of the Areopagus; his brother- 
in-law, Peisianax, erecting the famous Stoa 
Poecile, a hall with walls covered with 
paintings (whence the Stoics got their 
name). Under Pericles the highest point 
of artistic development was reached. An 
odeium was erected on the E. of the Diony¬ 
siac Theater, for the recitations of rhap- 
sodists and musicians; and with the aid of 
the architects Ictinus and Mnesicles and of 
the sculptor Phidias the Acropolis was per¬ 
fected. Covering the whole of the W. end 
rose the Propyloea, of Pentelic marble,'and 
consisting of a central portico with two 
wings in the form of Doric temples. Within, 
to the left of the entrance, stood the bronze 
statue of Athena Promachus, and beyond it 
the Erectheum, containing the statue of 
Athena rolias; while to the right, on the 
highest part of the Acropolis, was the mar¬ 
ble Parthenon, or temple of Athene Par- 
thenos, the crowning glory of the whole. 
Statues and shrines occupied the rest of the 
area, which was for the time wholly ap¬ 
propriated to the worship of the guardian 
deities of the city. In the interval between 
the close of the Peloponnesian War and the 
battle of Clneronea, few additions were 
made. Then, however, the long walls and 
Piraeus, destroyed by Lysander, were re¬ 
stored by Conon, and under the orator, Ly- 
curgus, the Dionysiac temple was completed, 
the Panathenaic stadium commenced, and 
the choragio monuments of Lysicrates and 
Thrasyllus erected. Later on Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus gave it the Ptolemaeum near the 
Theseum, Attalus I. the stoa N. E. of the 
Agora, Eumenes II. that near the great 
theater, and Antiochus Epiphanes carried 
on the Olympium. Under the Romans, it 
continued a flourishing city, Hadrian in the 
2d century adorning it with many new 
buildings. Indeed, Athens was at no time 
more splendid than under the Antonines, 
when Pausanias visited and described it. 

The City in Decline .— But after a time 
Christian zeal, the attacks of barbarians, 
and robberies of collectors, made sad in¬ 
roads among the monuments. About 420 
a. d. paganism was totally annihilated at 
Athens, and when Justinian closed even the 
schools of the philosophers, the reverence 
for buildings associated with the names of 
the ancient deities and heroes was lost. 
The Parthenon was turned into a church of 
the Virgin Mary, and St. George stepped 
into the place of Theseus. Finally, in 1456, 
the place fell into the hands of the Turks. 
The Parthenon became a mosque, and in 
1687 was greatly damaged by an explosion 
at the siege of Athens by the Venetians. 




























Athens 


Athletes 


Enough, however, remains of it and of the 
neighboring structures to abundantly attest 
the splendor of the Acropolis; while of the 
other buildings of the city, the Theseum and 
Horologium, or Temple of the Winds, are 
admirably preserved, as also are the Pnyx, 
Panathenaic stadium, etc. 

Modern Athens .— Soon after the begin¬ 
ning of the War of Liberation, in 1821, the 
Turks surrendered Athens, but captured it 
again in 1820—1827. It was then abandoned 
until 1830. In 1835 it became the royal 
residence, and made rapid progress. The 
modern city mostly lies northward and east¬ 
ward from the Acropolis, and consists 
mainly of straight and well built streets. 
Among the principal buildings are the royal 
palace, a stately building with a fagade of 
Pentelic marble (completed in 1843), the 
university, the academy, public library, the¬ 
ater, and observatory. The university was 
opened in 1830, and has 1,400 students. 
There are valuable museums, in particular 
the National Museum, and that in the Poly¬ 
technic School, which embraces the Sclilie- 
mann collection, etc. These are constantly 
being added to by excavations. There are 
four foreign archaeological schools or insti¬ 
tutes, the French, German, American, and 
British. Tramways have been made in the 
principal streets, and the city is connected 
by railway with its port, the Pira3us. Pop. 
(1895) 111,480. 

Athens, city and county-seat of Clarke 
co., Ga.; on the Oconee river, and the 
Central of Georgia, the Georgia, the North¬ 
eastern of Georgia, and the Seaboard Air 
Line railroads; 07 miles E. of Atlanta, the 
State capital. It is in a cotton growing re¬ 
gion; has a large trade in that staple; and 
contains cotton and woolen, cotton seed oil, 
bobbin, and hosiery mills, iron works, fur¬ 
niture factories, and other industrial plants. 
It is the seat of the University of Georgia, 
the State College of Agriculture and Me¬ 
chanic Arts, Lucy Cobb Institute. Knox In¬ 
stitute, Jeruel Academy, and a State Nor¬ 
mal School. There are electric light and 
street railway plants, a National bank, sev¬ 
eral hotels, and daily, weekly, and monthly 
periodicals. The assessed property valu¬ 
ation exceeds $5,000,000. Pop. (1890) 
8,039; (1900) 10,245; (1910) 14,913. 

Athens, American School at, an insti¬ 
tution for classical study, founded in Athens, 
Greece, in 1S82; a branch of the Archaeo¬ 
logical Institute of America, managed by a 
committee representing various colleges in 
the United States which contribute to its 
support. The building was erected by means 
of private subscriptions, on grounds do¬ 
nated by the Greek Government, and the 
institution has an endowment of $50,000. 
Besides studying the remains of Greek civ¬ 
ilization and art, the school has engaged in 
fruitful excavations at Eretria and Argos. 


Atherine, a pretty little fish, from five to 
six inches long, called also the sandsmelt. 
It is the A. presbyter of Cuvier. It is found 
along the southern coasts cf Europe, occu¬ 
pying a region distinct from that in which 
the smelt ( osmerus cperlanus) occurs. It 
is used as food. There is an American spe¬ 
cies, the menidia notata, commonly called 
nilversides. 

Of the form •atherina, a genus of lishes 
of the order acanthoptcrygii and the fam¬ 
ily mugilidee (mullets). Several species are 
known in the Mediterranean and elsewhere. 
The young, which congregate together, are 
the aphyes of the ancients. Now, in the 
S. of Europe, they are called nonnat. 

Atherstone, Edwin, an English poet, 
born in Nottingham, England, about 1788; 
was the author of “ The Last Days of Her¬ 
culaneum ” and “ The Fall of Nineveh.” In 
addition to these poems, he wrote “ Israel 
in Egypt ” and “ The Handwriting on the 
Wall.” He died Jan. 29, 1872. 

Atherton, George William, an Amer¬ 
ican educator, born in Boxford, Mass., June 
20, 1837; was brought up in a cotton mill, 
and afterward on a farm; worked his way 
through Phillips Exeter Academy and Yale 
College; was Professor of Political Economy 
and Constitutional Law in Rutgers College, 
N. J., in 1869-1882; admitted to the bar 
of New Jersey in 1878; and became Presi¬ 
dent of the Pennsylvania State College in 
1882. He died duly 24, 190G. 

Atherton, Gertrude Franklin, an Amer¬ 
ican author, born in San Francisco, Cal.; 
daughter of Thomas L. Horn and Gertrude 
Franklin, and great-grandniece of Benjamin 
Franklin; was educated in California and 
Kentucky, and married the laU George H. 
B. Atherton. She began he” literary work 
while living in San Francisco, in 1878, and 
has made a specialty of describing Spanish 
life in California as it was previous to 1846. 
Her publications include “ The Randolphs 
of Redwood,” ' What Dreams May Come,” 
“ The Doomswoman ” (1892); Before the 
Gringo Came ” (1894); “ A Whirl Asunder ” 
(1895); “His Fortunate Grace” (1897); 
“ American Wives and English Husbands ” 
(1898); “The Californian” (1898); “A 
Daughter of a Vine” (1899); “Senator 
North” (1900), etc. 

Athletes, combatants who took part in 
the public games of Greece. The profession 
was an honorable one; tests of birth, posi¬ 
tion, and character were imposed, and 
crowns, statues, special privileges, and pen¬ 
sions were among the rewards of success. 
In April, 1896, the ancient Olympic games 
were revived at Athens (the 776th Olym¬ 
piad) under the personal patronage of the 
King of Greece, who presented crowns of 
victory to 44 contestants, of whom 11 were 
from the United States, the largest mini- 




Athlone 


Atkinson 


ber oi victors from any country. The wide¬ 
spread interest in the games led to the 
formation of an international committee to 
arrange for future contests, the first one 
taking place in Paris during the Exposition 
of 1900. Athletic sports are now more nu¬ 
merous and popular than ever before, and 
among their particularly interesting feat¬ 
ures are the participation of women in 
many of them, and an increasing tendency 
to promote international contests. 

Athlone, a town in Ireland, on both sides 
of the Shannon, chiefly in Westmeath, 80 
miles W. of Dublin by rail. The Shannon 
is crossed by a fine bowstring and lattice 
iron bridge of two arches, 175 and 40 feet 
span. Athlone Castle, founded in the reign 
of King John, was one of the chief military 
positions in Ireland. In the war of 1688 it 
was unsuccessfully besieged by William III. 
in person, but was afterward taken by Gen. 
Ginkell. The fortifications cover 15 acres, 
and contain barracks for 1,500 men. Pop. 
(1901) G,G17. 

Athol, a town in Worcester co., Mass., on 
Miller’s river, and the Boston and Albany 
and Fitchburg railroads; 44 miles N. W. of 
Worcester. It contains several villages, has 
electric railways connecting with the suburbs, 
and is principally engaged in the manufac¬ 
ture of cotton warps, shoes, sewing silk, fine 
mechanical tools, matches, organ cases, 
pocket-books, billiard tables, and furniture. 
The town has 2 National banks, public li¬ 
brary, high school, several weekly and 
monthly periodicals, and a property valua¬ 
tion exceeding $4,000,000. Pop. (1890) 
6,319; (1900) 7,061; (1910) 8,536. 

Athor, Hathor, or Hether, an Egyptian 
goddess, identified with Aphrodite or Venus. 
Her symbol was the cow bearing on its 
head the solar disk and hawk feather 
plumes. Her chief temple was at Denderah. 
From her the third month of the Egyptian 
year derived its name. 

Athos, Mount, or H?gion=Oros, or 
Monte=Santo, a famous mountain of Tur¬ 
key in Europe, on a peninsula projecting into 
the kEgean Sea, between the Gulfs of Con- 
tesa and Monte-Santo. It rises abruptly 
from the water to a height of 6,349 feetabove 
sea level, and in its lower parts is covered 
with forests of pine, oak, chestnut, etc., 
above which towers a bare conical peak. 
Athos has been famous both in ancient and 
modern times. Herodotus states that the 
fleet of Mardonius, the Persian general, in 
attempting to double this mountain, was 
reported to have lost more than 300 ships 
and 20,000 men. When Xerxes invaded 
Greece he determined to guard against the 
recurrence of a similar disaster by cutting 
a canal across the peninsula of such dimen¬ 
sions as to admit of two triremes passing 
abreast; of which great work the traces still 


remain. In modern times, Athos has been 
occupied for an extended period by a number 
of monks of the Greek Church, who live in 
a sort of fortified monasteries, in number 
about 20, of different degrees of magnitude 
and importance. These, with the farms or 
me'ochis attached to them, occupy the whole 
peninsula; hence it has derived its modern 
name of Monte-Santo. These monasteries 
are situated in positions of strikingly ro¬ 
mantic beauty. Some of them belong to 
Russians, others to Bulgarians and Ser¬ 
vians. Except the produce of their own 
farms and vineyards, and the sale of crosses 
and beads, they depend chiefly on the obla¬ 
tions of pilgrims, and on the alms collected 
by their brethren in other parts. They pay 
an annual tribute to the Porte, and admit 
no females upon the peninsula. Most of 
these monasteries possess valuable manu¬ 
scripts ; and they suffered severely from the 
exactions of the Turks during the Greek 
Revolution. 

Atitlan (at-it'lan), a lake and mountain 
of Central America, in Guatemala. The lake 
is about 24 miles long and 10 broad; the 
mountain is an active volcano, 12,160 feet 
high. 

Atkinson, Edward, an American polit¬ 
ical economist, born in Brookline, Mass., 
Feb. 10, 1827; was educated in private 
schools and at Dartmouth College. He has 
become widely known by his papers and 
pamphlets on trade competition, banking, 
railroading, fire prevention, the money ques¬ 
tion, tariff, etc. Soon after the battle in 
Manila Bay, he was elected vice-president 
of the Anti-Imperialist League. After it 
became evident that the United States Gov¬ 
ernment would take possession of the Philip¬ 
pine Islands, as a fruit of the war, the 
League issued three pamphlets, entitled 
“ Criminal Aggression by Whom ? ” “ The 
Cost of the National Crime,” and “ The Hell 
of War and Its Penalties.” Early in 1899, 
Gen. El well S. Otis, commander of the army 
in the Philippines, notified the War Depart¬ 
ment that a large number of seditious 
pamphlets, mailed in the United States, 
had been received by officers and men un¬ 
der his command. An official investigation 
showed that Mr. Atkinson was actively con¬ 
cerned in the work of the League, and the 
Postmaster-General was instructed to no¬ 
tify him and postmasters throughout the 
United States that the mails would be closed 
to the further transmission of these or 
similar documents. In consequence of this 
action, Mr. Atkinson published a statement 
to the effect that the pamplets complained 
of had been reprinted from Government pub¬ 
lications, and that, therefore, they were to 
be considered as public property. Among 
his publications are “ The Distribution of 
Products” (1885) ; “Industrial Progress of 
the Nation” (1889); “The Science of Nu- 



Atkinson 


Atlanta 


trition ” (1892); “Taxation and Work” 
(1892); “Every Boy His Own Book” (1893), 
etc. He died Dec. 11, 1905. 

Atkinson, George Francis, an American 
botanist, born in Kaisinville, Mich., Jan. 
26, 1854; was graduated at Cornell Uni¬ 
versity in 1885; Associate Professor of En¬ 
tomology and General Zoology in the Uni¬ 
versity of North Carolina, in 1886-1888; 
Professor of Zoology and Botany in the 
University of South Carolina; and Botanist 
of the State Experiment Station in 1888- 
1889; Professor of Biology in the Alabama 
Polytechnic Institute, and Biologist of the 
Experiment Station in 1889-1892; became 
Professor of Botany in Cornell University, 
and Botanist of the Experiment Station 
there in 1896. He is a member of numerous 
scientific societies, and author of “ Biology 
of Ferns,” “ Elementary Botany,” and many 
technical papers. 

Atlanta, city and capital of the State of 
Georgia and of Fulton county; on the At¬ 
lanta and West Point, the Central of Georgia, 
the Georgia, the Seaboard Air Line, the South¬ 
ern, and the Western and Atlantic rail¬ 
roads; 171 miles N. by W. of Augusta. The 
city is not only the largest in the State, but, 
commercially and historically, is one of the 
most important in the Southern States. 
It occupies a site 1,100 feet above sea 
level, at the base of the Blue Ridge Moun¬ 
tains, and near the Chattahoochee river. 
The city is nearly midway between the At¬ 
lantic Ocean and the Mississippi river, and 
from this fact, as well as its exceptional 
railroad connections and its situation among 
the mountains, it has received the popular 
name of “ The Gate City.” It has a most 
enjoyable climate and a perfect, natural 
drainage. 

Business Interests .— Atlanta occupies a 
foremost place among the manufacturing 
centers of the country, its development in 
this line, since the close of the Civil War, 
being one of the wonders of American 
industrial enterprise. According to the 
United States census of 1900, there were 395 
manufacturing establishments reported, em¬ 
ploying $16,085,114 capital, and 10,148 per¬ 
sons; paying $3,957,840 for wages and 
$8,571,194 for materials; and having a com¬ 
bined output valued at $16,721,899. The 
principal manufactures are cotton, sheeting 
and drilling, bag and flour sacks (the larg¬ 
est mill of its kind in the country), cotton 
yarn, twine, cordage, warps, cotton seed oil, 
foundry and machine shop products, rail¬ 
road cars, agricultural implements, and fer¬ 
tilizers. The city is a leading trade and 
wholesale jobbing center for Georgia, Flor¬ 
ida and Alabama, with an average annual 
wholesale trade of over $26,000,000, and a 
retail trade of $12,000,000. It is also a 
large cotton receiving and shipping point, 


between 250,000 and 300,000 bales being 
handled annually. There are 2 National 
and several State banks; branch offices of 

16 of the largest fire, and 20 of the largest 
life, insurance companies in the world; a 
large number of building and loan associa¬ 
tions ; and nearly 50 daily, weekly, monthly, 
and other periodicals. The assessed prop¬ 
erty valuations exceed $53,000,000, and the 
total bonded debt is about $3,000,000. 

Public Interests .— The city has an area 
of 11 square miles; 200 miles of streets, of 
which 64 miles are paved; a system of water 
works, owned by the State, that cost $1,200,- 
000, with 107 miles of mains; and a sewer 
system with 85 miles of piping. The streets 
are lighted by electricity, at a cost of over 
$70,000 per annum; the police department 
cost annually about $150,000, and the fire 
department, about $111,000. There is a 
public school enrollment of over 15,000, and 
annual expenditures for public education of 
over $150,000. The annual cost of maintain¬ 
ing the city government exceeds $1,250,000. 
Atlanta is the seat of the Georgia Institute 
of Technology, Agnes Scott Institute, Wash¬ 
ington Seminary, Atlanta Baptist, Clark, 
and Atlanta Universities, Morris Brown 
College, Gammon Theological and Spelman 
Seminaries, Atlanta and Southern Medical 
Colleges, Southern Military and Female Col- , 
leges, the Georgia College of Eclectic Medi¬ 
cine, and other institutions. Among the 
local attractions are the State Capitol that 
cost $1,000,000, Grant, Piedmont, and Red 
Wood Parks, and Fort McPherson, one of 
the most complete military posts in the 
country. 

History .— Atlanta was first settled under 
the name of Terminus, in 1845. Subse¬ 
quently it was known as Marthasville, and 
in 1847 it was incorporated under its pres¬ 
ent name. The city had a large and most 
disastrous share in the Civil War. After 
being besieged by the Federal army, under 
General Sherman,and bombarded for 40 days, 
it was captured Sept. 2, 1864. General Sher¬ 
man rested here till November following, 
when, before starting on his famous march 
to the sea, he burned the city. After the 
war, the State recuperated more rapidly 
than any other one in the South that had 
been exposed to the fury of the war. In 
1881 an exposition of the Cotton States, and 
in 1895, a great Cotton States and Inter¬ 
national Exposition were held here, the last 
in Piedmont Park, in which the United 
States and many of the Northern States, be¬ 
sides European and South American coun¬ 
tries, took part. Pop. (1900) 89,872; 

(1910) 154,839. J. C. Woodward. 

Atlanta, The, a single-screw, steel, pro¬ 
tected cruiser, belonging to the United States 
navy; 3,189 tons displacement; length, 270 
feet 3 inches; breadth, 42 feet; mean draft, 

17 feet; horse power, 4,030; main battery, 



Atlanta University 


Atlantic Ocean 


six 6-inch and two 8-inch breech-loading 
rifles; secondary battery, two 6-pounder, 
four 3-pounder, and four 1-pounder rapid- 
fire guns; two 47-millimeter Hotchkiss re¬ 
volving guns, and two Gatlings; speed, 15.6 
knots; crew, 19 officers and 205 men; cost, 
$805,711.64. 

Atlanta University, a eo-educational 
(non-sectarian) institution, in Atlanta, 
Ga., opened in 1869; has grounds and build¬ 
ings valued at over $200,000; endowment, 
$75,000; scientific apparatus, over $12,000; 
income, about $60,000; faculty, 20; students, 
nearly 400; volumes in the library, 13,000; 
graduates, over 025. 

Atlantes, in architecture, colossal statues 
of men used instead of pillars to support an 
entablature. Roman architects called them 
telamones (Greek). When statues of women 
support an entablature, they are generally 
called caryatides. 

Atlantic City, a city and noted seaside 
resort in Atlantic co., N. J.; on a long, 
sandy island, known as Absecom Beach; 00 
miles S. E. of Philadelphia, with which it 
is connected by steam railroad. The island 
stretches along the coast for 10 miles; has 
an average width of % of a mile, and is 
from 4 to 5 miles from the mainland. At 
the N. end is the Absecom Light, well known 
to coastwise sailors. The city has several 
miles of bathing beach, a magnificent prom¬ 
enade on the ocean front, nearly 100 ho¬ 
tels and boarding houses, electric lights, 
public schools, churches of the principal 
denominations, 3 National banks, and daily, 
weekly, and monthly periodicals. It is 
probably the first all-the-year-round re¬ 
sort in the United States, its splendid cli¬ 
mate giving it a large popular patronage 
even in the dead of winter. The assessed 
property valuation exceeds $14,000,000. Pop. 
(1890)' 13,055; (1900) 27,838; (1910) 

40,150; (in summer) 150,000. 

Atlantic Ocean, the name given to the 
vast expanse of sea lying between the W. 
coasts of Europe and Africa, and the E. 
coasts of North and South America, and 
extending from the Arctic to the Antartic 
Seas. Its greatest breadth is between the 
W. coast of Northern Africa and the E. 
coast of Florida in North America, the dis¬ 
tance here being 4,150 miles. If the Gulf 
of Mexico, in reality one of its bays, be 
included, it will extend to 5,000 miles. Its 
least breadth, which is between Norway and 
Greenland, is about 930 miles. Between 
Cape St. Roque, Brazil, and Sierra Leone, 
the breadth is 1,730 miles. Its superficial 
extent has been estimated at 25,000,000 
square miles. From the number and extent 
of its inlets, gulfs, and bays, its coast-lines 
are of great length, the E. being upward 
of 32,000 miles, and the W. upward of 
55,000. Its principal inlets and bays are 
Baffin and Hudson bays, the Gulfs of Mex¬ 


ico, Honduras, and San Juan, the North Sea 
or German Ocean, the Bay of Biscay, and 
the Gulf of Guinea. The principal islands, 
N. of the equator are Iceland, the Faroe and 
British islands, the Azores, Canaries, and 
Cape de Verd islands, Newfoundland, Cape 
Breton, and the West India islands; and S. 
of the equator, Ascension, St. Helena, Trin¬ 
idad, Columbus, and Tristan da Cunha, the 
last three being mere rocks. 

Ihe great currents of the Atlantic are 
of two kinds, drift currents and the stream 
currents. Drift currents are produced by 
the wind, either by the perpetual or trade 
winds, or by prevailing winds. Those hav¬ 
ing the former origin are constant, running 
always in the same direction, and generally 
with a nearly equal velocity; those having 
the latter are not so constant, neither do 
they always run in the same direction, nor 
at a similar rate. The drift currents pro¬ 
duced by the trade winds are found be¬ 
tween the tropics; those resulting from pre¬ 
vailing winds, N. and S. of the parallels of 
30°. Stream currents are due indirectly to 
the influence of winds, being produced by 
drift currents, of which they are continu¬ 
ations. As these currents travel for great 
distances they meet with many obstacles 
in their course, which result in changes of 
direction. A stream current may thus be 
successively propelled by different currents, 
or consist in the combination of different 
stream currents. A third kind of currents 
is produced by the flow of the water to re¬ 
store the level disturbed by other currents. 
This is called a current of indraught. The 
great currents of the Atlantic are the Gulf 
Stream, the equatorial current—which may 
be divided into the main equatorial current, 
the N. equatorial current, and the S. equa¬ 
torial currents, the North African and 
Guinea current, the South connecting cur¬ 
rent, the Southern Atlantic current, Cape 
Horn current, Rennel current, and the Arc¬ 
tic current. 

The Gulf Stream is a continuation of the 
main equatorial current, and partly of the 
N. equatorial current, both W. drift currents 
produced by the trade winds. The former 
passes across the Atlantic to the American 
coast, upon which it strikes from Cape St. 
Roque to the Antilles. On being turned by 
the coast it runs along it at a rate of 30 
to 50 miles per day, and sometimes at a 
higher speed, till it enters the Gulf of 
Mexico, from which having previously re¬ 
ceived part of the waters of the N. equa¬ 
torial current, it issues between Florida and 
Cuba under the name of the Gulf Stream. 
It afterward flows nearly parallel to the 
coast of the United States, separated from 
it by a belt of cold water. Off Cape Hat- 
teras it spreads into an expanding channel, 
reaching a breadth of 167 miles, and con¬ 
sisting of three warm sections with two 
cold belts interposed. On passing Sandy 




Atlantic Ocean 


Atlantic Ocean 


Hook it turns E. and continues to be recog¬ 
nizable, partly by a blue color derived from 
the silt of the Mississippi, till about Ion. 
30° W., where, with a greatly diminished 
temperature, it is found flowing nearly due E. 

The equatorial current, so called from its 
being under the line, commences on the W. 
coast of Africa, about lat. 10° S., or nearly 
opposite St. Paul de Loando. From this 
point it pursues a N. W. direction till it 
makes Ion. 0°, when it proceeds due W. on 
both sides of the equator, till it arrives at 
Cape St. Roque in South America, when it 
is divided into two branches, one running 
along the Guiana coast, and into the Gulf 
of Mexico, as already mentioned, the other 
along the coast of Brazil, and so called the 
Brazil current. The latter is reinforced by 
the S. equatorial current, which, however, 
is not distinctly separable from the main 
equatorial current. The length of the equa¬ 
torial current, from the coast of Africa to 
Cape St. Roque, is 2,500 miles. Its breadth 
near the commencement is 185 miles; oppo¬ 
site Cape Palmas, 420; and before dividing, 
about Ion. 31° or 32° W., it is 510. Its 
average velocity, which is greater in sum¬ 
mer than in winter, is from 25 to 30 miles 
a day. 

The North African and Guinea current 
originates between the Azores and Cape 
Finisterre in Spain. It flows in a S. E. direc¬ 
tion, and after sending a mass of water into 
the Mediterranean it pursues a S. course to 
Cape Mesurada, S. of Sierra Leone, keep¬ 
ing at a considerable distance from the land. 
It then flows rapidly for 1,000 miles due E. 
to the Bight of Biafra, where it seems to 
mingle with the equatorial current. It is 
led from the W. by the Guinea counter 
current, a back flow of water between the 
main and the N. equatorial currents. The 
S. connecting current strikes across the 
South Atlantic from the Brazil current, 
then turns N., and finally joins the great 
equatorial current. 

The South Atlantic or South African cur¬ 
rent originates N. of the Cape of Good 
Hope, from which it flows in a N. W. direc¬ 
tion, at a rate of from 15 to 30 miles a 
day, and eventually merges into the equa¬ 
torial current. Cape Horn current flows 
constantly from the Antarctic and South 
Seas into the Atlantic Ocean, its general 
direction being E. N. E. and N. E. Rennel 
current, which is possibly a continuation of 
the Gulf Stream, enters the Bay of Biscay 
from the W., curves round its coast, and 
then turns N. W. toward Cape Clear in Ire¬ 
land. The Greenland or Arctic current 
runs along the E. coast of Greenland to 
Cape Farewell; having doubled this cape, 
it flows up toward Davis Strait, from which 
it receives an inflow of water, and then 
turns to the S. along the coast of Labrador, 
and continues along the coast of the United 
States, from which it separates the Gulf 


Stream by a cold band of water. Immense 
masses of ice are borne S. by this current 
from the Polar seas, and carried into warm¬ 
er regions, where they gradually dissolve 
and disappear. 

In the interior of the North Atlantic 
there is a large area comparatively free 
from currents, lying between 20° and 30° 
N. and 30° to 60° W. It is called the 
Sargasso Sea, from the large quantity of 
sea weed which drifts into it. A similar 
area exists in the South Atlantic, to which 
the same name is occasionally applied by 
analogy, though it is destitute of sea weed. 
It extends between 20° and 30° S. and 0° 
and 25° W. Besides the surface currents, 
recent investigation has established the ex¬ 
istence of a general oceanic circulation, con¬ 
sisting of an under current of cold water 
flowing from the poles to the equator, and 
an upper current of warm water from the 
equator to the poles. 

The winds of the Atlantic are not peculiar 
to that ocean, but identical with those that 
prevail in the same latitudes in the other 
seas around the globe. The most remark¬ 
able of these are the perennial or trade 
winds, which blow constantly in one direc¬ 
tion, namely, from E. to W., or nearly so. 
The tract of the trade winds to the N. of 
a zone, which is almost always found on 
the N. side of the equator, is called the 
region of the N. E. trade wind, from blow¬ 
ing one or two points N. of E.; that to the 
S., the region of the S. E. trade wind, from 
blowing S. of E. The N. E. trade wind 
blows with less steadiness than the S. E., 
but toward the West India islands it keeps 
generally steady between E. and N. E. The 
trade winds are constant only at a consid¬ 
erable distance from land, and become more 
steady the greater the expanse of water over 
which they blow. 

The greatest depth yet discovered in the 
Atlantic is to the N. of the island of Porto 
Rico, in the West Indies, namely, 27,366 
feet. Formerly depths of 40,000 or 50,000 
feet were reported, but this was owing to 
defective sounding apparatus. The geog¬ 
raphy of the ocean bed is now pretty well 
known, especially in the North Atlantic. 
Cross-sections of the North Atlantic between 
Europe and America show that its bed may 
be represented as exhibiting two great val¬ 
leys lying in a N. and S. direction, and sep¬ 
arated by an intervening ridge. Each of 
these valleys is about 500 miles in width. 
The mean depth of the E. valley is 
about 14,000 or 15,000 feet, and it can be 
traced from the equator to the latitude of 
the Faroes, where it terminates, or over 
an extent of 3,700 miles. The W. valley 
has a maximum depth of 16,800 feet, and 
can be traced from the latitude of the Azores 
as far N. as Greenland, where it bifur¬ 
cates, the deeper portion pointing N. 
up Baffin’s bay. The submarine ridge divid- 



Atlantic Telegraph 


Atlantic Telegraph 


ing these two valleys appears to be very 
uniform in depth below the surface, having 
1,600 fathoms of water above it from the 
Azores to the latitude of the Hebrides. It 
then rises gradually till at last it culmi¬ 
nates in Iceland. On this plateau the Atlan¬ 
tic telegraph cables have been laid, and from 
it the first specimens of deep-sea mud were 
brought up. This was found on examination 
by the microscope to consist to a large ex¬ 
tent of calcarous shells (Foraminifera), not 
water-worn, but quite perfect, showing that 
the water at such depths can have little or 
no motion. No sandy particles were found 
in the mud. The South Atlantic is not 
so well known as the North, but so far as 
soundings yet prove it has not a greater 
depth than the latter, the greatest depth 
found being 2,900 fathoms, in lat. 28° S. 
It would appear to be separated from the 
North Atlantic by a rocky ridge, on which 
rest the islands of Ascension, Fernando de 
Noronha, and St. Paul. The saltness and 
specific gravity of the Atlantic differ in 
various parts, and gradully diminish from 
the tropics to the poles, and also from within 
a short distance of the tropics to the equa¬ 
tor. In the neighborhood of the British 
Isles the salt has been stated at one thirty- 
eighth of the weight of the water. 

Atlantic Telegraph, lines laid on the bed 
of the Atlantic Ocean. The union of the Old 
and New Worlds by means of the electric 
telegraph, probably the boldest feat of elec¬ 
tric engineering ever projected, was first 
suggested by Prof. Morse in 1843. Various 
reasons prevented his ideas taking prac¬ 
tical shape, the principal obstacle being the 
unknown depth of the Atlantic and the 
supposed rocky nature of the bottom. When, 
however, Lieut. Maury of the United States 
navy discovered that between Ireland and 
Newfoundland the bed of the ocean was 
nearly level and covered with soft ooze, and 
Cyrus W. Field and others had thoroughly 
discussed the practical methods, a company 
was formed for the purpose, in 1856, to 
which the Governments of Great Britain 
and the United States gave liberal guaran¬ 
tees. This company, after a fruitless at¬ 
tempt to lay an electric cable in 1857, finally 
succeeded in 1858. The cable, 2,500 miles 
long, and weighing one ton per mile, was 
composed of seven fine copper wires, cased 
in gutta-percha, contained in a casing of 
hemp, saturated with pitch, beeswax, and 
oil, the outer sheath being composed of 18 
strands of seven iron wires each. It was 
taken, in equal portions, on board H. M. S. 
“Agamemnon (91 guns), and the United 
States frigate “ Niagara,” spliced in mid¬ 
ocean, and finally landed; the one end by 
the “ Agamemnon ” at Valentia, Ireland; 
the other by the “ Niagara,” at Trinity Bay, 
Newfoundland. 

The result was not encouraging. The cur¬ 


rent obtained through the wire was so 
weak that a congratulatory message from 
the Queen to the President, consisting of 
90 words, took 67 minutes to transmit. Af¬ 
ter a few more messages, the cable became 
useless. In consequence of this failure, it 
was not until 1865 that capital was found 
to make another attempt. This time the 
cable was made still heavier, and the whole 
length, 2,300 miles, weighing 4,000 tons, 
was shipped on board one vessel, the “ Great 
Eastern.” The paying-out journey was 
commenced at Valentia, but when the vessel 
was 1,064 miles from that port, the cable 
broke from an accidental strain. After a 
fruitless effort to fish up the broken cable 
from the bottom, it was abandoned for the 
season. In 1866 another line, so modified in 
construction as to be both lighter and 
stronger than the previous one, was suc¬ 
cessfully laid by the “ Great Eastern.” The 
1865 cable was then, by means of the same 
vessel, grappled for, and brought up from 
a depth of two miles, spliced, and completed 
to Trinity Bay. 

The practicability of laying an electric 
wire across the Atlantic being thus demon¬ 
strated, many lines have been projected, and 
several of them carried out. In 1869 a 
French company laid a line from Brest to 
St. Pierre to the S. of Newfoundland. In 
1873 a line was begun from Lisbon to Per¬ 
nambuco, in South America. This line, by 
means of a duplicate line from London to 
Lisbon, brings Great Britain into direct com¬ 
munication with the whole of South Amer¬ 
ica Other two cables were laid from Val¬ 
entia to Trinity Bay in 1874 and 1875. 
One from Penzance to St. Pierre was laid 
in 1879; another from England to Panama 
was completed in 1882; and in 1884 Messrs. 
Bennett and Mackav’s line was laid from 
Valentia to Torbay in Nova Scotia. 

This multiplicity of Atlantic telegraph 
lines has had the usual effect of competi¬ 
tion, in reducing the rates for the transmis¬ 
sion of messages. When the first line was 
opened for messages, the rates were $100 
for 20 words of five letters each, and $10 
for every five letters extra. The following 
year those rates were halved, and by suc¬ 
cessive reductions, have since reached an 
average rate of 25 cents per word. To ob¬ 
viate the costliness of long messages as far 
as possible, several code and cipher schemes 
have been devised for transmitting lengthy 
messages by a comparatively small number 
of words. These schemes, subject to cer¬ 
tain regulations, have been accepted by the 
post-offices and telegraph companies. The 
whole Atlantic system is worked in connec¬ 
tion with the ordinary telegraph system of 
the world, and, with the lines to India and 
Australia, may be said to bring the utter¬ 
most ends of the earth within speaking dis* 
tance. 



Atlantides 


Atmosphere 


Atlantides, a name given to the Pleiades, 
which were fabled to be the seven daughters 
of Atlas or of his brother Hesperus. 

Atlantis, or Atlantica, an island, said by 
Plato and others to have once existed in the 
ocean immediately beyond the Straits of 
Gades; that is, in what is now called the 
Atlantic Ocean, a short distance W. of the 
Straits of Gibraltar. Homer, Horace, and 
some others made two Atlanticas, distin¬ 
guished as the Hesperides and the Elysian 
Fields, and believed to be the abodes of the 
blessed. Plato states that an easy passage 
existed from the one Atlantis into other 
islands, which lay near a continent exceed¬ 
ing in size all Europe and Asia. Some have 
thought this America. Atlantis is repre¬ 
sented as having ultimately sunk beneath 
the waves, leaving only isolated rocks and 
shoals in its place. Geologists have discov¬ 
ered that the coast-line of Western Europe 
did once run farther in the direction of 
America than now; but its submergence 
seems to have taken place long before his¬ 
toric times, so that the whole ancient story 
about Atlantis was probably founded on er¬ 
roneous information, or arose from a 
clever guess put forth by a man of lively 
imagination. “ The New Atlantis ” is the 
title which Lord Bacon gives to a literary 
fragment, in which he sketched out an ideal 
commonwealth. 

Atlantosaurus, a gigantic fossil reptile, 
order dinosauria, obtained in the upper Ju¬ 
rassic strata of the Rocky Mountains, at¬ 
taining a length of 80 feet or more. 

Atlas, an extensive mountain system in 
North Africa, starting near Cape Nun, on 
the Atlantic Ocean, traversing Morocco, Al¬ 
giers and Tunis, and terminating on the 
coast of the Mediterranean; divided gen¬ 
erally into two parallel ranges, running W. 
to E., the Greater Atlas lying toward the 
Sahara, and the Lesser Atlas toward the 
Mediterranean. The principal chain is 
about 1,500 miles long, and the principal 
peaks rise above or approach the line of 
perpetual congelation; Miltsin, in Morocco, 
being 11,400 feet high, and another peak in 
Morocco 11,500 feet high. The highest ele¬ 
vations are, perhaps, over 13,000 feet. Sil¬ 
ver, antimony, lead, copper, iron, etc., 
are among the minerals. The vegetation is 
chiefly European in character, except on the 
low grounds and next the desert. 

Atlas, in Greek mythology, the name of a 
'Titan whom Zeus condemned to bear the 
vault of heaven. The same name is given 
to a collection of maps and charts, and was 
first used by Gerard Mercator in the 16th 
century, the figure of Atlas bearing the 
globe being given on the title-pages of such 
works. 

Atlas, in anatomy, is the name of the first 
vertebra of the neck, which supports the 


head. It is connected with the occipital 
bone in such a way as to permit of the nod¬ 
ding movement of the head, and rests on 
the second vertebra, or axis, their union al¬ 
lowing the head to turn from side to side. 

Atlee, Washington Lemuel, an Amer¬ 
ican surgeon, born in Lancaster, Pa., Feb. 
22, 1808; became noted as a pioneer in 
ovariotomy and the removal of uterine fib¬ 
roid tumors, and published “ Ovarian Tu¬ 
mors ” ( 1873); “ Struggles and Triumphs 
of Ovariotomy” (1875), and a prize essay 
on “ Fibroid Tumors of the Uterus ” (1876) , 
He died Sept. 6, 1878. 

Atmidometer, an instrument invented by 
Babington, for measuring the evaporation 
from water, ice, snow, etc. It consists of 
two glass or metal bulbs, one of them placed 
above the other, with which it communi¬ 
cates by a narrow neck. The instrument 
being immersed in a vessel of water through 
a circular hole in which the steam rises, dis¬ 
tilled water is gradually poured into the 
pan above, causing it to sink to the point 
at which the zero of the stem is on a level 
with the cover of the vessel. As then the 
water in the pan gradually evaporates, the 
steam slowly ascends, the amount of evap¬ 
oration being indicated in grains on the 
graduated scale. 

Atmolysis, a method of separating the 
constituent gases of a compound gas (such 
as atmospheric air) by causing it to pass 
through a vessel of porous material (such 
as graphite) ; first made known in August, 
1863, by the discoverer, the late Prof. T. 
Graham, F. R. S. 

Atmometer, an instrument invented by 
Sir John Leslie for measuring the quantity 
of moisture exhaled in a given time from 
any humid surface. It consists of a very 
thin ball of porous earthenware, from one 
to three inches in diameter, having a small 
neck firmly cemented to a long and rather 
wide tube of glass, to which is adapted a 
brass cap with a narrow collar of leather to 
fit closely. It is filled with distilled or pure 
water, and its cap screwed tightly. It is 
then suspended out of doors in a situation 
where it is exposed freely to the action of 
the wind, but is sheltered from rain. As 
the water evaporates from the external sur¬ 
face of the ball, it transudes through its 
porous substance, and the waste is meas¬ 
ured by the corresponding descent of the 
liquid in the stem. To test the amount of 
this descent, there is a finely-graduated 
scale. When the water has sunk to the bot¬ 
tom of the stem, the latter requires to be 
filled anew. 

Atmosphere, literally, the air surround¬ 
ing our planet, and which, as the etymology 
implies, is, speaking broadly, a “sphere” 
(not, of course, a solid, but a hollow one). 
With strict accuracy, it is a hollow spheroid. 



Atmospheric Absorption 


Atmospheric Railway 


Its exact height is unknown. At 2.7 miles 
above the .surface of the earth, half its den¬ 
sity is gone, and the remainder is again 
halved for every further rise of 2.7 miles. 
Some small density would remain at 45 
miles high. At 80 miles, this would have 
all but disappeared. But from sundry ob¬ 
servations, made at Rio Janeiro and else¬ 
where, on the twilight arc, M. Liais infers 
that the extreme limit of the atmosphere is 
between 198 and 212 miles. In the lower 
strata of the atmosphere, the temperature 
falls at least a degree for every 352 feet of 
ascent; hence, even in the tropics, mountains 
of any considerable elevation are snow¬ 
capped. The atiposphere appears to us blue, 
because, absorbing the red and yellow solar 
rays, it reflects the blue ones. It revolves 
with the earth, but being extremely mobile, 
winds are generated in it, so that it is rarely 
long at rest. (For its composition, see 
Air.) Evaporation, continually at work, 
sends into it quantities of water in a gase¬ 
ous state; clouds are formed, and in due 
time descend in rain. The atmosphere al¬ 
ways contains free electricity, sometimes 
positive and sometimes negative. There ap¬ 
pears to be no atmosphere around the moon; 
but the case seems different with the sun, 
Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. 

Figuratively, any pervading intellectual, 
moral, religious, or other influence by 
which one is surrounded; as in the expres¬ 
sion, “ He lives in an atmosphere of sus¬ 
picion.” 

Atmospheric Absorption, a term ap¬ 
plied to the action of the atmosphere in cut¬ 
ting off or absorbing in a greater or less 
degree radiant energy of certain wave¬ 
lengths. A part of the lines seen in the 
solar spectrum are due to this action of the 
atmosphere, and many of them are due to 
the presence of water-vapor, which causes 
the appearance of certain groups of lines or 
rain-bands, whose intensity varies with the 
amount of the vapor. These have been util¬ 
ized to a limited extent to assist in weather- 
predictions, but not very generally. Other 
groups of lines are due to the oxygen of the 
air. Also in a general way it has been 
known that our atmosphere cuts off the blue 
end of the spectrum more than the red end, 
causing the red appearance of the sun or 
moon at the time of rising or setting, when 
the light is transmitted through a much 
greater extent of the atmosphere. But it 
was not till the United States Signal Ser¬ 
vice expedition to Mt. Whitney, in charge of 
Prof. Langley, that the amount of this selec¬ 
tive absorption was shown to be so great 
that, if we could see the sun from above our 
atmosphere where it would have been sub¬ 
mitted to no such action, it would probably 
appear of a distinctly bluish tint instead 
of white or yellowish as it now does. The 
atmosphere of the sun itself also acts in a 


similar way, the light from its edges being 
not only fainter, but redder, than that from 
the center. 

Atmospheric Engine, an engine in which 
the piston was forced down by the pressure 
of the atmosphere, when the steam, which 
caused it to rise, was condensed so as to 
produce a near approach to a vacuum in the 
cylindrical chamber beneath it. Such was 
Newcomen’s engine, constructed in 1705, 
and subsequently improved by Smeaton, 
Brindley, and others, till superseded by 
Watt’s single-acting engine, which was a 
genuine steam-engine. The atmospheric en¬ 
gine was used only for pumping water. 

Atmospheric Pressure, the pressure ex¬ 
erted by the atmosphere, not merely down¬ 
ward, but in every direction. It amounts 
to 14.7 pounds of weight on each square 
inch, which is often called in round numbers 
15. On a square foot it is = 2,lG0 pounds, 
or nearly a ton. It would act upon our bod¬ 
ies with crushing effect were it not that the 
pressure, operating in all directions, pro¬ 
duces an equilibrium. If any gas or liquid 
press upon a surface with a force of 15 
pounds on a square inch, it is generally de¬ 
scribed as having a pressure of one atmo¬ 
sphere; if GO pounds, of four atmospheres; 
if 120 pounds, of eight atmospheres, and so 
on. 

Atmospheric Railway, a railway in 
which the propulsive force designed to move 
the carriages along is that of the atmo¬ 
sphere. The notion of such a method of lo¬ 
comotion seems first to have suggested itself, 
in the latter part of the 17tli century, to the 
French physician, Papin, whose name is for¬ 
ever associated with the celebrated di¬ 
gester. In 1810, Mr. Medhurst published 
a work entitled “ A New Method of Con¬ 
veying Letters and Goods by Air.” His 
proposal was to construct a close tunnel, in 
which the carriages — the last of them pro¬ 
vided with a piston fitting the tunnel —* 
should be propelled by air forced in behind 
them. Vallance, of Brighton, in 1825, rec¬ 
ommended, as an improvement on this plan, 
the exhaustion of the air in front. About 
1835, Henry Pinkus, an American, resid¬ 
ing in England, patented a scheme for 
placing the carriages in the open air, 
but connecting them below with a small 
tunnel, having a narrow slit above, with in¬ 
geniously constructed apparatus to render 
the tunnel temporarily air-tight, notwith¬ 
standing the slit. Not much was done to 
carry out the patent; and Pinkus’ scheme of 
what he called a pneumatic railway was 
considered as having failed, when, in 1840, 
Messrs. Clegg and Samuda brought forward 
a somewhat similar project under the name 
of the “ Atmospheric Railway.” An ex¬ 
perimental fragment of line laid down near 
Wormwood Scrubs, just outside of London, 
on the Great Western line, was successful, 



Atmospheric Unsteadiness 


Atomic Theory 


as was one designed for actual use from 
Kingstown to Dalkey, in Ireland, another 
between London and Croydon, and a third 
in South Devon; all, however, have been 
since abandoned. For passengers at least, 
and to a great extent even for the trans¬ 
mission of letters, the railways of the or¬ 
dinary type, on which steam is the impel¬ 
ling force, have triumphantly held their own 
against the innovation of the atmospheric 
or pneumatic railway, and all that now re¬ 
mains of the latter method of propulsion 
are the pneumatic dispatch tubes, used for 
transmitting parcels to short distances. 

Atmospheric Unsteadiness, a term used 
by astronomers and geodesists to describe 
the tremors and undulations by which the 
images of any objects in the field of view 
of a telescope are distorted, blurred, and 
made to dance, vibrate, and boil, to a greater 
or less degree. It is greatest at the horizon 
and least at the zenith. Its causes are prob¬ 
ably due to the unequal density of the dif¬ 
ferent strata of air through which the rays 
of light come to the eye or the telescope, in¬ 
troducing irregularities in the refraction, 
and also interference among the rays of 
light of different wave-length that have 
come by very slightly different paths. The 
latter, however, is more probably the cause 
of the twinkling or scintillations, making 
the stars appear to change in brightness 
and color to the naked eye. This unsteadi¬ 
ness is the stumbling-block in the way of 
much further progress in astronomical re¬ 
search, so far as accuracy and precision are 
concerned, and improvement is more to be 
looked for now in the discovery of better 
sites for observatories than in the making 
of larger telescopes. 

Atoll, the name applied by geologists and 
others to any one of the Lagoon Islands, or 
annular coral reefs found in the Pacific and 
the Indian Oceans, the Red Sea, and some 
other parts of the tropics. An atoll is a 
ring of coral rock, oval rather than cir¬ 
cular in form. One reaches 88 miles in its 
longer, by 20 in its shorter, diameter; but 
in general, they are of much more limited 
dimensions. On the top of the coral rock, 
which rises but slightly above the sea level, 
is vegetation of some luxuriance —• the co- 
coanut being the most conspicuous plant. 
On the convex circumference of the ring is 
a beach of white sand, exterior to which is 
a line of breakers, and a few feet beyond 
them the unfathomable ocean. The ring 
of land, which is less than half a mile across, 
encircles a lagoon of comparatively still 
water, which, from reflection, is of a bright 
but pale green color. In the view of Mr. 
Darwin, now almost universally adopted, 
there was once an island, possibly even con¬ 
taining high land, in the place now occu¬ 
pied by the lagoon. It was surrounded by 
a fringing reef of living coral close to the 


shore. As, from geological causes, it slowly 
subsided into the deep and disappeared, the 
coral animals built up to the surface of the 
water, and formed the ring of rock consti¬ 
tuting the modern island. In the larger 
atolls there are generally two or three breaks 
in the ring, affording ship channels into the 
lagoon; these mark the spots where fresh 
water, discharged from the old subsiding 
land into the sea, prevented the coral ani¬ 
mals, which are marine, from locating them¬ 
selves or building. 

Atom, in mental philosophy, a particle 
of matter so infinitely small that it cannot 
again be subdivided; the idea of a divided 
atom — that is, of a division of that which 
cannot be divided—being self-contradictory. 
It is a mental conception simply; for the 
senses cannot take cognizance of anything 
so minute. 

In natural philosophy, one of the exceed¬ 
ingly minute ultimate particles of matter, 
aggregates of an immense number of which, 
held in their place by molecular forces, con¬ 
stitute all material bodies. 

In chemistry, the smallest particle into 
which an element can be divided. An atom 
cannot exist in a separate state, but unites 
with one or more atoms to form a molecule. 
The atoms of different elements have defi¬ 
nite relative weights fixed and invariable 
for each, the weight of an atom of hydro¬ 
gen being regarded as unity. 

Atomic Heat, a term introduced by M. 
Regnault. The atomic heat of the ele¬ 
ments in a solid state is nearly a constant 
quantity, the mean value being G.4. This 
number is obtained by multiplying the spe¬ 
cific heat of an element by its atomic 
weight. The atomic heat of an element 
represents the quantity of heat which must 
be imparted to or removed from atomic 
proportions of the several elements, to pro¬ 
duce equal variations of temperature. 

Atomic Philosophy, in mental and nat¬ 
ural philosophy, the doctrine of atoms, or¬ 
iginally broached by Leucippus, afterward 
developed by Democritus, and which under¬ 
went further modifications at the hands of 
Epicurus. It represented atoms as possessed 
of gravity and motion, and attributed to 
their union the formation of all things. 
Democritus is reported to have said that 
they come together in different order and 
position like the letters, which, though they 
are few, yet, by being placed in conjunction 
in different ways, produce innumerable 
words. 

Atomic Theory, a theory first pro¬ 
pounded by John Dalton in his “ New Sys¬ 
tem of Chemical Philosophy,” published in 
1807. He stated that the atoms of each 
element were incapable of being subdivided, 
and each had a definite relative weight, com¬ 
pared with that of hydrogen as 1; that 



Atomic Volume 


Atomic Weights 


the composition of a definite chemical com¬ 
pound is constant; that if two elements, A 
and B, are capable of uniting with each 
other in several proportions, the quantities 
of B which unite with a given quantity of 
A usually bear a simple relation to one 
another. If an element A unites with cer¬ 
tain other elements B, C, D, then the quan¬ 
tities B, C, D, which combine with A, or 
simple multiples of them, represent the pro¬ 
portions in which they can unite among 
themselves. Dalton supposed that one ele¬ 
ment replaced another atom for atom, but 
it lias since been found that one atom of an 
element can replace one or more atoms of 
another element, according to their respec¬ 
tive atomicities. 

Atomic Volume, in chemistry, a term 
introduced by Graham in lieu of the phrase 
“specific volume,” used by Dr. Ivopp. it 
signifies the volume or measure of an equiva¬ 
lent or atomic proportion in different sub¬ 
stances. It is obtained by dividing the mole¬ 
cular weight of a compound by its specific 
gravity. The specific gravity of a com¬ 
pound gas or vapor referred to hydrogen as 
unity, is equal to half its atomic weight;, 
therefore, the atomic volumes of compound 
gases or vapors referred to hydrogen as 
unity are, with few exceptions, equal to 2. 
The densities of isomorplious solid com¬ 
pounds are proportional to their molecular 
weights, that is, they have equal atomic or 
specific volumes. The differences of specific 
or atomic volume of organic liquids are 
often proportional to the differences be¬ 
tween the corresponding chemical formulae. 
Thus liquids whose formulae differ by nCH 2 , 
differ in specific or atomic volume by n 
times 22. 

Atomic Weights, the proportions by 
w r eight in which the various elementary sub¬ 
stances unite together. It is necessary that 
one element be selected as the starting- 
point of the series and an arbitrary sum af¬ 
fixed to it, so that thereby all the other ele¬ 
ments can have their sums awarded to 
them, according to the proportional amounts 
in which they combine with each other. The 
second law mentioned under the atomic 
theory explains the manner in which this 
can be done, and how far the numbers are 
arbitrary. One list of atomic weights is 
that derived by assigning the value 1 to the 
atomic weight of hydrogen. According to 
what is known as “Prout’s hypothesis,” the 
various chemical elements are all products 
of the condensation of hydrogen. The hy¬ 
drogen standard, therefore, w T as formerly re¬ 
garded as the most satisfactory. Experi¬ 
ments of high accuracy demonstrated, how¬ 
ever, that, hydrogen being assumed as the 
unit, the values of the atomic weights are 
not necessarily, as had been supposed, in¬ 
tegral numbers. Oxygen is now employed 
as a standard, with its atomic weight = 1G. 


The following table gives in the first 
column the values based on the atomic 
weight of hydrogen, in the second those 
based on that of oxygen: 

Elementary Substances, With tiieir 
Symbols and Atomic Weights. 


Name of Ei.ement 

Symbol. 

Atomic W 

11=1 

^EIGHTS. 

0-16 

Aluminium. 

A1 

27.5 

27.1 

Antimony (Stibium). 

Sb 

120.0 

120.0 

Argon. . 

A 


40.0 

Arsenic. 

As 

75.0 

75.0 

Barium. 

Ba 

137.0 

137.4 

Bismuth.. 

Bi 

208.0 

208.5 

Boron. 

B 

11.0 

11.0 

Bromine. 

Br 

80.0 

79.96 

Cadmium. 

Cd 

112.0 

112.0 

Caesium. 

Cs 

133.0 

133.0 

Calcium. 

Ca 

10.0 

40.0 

Carbon. 

< 

12.0 

12.0 

Cerium . 

Ce 

138.0 

140.0 

Chlorine. 

Cl 

35.5 

35.4 

Chromium. 

Cr 

52.5 

52.15 

Cobalt. 

Co 

59.0 

59.0 

Columbium. 

Cl 

94.0 

94.0 

Copper (Cuprum). 

Cu 

03.0 

63.4 

Erbium. 

Er 

169.0 

100.0 

Fluorine. 

F 

19.0 

19.0 

Gallium. 

Ga 

09.0 

70.0 

Germanium. 

Ge 


72.0 

Glucinum (Beryllium). 

G 

9.03 

9.1 

Gold (Aurum). 

An 

190.7 

197.2 

Helium. 

lie 


4.0 

Hydrogen. 

II 

1.0 ' 

1.01 

Indium. 

In 

113.4 

114.0 

Iodine. 

I 

127.0 

126.85 

Iridium. 

Ir 

193.0 

193.5 

Iron. 

Fe 

56.0 

56.0 

Lanthanum. 

La 

139.0 

138.0 

Lead (Plumbum). .. 

Pb 

207.0 

206.9 

Lithium. 

Li 

7.0 

7.03 

Magnesium. 

Mg 

24.0 

24.36 

Manganese. 

Mn 

55.0 

55.0 

Mercury (Hydrargyrum)... 

Ilg 

200.0 

200.3 

Molybdenum. 

Mo 

90.0 

96.0 

Neodymium. 

Nd 


144.0 

Nickel. 

Ni 

58.8 

58.17 

Nitrogen. 

N 

14.0 

14.14 

Osmium. 

Os 

191.0 

191.0 

Oxygen. 

[O 

10.0 

10.0 

Palladium. 

Pd 

106.5 

100.0 

Phosphorus . 

P 

31.0 

31.0 

Platinum. 

Pt 

197.0 

194.8 

Potassium (Kalium). 

K 

39.0 

39.15 

Praseodymium. 

Pr 


140.0 

Rhodium. 

Rh 

104.0 

103.0 

Rubidium. 

Rb 

85.0 

85.4 

Ruthenium. 

Ru 

104.0 

101.7 

Samarium. 

S(i 


150.0 

Scandium. 

Sc 


44.1 

Selenium. 

Se 

79.0 

79.1 

Silicon. 

Si 

28.0 

28.4 

Silver (Argentum)..,. 

Ag 

108.0 

107.93 

Sodium (Natrium). 

Na 

23.0 

23.05 

Strontium. 

Sr 

87.5 

87.6 

Sulphur. 

S 

32.0 

32.06 

Tantalum . 

Ta 

182.0 

183.0 

Tellurium. 

Te 

127.0 

127.0 

Thallium. 

Ti 

204.0 

204.1 

Thorium. 

Th 

231.0 

232.0 

Tin (Stannum). 

Sn 

118.0 

118.5 

Titanium. 

Ti 

48.0 

4 .1 

Tungsten (Wolfram). 

W 

184 0 

184.0 

Uranium. 

U 

240.0 

239.5 

Vanadium. 

V 

51.2 

51.2 

Ytterbium. 

Yb 


173.0 

Yttrium. 

Y 

89.0 

89.0 

Zinc. 

Zn 

65.0 

05.4 

Zirconium. 

Zr 

90.0 

90.6 






















































































Atonement 


Atreus 


Atonement, in theology, the sacrificial 
offering made by Christ in expiation of 
the sins, according to the Calvinists, of the 
elect only; according to the Arminians, of 
the whole human race. In the authorized 
version of the Old Testament, the word 
atonement occurs not less than 58 times 
in the text, and once in the margin; all but 
five of the places in which it is found being 
in the Pentateuch. It signifies — 

1. Expiation of sin by means of a typical 
sacrifice, generally of a victim, offered in 
faith. 

“For the life of the flesh is in the blood: and I 
have given it to you upon the altar to make an 
atonement for your souls: for it is the blood that 
maketh an atonement for the soul.” (Lev. ii: 11.) 

“And one kid of the goats for a sin-offering, to 
make an atonement for you.” (Num. xxix: 5 .) 
(See also Lev. i: 4; iv: 35; x: 17; xv: 10, 33,34; Num. 
viii, 21; xvi: 46; xxv: 13; II Sam. xxi: 3; II Chron. 
xxix: 24, etc.) 

2. The removal, by a sacrificial offering, 
of ceremonial impurity (Lev. xii: 7, 8). In 
this sense the term was sometimes used of 
inanimate things —• namely, of the altar 
(Exod. xxix: 36, 37; Lev. xvi: 18); of a 
house infected with the leprosy (xiv: 53) ; 
of the holy place, on account of the sins of 
the worshippers (xvi: 16) ; of the holy of 
holies (ver. 33) ; of the tabernacle of the 
congregation (ibid), and of the work of 
the Temple (Neh. x: 33). 

3. Ransom. 

“Then he is gracious unto him and saith, Deliver 
him from going down into the pit: I have found a 
ransom [margin, atonement].’ (Job sxxiii: 24.) 

4. In one place atonement is used for what 
was, in its essential features, a thank-offer¬ 
ing (Num. xxxi: 50). 

(a) Atonement money: Money paid for 
purposes of atonement. 

“ And thou shall take the atonement money of the 
children of Israel.” (Exod. xxx: 16.) 

(b) The Day of Atonement, or the Great 
Day of Atonement, was on the 10th of the 
seventh month. (For details regarding it, 
see Lev. xxiii: 26-32; xxv: 9). 

In the New Testament, the word occurs 
only once, viz., in Rom. v: 11: 

“ And not only so. but we also joy in God through 
our Lord Jesus Christ, by whom we have now re¬ 
ceived the atonement” (in the margin, reconcilia¬ 
tion). 

The Greek word is katallagen — ( 1) the 
exchange of one thing for another, as, 
for instance, money for an article; (2) 
a change from enmity to friendship; recon¬ 
ciliation; from katallasso = (1) to change 
money; (2) to change a person from en¬ 
mity to friendship; to reconcile. The mar¬ 
ginal rendering is evidently correct. And 
in II Cor. v: 18, 19, the same Greek sub¬ 
stantive is twice rendered “ reconcilia¬ 
tion,” and the same Greek verb, also twice, 
“ reconcile.” 


Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, 530 B. c.; 
was successively married to Cambyses, Smer- 
dis, one of the Magi, and Darius, son of 
Hydaspes, the last of whom she incited to 
invade Greece. The word served as a poeti¬ 
cal name given by Pope, in his “ Moral 
Essays,” to Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough. 

Atrato (at-ra'to), a river of Colombia, 
interesting because it has repeatedly been 
made to bear a part in schemes for a ship- 
canal across the Isthmus of Panama. Ris¬ 
ing on the Western Cordillera at an alti¬ 
tude of 10,560 feet, above sea-level, it runs 
305 miles northward through low, swampy 
country, and falls by several mouths, inter¬ 
rupted by bars, into the Gulf of Darien. It 
is navigable by steamers for fully 250 miles, 
being 750 to 1,000 feet wide, and 8 to 70 
feet deep. A route, surveyed by the United 
States Government in 1871, proposed to con¬ 
nect the Atrato and the Jurador, flowing 
into the Pacific, by a canal 48 miles long. 
At the Paris International Congress (1879), 
for deciding the best route for the inter- 
oceanic canal, that route was, with various 
others, discussed and rejected in favor of 
De Lesseps’ line from Limon to Panama. 
Gold-dust is found in and about the At¬ 
rato. See Panama, 

Atrauli (at-rou'le), a town of British In¬ 
dia, in the Northwest Provinces, 16 miles 
N. E. of Aligarh. Founded about the 12th 
century, it is well built, with wide streets, 
a good bazaar, and an abundant supply of 
water. 

Atrek (a-trek')> a river of Persia, ris¬ 
ing in Khorassan, among the Hazhr Masjid 
Mountains, and thence flowing nearly 350 
miles westward to the Caspian Sea, from 
Shatt downward along the boundary with 
the Russian Empire. Its width at the mouth 
is usually only 30 feet, but in the spring 
tides it overflows its banks to a width of 
over two miles. 

Atreus (at'ros), the son of Pelops and 
Hippodamia. He and his brother Thyestes 
murdered their half-brother Chrysippua., 
from jealousy of the affection entertained 
for him by their father. Thereupon, they 
lied to Eurystlieus, with whose daughter, 
rErope, Atreus united himself, and, after 
the death of his father-in-law, became King 
of Mycene. Thyestes, yielding to an unlaw¬ 
ful passion for the wife of his brother, dis¬ 
honored his bed, and had two sons by her. 
Atreus, after the discovery of this injury, 
banished Thyestes with his sons. Thirsting 
for revenge, Thyestes conveyed away se¬ 
cretly a son of his brother, and instigated 
him to murder his own father. This design 
was discovered, and the youth, whom Atreus 
thought to be the son of nis brother, was 
put to death. Too late did the unhappy 
father perceive iiis mistake. A horrible re¬ 
venge was necessary to give him consolation. 




Atriplex 


Attachment 


He pretended to be reconciled to Thyestes, 
and invited him, with his two sons, to a 
feast: and after he had caused the latter to 
be secretly slain, he placed a dish made of 
their flesh before Thyestes, and, when he 
had finished eating, brought the bones of his 
sons, and showed him, with a scornful smile, 
the dreadful revenge which he had taken. 
At this spectacle, the poets say, the sun 
turned back in his course, in order not to 
throw light upon such a horrible deed. 

Atriplex, a genus of plants belonging to 
the order chenopodiacece (chenopods). Eight 
species are indigenous, and one or two more 
partially naturalized, in Great Britain. 
Of the former may be mentioned the A. 
laciniata, or frosted sea-orache; the A. ba- 
bingtnoi, or spreading fruited; the A. pa- 
tula, or spreading halberd-leaved; the A. 
angustifolia, or narrow-leaved orache; and 
the A. littoralis, or grass-leaved sea-orache. 
The leaves may be used as pot herbs. 

Atrium, in ancient times, the hall or prin¬ 
cipal room in an ancient Roman house. It 
communicated with the street by the ves¬ 
tibule and the front door. There was in the 
center of its ceiling a large aperture, called 
sompluvium, designed to admit light. As 
glass was not then in use, the same open¬ 
ing permitted the ingress also of rain; hence 
its name compluvium. Beneath it there 
was scooped out in the pavement a cistern 
called impluvium. In a large house, rooms 
opened into the atrium from all sides, and 
were lighted from it. 

In medieval times, till the 12tli century, 
a covered court, somewhat on the model 
of the ancient atrium, constructed in front 
of the principal doors of an edifice. After 
the 12th century, the churchyard. 

Atropa, a genus of plants belonging to the 
order solanaccce, or nightshades. It con¬ 
tains the well-known species, A. belladonna, 
or deadly nightshade. It is three or more 
feet high, has its ovate leaves paired, large 
and small together, drooping lurid purple 
flowers, and blackberries of the size of a 
small cherry, which if eaten produce de¬ 
lirium, dilation of the pupils of the eyes, 
and death. The flowers and fruit are both 
powerful medicinal agents. It is largely 
used by the homoeopathic school. 

Atrophy, a wasting of the flesh due to 
some interference with the nutritive proc¬ 
esses. It may arise from a variety of 
causes, such as permanent, oppressive and 
exhausting passions, organic disease, a want 
of proper food or of pure air, suppurations 
in important organs, copious evacuations of 
blood, saliva, semen, etc., and it is also 
sometimes produced by poisons, for ex¬ 
ample, arsenic, mercury, lead, in miners, 
painters, gilders, etc. In old age the whole 
frame except the heart undergoes atrophic 
change, and it is of frequent occurrence in 
infancy as a consequence of improper, un¬ 


wholesome food, exposure to cold, damp or 
impure air, etc. Single organs or parts of 
the body may be affected irrespective of the 
general state of nutrition; thus local 
atrophy may be superinduced by palsies, 
the pressure of tumors upon the nerves of 
the limbs, or by artifical pressure, as in the 
feet of Chinese ladies. 

Atropin or Atropine, a crystalline alka¬ 
loid obtained from the deadly nightshade 
(atropa belladonna ). It is very poisonous and 
produces persistent dilation of the pupil. 

Atropos, the eldest of the Fates, who 
cuts the thread of life with her shears. 

Attach^ (at-a-sha), a military, naval or 
subordinate member of the diplomatic ser¬ 
vice attached to an embassy or legation. 

Attachment, in law, the taking into the 
custody of the law the person or property 
of one already before the court, or of one 
whom it is sought to bring before it. 
Attachment of person: A writ issued by a 
court of record, commanding the sheriff to 
bring before it a person who has been guilty 
of contempt of court, either in neglect or 
abuse of its process or of subordinate pow¬ 
ers, Attachment of property: A writ is¬ 
sued at the institution or during the pro¬ 
gress of an action, commanding the sheriff 
or other proper officer to attach the prop¬ 
erty, rights, credits or effects of the defend¬ 
ant to satisfy the demands of the plain¬ 
tiff. The laws and practice concerning the 
attachment vary in different countries. 

In the United States attachment may be 
defined as the taking into the custody of the 
law the person or property of one who is al¬ 
ready before the court, or of one whom it 
it is sought to bring before the court; also 
a writ for this purpose. To some extent 
it is of the nature of a criminal process. 
In some States a plaintiff can at the be¬ 
ginning of an action to recover money at¬ 
tach the property of the defendant as a 
security for the payment of the judgment 
expected to be recovered; and in case of 
recovery the property is applied in satis¬ 
faction of the judgment. But the more 
usual rule is that there can be no seizure of 
property, except in specified cases, till. the 
rights of the parties have been settled by 
judgment of the court. The exceptions are 
chiefly in cases where the defendant is a 
non-resident or a fraudulent debtor, or is 
attempting to conceal or remove his prop¬ 
erty. In some States, attachments are dis¬ 
tinguished as foreign and domestic — the 
former issued against a non-resident having 
property within the jurisdiction of the 
State, the latter against a resident in the 
State; jurisdiction over the person or prop¬ 
erty being necessary for an attachment. An 
attachment issued under a State law which 
has not been adopted by Congress, or by a 
rule of court, cannot be sustained in a 
United States court. Money due to a sea- 



Attack 


Atterbom 


man for wages is not attachable in the hands 
of a purser, the purser being a distributing 
agent of the government, and in no sense 
the debtor of the seaman. 

Attack, the opening act of hostility by a 
force seeking to dislodge an enemy from its 
position. It is considered more advanta¬ 
geous to offer than to await attack, even in 
a defensive war. The historic forms of at¬ 
tack are: (1) The parallel; (2) The form 
in which both the wings attack and the cen¬ 
ter is kept back; (3) The form in which the 
center is pushed forward and the wings kept 
back; (4) The famous oblique mode, dating 
at least from Epaminondas, and employed 
by Frederick the Great, where one wing ad¬ 
vances to engage, while the. other is kept 
back, and occupies the attention of the 
enemy by pretending an attack. Napoleon 
preferred to mass heavy columns against an 
enemy’s center. The forms of attack have 
changed with the weapons used. In the 
days of the pike, heavy masses were the 
rule, but the use of the musket led to an 
extended battle front to give effect to the 
fire. The advance in long and slender lines 
which grew out of this has been not less 
famous in the annals of British attack than 
the square formation in those of defense. 

Attainder, the legal consequences of a 
sentence of death or outlawry pronounced 
against a person for treason or felony, the 
person being said to be attainted. It re¬ 
sulted in forfeiture of estate and “ corrup¬ 
tion of blood,” rendering the party incapa¬ 
ble of inheriting property or transmitting 
it to heirs; but these results now no longer 
follow. Formerly persons were often sub¬ 
jected to attainder by a special bill or act 
passed in Parliament. In the United States, 
the Federal Constitution declares that “ No 
bill of attainder shall be passed, and no at¬ 
tainder of treason, in consequence of a ju¬ 
dicial sentence, shall work corruption of 
blood or forfeiture except during the life of 
the person attainted.” 

Attaint, a writ at common law against 
a jury for a false verdict, now obsolete in 
England. 

Attalea, a genus of American palms, 
comprising the piassava palm, which pro¬ 
duces coquilla nuts. 

Attalus (at'a-lus), the names of three 
kings of ancient Pergamus, 241-133 b. c. 
the last of whom bequeathed his kingdom to 
the Romans. They were all patrons of art 
and literature. 

Attar, Ferid eddin (at-tar'), a celebrated 
Persian poet, born near Nishapur in 1119; 
died about 1229(?). Son of a spicer, he 
followed his father’s trade (whence his sur¬ 
name of Atthr), but afterward became a 
dervish and one of the greatest my tics of 
Persia. He is said to have been killed by a 
Momrol soldier during the invasion by 
Jenghiz Khan. Of his extant political 


works the most famous are “ The Book of 
Council,” a series of didactic poems on 
ethics; “The Parliament of Birds” (1184- 
1187). Ilis principal work in prose is 
“ Biographies of the Saints.” 

Attar, or Otto, of Roses (oil of roses), 
an essential oil obtained from the petals of 
three species of roses, viz.: rosa centifolia, 
moschata and damascena. The rose gardens 
at Ghazipur, in India, have long been 
famed for the production of this precious 
liquid. These gardens are large fields, 
planted with rows of small rose bushes. The 
blossoms, which unfold in the morning, are 
all gathered before noon, and their petals 
are at once transferred to clay stills, and 
distilled with twice their weight of water. 
The rose water which comes over is placed in 
shallow vessels covered with moist muslin 
to exclude dust, and exposed all night to the 
cool air. In the morning the thin film of 
oil which has collected on the top is care¬ 
fully swept off with a feather and trans¬ 
ferred to a small vial. This process is 
repeated morning after morning, till nearly 
the whole of the oil is separated from the 
water. Heber says that about 20,000 roses 
are required to yield a rupee weight (170 
grains) of attar. Attar is also imported 
from Smyrna and Constantinople; but it 
rarely, if ever, arrives in this country pure. 
It is commonly adulterated with spermaceti 
and a volatile oil, which appears to be de¬ 
rived from one or more species of andro- 
pogon, and which is called oil of ginger- 
grass, or oil of geranium. Pure attar of 
rose, carefully distilled, is at first colorless, 
but speedily becomes yellowish. It con¬ 
geals below 80°; melts at 84°. At 57°, 
1,000 alcohol dissolve 7*4 oil, and at 72°, 33 
oil. Sp. gr. 872. Formula, C 23 H 23 0 3 . Many 
attempts have been made to discover some 
chemical reaction which would reveal the 
falsification of attar with geranium oil, but 
hitherto mostly in vain. 

Atterbom, Peter Daniel Amadeus (aU- 

ter-bom), a Swedish poet, born in the parish 
at Asbo, East Gothland, Jan. 19, 1790. He 
was early influenced by German literature, 
and, having visited Germany and Italy in 
1817-1819, he formed ties of friendship with 
Schelling and Thorwaldsen; he became in¬ 
structor to Crown Prince Oscarin 1820, 
and professor at the university in Upsala 
in 1828. Although unquestionably the fore¬ 
most among the lyric poets of the romantic 
school in Sweden, it must be acknowledged 
that his rare talent was much impaired by 
his groping in Schelling’s and Hegel’s phil¬ 
osophy His most celebrated work is “ The 
Isle of Blessedness” (1823), a romantic 
drama in the manner of Tieck; but he also 
wrote “ The Flowers,” a cycle of lyrics; 
“The Blue Bird,” a play; and “Swedish 
Seers and Poets,” a volume of criticism. 
He died in Upsala, July 21, 1855. 



Atterbury 


Attica 


Atterbury, Francis, an English prelate, 

born March 0, 1GG2, and educated at West¬ 
minster and Oxford. In 1G87, he took his 
degree of M. A., and appeared as a contro¬ 
versialist in a defense of the character of 
Luther, entitled “ Considerations on the 
Spirit of Martin Luther,” etc. He also as¬ 
sisted his pupil, Charles Boyle, in his 
famous controversy with Bentley on the 
“ Epistles of Phalaris.” Having taken or¬ 
ders, in 1G91, he settled in London, became 
chaplain to William and Mary, preacher of 
Bridewell, and lecturer of St. Bride’s. Con¬ 
troversy was congenial to him, and, in 170G, 
he commenced one with Dr. Wake, which 
lasted four years, on the rights, privileges 
and powers of convocations. For this ser¬ 
vice he received the thanks of the lower 
house of convocation and the degree of 
Doctor of Divinity from Oxford. Soon af¬ 
ter the accession of Queen Anne he was made 
Dean of Carlisle, aided in'the defense of the 
famous Sacheverell, and wrote “ A Represen- 
tation of the Present State of Religion.” In 
1712, he was made Dean of Christ Church, 
and, in 1713, Bishop of Rochester and Dean 
of Westminster. After the death of the 
Queen, in 1714, he distinguished himself by 
his opposition to George I.; and, having 
entered into a correspondence with the Pre¬ 
tender’s party, was apprehended in August, 
1722, and committed to the Tower. Being 
banished from the kingdom, he settled in 
Paris, where he chiefly occupied himself in 
study and in correspondence with men of 
letters. But even here, in 1725, he was ac¬ 
tively engaged in fomenting discontent in 
the Scottish Highlands. He died Feb. 15, 
1732, and his body was privately interred in 
Westminster Abbey. 

Attic, pertaining to Attica or to Athens. 
Pure; elegant; classical; poignant; charac¬ 
terized by keenness of intellect, delicacy of 
wit, purity of elegance, soundness of judg¬ 
ment and most expressive brevity; as, the 
Attic Muse. Attic dialect is that dialect 
of the Greek language which was spoken in 
Attica. It was the most refined and polished 
of all the dialects of ancient Greece; and 
in it wrote Solon, the lawgiver; Thucydides 
and Xenophon, the historians; Aristophanes, 
the comic poet; Plato and Aristotle, the phil¬ 
osophers, and Demosthenes, the orator. 
When, after the Macedonian conquest, Greek 
became the language of literature and di¬ 
plomacy in most parts of the civilized world, 
the Attic came to be that dialect of the 
Greek tongue which was generally adopted. 

In architecture, a low order, commonly 
used over a principal order, never with 
columns, but usually with ante or small 
pilasters. It is employed to decorate the 
facade of a story of little height, terminat¬ 
ing the upper part of a building; and it 
doubtless derives its name from its resem¬ 
blance in proportional height and concealed 


roof to some of the buildings of Greece. Tn 
all the best examples, and especially in the 
remains of antiquity at Rome, the attic is 
decorated with a molded base and cornice; 
often with pilasters and figures, as in the 
Arch of Constantine. In modern architec¬ 
ture, the proportions of the attic order have 
never been subject to fixed rules, and their 
good effect is entirely dependent on the taste 
and feeling of the architect. Attic base: 
The base of a column consisting of an upper 
and loAver torus, a scotia and fillets between 
them. Attic story: A term frequently ap¬ 
plied to the upper story of a house, when 
the ceiling is square with the sfdes, to dis¬ 
tinguish it from a garret. 

Attica, a State of ancient Greece, the 
capital of which, Athens, was once the first 
city in the world. The territory was tri¬ 
angular in shape, with Cape Sunium (Co- 
lonna) as its apex and the ranges of Mounts 
Cithaeron and Parnes as its base. On the 
N. these ranges separated it from Boeotia; 
on the W. it was bounded by Megaris and 
the Saronic Gulf; on the E. by the iEgean. 
Its most marked physical divisions consisted 
of the highlands, midland district, and coast 
district, with the two famous plains of 
Elcusis and of Athens. The Cepliissus and 
Ilissus, though small, were its chief streams; 
its principal hills, Cithaeron, Parnes, Ily- 
mettus, Pentelicus, and Laurium. Its soil 
has probably undergone considerable de¬ 
terioration, but was fertile in fruits, and 
especially of the olive and fig. These are 
still cultivated as well as the vine and 
cereals, but Attica is better suited for pas¬ 
ture than tillage. 

History .— According to tradition the 
earliest inhabitants of Attica lived in a 
savage manner until the time of Cecrops, 
who came, b. c. 1550, with a colony from 
Egypt, taught them all the essentials of 
civilization, and founded Athens. One of 
Cecrops’ descendants founded 11 other cities 
in the regions round, and there followed a 
period of mutual hostility. To Theseus is 
assigned the honor of uniting these cities 
in a confederacy, with Athens as the capital, 
thus forming the Attic State. After the 
death of Codrus, b. c. 1068, the monarchy 
was abolished, and the government vested 
in archons elected by the nobility, at first 
for life, in 752 b. c. for 10 years, and in 
083 b. c. for one year only. The severe 
Constitution of Draco was succeeded in 594 
by the milder code of Solon, the democratic 
elements of which, after the brief tyranny of 
the Pisistratids, were emphasized and de¬ 
veloped by Clisthenes. He divided the peo¬ 
ple into 10 classes, and made the Senate 
consist of 500 persons, establishing as the 
government an oligarchy modified by popu¬ 
lar control. Then came the splendid era of 
the Persian War, which elevated Athens to 
the summit of fame. Miltiades at Marathon 



Atticus 


Attila 


and Themistocles at Salamis conquered the 
Persians by land and by sea. The chief ex¬ 
ternal danger being removed, the rights of 
the people were enlarged; the archons and 
other magistrates were chosen from all 
classes without distinction. The period 
from the Persian War to the time of Alex¬ 
ander (b. c. 500 to 336) was most remark¬ 
able for the development of the Athenian 
Constitution. Attica appears to have con¬ 
tained a territory of nearly 850 square 
miles, with some 500,000 inhabitants,360,000 
of whom were slaves, while the inhabitants 
of the city numbered 180,000. Cimon and 
Pericles (b. c. 444) raised Athens to its 
point of greatest splendor, though under the 
latter began the Peloponnesian War, which 
ended with the conquest of Athens by the 
Lacedaemonians. The succeeding tyranny of 
the Thirty, under the'protection of a Spar¬ 
tan garrison, was overthrown by Tlirasy- 
bulus, with a temporary partial restoration 
of the power of Athens; but the battle of 
Cheronsea (b. c. 33S) made Attica, in com¬ 
mon with the rest of Greece, a dependency 
of Macedon. The attempts at revolt after 
the death of Alexander were crushed, and 
in 260 b. c. Attica was still under the sway 
of Antigonus Gonatus, the Macedonian 
king. A period of freedom under the shelter 
of the Achaean League then ensued, but 
their support of Mithridates led in b. c. 
146 to the subjugation of the Grecian States 
by Rome. After the division of the Roman 
empire Attica belonged to the empire of the 
East until, in a. d. 306, it was conquered 
by Alaric the Goth, and the country devas¬ 
tated. 

The names of the different tribes of At¬ 
tica and of their respective heroes, as found 
on monuments, were 


Tribe : 

Ereciitheis, 

.ZEgeis, 

Pandionis, 

Leontis, 

Acamantis, 

CEneis, 

Cecropis, 

Hippottioontis, 

^Eantis, 

ANTIOCHI3, 


Hero: 

Ereciitiieus. 

Aegeus. 

Pandion. 

Leos. 

Acamas. 

CEneus. 

Cecrops. 

Hippothoon. 

Ajax. 

Antiochtjs. 


Attica, along with the ancient Boeotia, 
now forms a nome or province (Attike and 
Viotia) of the kingdom of Greece; area, 
2,472 square miles; pop. (1896) 313,069. 

Atticus, Titus Pomponius (at'e-kus), a 
noble Roman, the contemporary of Cicero 
and Caesar. He displayed such address and 
tact, that, during the war between Caesar 
and Pompey, he managed to remain neutral; 
sent money to the son of Marius, while he 
secured the attachment of Sylla; and, when 
Cicero and Hortensius were rivals, was 
equally intimate with both. When young, 


he resided at Athens, where he so secured 
the affections of the citizens that, on the 
day of his departure from that city, all went 
into mourning. 

He was an au¬ 
thor and poet, 
and reached 
the ago of 77, 
without sick¬ 
ness. When at 
last he became 
ill, he refused 
all nourish¬ 
in e n t, an d, 
therefore, end¬ 
ed his life by 
voluntary star¬ 
vation. Died 
32 b. c. He 
w r as a disciple 
of Epicurus. 

Attila (at'e- atticus. 

la), the fam¬ 
ous leader of the Huns, was the son of 
Mundzuk, and the successor, in conjunction 
with his brother Bleda, of his uncle Rhuas. 
The rule of the two leaders extended over a 
great part of Northern Asia and Europe, and 
they threatened the Eastern Empire, and 
twice compelled the weak Theodosius II. to 
purchase an inglorious peace. Attila caused 
his brother Bleda to be murdered (444), and 
in a short time extended his dominion over 
all the peoples of Germany and exacted trib¬ 
ute from the Eastern and Western emper¬ 
ors. The Vandals, the Ostrogoths, the 
Gepidie, and a part of the Franks united 
under his banners, and he speedily formed a 
pretext for leading them against the Em¬ 
pire of the East. He laid waste all the 
countries from the Black to the Adriatic 
Sea, and in three encounters defeated the 
Emperor Theodosius, but could not take 
Constantinople. Thrace, Macedonia, and 
Greece all submitted to tlie invader, who 
destroyed 70 flourishing cities; and Theodo¬ 
sius was obliged to purchase a peace. Turn¬ 
ing to the W., the “scourge of God,” as the 
universal terror termed him, crossed with 
an immense army the Rhine, the Moselle, 
and the Seine, went to the Loire, and laid 
siege to Orleans. The inhabitants of this 
city repelled the first attack, and the united 
forces of the Romans under Aetius, and of 
tlie Visigoths under their King Theodoric, 
compelled Attila to raise the siege. He re¬ 
treated to Champagne, and waited for the 
enemy in the plains of Chalons. In ap¬ 
parent opposition to the prophecies of the 
soothsayers the ranks of the Romans and 
Goths were broken; but when the victory 
of Attila seemed assured the Gothic prince, 
Thorismond, the son of Theodoric, poured 
down from the neighboring height upon the 
Huns, who were defeated with great slaugh¬ 
ter, Rather irritated than discouraged, he 







Attleboro 


Attraction 


sought in the following year a new oppor¬ 
tunity to seize upon Italy, and demanded 
Honoria, the sister of Valentinian III., in 
marriage, with half the kingdom as a dowry. 
When this demand was refused he con¬ 
quered and destroyed Aquileia, Padua, Vi¬ 
cenza, Verona, and Bergamo, laid waste the 
plains of Lombardy, and was marching on 
Borne when Pope Leo I. went with the Bo- 
man ambassadors to his camp and succeeded 
in obtaining a peace. Attila went back to 
Hungary, and died on the night of his mar¬ 
riage with Hilda or Ildico (453), either 
from the bursting of a blood vessel or by 
her hand. The description that Jornandes 
has left us of him is in keeping with his 
Kalmuck-Tartar origin. He had a large 
head, a flat nose, broad shoulders, and a 
short and ill-formed body; but his eyes 
were brilliant, his walk stately, and his 
voice strong and well toned. 

Attleboro, a town in Bristol co., Mass., 
on the New York, New Haven and Hartford 
railroad; 32 miles S. W. of Boston. It was 
incorporated in 1694; contains nearly a 
dozen villages; and is principally engaged 
in the manufacture of jewelry, watches and 
clocks, silverware, hats, buttons, and cotton 
and woolen goods. It has a National bank, 
high school, public library, daily news¬ 
papers, and a propertv valuation of over 
$6,000,000 Fop. (1890) 7,557: (1900) 

11,335; (1910) 16,215. 

Attock, a town and fort of the Punjab, 
on the left or E. bank of the Indus. Attock 
stands below the fort, a parallelogram of 
800 yards by 400, established by the Em¬ 
peror Akbar in 1581, to defend the passage 
of the river, but it is no longer a position of 
strength. The great railway bridge across 
the Indus here was opened in 1883. It has 
five arches 130 feet high, and renders con¬ 
tinuous the railway connection between Cal¬ 
cutta and Peshawur (1,600 miles). The 
situation of Attock is important, whether in 
a commercial or in a military view. It is at 
the head of the steamboat navigation of the 
Indus, being 940 miles from its mouth; 
while, about 2 miles above it, the Cabul 
river, the only considerable affluent of the 
Indus from the W., is practicable for ves¬ 
sels of 40 or 50 tons for a distance of 50 
miles. The valley, again, of this last men¬ 
tioned stream, presenting, as it does, the 
best approach to the E. and S. from Central 
Asia, has been the route of nearly all but 
the maritime invaders of India from the 
days of Alexander the Great downward. 
Taxila, where the Macedonians crossed the 
Indus, has been identified with Attock. 

Attorney, a person appointed to do some¬ 
thing for and in the stead and name of 
another. An attorney may have general 
powers to act for another; or, his power 
may be special, and limited to a particular 
act or acts. A special attorney is appointed 


by a deed called a power or letter of attor¬ 
ney, specifying the acts which he is author¬ 
ized to do. An attorney at law is a person 
qualified to appear for another before a 
court of law to prosecute or defend any ac¬ 
tion on behalf of his client. The rules and 
qualifications, whereby one is authorized to 
practice as an attorney in any court, are 
very different in different countries, and in 
the different courts of the same country. 
There are various statutes on this subject 
in the laws of the several States, and al¬ 
most every court has certain rules, a com¬ 
pliance with which is necessary, in order to 
authorize any one to appear in court for, 
and represent any party to a suit, without 
special authority under seal. Women are 
now admitted as practicing attorneys. 

Attorney=GeneraI, a governmental law 
officer. In the United States the Depart¬ 
ment of Justice is presided over by the 
Attorney-General, whose duty it is to fur¬ 
nish all legal advice needed by Federal au¬ 
thorities, and conduct all litigation in which 
the United States is concerned. He is also 
called upon to recommend persons to fill the 
places of judges of the United States Cir¬ 
cuit and District Courts. There is an 
Attorney-General in each State whose duty 
it is to furnish legal advice to the Legisla¬ 
ture; he represents the State in suits at 
law, and aids in prosecuting offenses against 
the State. 

In England the highest legal functionary 
permanently retained, on a salary, to take 
the part of the crown in any suits affecting 
the royal (by which is really meant the 
public) interests. In precedence, he ranks 
aboA r e the Solicitor-General. When he files 
an information in the appropriate courts 
regarding damage to the King’s lands, 
great political or other crimes, etc., it is 
sure to meet with immediate attention. He 
is not a member of the Cabinet, but goes 
out with the ministry from whom he re¬ 
ceived his appointment. 

Attraction, in natural philosophy, a force 
in virtue of which the material particles of 
all bodies tend necessarily to approach each 
other. It operates at whatever distances 
the bodies may be from each other, whether 
the space between them be filled with other 
masses of matter or is vacant, and whether 
the bodies themselves are at rest or are in 
motion. When they are not closely in con¬ 
tact, the attraction between them is called 
that of gravitation or of gravity. 

It is of various kinds: (1) The attraction 
of gravitation or of gravity is the operation 
of the above-mentioned attraction when the 
bodies acting and acted upon are not closely 
in contact. It is often called the law of 
gravity or gravitation, but the term law in 
this case means simply generalization. It 
states the universality of a fact, but does 
not really account for it. By this law or 



Attribute 


Atys 


generalization, the attraction between amy 
two material particles is directly propor¬ 
tional to the product of their masses, and 
inversely proportional to the square of their 
distance asunder. (2) Molecular attraction 
differs from the former in acting only at 
infinitely small distances. It ceases to be 
appreciable when the distances between the 
molecules become appreciably large. It is 
divided into cohesion, affinity, and ad¬ 
hesion. 

Capillary attraction, meaning the attrac¬ 
tion excited by a hair-like tube on a liquid 
within it, is, properly s peaking, a varietv 

£ __ ( A A •/ A CD' 

of adhesion. 

In magnetism, the power excited by a 
magnet or loadstone of drawing and attach¬ 
ing iron to itself. 

In electricity, the power possessed by an 
electrified body of drawing certain other 
bodies to itself. The repulsions or attrac¬ 
tions between two electrified bodies are in 
the inverse ratio of the squares of their dis¬ 
tance. The distance remaining the same, 
the force of attraction or repulsion between 
two electrified bodies is directly as the 
product of the quantities of electricity with 
which they are charged. 

Attribute, in philosophy, a quality or 
property of a substance, as whiteness or 
hardness. A substance is known to us only 
as a congeries of attributes. In the fine arts 
an attribute is a symbol regularly accom¬ 
panying and marking out some personage. 
Thus the caduceus, purse, winged hat, and 
sandals are attributes of Mercury, the 
trampled dragon of St. George. 

Attucks, Crispus, a mulatto or half-breed 
Indian, born about 1720; was a leader of the 
crowd of people, who, on March 5, 1770, pro¬ 
voked the British soldiers in Boston to open 
fire, which resulted in the death of Attucks 
and others and created the incident known 
as the Boston massacre. The British officer of 
the day and six of his men were tried for 
murder and acquitted by a jury. 

Atwater, Lyman Hotchkiss, an Ameri¬ 
can theologian, born in Hampden, Conn., 
Feb. 23, 1813; received both his collegiate 
and theological training at Yale; was pas¬ 
tor o f the First Congregational Church in 
Fairfield, Conn., in 1835—1854; in the last 
year became Professor of Mental and Moral 
Philosophy at Princeton College, and, in 
1869, Professor of Logic, Metaphysics, 
Political Science, Economics and Ethics 
there. He was the author of a “ Manual 
of Elementary Logic” (1867). He died in 
Princeton, N. J., Feb. 17, 1883. 

Atwater, Wilber Olin, an American 
chemist, born in Johnsburg, N. Y., May 3, 
1844; was graduated at Wesleyan Uni¬ 
versity in 18G5; made a special study of 
chemistry in the Sheffield Scientific School 
of Yale and the Universities of Leipsic and 
Berlin; became Professor of Chemistry in 


Wesleyan University in 1873; was director 
of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment 
Station in 1875-1877, and of the Storrs 
(Conn.) Experiment Station in 1887-1902; 
founded in 1888 and was director till 1891, 
office of Experiment Stations, United States 
Department of Agriculture; became chief 
of the bureau of nutrition investigations; 
and published over 150 papers on chem¬ 
istry and allied subjects. He died Sept. 22, 
1907. 

AtwiJI, Edward Robert, an American 

clergyman, born in Red Hook, N. Y., Feb. 
18, 1840: was graduated at Columbia Col¬ 
lege in 1862, and at the General Theological 
Seminary in 1864; was rector of St. Paul’s 
Church in Burlington, Vt., in 1867-1880, 
and of Trinity in Toledo, O., in 1882- 
1890; and was consecrated the first Protest¬ 
ant Episcopal bishop of West Missouri, Oct. 
14, 1890. 

Atwood, George, an English mathema¬ 
tician, born in 1745; best known by his 
invention, called after him, Atwood’s Ma¬ 
chine, for verifying the laws of falling 
bodies. It consists essentially of a freely 
moving pulley over which runs a fine cord 
with two equal weights suspended from the 
ends. A small additional weight is laid 
upon one of them, causing it to descend with 
uniform acceleration. Means are provided 
by which the added weight can be removed 
at any point of the descent, thus allowing 
the motion to continue from this point on¬ 
ward with uniform velocity. He died in 
1807. 

Atwood, Isaac Morgan, an American 
educator, born in Pembroke, N. Y., March 
24, 1838 ; was ordained in the Universalist 
Church in 1861; held several pastorates; 
edited ‘‘The Christian Leader” 1867-1873; 
became an a ssociate editor of the “ Uni¬ 
versalist Leader;” and was chosen presi¬ 
dent of the Canton (N. Y.) Theological 
Seminary in 1879. His chief works are, 
“ Have We Outgrown Christianity ?”(1870) ; 
“Latest Word of Universalism ” (1878); 
“Manual of Revelation” (1888); “Walks 
about Zion” (1881). 

Atwood, Melville, an Anglo-American 
geologist, born in Prescott Hall, England, 
July 31, 1812; studied lithology, micro¬ 
scopy, and geology early in life, and engaged 
in gold and diamond mining in Brazil. In 
1843 he made a discovery that greatly en¬ 
hanced the value of zinc ore. After coming 
to the United States, in 1852, he invented 
the blanket system of amalgamation. He 
also established the value of the famous 
Comstock silver lode, by an assay of miner¬ 
als in that region. He died m Berkeley 
Cal., April 25, 1898. 

Atys, or Attys (at'is), in classical myth¬ 
ology, the shepherd lover of Cybele, 
who, having broken the vow of chastity 




Aube 


Aubry de Montdidier 


which he made her, castrated himself. In 
Asia Minor Atys seems to have been a deity, 
with somewhat of the same character as 
&donis. 

Aube (bb), a N. E. French Department; 
area, 2,317 square miles; pop. ( 11)0(5) 243,- 
670. The surface is undulating, and watered 
by the Aube, etc. The N. and N. W. dis¬ 
tricts are bleak and infertile, the S. 
districts remarkably fertile. A large ex¬ 
tent of ground is under forests and vine¬ 
yards, and the soil is admirable for grain, 
pulse, and hemp. The chief manufactures 
are worsted and hosiery. Troyes is the capi¬ 
tal. The river Aube, which gives name to 
the department, rises in Ilaute-Marne, flows 
N. W., and, after a course of 113 miles, joins 
the Seine. 

Auber, Daniel Francois Esprit (o-brT), 
a French operatic composer, born Jan. 29, 
1782, at Caen, in Normandy; was originally 
intended for a mercantile career, but de¬ 
voted himself to music, studying under 
Cherubini. His first great success was his 
opera “ La Bergere Chatelaine,” produced in 
1820. In 1822 he had associated himself 
with Scribe as librettist, and other operas 
now followed in quick succession. Chief 
amoncr them were “ Masaniello; or. La 
Muette de Portici ” (1828) ; “ Fra Diavolo ” 



(1830); “Lestocq” (1834); “ L’Ambassa- 
drice ” (1830) ; “ Le Domino Noir ” (1837) ; 
“ Les Diamants de la Couronne ” (1841); 
“Marco Spada ” (1853); “La Fiancee du 
Roi de Garbe ” (1864). Despite his success 
in “ Masaniello ” his peculiar field was comic 
opera, in which his charming melodies, bear¬ 
ing strongly the stamp of the French na¬ 
tional character, his uniform grace and 
piquancy, won him a high place. He died 
in Paris, May 13, 1871. 

Auberlen, Karl August (ou'ber-len), a 
German Protestant theologian, born at 
Fellbach, Wtirteinberg, Nov. 19, 1824; edu¬ 


cated at Tubingen, and was made professor 
at Basel in 1851. He was author of “The 
Divine Revelation: an Essay in Defense of 
the Truth.” He died at Basel, May 2, 1864. 

Aubert, Joachim Marie Jean Jacques 
Alexandre Jules (6-bar'), a French general 
and military writer, born in 1804; promi¬ 
nent in several campaigns, and was made 
commander of the Legion of Honor in 1860. 
He is best known to the public as a journal¬ 
ist and historical writer. Among his works 
.are “ Gauls and Germans,” “ The In¬ 
vasion ” (1870); “History of the War of 
1870-1871 ” (1873). He died in 1890. 

Aubertin, Charles (o-bar-tan'), a French 
scholar, born in St. Didier, Dec. 24, 1825; 
became rector of the Academy of Poitiers in 
1874. His works include “ Critical Study of 
the Alleged Relations of Seneca to St. Paul ” 
(1857); “Public Spirit in the Eighteenth 
Century” (1873) ; “Origins of French Lan¬ 
guage and Literature in the Middle Ages ” 
(1876-1878), etc. 

Aubigne, Theodore Agrippa d\ See 

D’Aubigne. 

Aubin du Cormier (5-ban dii korm-ya'), 
St., a village of France, in Brittany, where, 
on July 28,1488, a battle was fought between 
the Bretons and the French, in which the 
latter were victorious, and took possession 
of St. Aubin du Cormier. Among their 
prisoners were the Prince of Orange and 
the Due d’Orleans. A body of 400 English 
archers, under Lord Woodville, were cruelly 
put to death after the battle. 

Aublet, Albert (6b-la), a, French painter, 
born in Paris; studied historical painting 
under Gerome; won a first-class medal in 
the Paris Exposition of 1889, and the deco¬ 
ration of the Legion of Honor in 1890. His 
first great painting was the “ The Wash¬ 
room of the Reserves in the Cherbourg 
Barracks,” exhibited in the Salon of 1879, 
and probably his most celebrated one is 
the “ Meeting of Henri III. and the Due de 
Guise,” shown in the Salon of 1880. 

Aubrey, John, an English antiquary, 
born in Wiltshire March 12 or Nov. 3, 
1626; was educated at Oxford; collected 
materials for the “Monasticon Anglicnnum,” 
and afforded important assistance to Wood, 
the antiquary. He left large collections of 
manuscripts, which have been used by sub¬ 
sequent writers. His “ Miscellanies ” (Lon¬ 
don, 1696) contain much curious informa¬ 
tion, but display credulity and superstition. 
His “ Natural History ” and “ Antiquities 
of the County of Surrey ” were published 
in 1719. He died in June, 1697. 

Aubry de Montdidier (o-bre' de mOn- 
ded-ya'), a French soldier, supposed to have 
been murdered by his comrade, Richard 
de Maeaire, in 1371. He is the hero of 
many dramas, founded on the details of the 
discovery of his murderer. His faithful dog 









Auburn 


Auckland 


persisted in pursuing and harassing Macaire, 
and this coming to the ears of King Charles 

V. , he ordered a fight to be tried between 
them. The dog was victorious, and he has 
ever since been famous in story as the “ Dog 
of Montargis; ” from the place of the fight. 

Auburn, city and county-seat of Andros¬ 
coggin co., Me.; on the Androscoggin river 
and the Maine Central railroad, 30 miles S. 

W. of Augusta. The river, which separates 
Auburn from the city of Lewiston, has a 
fall of GO feet near the cities, giving them 
excellent power for manufacturing. Auburn 
is principally engaged in the manufacture 
of shoes, though it is doing considerable 
in the lines of cotton goods, furniture and 
tanned leather. It is lighted by electricity, 
and has 2 National banks, a high school, 
public library and an assessed property valu¬ 
ation of $7,000,000. Pop. (1910) 15,064. 

Auburn, city and county-seat of Cayuga 
co., N. Y.; on the outlet of Owasco Lake 
and the New York Central and Hudson 
River and the Lehigh Valley railroads; 174 
miles W. of Albany. The city is an im¬ 
portant industrial center, its principal 
manufactures being reapers, mowers, bind¬ 
ers, threshing machines and other agricul¬ 
tural implements, carpets, cotton, woolen 
and iron goods, and shoes, for which the 
lakes provide excellent power. It is the seat 
of the Auburn Theological Seminary 
(Presb.), founded in 1821; a large State 
prison, widely known for its “ silent ” sys¬ 
tem of discipline; a State Insane Asylum 
and a State armory. There are also about 
25 churches, an Academic High School, 
Academy of Music, 2 National banks 
hospital, orphan asylum, several public li¬ 
braries and daily and weekly news¬ 
papers. Among its public attractions is a 
statue of the late William H. Seward, who 
lived here. The city has a property valu¬ 
ation of over $15,000,000. Pop. (1900) 
30,345; (1910) 34,668. 

Auburn Theological Seminary, a Pres¬ 
byterian institution in Auburn, N. Y.; 
opened in 1819; offers free tuition to college 
graduates; has grounds and buildings valued 
at over $325,000; aggregate endowment 
funds, $800,000; average annual income, 
$67,000; faculty, 12; students, about 70; 
volumes in the library, about 33,000; grad¬ 
uates since opening, over 1,700. 

Aubusson, Pierre d\ See D’Aubusson. 

Auch (6sh), an ancient town of France; 
capital of the Department of Gers; on the 
Gers river; 43 miles S. of Agen. In the 
time of Caesar’s invasion it was the capital 
of the Ausci or Auscii. It contains an 
archbishop’s palace, a Gothic cathedral, pub¬ 
lic library, royal college, musem of natural 
science and a town hall. It is also noted 
for its manufactures of cotton stuffs, 
leather, linen, etc. Pop. (1901) 13,939. 


Auchenia, a genus of mammalia of the 
order ruminantia and the family cam- 
elidce. It includes the llamas, which are 
the American representatives of the camels 
so well known in the Eastern world. They 
have no dorsal humps, and their toes are 
completely divided. There are about four 
species of auchenia: the A. guancico, or 
guanaco; the A. glama, or llama; the A. 
paco, the paco or alpaca; and the A. vicu- 
nia, or vicuna. 

Auchmuty, Richard Tylden, an Amer¬ 
ican philanthropist, born m New York city 
in 1831; received a collegiate education; 
practiced architecture for many years with 
James Renwick; served in the Union army 
through the Civil War; declined several 
public offices after its close, and with his 
wife founded the New York Trade Schools, 
on a plan entirely original and which almost 
immediately became productive of large re¬ 
sults, at a cost of $250,000. The success of 
this institution was made permanent by 
J. Pierpont Morgan, who, in 1892, gave it 
an endowment of $300,000. Auchmuty died 
in Lenox, Mass., July 18, 1893. 

Auchterarder, a town in Perthshire, 

Scotland, with manufactures of tweeds, tar¬ 
tans, etc. The opposition to the presentee 
to the church of Auchterader (1839) origi¬ 
nated the struggle which ended in the for¬ 
mation of the Free Church of Scotland. 

Auckland, a town in New Zealand, in 
the North Island, founded in 1840, and 
situated on Waitemata harbor, one of the 
finest harbors of New Zealand, where the 
island is only 6 miles across, there being 
another harbor (Manukau) on the opposite 
side of the isthmus. At dead low water 
there is sufficient depth in the harbor for 
the largest steamers. The working ship 
channel has an average depth of 36 feet, 
and varies in width from 1 to 2 miles. 
The harbor has two good entrances, with 
lighthouse; and is defended by batteries. 
There are numerous wharves and jetties, 
and a couple of graving-docks, one of which 
— the Calliope dock, opened in 1887 — is 
one of the largest in the whole of the 
Southern Seas. Its site is picturesque, the 
streets are spacious and the public build¬ 
ings — churches, educational establish¬ 
ments, including a university college — are 
numerous and handsome. It has a large 
and increasing trade, there being connection 
with the chief places on the island by rail, 
and regular communication with the other 
ports of the colony, Australia and Fiji, 
by steam. It was formerly the capital of 
the colony. Pop. (1906), including sub¬ 
urbs, 82,ioi. The provincial district of 
Auckland forms the northern part of North 
Island, with an area of 25,746 square miles; 
pop. (1906) 211,223. The surface is very 
diversified; volcanic phenomena are common, 
including geysers, hot lakes, etc.; rivers are 



Auckland 


Auditory 


numerous; wool, timber, kauri*gum, etc., 
are exported. Much gold has been obtained 
in the Thames Valley and elsewhere. 

Auckland, William Eden, Lord, an 

English statesman, born April 3, 1744; edu¬ 
cated at Eton and Oxford; called to the 
bar, 1768; Under-Secretary of State 1772, 
and in 1776 Lord of Trade. In 1778 he 
was nominated, in conjunction with Lord 
Howe and others, to act as a mediator be¬ 
tween Great Britain and the insurgent 
American colonies. He was afterward Sec¬ 
retary of State for Ireland, Ambassador 
Extraordinary to France, Ambassador Ex¬ 
traordinary to the Netherlands. He was 
raised to the peerage in 1788, and died 
May 28, 1814. 

.Auckland Islands, a group lying in the 
Pacific Ocean to the S. of New Zealand. 
The largest of these islands is about 30 
miles long by 15 broad, and is covered with 
dense vegetation. They are almost entirely 
uninhabited, belong to the British and are 
a station for whaling ships. 

Auction, the public disposal of goods to 
the highest bidder. None but those who 
have taken out an auction license are at 
present allowed to conduct such sales. To 
ascertain who the highest bidder is, two 
leading processes may be adopted. The 
goods may be put up at a low figure, and 
then competitors for them bidding against 
each other will raise this to a higher price. 
This is what is generally done. In what is 
called a “ Dutch auction,” however, the 
process is reversed. The goods are put up 
at a price much above their value, and 
gradually lowered till a bid is given for 
them, and they are then forthwith knocked 
down to him from whom it proceeded. 

Aucuba, a genus of plants belonging to 
the order cornacece, or cornels. The only 
known species is A. japonica, a well known 
evergreen, with leaves like those of the 
laurel in form and mottled with yellow. 

Aude (6d), a maritime Department in 
the S. of France; area, 2,438 square miles; 
mainly covered by hills belonging to the 
Pyrenees or the Cevennes, and traversed 
W. to E. by a valley drained by the Aude. 
The loftier districts are bleak and unpro¬ 
ductive; the others tolerably fertile, yield¬ 
ing good crops of grain. The wines, es¬ 
pecially white, bear comparison with any. 
Pop. (1906) 308,327. 

Audette, Louis Arthur, a Canadian 
lawyer, born in Quebec, Dec. 14, 1856; was 
educated at Quebec Seminary and Laval 
University; called to the bar in 1880; was 
secretary to the Board of Arbitration;.- 1 ap¬ 
pointed in 1893 to determine disputed mat¬ 
ters of account between Canada and the 
Provinces of Ontario and Quebec; and also 
became Registrar of the Exchequer Court of 


Canada. He published “ The Practice of 
the Exchequer Court of Canada” (1895). 

Audiometer, or Audimeter, ar instru¬ 
ment devised by Prof. Hughes, the inventor 
of the microphone, and described by Dr. 
Richardson at a meeting of the Royal So¬ 
ciety of London in 1879. Originally its ob¬ 
ject was to measure with precision the 
sense of hearing. Among its constituent 
parts are an induction coil, a microphone 
key and a telephone. The audiometer has 
been materially modified, and is now prin¬ 
cipally used for obtaining a balance of 
induction from two electric coils acting 
upon a third. A scale is provided to show 
the extent of the movement. A varying 
or interrupted current being passed through 
the two outer coils, the preponderating cur¬ 
rent will produce the most induction if the 
central coil is equidistant. It can always 
be moved to such a point that there will 
be no inductive effect, one counteracting the 
other. Thus its position measures the rela¬ 
tive induction. A telephone is in circuit 
with the intermediate coil and is used to 
determine when its position is such that 
no current is induced in it. 

Audiphone, an invention to assist the 
hearing of deaf persons in whom the audi¬ 
tory nerve is not entirely destroyed. The 
instrument, made of a thin sheet of ebonite 
rubber or hard vulcanite, is about the size 
of a palm leaf fan, with a handle and strings 
attached to bend it into a curving form, 
and a small clamp for fixing the string at 
the handles. The audiphone is pressed by 
the deaf person using it against his upper 
front teeth, with the convex side outward; 
when so placed it communicates the vibra¬ 
tions caused by musical sounds or articulate 
speech to the teeth and bones of the skull, 
thence to the organs of hearing. For differ¬ 
ent sounds it requires to be focussed to 
different degrees of convexity. A simple 
strip of fine glazed mill board has been 
recommended by some expe.rimenters as 
cheaper and equally serviceable; and birch 
wood veneer lias been used with success 
for the same purpose. 

Audit, an examination into accounts or 
dealings with money or property, along with 
vouchers or other documents connected there¬ 
with, especially by proper officers, or per¬ 
sons appointed for the purpose. Also the 
occasion of receiving the rents from the 
tenants on an estate. 

Auditory, pertaining to the organs 
of hearing. The auditory artery is a 
ramification of the internal carotid one, 
the several branches of which are dis¬ 
tributed throughout the brain. The audi¬ 
tory canal, or external meatus of the ear, 
is considered to belong to the external por¬ 
tion of that organ. It extends inward 
from the concha for rather more than an 



Audouard 


Auerbach 


inch. Part of it is cartilaginous and part 
osseous. The auditory nerve, called also 
the acoustic nerve, enters the ear by the 
internal auditory canal, and divides into 
two leading branches, which again subdi¬ 
vide to an amazing extent. It is remark¬ 
ably soft in texture. The auditory and the 
facial nerves together constitute the seventh 
pair of nerves in Willis’ arrangement. 

Audouard, Olympe (o-do-ar'), a French 
writer (1830-1890); married to a no¬ 
tary in Marseilles, but soon after di¬ 
vorced; she traveled in Egypt, Turkey 
and Russia; and having conducted vari¬ 
ous journals in Paris since I860, made 
a successful lecture tour through the 
United States in 1808—1869. After her 
return she became interested in spirit¬ 
ism. She was an ardent advocate of 
woman’s rights. Among her novels and 
books of travel may be mentioned: “ How 
Men Love” (1801) ; “ The Mysteries of the 
Seraglio and of the Turkish Harems ” 
(1803); “The Mysteries of Egypt Un¬ 
veiled” (1805); “War to Man” (1866); 
“Across America” (1869-1871); “Pari¬ 
sian Silhouettes” (1883). 

Audran, Gerard (od-ran'), a French en¬ 
graver, born at Lyons in 1040, and, after 
three years at Rome, where he acquired a 
high reputation by his engraving of Pope 
Clement IX., was recalled to France by 
Colbert, and appointed engraver to Louis 
XIV. Here he engraved the works of Le¬ 
brun, illustrating the battles of Alexander, 
and many paintings by Raphael, Titian, 
Domenichino, Poussin and others. He died 
at Paris in 1703. His nephews, Benoit 
(1661—1721) and Jean (1667—1756), were 
also engravers. 

Audsley, George Ashdown, a Scottish- 
American architect, born in Elgin, Scotland, 
Sept. 6, 1838; established himself in the 
United States in 1892, and subsequently be¬ 
came prominent both as an architect and 
author. In collaboration with his brother, 
William J. A. Audsley, he was author of 
several works — on illuminating, decorat¬ 
ing, Christian symbolism, etc., and, indi¬ 
vidually, published “ Keramic Art of 
Japan;” “Ornamental Art of Japan;” 
“The Art of Chromolithography;” “The 
Practical Decorator,” etc. 

Audubon, John James, an American 
naturalist of French extraction, born near 
Hew Orleans, May 4, 1780; was educated in 
France, and studied painting under David. 
In 1798 he settled in Pennsylvania, but, hav¬ 
ing a great love for ornithology, he set out 
in 1810 with his wife and child, descended 
the Ohio, and for many years roamed the 
forests in every direction, drawing the birds 
which he shot. In 1826 he went to England, 
exhibited his drawings in Liverpool, Man¬ 
chester and Edinburgh, and finally pub¬ 


lished them in an unrivaled work of double- 
folio size, with 435 colored plates of birds 
the size of life (“The Birds of America,,” 
4 vols., 1827- 
1S39), with an 
accompan y- 
ing text (“ Or- 
nithologi- 
cal Biogra¬ 
phy,” 5 vols., 

8 vo., partly 
written by 
Prof. Macgilli- 
vray). On his 
final return to 
the United 
States he la¬ 
bored with Dr. 

Bachman on 
an illustrated 
work entitled John j. audubon. 

“ The Quadru¬ 
peds of America ” (1843-1850, 3 vols.). He 
died in New York city, June 27, 1851. 

Auenbruggar von Auenbrug, Leopold 

( ou'en-brog-er fon ou'en-brog), an Austrian 
physician, born at Gratz in 1722, prac¬ 
ticed at the Spanish hospital in Vienna, 
where he died in 1809. As early as 1754 he 
had discovered the method of investigating 
internal diseases which afterward made him 
famous; but not until after seven years of 
experiments and verification did he publish 
his treatise, entitled “ Invention novum ex 
percussione thoracis humani interni pectoris 
morbos detegendi ” (Vienna, 1761). 

Auer, Adelheid von (ou'er), pseudonym 

of Charlotte von Cosel, German novelist, 
born in Berlin, Jan. 6, 1818; author of 
a great many stories of real life, among 
them “Footprints in Sand” (1868); 
“A Sister of Charity” (1870); “In the 
World’s Labyrinth” (1878; “Castles in 
the Air” (1882); all written in the tone 
and spirit of a moderate conservative. 

Auerbach, Berthold (ou'er-bacli), a Ger¬ 
man novelist, born at Nordstetten, Wiirtem- 
berg, Feb. 28, 1812; began to write while a 
student in Heidelberg, and under the pseudo¬ 
nym “ Theobald Chauber ” produced a 
“ Biography of Frederick the Great ” (1834- 
1836). A series of novels from the history 
of Judaism, under the collective title “ The 
Ghetto,” of which “Spinoza” (1837) and 
“ Poet and Merchant ” (1839) were printed 
in separate editions, was followed by a 
translation of Spinoza, with a critical bi¬ 
ography (1841); and by “The Educated 
Citizen: a Book for the Thinking Human 
Mind ” (1842), intended to bring philosophi¬ 
cal problems within the comprehension of 
the uninitiated. His next work, “ Black 
Forest Village Stories” (1843), was re¬ 
ceived with universal favor, translated into 
nearly all European languages, and estab¬ 
lished his fame. To this class of tales 





Auers perg 


Augier 


belong also “The Professor’s Lady” (1847); 
“Little Barefoot” (1850) ; “Joseph in the 
Snow” (1800); “Edelweiss” (1801); “After 
Thirty Years,” new village stories (1870. 
His first effort in the field of the novel, 
“New Life” 1851), met with little favor; 
but “On the Heights” (1805) constituted 
the crowning success of his literary career. 
It was followed by “ The Villa on the 
Rhine” (1808) ; “Waldfried, a Family His¬ 
tory” (1874); and The Head Forester” 
(1879). He died at Cannes, France, Feb. 
8, 1882. 

Auersperg (ou'ers-barg), Anton Alex¬ 
ander, Graf von, a German poet, born at 
Laibach, April 11, 1800. Descended from an 
ancient Swabian family which, in the 11th 
century, had settled and acquired large es¬ 
tates in Carniola, he took a prominent posi¬ 
tion in the Diet of that Province (1801- 
1807). In 1801 he was chosen a life member 
of the Upper House of the Austrian Reichs- 
rath. He was always distinguished by his 
liberalism and his ultra-German sympath¬ 
ies; but he best known under the no in de 
plume of Anastasius Grun, as one of the 
German epic and lyrical poets, among whom 
he holds a high rank, excelling most in hu¬ 
morous subjects and political satires. He 
died at Gratz, Sept. 12, 1870. His col¬ 
lected works fill 7 volumes (1877). 

Auerstadt (ou'er-stadt), a village in the 
Prussian Province of Saxony, 10 miles W. 
of Naumburg. It is famous for the great 
battle which took place there Oct. 14, 1800, 
between the French under Davoust, and 
the Prussian army under Duke Charles of 
Brunswick, which ended in a great victory 
for the former. The Prussians, who num¬ 
bered fully 48,000, left nearly half of their 
men dead or wounded on the ground, while 
the French (30,000) escaped with a loss 
of only 7,000. Napoleon, who had, on the 
same day, defeated the main army of Fred¬ 
erick William IIT. at Jena, made Davoust 
Duke of Auerstadt. 

Augeas (a-je'as), a fabulous king of 
Elis, in Greece, whose stable contained 
3,000 oxen, and had not been cleaned for 
30 years. Hercules undertook to clear away 
the filth in one day in return for a 10th 
part of the cattle, and executed the task by 
turning the river Alpheus through it. 
Augeas, having broken the bargain, was de¬ 
posed and slain by Hercules. 

Augereau (ozh-ro')> Pierre Francois 
Charles, Duke of Castiglione, a celebrated 
French general, born at Paris in 1757. He 
joined the army as a private soldier, pro¬ 
ceeded to Spain, and soon rose to the rank 
of adjutant-general. He then took high 
command under Napoleon I. in Italy, and in 
1796, at the head of his own brigade, 
stormed the bridge of Lodi. To him Na¬ 
poleon owed the brilliant victories of Castig¬ 


lione and Arcole. Augereau having been 
sent by Napoleon to Paris, became military 
commander of the capital, and led the coup 
d’etat, or Revolution of Fructidor, by which 
the enemies of the Directory were seized and 
overthrown. Appointed to the command of 
the army on the German frontier, he became 
so wildly democratic that the Directory dis¬ 
placed him and sent him to Perpignan. He 
refused to assist Napoleon in the revolution 
which preceded the consulate and the em¬ 
pire. In 1805, being created a Marshal of 
France, Augereau commanded at the reduc¬ 
tion of the Vorarlberg; was at the battle of 
Jena in 1806, and accompanied Napoleon to 
Berlin. He commanded the French at Eylau 
in 1807, and, in 1809 and 1810, commanded 
in Catalonia, where he committed great ex¬ 
cesses. Augereau was at the great battles 
of Leipsic, Oct. 16, 17, and 18, 1813, and in 
1814, commanded at Lyons, to repel the 
march of the Austrians from that direction 
on the capital. Yielding to superior num¬ 
bers, he retired to the S. and, displaying 
little attachment to Napoleon, acknowl¬ 
edged the Bourbons, retained his honors, 
and became a peer. During the “ 100 days ” 
of 1815, he remained in privacy, but on 
the return of Louis VIII., he again sought 
public life; and, as the last act of an event¬ 
ful life, voted for the condemnation of his 
brother-soldier, Marshal Ney, to an igno¬ 
minious death. For this the French people 
have never forgiven him. He died in June, 
1816. 

Augier, Guillaume Victor Emile 

(ozh-ya/), a French dramatic poet, born at 
Valence, Sept. 20, 1820. “ La Cigue,” 

his first piece, in two acts, after being 
rejected at the Theatre Frangaise in 
1844, was accepted by the managers of the 
Odeon Theatre, and there brought out. It 
had a run of three months, and established 
the popularity of the author. The latter 
subsequently produced other light pieces. 
These, however, were thrown in the shade 
by “ Gabrielle,” a five-act comedy, which 
has been pronounced by competent critics 
to be Augier’s most finished and best con¬ 
structed work, whether as regards plot, 
poetry or the delineation of character. He 
was nominated a member of the Academie 
Francaise, and then officer of the Legion of 
Honor. At the solicitation of Mile. Rachel, 
Augier wrote “ Diane,” a piece in five acts, 
but which failed to elicit the applause be¬ 
stowed upon “ Gabrielle.” In 1868, his 
“ Fils de Giboyer ” had a suc.cess equal to 
the latter. The style of Augier is at once 
classic and easy, dignified and yet pictorial, 
never heavy, and always interesting. He 
may be said to have founded a new school 
in French dramatic literature, and his 
works, partly by their originality, and 
partly by intrinsic merit of a kind possessed 
in common with other dramatic productions, 



Augite 

have acquired very great popularity. He 
died Oct. 25, 1889. 

Augite, the name applied by Werner to 
volcanic schist, and by Dana to certain 
kinds of aluminous pyroxene. It is nearly 
allied to hornblende and is frequent in vol¬ 
canic rocks. 

Augsburg (ougs-pbrg), a city of South 
Germany, capital of Suabia, in the king¬ 
dom of Bavaria; situated on a plain, 35 
miles N. W. of Munich. It was founded by 
the Emperor Augustus, 12 b. c. The streets 
are narrow but picturesque, the buildings 
retaining many mediaeval characteristics. 
Among the most notable are the cathedral, 
arsenal, town hall and Abbey of St. Ulric. 
Napoleon III. received his early education in 
a gymnasium of this city. It is a center 
of the book trade. Augsburg has been 
prominent since the Middle Ages for its 
commercial and financial operations and 
was long the home of merchant princes 
such as the Fuggers. It was the scene of 
the great Augsburg Diet. It was a free 
city till 1806, when Napoleon ceded it to 
Bavaria. Pop. (1905) 04,923. 

Augsburg, Confession of, name given 
to the celebrated declaration of faith, com¬ 
piled by Melanchthon, revised by Luther 
and other reformers, and read before the 
Diet of Augsburg, June 25, 1530. It 

consisted of 28 articles, seven of which 
refuted Roman Catholic errors, and the re¬ 
maining 21 set forth the Lutheran creed. 
Soon after its promulgation, the last hope 
of reforming the Roman Catholic Church 
was abandoned, and complete severance fol¬ 
lowed. An answer by the Roman Catho¬ 
lics was read Aug. 3, 1530; when the Diet 
declared that it had been refuted. Me¬ 
lanchthon then drew up another confession. 
The first is called the unaltered, and the 
second, the altered form. 

Augsburg, Diet of, the most celebrated 
of the numerous diets held at Augsburg. 
Pope Clement VII. refusing to call a gen¬ 
eral council for the settlement of all re¬ 
ligious disputes, the Emperor Charles V. 
summoned one to meet at Augsburg, June 
20, 1530. On the 25th the famous “ Con¬ 
fession ” was read; later an answer was 
made by the Catholics, whereupon the Prot¬ 
estants were ordered to conform in all points 
to the Church of Rome, Charles V. giving 
them till April 15, 1531, to reunite with the 
Mother Church. On Nov. 22, the emperor 
announced his intention to execute the edict 
of Worms, made severe enactments against 
the Protestants, and reconstituted the Im¬ 
perial Chamber. The Protestants put in a 
counter declaration, and the Diet closed. 

Augsburg, League of, n, league con- 
eluded at Augsburg, July 9, 1G8G, for the 

34 


Augusta 

maintenance of the treaties of Munster and 
Nimeguen, and the truce of Ratisbon, 
and to resist the encroachments of France. 
The contracting parties were the Emperor 
Leopold I., the Kings of Spain and Sweden, 
the Electors of Saxony and Bavaria, and 
the circles of Suabia, Franconia, Upper 
Saxony and Bavaria. 

Augsburg Seminary, an educational in¬ 
stitution in Minneapolis, Minn., under the 
auspices of the Lutheran Church; organ¬ 
ized in 18G9; has grounds and buildings 
valued at $125,000; average annual income, 
$15,000; professors, 10; students, about 
150; graduates, over 530. 

Augur, Christopher Colon, an Ameri¬ 
can military officer; born in New York, July 
10, 1821; was graduated at the United 
States Military Academy in 1843; became 
Major of the 13th United States Infantry 
in 1861; Colonel of the 12th Infantry in 
18G6; Brigadier-General, United States 
army, March 4, 18G9; Major-General in 
tiie volunteer service in 1862; mustered 
out of that service in 1866; and was re¬ 
tired in the regular army, July 16, 1885. 
He commanded a division in the battle of 
Cedar Mountain, being severely wounded. 
He died in Washington, D. C., Jan. 16, 
1898. 

Augurs, a college of diviners in ancient 
Rome, who predicted future events and read 
the will of the gods from the occurrence of 
certain signs, connected with thunder and 
lightning; the flight and cries of birds; 
the feeding of the sacred chickens; the ac¬ 
tion of certain quadrupeds or serpents; ac¬ 
cidents, such as spilling the salt, etc. The 
answers of che augurs and the signs were 
called auguries; bird-predictions were aus¬ 
pices. Nothing was undertaken without the 
augurs, and by the words olio die (“meet 
on another day”), they could dissolve the 
assembly of the people and annul decrees 
passed at the meeting. 

August, the eighth month of our year, 
named by the Roman Emperor Augustus, 
after himself, being associated with several 
of his victories and other fortunate events. 
Before this it was called Sextilis or the 
sixth month (counting from March). July 
had been named for Julius Caesar and the 
Senate to please Augustus decreed that 
August should have equal length, taking a 
day from February. 

Augusta, or Agosta, a fortified city of 
Sicily, about 12 miles N. of Syracuse, near 
the site of ancient Megara Hyblaea. In 
1693 and 1848 earthquakes nearly destroy¬ 
ed the city. Near it was fought in 1676 
the great naval battle between the French 
and the Dutch in which Admiral De Ruyter 
was fatally wounded. Pop. 13,867. 



Augusta 


Augusta Victoria 


Augusta, city, and county-scat of Rich¬ 
mond co., Ga.; on the Savannah river, and 
the Augusta Southern, the Central of 
Georgia, the Georgia, the Charleston and 
Western Carolina, the South Carolina and 
Georgia, and the Southern railroads; 120 
miles N. W. of Savannah. The site is about 
700 feet above the sea level, and the city has 
an even temperature and a dry, invigorating 
atmosphere, making it a popular resort fot 
pulmonary invalids. The city is laid out 
with broad streets which intersect at right 
angles, and many of them are beautifully 
shaded with trees. The city hall is in a 
park which also contains a granite monu¬ 
ment in memory of the Georgia signers of 
the Declaration of Independence, and an im¬ 
posing monument to the Confederate dead 
of the State has been erected on Broad 
street, the principal thoroughfare of the 
city. The city has several parks, and a 
United States arsenal, and in the suburbs 
are Summerville, a noted health resort, the 
principal cemetery, and attractive fair 
grounds. Augusta has a large trade in cot¬ 
ton, lumber, fruit and vegetables, but its 
main importance is in its manufacturing 
enterprises. According to the United States 
census of 1900 there were 388 manufactur¬ 
ing establishments reported, employing $9,- 
016,619 capital and 7,402 persons; paying 
$2,093,915 for wages and $6,244,280 for ma¬ 
terials; and having a combined output 
valued at $10,069,750. The principal indus¬ 
trial plants are cotton mills, of which there 
were 14 in operation in 1900, three of which 
had a capital of more than $1,000,000 each, 
and all having over 200,000 spindles in 
operation. During 1899 it was estimated 
that at least $8,000,000 in new capital was 
invested in cotton manufacturing in 
Georgia, by far the greater part in Atlanta 
and Augusta. The city is the seat of the 
Medical College of Georgia, and has an 
orphan asylum, two public hospitals, the 
Louise King Home, a juvenile reforma¬ 
tory, 2 National and several State banks, 
and about a dozen daily and weekly periodi¬ 
cals. The annual trade of the city exceeds 
$80,000,000; the assessed property valua¬ 
tions exceed $18,500,000, and the bonded 
debt in 1900 was $1,752,300. Pop. (1890) 
33,300; (1900) 39,441; (1910) 41,040. 

Augusta, city, capital of the State of 
Maine, and county-seat of Kennebec co.; 
on the Kennebec river, and the Maine Cen¬ 
tral railroad; 63 miles N. E. of Portland. 
The city is built on both sides of the river 
on a series of terraces, the principal part 
being on the W. bank. It was first perma¬ 
nently settled by traders from Massachu¬ 
setts in 1754; was incorporated under the 
name of Hallowell, in 1771; was reduced by 
the setting off of Hallowell in 1797; became 
the capital of the State in 1831 ; and re¬ 
ceived a city charter in 1849, In the State 


House is the State library, a notable collec¬ 
tion of portraits of American statesmen, 
and, in the rotunda, an impressive array of 
the Civil War battle flags of the Maine 
Volunteers. In the principal park is a 
Soldiers and Sailors’ monument. On the 
E. side of the river are the State Asylum 
for the Insane, and United States arsenal. 
Four miles from Augusta is a National Sol¬ 
diers’ Home. The principal manufactures, 
which are promoted by an abundant water 
power, are cotton goods, paper, wood pulp, 
and lumber. The city is lighted by elec¬ 
tricity, and has electric street railways, 
3 National banks, high school, Lithgow 
Public Library, a large number of weekly 
periodicals, and an assessed property valu¬ 
ation of about $7,000,000. Pop. (1890) 
10,527; (1900) 11,683; (1910) 13,211. 

Augusta, a, title first given to his wife 
Livia, after the death of Augustus, accord¬ 
ing to the will of the emperor. It was af¬ 
terward conferred by Claudius on Agrippina 
(A. d. 51), and by Nero on his wife Pop- 
pcea, as well as her daughter (a. d. 64). 
Eventually it became a common title of the 
mother, wife, sister, or daughter of an em¬ 
peror. 

Augustana College, a co-educational in¬ 
stitution in Rock Island, Ill., organized in 
1860 under the auspices of the Lutheran 
Church; reported in 1899: Professors, 27; 
students, 575; volumes in the library, 
15,000: ground and buildings valued at 
$210,000: productive funds, $225,000; in¬ 
come, $53,500; graduates, 881; president, 
O. Olsson, D. D. 

Augustan Age, The, in England, the 
reign of Queen Anne (1702-1714), also 
called the Silver Age, the Golden Age being 
the reign of Elizabeth. By far the foremost 
name is that of Sir Isaac Newton, and of 
commanders. John Churchill (Duke of Marl¬ 
borough ). The poets were Congreve, Garth, 
Gay, Parnell, Philips, Pope, Prior, Rowe, 
and Swift. The other authors were Addison, 
Barnes, George Bull, Anthony Collins, 
Jeremy Collier, Roger Cotes, Defoe, Dodwell, 
Flamsteed, George Hickes, Dr. John Jeffery, 
John Norris, Ray, South, Steele, etc. Wren, 
Archibald Pitcairn, and Sir Cloudesley 
Shovel also lived in this reign. Except Pope 
and Gay, the poets have no high standing, 
and of the miscellaneous class, Addison and 
Defoe are the best known. 

Augusta Victoria, Duchess of Schleswig- 
Holstein - Sonderburg -Augustenburg, born 
Oct. 22, 1858; daughter of the late Duke 
Friedrich; married Prince Friedrich Wil¬ 
helm, afterward Wilhelm II., Feb. 27. 1881; 
became Empress of Germany and Queen of 
Prussia on the accession of her husband to 
the thrones in June, 1888. In 1900 she had 
borne the Emperor-King seven children, the 
Crown Prince, Friedrich Wilhelm, being 
born May 6, 1882, 



Augustine 


Augustus 


Augustine (fi'gus-ten), Aurelius Au¬ 
gustinus, St., a renowned father of the 
Christian Church, was born at Tagaste, in 
Africa, in 354, his mother, Monica, being a 
Christian, his father, Patricias, a pagan. 
His parents sent him to Carthage to com¬ 
plete his education, but he disappointed 
their expectations by his neglect of serious 
study and his devotion to pleasure. A lost 
book of Cicero’s, called “ Hortensius,” led 
him to the study of philosophy; but, dis¬ 
satisfied with this, he went over to the 
Manichaeans. He was one of their disciples 
for nine years, but left them, went to Rome, 
and thence to Milan, where he announced 
himself as a teacher of rhetoric. St. Am¬ 
brose, the bishop of this city, converted him 
to the faith of his boyhood, and the reading 
of Paul’s epistles wrought an entire change 
in his life and character. He retired into 
solitude, and prepared himself for baptism, 
which he received in his 33d year from the 
hands of Ambrose. Returning to Africa, he 
sold his estate and gave the proceeds to the 
poor, retaining only enough to support him. 
At the desire of the people of Hippo Augus¬ 
tine became the assistant of the bishop of 
that town, preached with extraordinary suc¬ 
cess, and in 395 succeeded to the see. He 
entered into a warm controversy with Pe- 
lagius concerning the doctrines of free-will, 
grace, and predestination, and wrote trea¬ 
tises concerning them, but of his various 
works his “ Confessions ” is most secure of 
immortality. He died Aug. 28. 430, while 
Hippo was besieged by the Vandals. He 
was a man of great enthusiasm, self-devo¬ 
tion, zeal for truth, and powerful intellect, 
and, though there have been fathers of the 
Church more learned, none have wielded a 
more powerful influence. His writings are 
partly autobiographical (as the “Con¬ 
fessions”), partly polemical, homiletic, or 
exegetical. The greatest is the “City of 
God” (“De Civitate Dei”), a vindication 

of Christianity. 

•/ 

Augustine, or Austin, St., the Apostle 
of the English, flourished at the close of the 
6th century, was sent with 40 monks by 
Pope Gregory I. to introduce Christianity 
into Saxon England, and was kindly re¬ 
ceived by Etheibert, King of Kent, whom 
he converted, baptizing 10,000 of his sub¬ 
jects in one day. In acknowledgment of his 
tact and success Augustine received the 
archiepiscopal pall from the Pope, with in¬ 
structions to establish 12 sees in his prov¬ 
ince, but he could not persuade the British 
bishops i i Wales to unite with the new Eng¬ 
lish Church. He died in 604 or 605. 

Augustins, or Augustines, members of 
several monastic fraternities who follow 
rules framed by the great St. Augustine, or 
deduced from his writings, of which the 
chief are the Canons Regular of St. Au¬ 
gustine, or Austin Canons, and the Beg¬ 


ging Hermits or Austin Friars. The Austin 
Canons were introduced into Great Britain 
about 1100, and had about 170 houses in 
England, and about 25 in Scotland. They 
took the vows of chastity and poverty, and 
their habit was a long, black cassock with 
a white rochet over it, having over that a 
black cloak and hood. The Austin Friars, 
originally hermits, were a much more 
austere body, went barefooted, and formed 
one of the four orders of mendicants. An 
order of nuns had also the name of Augus¬ 
tines. Their garments, at first black, were 
latterly violet. 

Augustulus, Romulus, the last of the 
Western Roman emperors; reigned for one 
3 T ear (475-476), when he was overthrown by 
Odoacer and banished. 

Augustus, Caius Julius Caesar Octa- 
vianus, originally called Caius Octavius, 
the celebrated Roman emperor, was the son 
of Caius Octavius and Atia, a daughter of 
Julia, the sister of Julius Caesar. The 
Octavian family originated at Velitrae, in 
the country of the Volscians. The branch 
to which Octavius belonged was rich and 
distinguished. His father had risen to the 
rank of senator, and had gone to Macedonia, 
after being chosen praetor, where he was 
distinguished as a civil and military officer. 
Octavius was born during the consulate of 
Cicero (63 B. c.). He lost his father when 
young, but was very carefully brought up 
at Rome by his mother and L. Marcius 
Philippus, the second husband of Atia. 
His talents gained him the regard of his 
great-uncle, Julius Caesar, who declared 
himself willing to adopt him for his son, in 
case he himself should remain without chil¬ 
dren. Octavius was at Apollonia, in Epi¬ 
rus, where he was studying eloquence under 
the renowned orator Apollodorus, when he 
received the news of the tragical death of 
his uncle, and of his having adopted him as 
his son. Notwithstanding the anxiety of 
his friends, he went over to Italy, in order, 
if circumstances should favor him, to sat¬ 
isfy the hopes which he had entertained 
from being adopted by Julius Caesar, When 
he landed at Brundusium, deputies from 
the veterans collected there came to him. 
Conducted in triumph to the city, and sa¬ 
luted as the heir and avenger of Caesar, he 
made his adoption publicly known, and took 
the name of his uncle, adding to it that of 
Octavianus. 

He placed himself, then only 19 years 
old, at the head of the veterans, possessed 
himself of all the public money in Brun¬ 
dusium, and advanced through Campania 
to Rome. Here there were two parties, 
that of the republicans, who had killed 
Caesar, and that of Antony and Lepidus, 
who, under the pretence of avenging him, 
strove to establish their own authority. 
The latter party became victorious, and the 




Augustus 


Augustus 


consul, Antony, exercised almost unlimited 
power. Octavianus addressed himself first 
to Cicero, who had retired to his villa at 
Cumae, being desirous to gain over this 
great orator, always beloved by the people, 
and whom Antony hated and feared. From 
thence he went to Rome, where the greater 
part of the magistrates, soldiers, and citi¬ 
zens came to meet him, Antony alone pay¬ 
ing no attention to his return. After Octa¬ 
vianus had caused his adoption to be con¬ 
firmed in the most solemn manner, he went 
to Antony, who had taken possession of 
Ctesar’s papers and property, and demanded 
of him the inheritance left him, in order 
to pay the legacies mentioned in his uncle’s 
will. Antony at first haughtily refused to 
acknowledge his claims, but afterward 
changed his demeanor when he found the 
influence of Octavianus continually increas¬ 
ing, and his own proportionably diminish¬ 
ing. There could be no real union, how¬ 
ever, between two equally ambitious rivals. 
In their hearts they cherished reciprocal 
hatred and jealousy; and their enmity was 
so little a secret that Octavianus was ac¬ 
cused of having wished to get Antony mur¬ 
dered. How the latter went to Cisalpine 
Gaul, besieged Mutina, and was declared 
an enemy to his country while absent from 
Rome; how Octavianus, who had obtained 
the most powerful party in the Senate, ac¬ 
companied the consul sent against Antony, 
and, after the death of the consul, took 
the chief command; how he afterwards, 
when Antony, together with Lepidus, en¬ 
tered Italy at the head of a powerful army, 
united with him; how a triumvirate was 
formed by the three generals; and how, 
after dreadful scenes of blood in Rome and 
the rest of Italy, they defeated the repub¬ 
lican army under Brutus and Cassius, at 
Philippi in Macedonia (42 B. C.) ;—all this 
is contained in the article on Antony. 

After his return to Rome he satisfied the 
demands of his soldiers by dividing among 
them confiscated lands. This division 
caused great disturbances. In the midst 
of the stormy scenes which convulsed Italy, 
he was obliged to contend with Fulvia, 
whose daughter, Clodia, he had rejected, and 
with Lucius, the brother-in-law of Antony. 
After several battles, Lucius threw himself 
into the city of Perusia, where he was soon 
after obliged to surrender. The city was 
given up to be plundered, and 300 senators 
were condemned to death, as a propitiatory 
sacrifice to the manes of the deified Caesar 
(40 b. c.). After the return of Antony, 
an end was put to the proscriptions. Oc¬ 
tavianus allowed such of the proscribed per¬ 
sons as had escaped death by flight, and 
whom he no longer feared, to return. There 
were still some disturbances in Gaul, and 
the naval war with Sextus Pompeius con¬ 
tinued for several years. About this time 
Octavianus married the famous Livia, the 


wife of Claudius Nero, whom he compelled 
to resign her, after he himself had divorced 
his third wife, Scribonia. By a skillful 
course of conduct he brought about the de¬ 
feat of Pompeius and reduced Lepidus to 
a nullity, thus leaving Antony alone as his 
rival. The empire was now divided be¬ 
tween him and Antony; but while the for¬ 
mer, in the East, gave himself up to a life 
of luxury, the young Octavianus pursued 
his plan of making himself sole master of 
the world. He especially strove to obtain 
the love of the people. He showed mild¬ 
ness and magnanimity, without the ap¬ 
pearance of striving after the highest power, 
and declared himself ready to lay down his 
power when Antony should return from the 
war against the Parthians. He appeared 
rather to permit than to wish himself to 
be appointed perpetual tribune — an office 
which gave him supreme power. The more 
he advanced in the affections of the people, 
the more openly did he declare himself 
against Antony. 

By making public a will, wherein his 
rival appointed his sons by Cleopatra his 
heirs, he stirred up the ill-will of the Ro¬ 
mans against him. Availing himself of 
this feeling, Octavianus declared war 
against the Queen of Egypt, and led a con¬ 
siderable force, both by sea and land, to 
the Ambracian gulf. Here his admiral 
Vipsanius Agrippa gained the naval victory 
of Actium (q. v .), which made Octavianus 
master of the world, 31 b. c. He pursued 
his rival to Egypt, and ended the war, after 
rejecting the proposal of Antony to decide 
their differences by a personal combat. Cleo¬ 
patra and Antony killed themselves. Octa¬ 
vianus caused them to be splendidly buried. 
A son of Antony and Fulvia was sacrificed 
to ensure his safety. C{esarion, a son of 
Caesar and Cleopatra, shared the same fate. 
All the other relations of Antony remained 
uninjured, and Octavianus, on the whole, 
used his power with moderation. He spent 
two years in the East, in order to arrange 
the affairs of Egypt, Greece, Syria, Asia 
Minor, and the islands. On his return to 
Rome he celebrated a triumph for three 
days in succession, and (20 b. c.) closed the 
temple of Janus — for the third time since 
the foundation of Rome. Freed from his 
rivals and enemies, and master of the world, 
he is said to have been undecided as to how 
he should exercise his power, or whether he 
should even retain it. He first set about 
correcting the abuses which had prevailed 
during the civil war, established a general 
peace, ejected unworthy members from the 
Senate, restored ruined temples, and built 
new ones. 

At the end of his seventh consulship, he 
entered the Senate house, and declared his 
resolution to lay down his power. The Sen¬ 
ate, astonished at his moderation, besought 
him to retain it. He yielded to their press* 



Augustus 


Augustus 


ing entreaties, and continued to govern 
through them. He now obtained the sur¬ 
name of Augustus, which marked the dig¬ 
nity of his person and rank, and united, 
by degrees, in himself, the offices of impera- 
tor, or commander-in-chief by sea and land, 
with power to make war and peace; of 
proconsul over all the provinces; of per¬ 
petual tribune of the people, which rendered 
his person inviolable, and gave him the 
power of interrupting public proceedings; 
and, in fine, of censor, and pontifex maxi- 
mus, or controller of all religious matters. 
The laws themselves were subject to him, 
and the observance of them depended upon 
his will. To these dignities we must add 
the title of “ father of his country.” Great 
as was the power given to him, he exercised 
it with wise moderation. It was the spirit 
of his policy to retain old names and forms, 
but he steadfastly refused to assume the 
title of dictator, which latterly had become 
especially odious. Augustus conducted 
many wars in Africa, Asia, and particular¬ 
ly in Gaul and Spain, where he triumphed 
over the Cantabrians after a severe strug¬ 
gle. His arms subjected Aquitania, Pan- 
nonia, Dalmatia, and Illyria, and held the 
Dacians, Numidians, and Ethiopians in 
check. He concluded a treaty with the Par- 
thians, by which they gave up Armenia, 
and restored the eagles taken from Crassus 
and Antony. At the foot of the Alps he 
erected monuments of his triumphs over 
the mountaineers, the proud remains of 
which are yet to be seen at Susa and Aosta. 

After he had established peace through¬ 
out the empire, he again closed the temple 
of Janus. But this peace was interrupted, 
9 a. d., by the defeat of Varus, who lost 
three legions in an engagement with the 
Germans, under Arminius, and killed him¬ 
self in despair. The information of this 
misfortune greatly agitated Augustus. He 
let his beard and hair grow, and often 
cried out in the deepest grief, “ O Varus, 
restore me my legions! ” Meanwhile the 
Germans were held in check by Tiberius. 
During the peace, Augustus had issued 
many useful decrees, and abolished abuses 
in the government. He gave a new form 
to the Senate, employed himself in improv¬ 
ing the manners of the people, particularly 
by promoting marriage, enacted laws for 
the suppression of luxury, introduced disci¬ 
pline into the armies, and order into the 
games of the circus. He adorned Rome in 
such a manner that it was truly said, “ He 
found it of brick, and left it of marble.” 
He also made journeys, as Velleius says, 
everywhere, to increase the blessings of 
peace; he went to Sicily and Greece, Asia 
Minor, Syria, Gaul, etc.; in several places 
he founded cities and colonies. The people 
erected altars to him, and, by a decree of 
the Senate, the month Sextilis was called 


August. Two conspiracies, which threat¬ 
ened his life, miscarried. Cyepio, Murena, 
and Egnatius were punished with death; 
Cinna was more fortunate, receiving par¬ 
don from the emperor. This magnanimity 
increased the love of the Romans, and di¬ 
minished the number of the disaffected; so 
that the master of Rome would have had 
nothing to wish for, if his family had been 
as obedient as the world. The debauchery 
of his daughter Julia gave him great pain, 
and he showed himself more severe against 
those who destroyed the honor of his fam¬ 
ily, than against those who threatened liis 
life. History says that, in his old age, ho 
was ruled by Livia, the only person, per¬ 
haps, whom he truly loved. He had no 
sons, and lost by death his sister’s son, 
Marcellus, and his daughter’s sons, Caius 
and Lucius, whom he had appointed his 
successors. Also, Drusus, his son-in-law, 
whom he loved, died early; and Tiberius, 
the brother of the latter, whom he hated, 
on account of his bad qualities, alone sur¬ 
vived. 

These numerous calamities, together with 
his continually increasing infirmities, gave 
him a strong desire of repose. He under¬ 
took a journey to Campania, from whose 
purer air he hoped for relief; but disease 
fixed upon him, and he died, in Nola (Aug. 
19, 14 a. d.), in the 79th year of his age, 
and 45th of his reign. When he felt his 
death approaching he is said to have called 
for a mirror, arranged his hair, and de¬ 
manded of the by-standers, “ Have I played 
my part well ? ” and, an answer being re¬ 
turned in the affirmative, “ Then,” added 
he, using the form of the players, “ fare¬ 
well, and applaud” ( valete , et plaudit e ). 
If this last passage in the life of Augustus 
is true, it is certainly indicative of his char¬ 
acter, his policy, and even of his fortune. 
He conquered Brutus by means of Antony, 
and Antony by means of Agrippa. He sev¬ 
eral times changed his party, but never his 
purposes, and knew how to cause power to 
be offered, and pressed upon him, while it 
was, in fact, the object of all his exertions. 
It cannot be denied that he used his power 
with wisdom, and became the benefactor of 
his country, which he had previously 
plunged into the horrors of civil war. His 
taste and active mind led him to favor and 
protect the learned; and he even exercised 
the art of the poet himself; so that he was 
not unworthy of giving his name to an 
age distinguished for intellectual creations. 
His death plunged the empire into the 
greatest grief. He was numbered among 
tho gods, and temples and altars were 
erected to him. Nevertheless, the most va¬ 
rious opinions of his secret motives have 
been held, both in ancient and modern 
times, some maintaining that he was selfish 
and treacherous in the acts by which he 



Augustus I 


Augustus 11 


gained the supreme power, but honest and I 
faithful in his government, others regard¬ 
ing him as a cool and calculating hypocrite 
throughout his career. Whatever may have , 
been the judgments of his contemporaries 
regarding his personal character, the Ro¬ 
mans in later times looked back to the age 
of Augustus as the most prosperous and the 
most distinguished in their annals. 

Augustus 1 ., Elector of Saxony, born in 
Freiberg, July 31, 1520; was the son of 
Duke Henry the Pious, and brother of 
Maurice, whom he succeeded in 1553. Anna 
of Denmark, whom he married in 1548, ex¬ 
ercised a strong influence over him and won 
him from Calvinistic opinions to the creed 
of Lutheranism, of which he became a zeal¬ 
ous partisan, even persecuting his former 
associates. He was active in the conflict of 
his time, aided in establishing the Relig¬ 
ious Peace of Augsburg in 1555, and was 
instrumental in securing a “ formula of 
concord” in 1580, whereby he gained the 
support of eighty-six Lutheran imperial es¬ 
tates, but only widened the breach with the 
Calvinists. Soon after his death, the “ for¬ 
mula of concord ” was repealed. The Elec¬ 
tor greatly increased the importance of 
Saxony, introduced many useful improve¬ 
ments and reforms, and adorned Dresden, 
the capital. He died Feb. 12, 1580. 

Augustus II., Frederick, Elector of Sax¬ 
ony and King of Poland, second son of 
John Goorge HI., Elector of Saxony; born 
in Dresden, in 1670. To his residence 
in France he owed that taste for luxury 
and the fine arts which made the Saxon 
court inferior in splendor to none but that 
of Louis XIV. In 1695 he became elector 
and in 1696 was candidate for the vacant 
Polish throne. The French ambassador 
and the nobles supported the Prince of 
Conti, but Augustus by acceptance of the 
Catholic faith, by bribery and intimidation 
secured the election, June 27, 1697. Early 
in his reign, a treaty was made between 
Denmark, Poland, and Russia against 
Charles XII. of Sweden, for the conquest of 
Livonia. But Charles, after having defeated 
the Danes and the Russians, turned toward 
Poland. 

Thus commenced the celebrated Northern 
War, which lasted 20 years, in which Au¬ 
gustus, with his faithful Saxons, had to 
withstand the opposition of the Poles, as 
well as the valor of the Swede. Charles 
declared him a usurper, and thus separated 
the cause of the republic from that of the 
king, who obtained but little assistance 
from the Poles. The Swedes advanced to 
Clissow, between Warsaw and Cracow. Au¬ 
gustus had 24,000 men, Charles only half 
the number; but the Poles gave way in the 
beginning of the engagement, and Charles 
gained a complete victory, July 20, 1702. 
On May 1, 1703, the Saxon army was de¬ 
feated again at Pultusk. The diet assem¬ 


bled at Warsaw declared Augustus, Feb. 14, 
1704, incapable of wearing the crown of 
Poland, and Stanislaus Leszczynoki voivode 
of Posen, was chosen king, July 12, 

1704. Charles, victorious on every side, ad¬ 
vanced into Saxony, and Augustus found 
himself obliged to negotiate a secret peace, 
at Altranstadt, Sept. 24, 1706. Meanwhile, 
the Russians, ignorant of these transac¬ 
tions, obliged Augustus to attack the Swed¬ 
ish general Mardefeld. He gained a sig¬ 
nal victory at Kalisch, and entered War¬ 
saw in triumph, at the time that the pro¬ 
posals of Charles were brought to him. 
However much he might desire to take 
advantage of his good fortune, it was too 
late. Saxony lay at the mercy of the Swedes. 
He signed the treaty, and, Dec. 18, 1706, 
visited Charles in his camp at Altranstadt. 
He soon after received an unexpected visit 
from Charles in Dresden. Count Fleming, 
his first minister, advised him to make 
himself master of the person of his dreaded 
enemy, but he rejected the unjust proposal. 

He now devoted himself to the domestic 
affairs of Saxony. His love of splendor 
involved him in many expenses, by which 
the finances of his kingdom were disordered. 
In 1708 he served under an assumed name 
in a campaign against the French, in the 
Netherlands. In 1709, after the defeat of 
Charles at Pultawa, the Poles recalled 
Augustus, who united himself anew with 
Peter. These two monarchs, in alliance 
with Denmark, sent troops into Pomerania. 
Notwithstanding the exhausted state of 
Sweden, the Swedish general Steinbock 
gained a splendid victory over the allies at 
Gadebusch, Dec. 20, 1712, which compelled 
them to raise the siege of Wismar and 
Stralsund. Charles XIL, having afterward 
returned from His residence in Turkey, and 
made known his determination to prosecute 
the war with vigor, an alliance, at the head 
of which was Augustus, was formed against 
him; but his death put an end to the war, 
and Augustus concluded a peace with Swe¬ 
den. A confederation was now formed in 
Poland against the Saxon troops, by the 
party of Stanislaus, in the belief that Au¬ 
gustus was aiming at absolute power. The 
Saxons were attacked and obliged to sur¬ 
render. At length, through the mediation 
of Peter, an arrangement was concluded at 
Warsaw, 1717, between Augustus and the 
Polish leaders. The Saxon troops were re¬ 
moved from the kingdom, and Augustus 
agreed not to maintain more than 17,000 
soldiers in Poland, who were to be under 
the Polish authorities. The last years 
of his reign were characterized by bound¬ 
less luxury and corruption of manners. 
He was not disliked by his subjects, and 
filled with dignity his station among the 
European powers. In his character gener¬ 
ous ideas were united with despotic feel¬ 
ings, a taste for pleasure with the cares 









Augustus III, 


Aulic 


of ambition, and the restlessness of a war¬ 
like spirit with the effeminacy of a luxu¬ 
rious life. Death surprised him in the 
midst of his pleasures and projects. On 
his journey to Warsaw to attend the diet, 
a small wound in his knee becoming in¬ 
flamed, he died, Feb. 1, 1733, and was 
buried in Cracow. His wife, Christine 
Eberhardine, left him one son. By his mis¬ 
tresses he had many children. The Coun¬ 
tess of Konigsmark bore him the celebrated 
Maurice of Saxony. 

Augustus III., Frederick, Elector of 
Saxony and King of Poland, son of Augus¬ 
tus II.; born in Dresden, in 1690; succeeded 
his father as elector in 1733. Toward the 
end of this year Louis XV. endeavored to 
replace Stanislaus Lesczinsky, whose daugh¬ 
ter he had married, on the throne of Po¬ 
land; but France was too far distant to 
send troops enough to Poland to support 
him. A part of the Polish nobility sep¬ 
arated from the diet, and, supported by a 
Russian army, chose Augustus king; and 
in 1736 he was first generally recognized as 
such by the congress assembled at Warsaw 
to conclude a peace. Although without the 
great and amiable qualities of his father, in 
other respects he closely followed his exam¬ 
ple, distinguishing himself by the splendor 
of his feasts and the extravagance of his 
court. Hunting was his passion. The 
cares of government he gave up to his 
favorite and prime minister, Count Briihl, 
who was artful enough to persuade a mon¬ 
arch, weak, but proud and jealous of his 
dignity, that he alone exercised the supreme 
power. His system of politics consisted 
in entire dependence upon Russia. He pre¬ 
ferred Dresden to Warsaw, and through his 
long absence from Poland the government 
sank into entire inactivity. Never were 
the annual diets more turbulent, and never 
were they so inefficient from the unbending 
obstinacy of the members, who continually 
opposed each other, under the most trivial 
pretexts. Augustus was satisfied if he 
could remain in his beloved Saxony, and 
thus the great kingdom of Poland was al¬ 
most entirely without a government for 30 
years. 

In the midst of this confusion the Pcles 
appeared to be satisfied and happy; but 
when Frederick II. had conquered Silesia, 
Augustus, disturbed by the rapidly increas¬ 
ing power of Prussia, united himself with 
the Queen of Hungary, by the treaties of 
December, 1742, May 13, 1744, and by that 
of Leipsic, May 18, 1745. He pledged him¬ 
self, by means of the money which England 
and Holland were to pay him, to furnish 
her with 30,000 auxiliary troops, which he 
sent into Silesia, where they were united 
with the Austrian army, but were entirely 
defeated at Ilohenfriedberg, June 4, 1745. 
Frederick now attacked Saxony itself, and 


Prince Leopold of Dessau defeated the Sax¬ 
on army once more, Dec. 15, 1745, at Kes- 
selsdorf, under the walls of Dresden. 
Augustus deserted his capital, and pre¬ 
served his pictures and porcelain, but lost 
the archives of the State, which fell into 
the hands of the victors. By the peace of 
Dresden, Dec. 25, 1745, he was reinstated in 
the possession of Saxony, in the next year. 
In 1756 he saw himself involved anew in a 
war against Prussia. When Frederick de¬ 
clined his proposal of neutrality he left 
Dresden, Sept. 10, and entered the camp at 
Pirna, where 17,000 Saxon troops were as¬ 
sembled. Frederick surrounded the Saxons, 
who were obliged to surrender, Oct. 14. 
Augustus fled to Konigstein, and after¬ 
ward to Poland. His authority in this 
country had always been inconsiderable, and 
after the loss of Saxony, became still more 
insignificant. The accession of Catharine 
to the Russian throne was a source of dis¬ 
quietude, for she sought to deprive the Sax¬ 
on princes, who were allies of France, of the 
Polish thrones. The peace of Hubertsberg 
was hardly concluded when Augustus re¬ 
turned from Warsaw to Dresden, where he 
was seized, Oct. 5, 1763, with a fit of the 
gout, which put an end to his life. He 
had, like his father, before his accession to 
the Polish throne (1712), embraced the 
Roman Catholic religion. His son, Fred¬ 
erick Christian, succeeded him as Elector of 
Saxony, and Stanislaus Poniatowsky as 
King of Poland. 

Auk, the name given to several sea birds, 
especially the great and the little auk. The 
great auk is the alca impennis of Linnaeus. 
It is from two to two and a half feet high, 
with short wings almost useless for flight. 
In the water, however, it makes way with 
astonishing rapidity. It is essentially a 
northern bird. It seems to be rapidly verg¬ 
ing to extinction. Its bones left behind 
show that it was formerly abundant on the 
shores of Iceland, Greenland, and Denmark. 
The little auk of Pennant and others, called 
also the common rotche, and the little 
white and black diver is the mergulus me- 
lanoleucos of Yarrell’s “ British Birds,” the 
M. alle of Carpenter and Dallas, and the 
alca alle of Linnaeus. It has the breast, the 
belly, a dot above the eyes, and a stripe on 
the wing, white; the rest of the plumage 
black. Its length is 9 inches, and the 
extent of its wings 16. Its dimensions are 
thus about those of a large pigeon. It 
nestles in holes or crevices on the bare rocks, 
laying one bluish-green egg. It is abundant 
in the Arctic seas. It is found also in Great 
Britain. 

Aulic, an epithet given to a council (the 
Reicnshofrath) in the old German Empire, 
one of the two supreme courts of the Ger¬ 
man Empire, the other being the court of 
the imperial chamber (Reichskammer- 





Aulis 


Aurelius Antoninus 


gericht). It had not only concurrent juris¬ 
diction with the latter court, but in many 
cases exclusive jurisdiction, in all feudal 
processes, and in criminal alFairs, over the 
immediate feudatories of the emperor and 
in affairs which concerned the Imperial 
Government. The title is now applied in 
Germany in a genera! sense to the chief 
council of any department, political, ad¬ 
ministrative, judicial or military. 

Aulis, in ancient Greece, a seaport in 
Bceotia, on the strait called Euripus, be¬ 
tween Boeotia and Euboea. 

Aullagas (oul-ya'gas), a salt lake of 
Bolivia, which receives the surplus waters 
of Lake Titicaca through the Rio Desagua- 
dero, and has only one perceptible, insig¬ 
nificant outlet, so that what becomes of 
its superfluous water is still a matter of 
uncertainty. 

Aumale (o-mal'), a small French town, 
in the Department of Seine-Inferieure, 
35 miles N. E. of Rouen, which has given 
titles to several notables in French history. 

Aungerville, Richard (an'ger-vil), known 
as Richard de Bury (from his birthplace, 
Bury St. Edmund’s), an English statesman, 
bibliographer and correspondent of Petrarch, 
born in 1281. He entered the order of 
Benedictine monks, and became tutor to the 
Prince of Wales, afterward Edward III. 
Promoted to several offices of dignity, he 
ultimately became Bishop of Durham, and 
Lord Chancellor of England. During his 
frequent embassies to the Continent he 
made the acquaintance of many of the emi¬ 
nent men of the day. He was a diligent 
collector of books, and formed a library at 
Oxford. Author of “ Philobiblon,” “ Epis- 
tolse Familiarium,” including letters to 
Petrarch, etc. He died in 1345. 

Aurbacher, Ludwig (our'ba-cher), a Ger¬ 
man author (1784-1847), well remembered 
by his “ Volksbiichlein ” (1827-1829); a 

collection of popular tales, ranking among 
the best productions of this kind in German 
literature. 

Aurelian, Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, 

an Emperor of Rome, distinguished for his 
military abilities and stern severity of char¬ 
acter; was the son of a peasant of Illyricum. 
He was born about 212 a. d., and rose to the 
highest rank in the army, and even to the 
consulate: which good fortune was in¬ 
creased by a wealthy marriage. Claudius II., 
on his death-bed, in 270, recommended 
Aurelian to the choice of the troops of 
Illyricum, who readily acceded to his wishes. 
He delivered Italy from the barbarians, re¬ 
duced Tetrieus, who had been unwillingly 
made to assume the purple in Gaul, and 
conquered the famous Zenobia, Queen of 
Palmyra. Aurelian followed up his victo¬ 
ries by the reformation of abuses, and the 


restoration throughout the empire of order 
and regularity, but tarnished his good in¬ 
tentions by the general severity of his meas¬ 
ures, and the sacrifice of the senatorian 
order to his slightest suspicions. He had 
planned a great expedition against Persia, 
and was waiting in Thrace for an opportun¬ 
ity to cross the straits, when he lost his 
life, A. d. 275, by assassination, the result 
of a conspiracy excited by a secretary whom 
he intended to call to account for pecula¬ 
tion. Aurelian was a wise, able, and active 
prince, and very useful in the declining 
state of the empire. 

Aurelius Antoninus,Marcus, often called 

simply Marcus Aurelius, Roman Emperor 
and philosopher, son-in-law, adopted son, and 
successor of Antoninus Pius, born a. d. 121, 
succeeded to the throne 1G1; died 180. 
His name originally was Marcus Annius 
Verus. He voluntarily shared the govern¬ 
ment with Lucius Verus, whom Antoninus 
Pius had also adopted. Brought up and 
instructed by Plutarch’s nephew, Sextus, 
the orator Herodes Atticus, and L. Volusius 
Mecianus, the jurist, he had become ac¬ 
quainted with learned men, and formed a 
particular love for the Stoic philosophy. A 
war with Parthia broke out in the year 
of his accession, and did not terminate till 
166. A confederacy of the northern tribes 
now threatened Italy, while a frightful pes¬ 
tilence, brought from the East with the 
army, raged in Rome itself. Both emperors 
set out in person against the rebellious 
tribes. In 169 Verus died, and the sole 
command of the war devolved on Marcus 
Aurelius, who prosecuted it with the ut¬ 
most rigor, and nearly exterminated the 
Marcomanni. His victory over the Quadi 
(174) is connected with a famous legend. 
Dion Cassius tells us that the 12th legion 
of the Roman army was shut up in a defile, 
and reduced to great straits for want of 
water, when a bodv of Christians enrolled 
in the legion prayed for relief. Not only 
was rain sent, which enabled the Romans 
to quench their thirst, but a fierce storm of 
hail beat upon the enemy, accompanied by 
thunder and lightning, which so terrified 
them that a complete victory was obtained, 
and the legion was ever after called “ The 
Thundering Legion.” After this victory, 
the Marcomanni, the Quadi, as well as the 
rest of the barbarians, sued for peace. The 
sedition of the Syrian governor, Avidius 
Cassius, with whom Faustina, the Empress, 
was in treasonable communication, called off 
the Emperor from his conquests, but before 
he reached Asia the rebel was assassinated. 
Aurelius returned to Rome, after visiting 
Egypt and Greece, but soon new incursions 
of the Marcomanni compelled him once more 
to take the field. He defeated'the enemy sev¬ 
eral times, but was taken sick at Sirmium, 
and died at Vindobona (Vienna), in 180. 



Aurengzebe 


Aurora 


His only extant work is the “ Meditations,” 
written in Greek, and which has been trans¬ 
lated into most modern languages. This 
may be regarded as a manual of practical 
morality, in which wisdom, gentleness, and 
benevolence are combined in the most fas¬ 
cinating mariner. Many believe it to have 
been intended for the instruction of his son 
Commodus. Aurelius was one of the best 
emperors Rome ever saw, although his phil¬ 
osophy and the magnanimity of his charac¬ 
ter did not restrain him from the persecut- 
tion of the Christians, whose religious doc¬ 
trines he was led to believe were subversive 
of good government. 

Aurengzebe. See Aurungzebe. 

Aureola, or Aureole, in paintings, an il¬ 
lumination surrounding a holy person, as 
Christ, a saint, or a martyr, intended to 
represent a luminous cloud or haze emanat¬ 
ing from him. It is generally of an oval 
shape, or may be nearly or quite circular, 
and is of similar character with the nimbus 
surrounding the heads of sacred person¬ 
ages. 

Aureus, the first gold coin which was 
coined at Rome, 207 b. c. Its value varied 
at different times, from about $3 to $6. 

Aurichalcite, a mineral placed, by Dana 
under the fourth section of his hydrous car¬ 
bonates. It occurs in acicular crystals, 
forming drusy incrustations; also columnar, 
plumose, granular, or laminated. Its lus¬ 
ter is pearly; its color, pale-green, or some¬ 
times azure. The hardness is 2. The com¬ 
position: Oxide of copper, 1G.03 to 32.5; 
oxide of zinc, 32.02 to 56.82; carbonic acid, 
14.08 to 24.69; water, 9.93 to 10.80; lime, 
0 to 8.G2. It is found in England at Rough- 
ten Gill, in Cumberland; at Leadhills, in 
Lanarkshire; in Spain, Asia, and the United 
States. Buratite, by some called limeauri- 
ehalcite, occurs in France and in Austro- 
Hungary. 

Auricles of the Heart, those two of the 

four cavities of the heart which are much 
smaller than the others, and each of which, 
moreover, has falling down upon its external 
face a flattened appendage, like the ear of a 
dog, from which the name of the whole struc¬ 
ture is derived. The right auricle has a com¬ 
munication with the right ventricle, and the 
left auricle with the left ventricle. The two 
auricles are irregular, cuboidal, muscular 
bags, separated from each other by a thin, 
fleshy partition. The main portion of each 
consists of what is called the sinus venosus, 
into which the veins pour their blood. 

Auricula, a well known and beautiful 
garden flower, the primula auricula. It is 
a native of the Alpine districts of Italy, 
Switzerland, and Germany, and occurs also 
in Astrakhan. In its wild state its colors 
are generally yellow and red, more rarely 


purple, and occasionally variegated or mealy. 
A still greater variety of colors has been in¬ 
troduced by cultivation. In zoology, a genus 
of pulmoniferous mollusks, the typical one 
of the family auriculidce. They are found 
chiefly in the brackish swamps of tropical 
islands. Tate, in 1875, enumerated 94 re¬ 
cent and 28 fossil species, the latter appar¬ 
ently Neocomian in age. There are several 
sub-genera. 

Aurifaber, the Latinized name of Johann 
Goldschmidt, one of Luther’s companions, 
born in 1519, became pastor at Erfurt in 
15GG; died there in 1579. He collected the 
unpublished manuscripts of Luther, and 
edited the *'* Epistoloe ” and the “ Table- 
Talk.” 

Auriga (fi-re'ga), in astronomy, the Wag¬ 
oner, a constellation of the northern hemi¬ 
sphere, containing 68 stars, including Ca- 
pella of the first magnitude. 

Aurillac (d-re-yak), a town of France, 
capital of the Department of Cantal; on the 
Dourdonne river; 272 miles S. of Paris. 
It is noted for its ancient buildings, among 
which are the Church of Notre Dame, con¬ 
structed in the 13th century, and the castle 
of St. Stephen. Most of the town is of mod¬ 
ern construction. It has manufactures of 
jewelry, copper, kettles, paper, woolen stuffs 
and carpets. Pop. (1891) 15,824. 

Auringer, Obadiah £vrus, an American 
poet, born at Glens Falls, N. Y., June 4, 
1849. He served for some years in the 
United States navy. In 1875 he became a 
farmer in his native place. Among his 
works are “ Voices of a Shell,” “ Scythe and 
Sword ” (1887); Episode of Jane McCrea,” 
and “ The Book of the Hills.” 

Aurochs, the English and very nearly 
the German name of the aurochs fossile of 
Cuvier, the bos irus of some other writers, 
now called bison priscus. It belongs to the 
order ruminantia and the family bovidcc. 
It is a species of ox, with a shaggy coat and 
mane, found by the Romans in the forests 
of Germany and Belgium, and still existing 
in small numbers in Lithuania, being pre¬ 
served by strict protective laws. In pre¬ 
historic times it must have existed in Eng¬ 
land, for its remains have been found in 
newer Pliocene strata at Woolwich, at Il¬ 
ford, and in the valley of the Thames. It 
is not to be confounded with the urus of 
Caesar. The genus is almost extinct. 

Aurora, the dawning light before sunrise; 
daybreak; the morning. In mythology, the 
daughter of Hyperion and Thia, and sister 
of Sol and Luna. She was one of the an¬ 
cient goddesses of the race of the Titans, 
but retained her rank among the later race 
of gods. To the Titan Astroeus, son of Crius, 
she bore the winds, Zephyrus, Boreas, and 
Notus, the morning star, and the constella- 



Aurora 


Aurora Borealis 


tions. She rises from the ocean, drawn by 
the celestial horses Lampus and Phaeton, 
and with rosy lingers raises the veil of 
night, shedding light upon the world, until 
she Hies from the splendor of day. Among 
the mortals whose 
beauty captivated the 
goddess poets mention 
Orion, Tithonus and 
Cephalus. 

Aurora, a city in 
Kane co., Ill., cn the 
Fox river, and the Chi¬ 
cago and Northwestern, 
the Burlington Route, 
and other railroads; 

38 miles W. of Chicago. 

It contains several lo¬ 
comotive, car, and rail¬ 
road repair shops; large 
cotton and woolen mills; 
watch and carriage factories; smelting and 
silver plating works; stove and machine 
works; and other industries. It is the farm¬ 
ing and manufacturing center for Kane and 
adjoining counties. There are 12 churches, 
State hospital, Jennings Seminary, electric 
light and street railway plants, Holly sys¬ 
tem of water works, 5 National banks, daily 
and weekly newspapers, and assessed prop¬ 
erty valuations of about $5,000,000. Pop. 
(1000) 24,147; (1910) 29,807. 

Aurora Borealis, a luminous meteoric 
phenomenon appearing in the N. most fre¬ 
quently in high latitudes, the correspond¬ 
ing phenomenon in the southern hemisphere 


being called aurora australis, and both be¬ 
ing also called polar light, streamers, etc. 
The northern aurora has been far the most 
observed and studied. It usually manifests 
itself by streams of light ascending toward 


the zenith from a dusky line of cloud or 
haze a few degrees above the horizon, and 
stretching from the N. toward the \Y. and 
E., so as to form an arc with its ends on 
the horizon, and its different parts and rays 


are constantly in motion. Sometimes it 
appears in detached places; at other times 
it almost covers the whole sky. It assumes 
many shapes and a variety of colors, from 
a pale red or yellow to a deep red or blood 
color; and in the northern latitudes serves 
to illuminate the earth and cheer the gloom 
of the long winter nights. The appearance 
of the aurora borealis so exactly resembles 
the effects of artificial electricity that there 
is every reason to believe that their causes 
are identical. When electricity passes 
through rarified air it exhibits a diffused 
luminous stream which has all the charac¬ 
teristic appearances of the aurora, and hence 

it is highly proba¬ 
ble that this na¬ 
tural phenomenon 
is occasioned by 
the passage of 
electricity 
through the up¬ 
per regions of the 
atmosphere. The 
influence of the 
aurora upon the 
magnetic needle is 
now considered as 
an ascertained 
fact, and the con¬ 
nection between it 
and magnetism is 
further evident 
from the fact that 
the beams or cor¬ 
uscations issuing 
from a point in 
the horizon W. of 
N. are frequently 
observed to run in 
the magnetic meridian. What are known as 
magnetic storms are invariably connected 
with exhibitions of the aurora, and with 
spontaneous galvanic currents in the ordi¬ 
nary telegraph wires; and this connection is 



AURORA DRIVING HER CHARIOT. 



AURORA BOREALIS. 































































Aurungzebe 


Austen 


found to be so certain that, upon remarking 
the display of one of the three classes of 
phenomena, we can at once assert that the 
other two are also observable. The aurora 
borealis is frequently accompanied by sound, 
which is variously described as resembling 
the rustling of pieces of silk against each 
other, or the sound of wind against the flame 
of a candle. The aurora of the southern 
hemisphere is quite a similar phenomenon to 
that of the northern. 

Aurungzebe (au-rung-zeb'), known as the 
Great Mogul, or Emperor of Hindustan, 
born Oct. 22, 1618. He was the son of 
Shah Jehan, and properly named Moham¬ 
med, but received from his grandfather that 
of Aurungzebe (Ornament of the Throne), 
by which he is known to history. After de¬ 
posing and imprisoning his father, and put¬ 
ting his brothers to death, Aurungzebe, in 
1658, was crowned sole monarch of the great 
Mogul Empire. His long reign was more 
remarkable for its internal policy than for 
its outward events. In some respects it may 
be compared to the reign of Louis XIY. of 
France. Both reigns were of unusual dura¬ 
tion, and of unquestionable brilliancy. Au¬ 
rungzebe carried on many wars, conquered 
Golconda and Beejapur, and subjugated the 
Mahrattas. The Mussulmans of India still re¬ 
gard him as the greatest of their sovereigns. 
Aurungzebe died at Ahmednuggur, in the 
Deccan, Feb. 21, 1707, master of 21 provin¬ 
ces, and of a revenue of about $200,000,000. 

Ausable Chasm, a picturesque and popu¬ 
lar American summer resort, in New York 
State; 12 miles from Plattsburg, and 1 mile 
from Keeseville. It is an isolated forma¬ 
tion, wholly independent of, and discon¬ 
nected from, any other similar panorama. 
At the beginning of the chasm, the river is 
hemmed into a channel not more than 10 
feet wide by walls of rock from 100 to 200 
feet high. Lower down the walls gradually 
spread apart till in some places there is a 
distance between them of 50 feet, and then 
extend with sharp turns and occasional en¬ 
largements for nearly 2 miles. Lateral fis¬ 
sures, narrow and deep, project from the 
main ravine at nearly right angles, and 
through one of these a staircase of over 200 
feet reaches to the abyss. The walls are 
formed of laminae of sandstone, laid in pre¬ 
cise and regular order, and their crevices 
are filled with a thick growth of hardy pines 
and cedars. The trip through the chasm 
may be made in a small boat or on foot. 
For the accommodation of tourists, stone 
walks with substantial iron railings and 
firm bridges have been constructed. 

Auscultation, the art of discovering dis¬ 
eases within the body by means of the sense 
of hearing. Being carried out most effi¬ 
ciently by means of an instrument called a 
stethoscope, it is often called mediate aus¬ 
cultation. It is used to study the natural 


sounds produced within the body, especially 
the action of the lungs and heart, both in 
health and disease. Its operation can be 
facilitated by percussion of the surface. 

Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, son of a 

physician of Bordeaux, was born in the be¬ 
ginning of the 4th century. He devoted him¬ 
self to the cultivation of letters. In a. o. 
369, his reputation caused him to be selected 
by the Emperor Valentinian as tutor to his 
son Gratian. In a. d. 377, he was appointed 
praetorian prefect of Italy, and of the Gauls 
in the following year, and *made consul by 
Gratian in 379. His poetical talents were 
highly esteemed during his life (as indeed 
he is among the best writers of that late 
era) ; and the Emperor Theodosius wished 
to obtain the same return of flattery from 
him which Augustus received from Horace 
and Vergil. But his style is vicious and full 
of conceits, and his subjects generally too 
trifling to retain any interest. 

Auspices, among the Romans, omens, es¬ 
pecially those drawn from the flight or other 
movements of birds, or, less properly, from 
the occurrence of lightning or thunder in 
particular parts of the sky. These were 
supposed to be indications of the will of 
heaven, and to reveal futurity. At first 
only the augurs took the auspices, but after 
a time civil officers, discharging important 
functions, had the right of doing so. Two 
kinds of auspices, however, arose — a greater 
and a lesser; the former reserved to dicta¬ 
tors, consuls, censors, preetors, or the com¬ 
mander-in-chief in war; the latter permitted 
to less exalted functionaries. In the strug¬ 
gle which the plebeians carried on against 
the patricians for permission to share in 
political power, the chief argument used by 
the opponents of change was, the impossibil¬ 
ity that a plebeian could take the auspices; 
but when, in b. c. 307, the flinging open of 
the augural college to all classes permitted 
him to try the experiment, it was found 
that he did the work as effectively (not to 
say as ineffectively) as any patrician what¬ 
ever. The glory of a successful enterprise 
was universally assigned to the person who 
took the auspices, and not to the leader of 
the enterprise itself; hence, the phrase arose, 
to carry on a war “ under the auspices ” of 
the Emperor or some other high authority. 

Austen, Jane, an English novelist, born 
at Steventon, Hampshire, of which parish 
her father was the rector, Dec. 16, 1775. 
She was the youngest of seven children, 
among whom she had but one sister, and 
of her brothers two ultimately rose to the 
rank of Admiral in the navy. Her father 
gave her a better education than was com¬ 
mon for girls toward the close of the 18th 
century. Jane learned French and Italian, 
and had a good acquaintance with English 
literature, her favorite authors being Rich¬ 
ardson, Johnson, Cowper, Crabbe, and, later, 



Austerlitz 


Austin 


Scott. She grew up tall and remarkably 
graceful iu person, with bright hazel eyes, 
fine features, rich color,and beautiful brown 
curly hair. Her disposition was very sweet 
and charming, and she was an especial fa¬ 
vorite with children, whom she used to de¬ 
light with her long, improvised stories. In 
1801 she went with her family to Bath, 
and after her father’s death in 1805, re¬ 
moved to Southampton, and finally, in 1809, 
to Chawton, near Winchester. She had 
written stories from her childhood, but it 
was here that she first gave anything to the 
world. Four stories were published anony¬ 
mously during her lifetime: “Sense and 
Sensibility” (1811) ; “Pride and Prejudice” 
(1813); “Mansfield Park” (1814),. and 
“Emma” (181G). The first two were writ¬ 
ten before the gifted authoress was more 
than two-and-twenty years old. Early in 
181G, her health began to give way. In May, 
1817, she went for medical advice to Win¬ 
chester, and there she died, July 18, 1817. 
She was buried there in the Cathedral. 
“Northanger Abbey” and “Persuasion” 
were published in 1818, when the author¬ 
ship of the whole six was first acknowl¬ 
edged. Jane Austen’s novels are the earliest 
example of the so-called domestic novel in 
England. No one was ever better acquainted 
with the limits of her own powers than this 
marvelous girl, and consequently all her 
work stands on the same high level of ex¬ 
cellence. The finest critics, with singular 
unanimity, have praised the delicacy of her 
touch, and her faultless work has called 
forth the most unqualified admiration from 
Southey, Coleridge, Sydney Smith, and 
Lord Macaulay. Her world is the gentry 
in the England of her time, and she por¬ 
trays its every-day life with marvelous 
truthfulness of insight. 

Austerlitz, a small town of Moravia, on 
the Littawa, 13 miles S. E. of Briinn. In 
the vicinity, on Dec. 2, 1805, was fought the 
famous battle that bears its name, between 
the French army of 80,000 men, commanded 
by Napoleon, and the combined Russian and 
Austrian armies, numbering 84,000, under 
their respective Emperors; in which the 
former achieved a signal victory. According 
to Alison, the allies lost 30,000 in killed, 
wounded, and prisoners, and the French 
12,000. The battle was followed by an ar¬ 
mistice, the terms of which were dictated 
by Napoleon; and immediately after, on 
Dec. 26, by the Treaty of Presburg, which 
disastrously affected Austria. The battle of 
Austerlitz is sometimes called “The Battle 
of the Three Emperors.” 

Austin, a city of Texas, county-seat of 
Travis co. and capital of the State; situated 
on the Colorado river about 225 miles N. W. 
of Galveston, and on the Houston and Texas 
Central, the Missouri, Kansas, and Texas, 
the International and Great Northern, and 


the Austin and Northwestern railroads. 
The capitol building is one of the largest of 
the State capitols, and cost the State three 
million acres of western lands paid to the 
builders and fifty thousand acres appropri¬ 
ated for preliminary expenses. Its corri¬ 
dors and chambers are adorned with fine 
statuary and historical paintings, and on 
the grounds are found some of the finest 
monumental sculptures in the South, among 
them the Confederate monument and the 
Terry Ranger monument, the latter of which 
was unveiled June 26, 1907. Among im¬ 
portant institutions are the University of 
Texas, St. Edward’s College, Tillottson’s 
Institute, and the Sam Houston College 
(colored). State asylums for the insane 
and State schools for the blind and for the 
deaf and dumb are also located here. Aus¬ 
tin has an extensive trade in cotton, grain, 
wool, hides, and live stock, and a large 
wholesale trade in groceries, dry goods, and 
provisions. Plain lumber, flour, and leather 
are the chief manufactured products. The 
great dam built in 1893 for water supply 
and power was swept away by floods in 
1900, but in 1907 negotiations were pending 
for rebuilding it. Taxable values in 1907 
reached about $12,000,000, which amount 
represents about two-fifths of the real 
value, no other city in the State having so 
large a proportion of non-taxable property; 
the bonded indebtedness on Aug. 1, 1907, 
was $1,529,500. The city has municipal 
ownership of water and electric light. The 
settlement formerly known as Waterloo was 
incorporated under its present name and 
made the capital of the Republic of Texas 
in 1839, and eventually became the capital 
of the State. Austin is a beautifully located 
and well-built city. It has splendid educa¬ 
tional advantages in both common schools 
and schools for advanced education. The 
first free school in the State was established 
here in 1871. Pop. (1900) 22,258; (1910) 
29,860. _ F. M. Maddox. 

Austin, Alfred, an English poet, critic, 
and journalist, born at Headingly, near 
Leeds, May 30, 1835. He graduated from 
the University of London in 1853, was called 
to the bar in 1857, and was editor of the 
“National Review,” 1883-1893. He was ap¬ 
pointed poet laureate of England in 1896. 
He is the author of political books, novels, 
and many volumes of verse. The latter in¬ 
clude “The Season: a Satire” (1862) ; “The 
Human Tragedy” (1862) ; “The Golden 
Age: a Satire” (1871); “The Tower of 
Babel,” a drama (1874); “Savonarola,” a 
tragedy (1881); and “Veronica’s Garden,” 
in prose and verse (1895). Some of his 
happiest effects are attained in “Prince 
Lucifer” and “The Garden that I Love,” 
although opinion is very much divided on 
the subject of his merits as a poet, particu¬ 
larly in such works as “Fortunatus, the 
Pessimist” (1891). Among his later prose 




Austin 


Australia 


works are “Haunts of Ancient Peace” 
(1902); “A Lesson in Harmony” (1904); 
“The Door of Humility” (1900). 

Austin, Jane Goodwin, an American nov¬ 
elist, born in Worcester, Mass., Feb. 25, 
1831; was educated and thenceforth lived in 
Boston. Her reputation rests on excellent 
stories describing the Pilgrim Fathers and 
the early colonists of Massachusetts, includ¬ 
ing “Fairy Dreams” (1860); “Moonfolk” 
(1874) ; “Mrs. Beauchamp Brown” (1880) ; 
“A Nameless Nobleman” (1881); “The 
Desmond Hundred” (1882); “Nantucket 
Scraps” (1882); “Standish of Standish” 
(1889) ; “Betty Alden” (1891) ; and “David 
AldeiTs Daughter” (1892). She died in 
Boston, March 30, 1894. 

Austin, John, an English writer on ju¬ 
risprudence, born in Creeling Mill, Suffolk, 
March 3, 1790. From 1826 to 1835 he filled 
the chair of Jurisprudence at London Uni¬ 
versity. He served on several royal com¬ 
missions, one of which took him to Malta; 
lived for some years on the Continent, and 
finally settled at Weybridge in Surrey. His 
fame rests on his great works, “ The Pro¬ 
vince of Jurisprudence Determined,” pub¬ 
lished in 1832; and his “Lectures on Juris¬ 
prudence,” published by his widow between 
1861 and 1863. He died in Weybridge, Sur¬ 
rey, in December, 1859. His wife, Sarah, 
one of the Taylors of Norwich, born in 
1793, produced translations of German 
works, and other books bearing on Germany 
or its literature; also “Considerations on 
National Education,” etc. She died in 
Weybridge, Surrey, Aug. 8, 1867. Her 
daughter, Lady Duff Gordon, translated the 
“ Amber Witch,” and other German works. 

Austin, Stephen Fuller, an American 
pioneer, born in Austinville, Va., Nov. 31, 
1793; a son of Moses Austin, the real founder 
of the State of Texas, who, about 1820, ob¬ 
tained permission from the Mexican Govern¬ 
ment to establish an American colony in 
Texas, but died before his plans were ac¬ 
complished. Stephen took up the work un¬ 
finished by his father, and located a thrifty 
colony on the site of the present city of 
Austin, in 1821. Subsequently he was a 
commissioner to urge the admission of 
Texas into the Mexican Union; was im¬ 
prisoned there for several months; and, in 
1835, was a commissioner to the United 
States Government to secure the recognition 
of Texas as an independent State. He died 
in Columbia, Tex., Dec. 25, 1836. 

Australasia, a division of the globe usu¬ 
ally regarded as comprehending the islands 
of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, New 
Caledonia, the New Hebrides, the Solomon 
Islands, New Ireland, New Britain, the Ad¬ 
miralty Islands, New Guinea, and the Arru 
Islands, besides numerous other islands and 
f.sland groups; area, 3,259,199 square miles, 


pop. (1891) 4,285,297. It forms one of 
three portions into which some geographers 
have divided Oceania, the other two being 
Malaysia and Polynesia. 

Australia (older name, New Holland), 
the largest island in the world, a sea-girt 
continent, lying between the Indian and 
Pacific Oceans, S. E. of Asia; between lat. 
10° 39' and 39° 11' S.; long. 113° 5' 
and 153° 16' E.; greatest length, from W. 
to E., 2,400 miles; greatest breadth from 
N. to S., 1,700 to 1,900 miles. It is sepa¬ 
rated from New Guinea on the N. by Torres 
Strait, from Tasmania on the S. by Bass 
Strait. It is divided into two unequal parts 
by the Tropic of Capricorn, and is occupied 
by what are known as the original states 
of the Commonwealth of Australia, since the 
federation which was proclaimed Jan. 1, 
1901. 

Area and Population .— The area and the 
population (exclusive of aborigines) of the 
different States composing the Common¬ 
wealth of Australia in 1910 were as fol¬ 
lows : 


Original States. 

Area. Sq.M. 

Pop. 

New South Wales. 

310,367 

1.621,677 

Victoria . 

87,884 

1.303.357 

Queensland . 

668.497 

57 2.654 

Smith Australia. 

903,690 

416 047 

Western Australia. 

975,920 

273.534 

Tasmania .. 

26,215 

186 860 


Total . 

2,972,573 

4 374.129 


Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, 
Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, Ade¬ 
laide, the capital of South Australia, and 
Brisbane, the capital of Queensland, are the 
chief towns. 

Topography .— Although there are nu¬ 
merous spacious harbors on the coasts, 
there are few remarkable indentations; the 
principal being the Gulf of Carpentaria, on 
the N., the Great Australian Bight, and 
Spencer Gulf, on the S. The chief projec¬ 
tions are Cape York Peninsula and Arnhem 
Land in the N. Parallel to the N. E. coast 
runs the Great Barrier Reef for 1,000 miles. 
In great part the E. coast is bold and rocky, 
and is fringed with many small islands. 
Part of the S. coast is low and sandy, and 
part presents cliffs of several hundred feet 
high. The N. and W. coasts are generally 
low, with some elevations at intervals. 

Geology .— The interior, so far as ex¬ 
plored, is largely composed of rocky tracts 
and barren plains with little or no water. 
The whole continent forms an immense 
plateau, highest in the E., low in the center, 
and with a narrow tract of land usually 
intervening between the elevated area and 
the sea. The base of the tableland is 
granite, which forms the surface rock in a 
great part of the S. W., and is common in 
the higher grounds along the E. side. Sec¬ 
ondary (cretaceous) and tertiary rocks are 



















Australia 


Australia 


largely developed in the interior. Silurian 
rocks occupy a large area in South Aus¬ 
tralia, on both sides of Spencer Gulf. The 
mountainous region in the S. E. and E. is 
mainly composed of volcanic, silurian, car¬ 
bonaceous, and carboniferous rocks yielding 
good coal. No active volcano is known to 
exist, but in the S. E. there are some craters 
only recently extinct. The highest and most 
extensive mountain system is a belt about 
150 miles wide, skirting the whole eastern 
and southeastern border of the continent, 
and often called, in whole, or in part, 
the Great Dividing Range, from forming the 
great water shed of Australia. A part of 
it, called the Australian Alps, in the 
S. E. contains the highest summits in 
Australia, Mt. Kosciusko (7,175 feet), Mt. 
Clark (7,256), and Mt. Townshend (7,353). 
West of the Dividing Range are extensive 
plains or downs admirably adapted for pas¬ 
toral purposes. The deserts and scrubs, 
which occupy large areas of the interior, are 
a characteristic feature of Australia. The 
former are destitute of vegetation, or are 
clothed only with a coarse, spiny grass that 
affords no sustenance to cattle or horses; 
the latter are composed of a dense growth 
of shrubs and low trees, often impenetrable 
till the traveler has cleared a track with 
his axe. 

Water Courses. — The rivers of Australia 
are nearly all subject to great irregularities 
in volume, many of them at one time show¬ 
ing a channel in which there is merely a 
series of pools, while at another they inun¬ 
date the whole adjacent country. The 
chief is the Murray, which, with its afflu¬ 
ents, the Murrumbidgee, Lachlan and Dar¬ 
ling, drains a great part of the interior W. 
of the Dividing Range, and falls into the 
sea on the S. coast fafter entering Lake 
Alexandrina). Its greatest tributary is the 
Darling, which may even be regarded as the 
main stream. On the E. coast are the 
Hunter, Clarence, Brisbane, Fitzroy and 
Burdekin; on the W. the Swan, Murchison, 
Gascoyne, Ashburton, and De Grey; on the 
N. the Fitzroy, Victoria, Flinders, and Mit¬ 
chell. The Australian rivers are of little 
service in facilitating internal communica¬ 
tion. Many of them lose themselves in 
swamps or sandy wastes of the interior. A 
considerable river of the interior is Coop¬ 
er’s Creek, or the Barcoo, which falls into 
Lake Eyre, one of a group of lakes on the 
S. side of the continent having no outlet, 
and, accordingly, salt. The principal of 
these are Lakes Eyre, Torrens, and Gaird- 
ner, all of which vary in size and saltiness 
according to the season. Another large salt 
lake of little depth, Lake Amadeus, lies a 
little W. of the center of Australia. Vari¬ 
ous others of less magnitude are scattered 
over the interior. 

Climate. — The climate of Australia is 
generally hot and dry, but very healthy. In 


the tropical portions there are heavy rains, 
and in most of the coast districts there is 
a sufficiency of moisture, but in the interior 
the heat and drought are extreme. Con¬ 
siderable portions now devoted to pasturage 
are liable, at times, to suffer from drought. 
At Melbourne the mean temperature is 
about 56°, at Sydney about 63°. The S. E. 
settled districts are at times subject to ex¬ 
cessively hot winds from the interior, which 
cause great discomfort, and are often fol¬ 
lowed by a violent cold wind from the S. 
(“southerly bursters”). In the mountain¬ 
ous and more temperate parts snow storms 
are common in June, July and August. 

Mineralogy. — Australia is a region con¬ 
taining a vast quantity of mineral wealth. 
Foremost come its rich and extensive de¬ 
posits of gold, which, since the precious 
metal was first discovered, in 1851, have 
produced a total of more than $1,350,000,000. 
The greatest quantity has been obtained in 
Victoria, but New South Wales and Queens¬ 
land have also yielded a considerable 
amount. Probably there are rich stores of 
gold as yet undiscovered. Australia also 
possesses silver, copper, tin, lead, zinc, anti¬ 
mony, mercury, plumbago, etc., in abun¬ 
dance, besides coal (now worked to a consid¬ 
erable extent in New South Wales) and 
iron. Various precious stones are found, 
as the garnet, ruby, topaz, sapphire, and 
even the diamond. Of building stone there 
are granite, limestone, marble, and stand- 
stone. 

Plant Life. — The Australian flora pre¬ 
sents peculiarities which mark it off by it¬ 
self in a very decided manner. Many of its 
most striking features have an unmistaka¬ 
ble relation to the general dryness of the 
climate. The trees and bushes have, for the 
most part, a scanty foliage, presenting little 
surface for evaporation, or thick leathery 
leaves well fitted to retain moisture. The 
most widely spread types of Australian 
vegetation are the various kinds of gum 
tree (eucalyptus) , the shea-oak (casua- 
rina) , the acacia or wattle, the grass 
tree ( xanthorrhcea ), many varieties of 
proteacece, and a great number of ferns and 
tree ferns. Of the gum tree there are found 
upward of 150 species, many of which are 
of great value. Individual specimens of the 
peppermint ( E. amygdalina) have been 
found to measure from 480 to 500 feet in 
height. As timber trees the most valuable 
members of this genus are the E. rostrata 
(or red gum), E. leucoxylon, and E. mar- 
ginata, the timber of which is hard, dense, 
and almost indestructible. A number of 
the gum trees have deciduous bark. The 
wattle or acacia includes about 300 species, 
some of them of considerable economic 
value, yielding good timber or bark for 
tanning. The most beautiful and most use¬ 
ful is that known as the golden wattle (A. 
dealbata) , which, in spring is adorned with 




Australia 


Australia 


rich masses of fragrant yellow blossom. 
Palms — of which there are 24 species, all 
except the cocoa-palm peculiar to Australia 
— are confined to the N. and E. coasts. In 
the “ scrubs ” already mentioned hosts of 
densly intertwisted bushes occupy extensive 
areas. The mallee scrub is formed by a 
species of dwarf eucalyptus, the inulga scrub 
by a species of thorny acacia. A plant 
which covers large areas in the arid reg¬ 
ions is the spinifex or porcupine grass, a 
hard, coarse and excessively spiny plant, 
which renders traveling difficult, wounds 
the feet of horses, and is utterly uneatable 
by any animal. Other large tracts are oc¬ 
cupied by herbs or bushes of a more valu¬ 
able kind, from their affording fodder. 
Foremost among those stands the salt-bush 
(atriplcx nummularia, order chenopodi- 
accce) . Beautiful flowering plants are nu¬ 
merous. Australia also possesses great 
numbers of turf-forming grasses, such as 
the kangaroo grass ( anthistiria australis). 
which survives even a tolerably protracted 
drought. The native fruit trees are few and 
unimportant, and the same may be said of 
the plants yielding roots used as food; but 
exotic fruits and vegetables may now be had 
in the different colonies in great abundance 
and of excellent quality. The vine, the 
olive, and mulberry thrive well, and quanti¬ 
ties of wine are now produced. The cereals 
of Europe and maize are extensively culti¬ 
vated, and large tracts of country, particu¬ 
larly in Queensland, are under the sugar¬ 
cane. 

Animal Life. — The Australian fauna is 
almost unique in its character. Its great 
feature is the nearly total absence of all 
the forms of mammalia which abound in 
the rest of the world, their place being sup¬ 
plied by a great variety of marsupials — 
these animals being nowhere else found, ex¬ 
cept in the opossums of America. There 
are about 110 kinds of marsupials (of 
which the kangaroo, wombat, bandicoot, 
and phalangers or opossums, are the best- 
known varieties), over 20 kinds of bats, a 
wild dog (the dingo), and a number of rats 
and mice. Two extraordinary animals, the 
platypus, or water mole of the colonist 
(ornithorhynchus) , and the porcupine ant- 
eater (echidna) constitute the lowest or¬ 
der of mammals (monotrcmata), and are 
confined to Australia. Their young are pro¬ 
duced from eggs. Australia now possesses 
a large stock of the domestic animals of 
England, which thrive there remarkably 
well. The breed of horses is excellent. 
Horned cattle and sheep are largely bred, 
the first attaining a great size, while the 
sheep improve in fleece and their flesh in 
flavor. 

The birds of Australia are numer¬ 
ous and in great variety, all the more im¬ 
portant orders and families of class Aves 
being represented. Eagles, some very large, 


measuring about nine feet from wing to 
wing; falcons, and various species of hawks 
and owls, are numerous; and so also are 
parrots and cockatoos, many of them of 
the most beautiful plumage. Pigeons of 
various species, and the most delicate and 
varied hues, frequent sundry parts of the 
island. The largest Australian bird is the 
emu, which, though excelled in size by the 
ostrich, attains a height sometimes of more 
than seven feet, five and six being the aver¬ 
age. It is widely diffused, but is rapidly 
disappearing from the more settled districts. 
The lyre bird with its magnificent lyre¬ 
shaped tail, the interesting bower birds, and 
the mound-building talegalla and mega- 
podius, are natives of this land of peculiar 
natural productions. The gigantic jabiru 
stork may be seen on the borders of the riv¬ 
ers, lakes, or swamps, which also abound in 
the duck tribe. Other aquatic birds are the 
pelican, Australian goose, and that rara avis 
of the Latin writers, the black swan. The 
game birds — pigeons, ducks, quails, geese, 
etc. — are numerous. The number of spe¬ 
cies is about 650. There are many rep¬ 
tiles, the largest being the alligator, found 
in some of the northern rivers. There 
are upward of 60 different species of snakes, 
some of which are very venomous. Lizards, 
frogs, and insects are also numerous in 
various parts. The seas, rivers and lagoons 
abound in fish of numerous varieties, and 
other aquatic animals, many of them pe¬ 
culiar. Whales and seals frequent the 
coasts. On the N. coasts are extensive 
fisheries of trepang, much visited by native 
traders from the Indian Archipelago. Some 
animals of European origin, such as the 
rabbit and the sparrow, have developed 
into real pests in several of the colonies in 
recent years. 

Peoples. — The natives belong to the Aus¬ 
tralian negro stock, and are sometimes con¬ 
sidered the lowest as regards intelligence in 
the whole human family, though this is 
doubtful. They are believed to number 
about 31,000, exclusive of those in the un¬ 
explored parts. They are of a dark-brown 
or black color, with jet-black curly, but not 
wooly, hair, of medium size, but inferior 
muscular development. In the settled parts 
of the continent they are inoffensive, and 
rapidly dying out. They have no fixed habi¬ 
tations; in the summer they live almost 
entirely in the open air, and in the more 
inclement weather they shelter themselves 
with bark erections of the rudest construc¬ 
tion. They have no cultivation and no do¬ 
mestic animals. Their food consists of such 
animals as they can kill, and no kind of liv¬ 
ing creature seems to be rejected, snakes, 
lizards, frogs, and even insects being eaten, 
often half raw. They are ignorant of the 
potter’s art. In their natural condition 
they wear little or no clothing. They speak 
a number of different languages or dialects. 



Australia 


Australia 


The women are regarded merely as slaves, 
and are frightfully maltreated. They have 
no religion; they practice polygamy, and 
are said to sometimes resort to cannibalism, 
but only in exceptional circumstances. 
They are occasionally employed by the set¬ 
tlers in light kinds of work, and as horse- 
breakers; but they dislike continuous oc¬ 
cupation, and soon give it up. The weapons 
of all the tribes are generally similar, con¬ 
sisting of spears, shields, boomerangs, 
wooden axes, clubs, and stone hatchets. 
Of these the boomerang is the most singu¬ 
lar, being an invention confined to the Aus¬ 
tralians. 

Government .— In addition to the central 
federated government (see Australian 
Federation ), each of the colonies has a 
governor, administration, and a Legisla¬ 
ture of its own. The governors are ap¬ 
pointed by the Queen, and all acts passed 
by the Colonial Legislatures must receive 
the royal assent. Each Legislature consists 
of two houses, a Legislative Council and a 
Legislative Assembly, the lower house being 
elected by manhood suffrage. The aggregate 
annual revenue of the colonies is about $100,- 
000,000, the annual expenditure several mil¬ 
lions more. The public debt is over $500,- 
000.000. The colonies have a considerable 
defensive force of militia and volunteers, 
also a number of gun-boats, torpedo-boats, 
etc., besides which there is always a squad¬ 
ron of British men-of-war on the Austra¬ 
lian station. There is no established Church 
in any of the colonies. The denomination 
which numbers most adherents is the Eng¬ 
lish or Anglican Church, next to which 
come the Roman Catholics, Presbyterians 
and Methodists. Education is well provided 
for, instruction in the primary schools be¬ 
ing, in some cases, free and compulsory, and 
the higher education being more and more 
attended to. There are flourishing univer¬ 
sities in Melbourne, Sydney and Adelaide. 
Newspapers are exceedingly numerous, and 
periodicals of all kinds are abundant. 
There is, as yet, no native literature of any 
distinctive type, but names of Australian 
writers of ability, both in prose and poetry, 
are beginning to be known beyond their own 
country. 

Industrial Pursuits .— Pastoral and agri¬ 
cultural pursuits and mining are the chief 
occupations of the people, though manufac¬ 
tures and handicrafts also employ large 
numbers. For sheep rearing ana the growth 
of wool the Australian colonies are unriv¬ 
aled, and, while the production of gold has 
considerably decreased, that of wool is con¬ 
stantly on the increase. The great bulk 
of the wool exported goes to Great Britain, 
which, in recent years, has received over 
300,000,000 pounds from the Australian 
colonies annually. The commerce is rapidly 
extending, and becoming, every year, more 
important to England, whence the colonists 


derive their chief supplies of manufactured 
goods in return for wool, gold, and other 
produce. Next to wool come gold, tin, cop¬ 
per, wheat, preserved meat, and tallow, 
hides and skins, cotton, tobacco, sugar and 
wine as the most important items of export. 
The chief imports consist of textile fabrics, 
haberdashery, and clothing, machinery and 
metal goods. The aggregate imports, in 
1897, were $327,997,650 in value, the ex¬ 
ports $361,052,630. There are upward of 
12.000 miles of railway in actual use, or 
in course of construction, and about 35,000 
miles of telegraph. The longest telegraph 
line is that running'northward across the 
continent from Adelaide. The two chief 
routes for mails between Great Britain 
and the Australian colonies are by way of 
the Suez canal, and by San Francisco 
across the American continent. The coin¬ 
age is the same as in the mother country. 
Banks and banking offices are numerous, in¬ 
cluding post-office or other savings banks 
for the reception of small sums. 

History .— It is doubtful when Australia 
was first discovered by Europeans. Be¬ 
tween 1531 and 1542 the Portuguese pub¬ 
lished the existence of a land which they 
called Great Java, and which corresponded 
to Australia, and probably the first discov¬ 
ery of the country was made by them early 
in the 16th century. The first authenticated 
discovery is said to have been made in 1601, 
by a Portuguese named Manoel Godinho de 
Eredia. In 1606, Torres, a Spaniard, passed 
through the strait that now bears his name, 
between New Guinea and Australia. Be¬ 
tween this period and 1628, a large portion 
of the coast line of Australia had been sur¬ 
veyed by various Dutch navigators. In 1664 
the continent was named New Holland by 
the Dutch government. In 1688 Dampier 
coasted along part of Australia, and about 
1700 explored a part of the W. and N. W. 
coasts. In 1770 Cook carefully surveyed the 
E. coast, named a number of localities, and 
took possession of the country for Great 
Britain. He was followed by Bligli in 1789, 
who carried on a series of observations on 
the N. E. coast, adding largely to the knowl¬ 
edge already obtained of this new world. 
Colonists had now arrived on the soil, and 
a penal settlement was formed (1788) at 
Port Jackson. In this way was laid the 
foundation of the future colony of New 
South Wales. The Moreton Bay district 
(Queensland) was settled in 1825; in 1835 
the Port Philip district. In 1851 the latter 
district was erected into a separate colony 
under the name of Victoria. Previous to 
this time the colonies both of Western 
Australia and of South Australia had been 
founded — the former in 1829, the latter in 
1836. The latest of the colonies is Queens¬ 
land, which only took an independent exis¬ 
tence in 1859. The discovery of gold in 
abundance took place in 1851, and caused 



Australia 


Australia 


an immense excitement and great influx of 
immigrants. The population was then only 
about 350,000, and was slowly increasing; 
but the discovery of the precious metal 
started the country on that career of pros¬ 
perity which has since been almost unin¬ 
terrupted. Convicts were long sent to Aus¬ 
tralia from the mother country, but trans¬ 
portation to New South Wales practically 
ceased in 1840, and the last convict vessel 
to West Australia arrived in 1808. Alto¬ 
gether about 70,000 convicts were landed 
in Australia (besides almost as many in 
Tasmania). 

Exploration .— For 25 years after the es¬ 
tablishment of a colony on the shores of 
Port Jackson, settlement was confined to 
the narrow strip of country shut in on the 
N. W. and S. by the Blue mountains, beyond 
which no one had penetrated, though many 
attempts to do so had been made. Along 
the sea the colony extended from Jervis bay 
to Port Stephens, a distance of 1G5 miles. 
In 1813 the mountain barrier was success¬ 
fully crossed by Messrs. Blaxland, Lawson, 
and Wentworth, and the plains beyond were 
at once occupied. In 1815 a practicable 
road was made across the mountains, and 
exploration was thereafter pushed on with 
the greatest vigor. In 1817 Oxley discov¬ 
ered and traced the Lachlan for some hun¬ 
dred miles, and later he discovered the 
Macquarie and other streams. In 1819 the 
Murrumbidgee was discovered. In 1824 
Messrs. Hovell and Hume crossed the dis¬ 
trict now forming the colony of Victoria 
and reached the head of Port Phillip. Allan 
Cunningham, the botanist, made extensive 
explorations in 1823 and-subsequent years, 
and the celebrated Captain Sturt commenced 
his arduous and wonderful undertakings 
about the same time, nor should the names 
of Hume and George Macleay be forgotten. 
Major Mitchell continued the work, joining 
skiil and science to much energy and good 
fortune. Meanwhile the survey of the coast 
begun by Flinders was ably continued by 
Capt. Parker King and others. The N. W. 
coasts were next examined by explorers, 
but with little result. From Sydney the 
center of exploration was moved to Adelaide, 
and from that city several famous expedi¬ 
tions set out. It was from Adelaide that 
Eyre started on most of his journeys, and 
from there also that Captain Sturt began his 
survey of the lower Murray and Darling in 
1844. Much exploration was done in 
Queensland about this time by Dr. Leich¬ 
hardt under the auspices of the government 
of New South Wales. Leichhardt lost his 
life in 1848 in an attempt to cross the con¬ 
tinent to the W. coast. Very extensive dis¬ 
coveries were made by Messrs. A. C. and 
F. T. Gregory in the fifties, and in 18G2 
John M’Douall Stuart, after several gallant 
attempts, crossed the continent from Ade¬ 
laide to the N. coast and returned to the 


point of starting. In 1SG0-1861 a well- 
equipped expedition left Melbourne to cross 
the continent; it was under the command of 
R. O’Hara Burke and W. J. Wills, astro¬ 
nomical and meteorological observer. The 
disastrous end of the expedition is well 
known. Several relief expeditions were fit¬ 
ted out to find traces of the Burke and Wills 
party, and it fell to A. W. Hewitt to discov¬ 
er the sole survivor, King, who had been 
preserved from starvation by the kindly 
aid of the natives. Australia has never 
wanted for explorers, and from 18G0 on¬ 
ward,. a year has scarcely passed that an 
expedition of some kind has not been at 
work. The catalogue of the names of the 
explorers is a long one. To the names al¬ 
ready mentioned may be added Sir John 
Forrest, Major Warburton, Landsborough, 
J. M’Kinlay, Alexander Forrest, E. Giles, 
Hodgkinson, the Jardine brothers, Lewis, 
Lindsay, etc. 

Australia, South, one of the original 

States in the Commonwealth of Australia; 
occupies the middle of Australia, anti 
stretches from sea to sea. At first as the 
colony of South Australia it extended be¬ 
tween Ion. 132° and 141° E., and from the 
Southern Ocean to lat. 2G° N., and it then 
had an area of about 300,000 square miles. 
In 18G1 a district lying to the W. of the 
colony was added to it, so that its W. boun¬ 
dary was shifted to the meridian of 129°. 
In 18G3 it received in addition the country 
between its N. boundary and the opposite 
coast (this portion being now known as the 
Northern Territory), so that South Austra¬ 
lia now possesses a territory extending 
across Australia, and occupying an area es¬ 
timated at 903,690 square miles. On the 
E. it is bounded by Victoria, New South 
Wales and Queensland; on the W. by West¬ 
ern Australia. Its greatest length from 
N. to S. is 1,850 miles, and its width G50 
miles. The S. coast, for the first 120 miles 
E. of where it begins at Port Eucla, has the 
shore backed by steep limestone ranges 
from 400 to GOO feet in height, but as a 
*vhole the coast is low and desolate-looking. 
In a straight line from Port Eucla on the 
W. to Cape Northumberland, near the boun¬ 
dary of Victoria, the distance is 850 miles, 
but the coast-line between these points ex¬ 
tends to nearly twice that distance, owing 
to the depth to which Spencer Gulf and the 
Gulf of St. Vincent penetrate. Opposite the 
Gulf of St. Vincent is Kangaroo Island, the 
largest island on the Australian coast, ex¬ 
cepting Tasmania. The coast of the North¬ 
ern Territory is thickly strewn with is¬ 
lands, three of which are of large size. 
There are also some excellent ports, one of 
these, Port Darwin, where the overland tele¬ 
graph and the cable from Batavia and the 
East meet, being among the finest harbors 
in Australia. On the E. side of the Gulf of 
St. Vincent lie the most populous portions of 





Australia 


Australia 


the State, and here is situated Adelaide, 
the rising State capital. 

The interior formation of South Austra¬ 
lia is very different from that of the more 
E. States. The mountains here run from 
the sea to the interior, ending somewhat ab¬ 
ruptly among the lakes. The principal 
chain, the Mount Lofty range, begins at 
Cape Jervis, and follows the shore of the 
Gulf of St. Vincent past Adelaide, meeting 
at the head of the gulf, the ridges forming 
the backbone of Yorke Peninsula. The 
range still running N. is called Flinders 
range, and ends in a wide mass of mountain 
3,000 feet high, separating the lakes Tor¬ 
rens, Eyre, Frome, and Blanche. All these 
so-called lakes are huge expanses of salt 
water, swamp, and mud. On the W. of 
Spencer Gulf is Eyre Peninsula, through 
the heart of which runs the Gawler range, 
which attains an elevation of 2,000 feet, and 
ends on the shores of another series of 
lakes of the same character as Lake Tor¬ 
rens. The principal summits of the Mount 
Lofty range are Razor-back, in lat. 33° 20', 
and immediately N. of it Mount Bryan, 
close to which is the celebrated Burra- 
Burra copper mine. The highest peaks of 
the Flinders range are Mount Remarkable, 
3,179 feet, Brown 3,174 feet, and Arden 
3,000 feet. None of the peaks in the Gaw¬ 
ler range attain more than a moderate ele¬ 
vation. On the left bank of the Murray, 
and near its mouth, a range of moderately 
elevated heights' proceeds S. S. E., skirting 
the coast to its extremity near Cape North¬ 
umberland. Throughout these ranges the 
existence of volcanic agency at a former 
period is everywhere apparent. The War- 
burton range and the Stuart ranges lie 
beyond and to the N. and W. of the lakes; 
further N. on the Tropic of Capricorn, are 
the MacDonnell ranges, rising to a height 
of 4,000 feet, from which the extreme W. 
affluents of the Lake Eyre river system 
take their rise. The other portions of the 
territory to the N. and W. are almost level, 
and consist of either waterless plains or 
plains of sandstone boulders, with desert 
grass and spinifex. 

Among the mountains E. of Gulf of St. 
Vincent primitive limestone, often in the 
form of a beautiful white marble, is very 
abundant. There are indications of a large 
variety of minerals throughout the State, but 
copper is the only one that has been met 
with in large quantities, the total produc¬ 
tion to the end of 1899 being valued at 
£23,000,000. Gold has been found in va¬ 
rious places, but the quantity won has 
been small. In the Northern Territory gold 
has also been found over a considerable 
tract of country, and good progress has been 
made in mining, while other minerals are 
known to exist. Almost the only stream 
within the State proper, which deserves the 
name of river, is the Murray, which enters 


the colony on the E. in lat. 34°, flows first 
circuitously W. and then S., into the 
extensive lagoon called Lake Alexandrina, 
communicating with the sea by a narrow 
opening. During the rainy season it is navi¬ 
gable by steamers through its whole course 
within the State, and for 1,500 miles in 
New South Wales. In the Northern Terri¬ 
tory the Roper river is a fine large stream, 
navigable for sea-going vessels for 100 miles 
from its mouth in the Gulf of Carpentaria; 
the Victoria is also navigable. The climate 
of South Australia proper greatly resembles 
that of Sicily and Naples. During nine 
months of the year it is agreeable, the dis¬ 
agreeable portion of the year being the 
three summer months of December, January, 
and February, when the natural heat of the 
season is greatly increased by hot winds 
from the interior. What is called winter 
would be considered in England merely a 
wet autumn. There are no epidemic dis¬ 
eases. Scrofulous and tubercular diseases 
are rare, but diseases of the eyes are com¬ 
mon in summer, being either occasioned by 
the impalpable dust floating in the atmos¬ 
phere, or by exposure to the night air after 
the glare of the sun. 

South Australia produces nearly all the 
fruits and vegetables that are cultivated in 
England as well as others, but it is chiefly 
distinguished as a wheat and grape-growing 
country. Besides supplying its own wants, 
it sends large quantities of wheat to the 
neighboring States and to England, where 
“ Adelaide ” wheat is held in high estima¬ 
tion. The area under wheat is about 1,750,- 
000 acres. The quantity produced varies 
greatly with the season, but the average 
production is six bushels per acre. The 
area under vineyards is gradually extending, 
and now approaches 20,000 acres. Brandy 
is produced as well as wine. Hop-growing 
is attracting some attention, and the olive is 
also cultivated. The value of the exports 
of the State is £7,100,000, and of the im¬ 
ports £7,300,000, total £14,400,000. The 
chief exports are wool, wheat, flour, cop¬ 
per and copper ore, skins, etc. The value 
of the wool exported is generally about 
£1,000,000, and of wheat and flour from 
£800,000 to £1,500,000, according to the sea¬ 
son. The trade of a large part of New 
South Wales passes through South Austra¬ 
lia. The revenue and expenditure are each 
about £2,700,000. The length of railways is 
1,890 miles. There is a complete system of 
telegraphs, besides the great line from Ade¬ 
laide across the continent to Port Darwin, 
a distance of 2,000 miles. The public debt 
of the State is £24,309,035, and has been 
mostly incurred for reproductive public 
works. Pop. (1910) 416,047. See Aus¬ 

tralia: Australian Federation. 

Australia, Western, one of the original 

States in the Commonwealth of Australia; 
embraces all that portion of Australia W. of 




Australia 


Australian Alps 


Ion. 129° E., bounded E. by South Aus¬ 
tralia, and N., W., and S. by the Indian 
Ocean; lying between the parallels of 13° 
30' and 35° 8' S.; greatest length, 1,450 
miles N. to S. ; greatest breadth, 850 miles 
E. to W.; area, 975,920 square miles. The 
coast-line measures about 3,000 miles, and, 
except on the S., is indented by numerous 
bays, creeks, and estuaries. The coast is 
fringed by many islands, but none is of any 
importance. The principal inlets are Cam¬ 
bridge Gulf, Admiralty Gulf, York Sound, 
Collier bay, King Sound, Roebuck bay, Ex¬ 
mouth Gulf, Shark bay, Geographe bay, 
and King George Sound, the last the most 
important as having Albany on its shore, 
the port of call for the European mail 
steamers. The chief rivers are the Ord and 
Fitzroy on the N., De Grey, Ashburton, 
Fortescue, Gascoign, Murchison, Greenough, 
Swan, and Blackwood on the W. The Swan 
river is important, as Perth, the capital, is 
situated on its banks. Some of the rivers 
within the tropics are large and navigable, 
but few of the others run all the year, and 
fewer still are navigable even for boats to 
any great distance. The interior was till 
recent years not well known, but at present 
there is little territory which has not been 
explored. 

The country is mostly an alternation of 
ridges and hollows, sandy, without grass, 
and clothed with bushes and scrubby timber, 
without the trace of a water-course. The 
really settled and occupied portion of the 
State forms only a mere fraction of its whole 
area. The population is mostly collected 
in the S. W. corner, where the first settle¬ 
ments were made, and around the recently 
discovered gold reefs. Scattered settlements 
stud the coast at various points. On the 
W. coast are extensive banks covered with 
the pearl oyster, which give employment to 
a fleet of boats. The Kimberley district in 
the N. is a region of great promise; it com¬ 
prises 20,000,000 acres of well-watered land 
intersected by the Fitzroy river and other 
large streams, and is said to be admirably 
adapted for pastoral purposes, besides hav¬ 
ing a large area suitable for the cultivation 
of sugar, coffee, and rice. The greater part 
of the seaboard, except along the Austra¬ 
lian bight, is separated from the interior by 
a low range of hills running parallel to it, 
and covered with forests. The fertile land 
exists in patches, and some of it is of a 
very rich character. The principal crops 
are wheat, barley, hay, and potatoes; the 
vine is also successfully cultivated, and ex¬ 
cellent wine is made in the colony. The 
area under cultivation comprises about 140,- 
000 acres, of which wheat occupies 42,000 
acres, hay 84,000 acres, vines 2,750 acres. 
The live stock in 1899 numbered 2,210,000 
sheep, 245,000 cattle, 62,000 horses, besides 
a large number of camels, pigs, goats, and 
poultry. An available area of 1,000 square 


miles is covered with jarrah forests. The 
jarrah is a species of eucalyptus ( E . mar- 
ginata ), its timber is in great request for 
railway sleepers, for building purposes, and 
especially for marine constructions, having 
the valuable property of resisting the at¬ 
tacks of the white ant on land and the ship 
worm at sea. Considerable areas in the S. 
W. are covered, with karri ( E . diversi¬ 
color ). There are also numerous forests of 
sandalwood trees, the timber of which is 
exported in large quantities, chiefly to China 
for incense purposes. Flowers and fruits 
from all quarters of the globe grow luxu¬ 
riantly. Among the fruits successfully cul¬ 
tivated are apples, pears, oranges, peaches, 
plums, apricots, figs, almonds, bananas, 
olives, etc. English vegetables may be prof¬ 
itably cultivated at almost all seasons. Bees 
thrive and produce abundant stores of 
honey. 

The mineral resources of the State are 
not yet fully known. Gold has been dis¬ 
covered . in. large quantities, and Western 
Australia is now the chief gold-producing 
State of Australia, the Coolgardie gold fields 
being among the most productive. In 1899 
the gold exported had the value of £6,246,- 
731. Lead and copper exist abundantly, 
and several mines are in operation. Iron 
ore might be raised in almost inexhaustible 
quantities, and tin also exists. The gold 
discoveries have formed an epoch in the his¬ 
tory of the State, and trade and population 
have recently increased very rapidly. The 
imports, which in 1887 were valued at 
£830,000, amounted in 1899 to £4,474,000, 
the exports in the latter year being £6,985,- 
000. Besides gold the exports include wool, 
jarrah and karri timber, sandal wood, 
pearls, pearl shells, tin ore, skins, etc. The 
revenue has grown enormously. In 1881 it 
was £206,205; in 1891, £497,670; and in 
1898, £2,754,747. The public debt is £9,- 
203,738, equal to £53, 16s. 8 d. per inhabi¬ 
tant. There are about 1,400 miles of rail¬ 
way open. The principal towns are Perth, 
the capital, and Fremantle, which is the 
chief port. The first part of the State set¬ 
tled was the S. W. corner, long known as 
the Swan River Settlement, established in 
1829. From 1850 to 1868 it was a place for 
the transportation of convicts. In 1890 the 
State received a system of responsible gov¬ 
ernment similar to that prevailing in the 
other colonies. Pop. (1910) 273,534. See 
Australia: Australian Federation. 

Australian Alps, a range of mountains 
in the S. E. of Australia, formerly part of 
the Great Dividing Range, stretching from 
the neighborhood of Melbourne, about 37° 
40' S., 145° 30' E., to the S. E. of New South 
Wales, about 35° S., 149° E., over a length 
of about 400 miles, with a width of about 
100 to 150 miles. The highest peaks are in 
New South Wales, and the highest of all, 
according to Lendenfcld, is the peak called* 



Australian Federation 


Austria 


by him Mt. Townshend (7,353 feet), belong' 
ing to a group which he calls the Kosciusko 
group, the latter name having been pre¬ 
viously applied to another peak (called 
Mueller’s Peak by Lendenfeld), a few miles 
to the N. which was long believed to be 
the highest. The peaks next in height be¬ 
long to the Bogong group in Victoria, and 
the W. of the Mitta Mitta. the highest of 
which is Mt. Bogong (6,508 feet). They do 
not reach the snow line, though snow lies 
in the higher valleys all the summer. Geol¬ 
ogically, the Australian Alps are composed 
mainly of very ancient metamorpliic rocks, 
and have been worn down in the course of 
ages to tablelands, which slope down rather 
steeply on all sides, and are crowned by the 
higher peaks. Volcanic rocks cover the 
tableland to the S. of Mt. Bogong. 

Australian Federation, a political union 
of all the Australian colonies, the agitation 
for which began in 1852. The first conven¬ 
tion for this purpose was held at Hobart 
in January, 1886. The colonies represented 
were Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, West¬ 
ern Australia, and Fiji. This effort was 
abortive, but another conference took place 
in 1891, at Syney, N. S. W., which was at¬ 
tended by delegates from each of the colon¬ 
ies. A plan of Federal government was pro¬ 
posed, which resembled in many of its fea¬ 
tured that of the United States. A draft bill 
to constitute the Commonwealth of Aus¬ 
tralia was adopted by the convention, and 
it was agreed to submit it to the approval 
of the individual Legislatures of the several 
colonies. This bill met with success in the 
lower branch of but one colonial Legislature 
— that of Victoria. In January, 1895, there 
was a conference of premiers of five col¬ 
onies at Hobart, and the Legislative As¬ 
sembly of New South Wales passed a Fed¬ 
eral enabling act in November of that year, 
and notice of motion was given in other 
Legislatures to bring in a similar bill. The 
first practical step was taken in 1898. A 
convention of representatives of New South 
Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, 
and Western Australia succeeded in draft¬ 
ing a constitution, which was submitted to 
the popular vote of each of those colonies in 
June. The constitution provided for a Gov¬ 
ernor-General, appointed by the Crown; a 
Federal Parliament, composed of the Crown, 
represented by the Governor-General, a Sen¬ 
ate, and a House of Representatives. The 
powers of the Parliament were set forth 
in 39 articles, and covered trade with 
other countries, taxation, coinage, weights 
and measures, foreign corporations, pen¬ 
sions, arbitration, etc. Free trade be¬ 
tween the States was recognized. By the 
terms of the plebiscite, an affirmative vote 
of substantially one-third of the electors of 
New South Wales, and of one-fifth of the 
electors of each of the other colonies, was 


required to adopt this constitution. The Te- 
turns of the election in June were fatal to 
the scheme. While the majorities in the 
four lesser colonies were overwhelmingly in 
favor of the constitution, the requisite af¬ 
firmative vote in New South Wales was not 
obtained. 

On Feb. 2, 1899, a unanimous agreement 
was reached by the colonial premiers in 
conference at Melbourne, regarding the un¬ 
settled questions referred to them by the 
colonial Legislatures, thus insuring the suc¬ 
cess of the federation project. In 1900, a. 
bill making Federation effective was intro¬ 
duced into Parliament, at London, and 
passed, the only amendment offered having 
reference to the royal prerogative. Later 
in that year the Earl of Hopetoun was 
appointed by the Queen first Governor- 
General. He resigned in May, 1902. 

Austrasia (the East Kingdom), the name 
given, under the Merovingians, to the East¬ 
ern possessions of the Franks, embracing 
Lorraine, Belgium, and the right bank of 
the Rhine. These districts, thickly inhab¬ 
ited by Franks, and forming the connection 
with the German mother i mntry, were of 
great importance at the time of the rise of 
the Frankish power. Austrasia was allotted 
to Thierry I. on the death of his father, 
Clovis I., A. D. 511. Siegbert I. transferred 
the capital from Rheims to Metz, in 561. 
It was united to Neustria by Clotaire II. in 
313, and separated from it by Dagobert I. 
in 622. Charles Martel annexed it to his 
dominions in 737. Carloman received Aus¬ 
trasia on the death of Charles Martel in 
741, and Charlemagne annexed it to his em¬ 
pire in 772. From this time the division of 
the Frankish kingdom into Austrasia and 
Neustria lost its political importance. 

Austria, or Austria=Hungary, an exten¬ 
sive monarchy in Central Europe, inhabited 
by several distinct nationalities, and con¬ 
sisting of two semi-independent countries, 
each with its own parliament and govern¬ 
ment, but with one common sovereign, army, 
and system of diplomacy, and also with a 
common parliament. 

History of the Country till the year 982 .— 
After the Romans had vanquished the Nori- 
cans, 33 A. D., and gained possession of the 
Danube, the country N. of the Danube, ex¬ 
tending to the borders of Bohemia and Mo¬ 
ravia, belonged to the kingdom of the Mar- 
comanni and Quadi; a part of Lower 
Austria and Styria, with Vienna (Vindobo- 
na), a municipal city of the Roman empire, 
belonged to Upper Pannonia; the rest of the 
country, with Carinthia and a part of Car- 
niola, formed a portion of Noricum. Gorz 
belonged to the Roman province of Illyri- 
cum, and Tyrol to Rhoetia. These limits 
became confused by the irruptions oi the 
barbarians. The Boii, Vandals, Heruli, Ru- 
gii, Goths, Huns, Lombards, and Avars, 




Austria 


Austria 


in the course of the 5th and 6th centuries, 
successively occupied the country. But af¬ 
ter the year 568, when the Lombards had 
established their power in Upper Italy, the 
river Ens formed the boundary line between 
the German tribe of Bajuvarii, the pro¬ 
prietors of the territory above the Ens, and 
the Avars, who had removed from the East 
to the banks of that stream. In 611 the 
Wendi, a Slavonic tribe, appeared on the 
Murr, Drave, and Save. In 788 the duchy 
of Bavaria was dissolved, and the Avars 
passed over the Ens and invaded the coun¬ 
ties of the Franks in the Bavarian territory, 
xn 791 Charlemagne forced them to retire to 
the Raab, and united the territory extending 
from the Ens to the junction of the Raab 
with the Danube (the territory below the 
Ens) with Germany, under the name of 
Avaria, or the Eastern Mark (Marchia Ori- 
entalis), or Austria; and in the 10th cen¬ 
tury (in a document of Otho III., 996) it 
was called Ostirrichi, equivalent to the 
modern Oesterreich. Many colonists, particu¬ 
larly from Bavaria, were sent by Charle¬ 
magne into the new province, and a mar¬ 
grave was appointed to administer the 
government. The Arcnbishop of Salzburg was 
at the head of ecclesiastical affairs. After 
its separation from Verdun, in 843, Avaria 
formed the E. boundary of the German em¬ 
pire. On the invasion of Germany by the 
Hungarians, in 900, Avaria fell into their 
hands, and was held by them till 955, when 
the Emperor Otho I., in consequence of 
the victory of Augsburg, reunited a great 
part of this province to the empire. By the 
power and address of its margraves the 
whole country was joined again with Ger¬ 
many, and in 1043, under the Emperor 
Henry III. and the Margrave Albert I. (the 
Victorious), its limits were extended to 
the Leitha. 

Austria under the House of Bamberg till 
1282 .— From 982 to 1156 the margraviate of 
Austria was hereditary in the family of 
the counts of Badenburg (Bamberg) ; the 
succession, however, was not regulated by 
primogeniture, but by the will of the em¬ 
peror. In ancient documents mention is 
made of the estates of Austria in the year 
1096. After Henry the Proud (Duke of 
Bavaria and Saxony) was put under the ban 
of the empire, Leopold V., Margrave of Aus¬ 
tria, received the duchy of Bavaria in 1138 
from the Emperor Conrad. But when the 
Margrave Henry, son of Leopold, under the 
title of Ja-so-mir-Gott (Yes-so-me-God), had 
again ceded it, in 1156, to Henry the Lion, 
the boundaries of Austria were extended so 
as to include the territory above the Ens, 
and the whole was created a duchy with 
certain privileges. Under this duke the 
court resided at Vienna. Duke Leopold VI., 
the son of Henry, received the duchy of 
Styria in 1192 as a fief from the Emperor 
Henry VI., it having been added to the em¬ 


pire by Otho I., in 955, by his victory over 
the Hungarians. It was this prince who 
imprisoned Richard Coeur de Lion, King of 
England. Duke Leopold VII., the youngest 
son of the former, erected a palace within 
the city of Vienna, which was long occupied 
by the Austrian monarchs, under the name 
of the old castle. Leopold .VII., called the 
Glorious, established the hospital of the 
Holy Cross, made Vienna, which had adopt¬ 
ed a municipal constitution in 1198, a sta¬ 
ple town, and granted 30.000 marks of 
silver for the promotion of trade and com¬ 
merce. In 1229 he purchased a part of 
Carniola from the ecclesiastical principality 
of Freisingen for 1,650 marks, and left the 
country in a flourishing condition to the 
youngest of his three sons, Frederick II., 
surnamed the Warrior. In 1236 this prince 
was put under the ban of the empire, on 
account of his joining the alliance of the 
cities of Lombardy against the Emperor 
Frederick II.; and Otho, Duke of Bavaria, 
seized upon his territory above the Ens as 
far as Lintz. The rest of the country was 
granted, as a fief by the emperor, to a mar¬ 
grave, and Vienna became an imperial city. 

During the emperor’s campaign in Italy 
Duke Frederick recovered the principal part 
of his lands, and his rights were confirmed 
by the emperor at Verona, 1245. The rights 
of Vienna as an imperial city were abol¬ 
ished, and Frederick was to be called king, 
as sovereign of Austria and Styria; but all 
his expectations of empire were disappoint¬ 
ed by his death in the battle of the Leitha 
against Bela IV., King of Hungary, July 
15, 1246, in the 35th year of his age. Thus 
the male line of the house of Bamberg be¬ 
came extinct. The period from 1246 to 
1282 is styled the Austrian interregnum. 
The Emperor Frederick II. declared Aus¬ 
tria and Styria a vacant fief, the hereditary 
property of the German emperors, and sent 
a governor to Vienna, the privileges of 
which, as an imperial city, were once more 
renewed. But the female relations of the 
deceased Duke Frederick, his sister Mar¬ 
garet (widow of the Emperor Henry VI.), 
and his niece Gertrude, by the persuasion of 
Pope Innocent IV., in 1248, laid claim to 
the inheritance of their brother. The Mar¬ 
grave Hermann, with the aid of the Pope 
and a strong party, made himself master of 
Vienna, and of several Austrian cities. In 
Styria he was opposed by the governor Mein- 
hard, Count of Gorz. But Hermann died in 
1250, and his son Frederick, who was af¬ 
terward beheaded in 1268, at Naples, with 
Conradin of Suabia, was then only a year 
old. The whole country was distracted by 
various parties, and the Emperor Conrad 
IV. was prevented, by disputes with his 
neighbors, from turning his attention to 
Austria. 

In 1251 the States of Austria and Styria 
determined to appoint one of the sons of 





Austria 


Austria 


the second sister of Frederick the Warrior, 
Constantia (widow of the Margrave Henry 
the Illustrious), to the office of duke. Their 
deputies were on the way to Misnia when 
they were persuaded by King Wenceslaus, 
on their entrance into Prague, to declare 
his son Ottocar Duke of Austria and Styria, 
who made every effort to support his ap¬ 
pointment by arms, money, and especially 
by his marriage with the Empress-widow 
Margaret. Ottocar wrested Styria from 
Bela, King of Hungary, by his victory of 
July, 1260, in the Marchfield; and in 1262 
forced the Emperor Richard to invest him 
with both duchies. Soon after, by the will 
of his uncle Ulrich, the last Duke of Car- 
inthia and Friuli (who died 1269), Ottocar 
became master of Carinthia, a part of Car- 
niola connected with it, the kingdom of Is- 
tria, and a part of Friuli. But his arro¬ 
gance soon caused his fall. In 1272 he 
refused to acknowledge Count Rudolph of 
Hapsburg emperor, and was obliged to de¬ 
fend himself against Rudolph. After an un¬ 
successful war he was forced to cede all 
his Austrian possessions in November, 1276. 
In 1277 he attempted to recover these terri¬ 
tories, but, in the battle of the Marchfield, 
Aug. 26, 1278, he was slain, and his son 
Wenceslaus was obliged to renounce all 
claim to them, in order to preserve his 
hereditary estates. The Emperor Rudolph 
remained three years in Vienna, and then 
appointed his eldest son governor. But 
having succeeded in gaining the consent of 
the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg, 
of the three ecclesiastical electors, and of 
the count-palatine of the Rhine, he granted 
the duchies of Austria and Styria, with 
the province of Carinthia, to his two sons, 
Albert and Rodolph, Dec. 27, 1280. 

Austria under the House of Hapsburg .— 
I. From 1282 to 1526. Albert and Rodolph 
transferred Carinthia to Meinhard, Count 
of Tyrol, father-in-law to Albert. In 1283 
they concluded a treaty, by which Albert 
was made sole possessor of Austria, Styria, 
and Carniola. Vienna, having again re¬ 
nounced its privileges as an imperial city, 
was made the residence of the court, and 
the successors of Rodolph, from this time, 
assumed Austria as the family title. The 
introduction of the Hapsburg dynasty was 
the foundation of the future greatness of 
Austria. The despotic Albert was assailed 
by Hungary and Bavaria and in 1298 he 
won the Roman crown in an engagement 
with Adolphus of Nassau. After this he 
undertook the conquest of Switzerland; but 
was assassinated, May 1, 1308, at Rheinfeld- 
en, by his nephew, John of Suabia, from 
whom he had basely withheld his hereditary 
estates. The inheritance of John now fell 
to the five sons of the murdered Albert— 
Frederick, surnamed the Fair, Leopold, Hen¬ 
ry, Albert, and Otho. lTiey were forced to 
purchase of the Emperor Henry VII. the 


investiture of their paternal estates (con¬ 
sisting, in 1308, of 26,572 square miles) for 
20,000 marks of silver. Under their father, 
in 1301, the margraviate of Suabia was 
added to the territories of Austria, and the 
contest with Bavaria ended in Austria ob¬ 
taining Neuburg. On the contrary, the at¬ 
tempt of Duke Leopold, in 1315, to recover 
the forest towns of Switzerland, which had 
been lost under Albert, was frustrated by 
the valor of the troops of the Swiss con¬ 
federacy in the battle of Morgarten. In 
1314 his brother Frederick, chosen Emperor 
of Germany by the electors, was conquered 
by his rival, the Emperor Louis (of Bava¬ 
ria), in 1322, at Miihldorf, and was his 
prisoner for two years and a half in' the 
castle of Trausnitz. 

The dispute with the house of Luxemberg, 
in Bohemia, and with Pope John XXII., in¬ 
duced the emperor, in 1325, to liberate his 
captive. Upon this the latter renounced all 
share in the government, and pledged him¬ 
self to surrender all the imperial domains 
which were still in the possession of Austria. 
But Leopold considered the agreement de¬ 
rogatory to his dignity and continued the 
war against Louis. Frederick, therefore, 
again surrendered himself a prisoner in 
Munich. Moved by his faithful adherence 
to his word, Louis concluded a friendly 
compact with Frederick, and made prepara¬ 
tions for their common government, Sept. 
7, 1325. These preparations, however, 

were never carried into execution; for the 
agreement had been concluded without the 
consent of the electors. Leopold died in 
1326, and Henry of Austria in 1327; Fred¬ 
erick also died without children, Jan. 13, 
1330, after which his brothers, Albert II. 
and Otho, came to a reconciliation with the 
Emperor Louis. After the death of their 
uncle, Henry, Margrave of Tyrol and Duke 
of Carinthia (the father of Margaret Maul- 
tasch), they persuaded the emperor to 
grant them the investiture of Tyrol and Car¬ 
inthia, in May, 1335; they ceded Tyrol, 
however, to John, King of Bohemia, by the 
treaty of Oct. 9, 1356, in behalf of his son 
John Henry, or rather of his wife, Margaret 
Maultasch. In 1344, after the death of 
Otho and his sons, Albert II., called the 
Wise, united all his Austrian territories, 
which, by his marriage with the daughter 
of the last Count of Pfirt, had been aug¬ 
mented by the estates of her father in 1324, 
and by the Kyburg estates in Burgundy in 
1326. Of the four sons of Albert II. (Ro¬ 
dolph, Albert, Leopold, and Frederick), 
Rodolph II. (IV.) completed the Church of 
St. Stephen’s, and died in Milan in 1365, 
without children, a short time after his 
youngest brother, Frederick. 

In 1379 the two surviving brothers di¬ 
vided the kingdom, so that Albert III. 
(with the Queue) became master of Aus¬ 
tria, and gave the other territories to Lis 




Austria 


Austria 


brother, Leopold III. the Pious. Leopold 
had made repeated attempts to gain the 
Hapsburg possessions in Switzerland. He 
was killed July 9, 1386, on the field of Sem- 
pach, where he lost the battle, in conse¬ 
quence of the valor of Winkelried, and 
Albert administered the government of the 
estates of his brother’s minor sons. Mar¬ 
garet Maultasch ceded Tyrol to him on the 
death of Meinhard, her only son, who was 
married to the sister of Albert. She re¬ 
tained nothing but a few castles and 6,000 
marks of gold. Her claims to Bavaria also 
she renounced in consideration of receiving 
Scharding and three Tyrolese cities, Kitz- 
biihel, Ballenberg, and Kuffstein, and 116,- 
000 florins of gold. In 1365 Leopold III. 
had bought the claims of the Count of 
Feldkircli for 36,000 florins; for 55,000 
florins Austria received Brisgau from the 
Count of Fiirstenberg, with the cities of 
Neuberg, Old Brisach, Kentzingen, and Bil- 
lingen. The remainder of Carniola and the 
Windisch Mark, after the death of the last 
Count of Gorz, were purchased, together 
with the county of Pludentz, from the 
Count of Werdenberg, and the possessions of 
the Count of Hogenberg, for 66,000 florins; 
and the city of Trieste was acquired 
in 1380 by aiding in the war between Hun¬ 
gary and Venice. Moreover, the two gov¬ 
ernments of Upper and Lower Suabia were 
pledged for 40,000 florins by the King of 
Rome, Wenceslaus, to Duke Leopold. The 
Austrian and Styrian lines, founded by 
Albert III. and Leopold III., his brother, 
continued for 78 years. In 1395, when Al¬ 
bert III. died, his only son, Albert IV., was 
in Palestine. On his return he determined 
to take vengeance on Procopius, Margrave 
of Moravia, for his hostile conduct; but he 
was poisoned in 1404 at Znaym. His 
young son and successor, Albert V., was de¬ 
clared of age in 1410; and being the son-in- 
law of the Emperor Sigismund, he united 
the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia in 
1437, and connected them with that of Ger¬ 
many in 1438. But in the following year 
the young prince died. His posthumous 
son, Ladislaus, was the last of the Austrian 
line of Albert, and its possessions devolved 
on the Styrian line, 1457. 

From this time the house of Austria has 
furnished an unbroken succession of Ger¬ 
man emperors. Hungary and Bohemia were 
lost for a time by the death of Albert V., 
and, after the unhappy contests with the 
Swiss, under Frederick III., the remains of 
the Hapsburg estates in Switzerland. But 
several territories were gained; and, to in¬ 
crease the rising splendor of the family, the 
emperor conferred upon the country the 
rank of an archduchy. The dispute which 
broke out between Frederick and his broth¬ 
ers Albert and Sigismund, relating to the 
divisions of their paternal inheritance, end¬ 
ed with the death of Albert in December, 


1464. In the course of the troubles which 
resulted from this quarrel the emperor was 
besieged in the citadel of Vienna by the citi¬ 
zens, who favored the cause of the mur¬ 
dered prince. Sigismund now succeeded to 
his portion of the estate of Ladislaus and 
Frederick became sole ruler of all Austria. 
His son Maximilian, by his marriage with 
Mary, the surviving daughter of Charles the 
Bold, united the Netherlands to the Aus¬ 
trian dominions. But it cost Maximilian 
much anxiety and toil to maintain his 
power in this new province, which he ad¬ 
ministered as the guardian of his son 
Philip. His confinement at Bruges in 1489 
resulted in an agreement which was de¬ 
cidedly for his advantage; but he lost at 
the same time the duchy of Guelders. After 
the death of his father, which happened 
Aug. 19, 1493, he was made Emperor of 
Germany, and transferred to his son Philip 
the government of the Netherlands. Maxi¬ 
milian I. added to his paternal inheritance 
all Tyrol, and several other territories, 
particularly some belonging to Bavaria. He 
also acquired for his family new claims 
to Hungary and Bohemia. During his 
reign Vienna became the great metropolis 
of the arts and sciences in the German em- , 
pire. The marriage of his son Philip to 
Joanna of Spain raised the house of Haps¬ 
burg to the throne of Spain and the Indies. ■ 
But Philip died in 1506, 13 years before his 
father, and the death of Maximilian, which 
happened Jan. 12, 1519, was followed by 
the union of Spain and Austria; his grand¬ 
son ^the eldest son of Philip), Charles I., 
King of Spain (see Charles V.), was 
elected Emperor of Germany. In the treaty 
of Worms, April 28, 1521, and of Ghent, 
May 7, 1540, he ceded to his brother Fer¬ 
dinand all his hereditary estates in Ger¬ 
many, and retained for himself the kingdom 
of the Netherlands. The house of Austria 
was now the proprietor of a tract of coun¬ 
try in Europe comprising 360,230 square 
miles. The Emperor Charles V. immedi¬ 
ately increased the number of provinces in 
the Netherlands to 17, and confirmed their 
union with the German States, which had 
been concluded by his grandfather, under 
the title of the circle of Burgundy. In 
1526 Austria was recognized as a European 
monarchy. 

II. From 1526 to 1740.— Ferdinand I., 
by his marriage with Anna, the sister of 
Louis II., King of Hungary, who was killed 
in 1526 in the battle of Mohacs, acquired 
the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, 
with Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia, the ap¬ 
pendages of Bohemia. Bohemia rejoiced to 
hail Ferdinand its king. Notwithstanding 
the divided opinions of the nobles, and the 
rising fortune of his adversary, John von 
Zapolya (see Hungary), he was raised to 
the throne of Hungary, Nov. 26, 1526, by 
the Hungarian Diet, and was crowned Nov. 




Austria 


Austria 


5, 1527. But Zapolya resorted for assist¬ 
ance to the Sultan, Soliman II., who ap¬ 
peared in 1529 at the gates of Vienna. The 
capital was rescued from ruin solely by the 
prudent measures of the Count of Salm, 
general of the Austrian army, and the im¬ 
perial forces compelled Soliman to retreat. 
In 1535 a treaty was made by which John 
von Zapolya was allowed to retain the royal 
title and half of Hungary, and liis pos¬ 
terity were to be entitled to nothing but 
Transylvania. But after the death of John 
new disputes arose, in which Soliman was 
again involved, and Ferdinand maintained 
the possession of Lower Hungary only by 
paying the warlike Sultan the sum of 30,- 
000 ducats annually. This took place in 1562. 
Ferdinand was equally unsuccessful in the 
duchy of Wurtemberg. This province had 
been taken from the restless Duke Ulrich by 
the Suabian Confederacy, and sold to the 
Emperor Charles V.; and when his estates 
were divided it fell to Ferdinand. 

Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, the friend 
of Duke Ulrich, took advantage of the op¬ 
portunity offered him by the embarrassment 
of Ferdinand in the Hungarian war. With 
the aid of France he conquered Wiirtem- 
berg; but France ceded it again to Ulrich in 
the treaty of Caden, in Bohemia, concluded 
June 29, 1534, on condition that the prov¬ 
ince should still be a fief of Austria, and 
after the extinction of the male line of the 
duke that it should revert to that country. 
The remaining half of Bregentz, the county 
of Thengen, and the city of Constance were 
insufficient wholly to compensate these 
losses; nevertheless, the territory of the 
German line of the house of Austria was 
estimated at 114,4G8 square miles. Fer¬ 
dinand received also the imperial crown in 
1556, when his brother Charles laid by the 
scepter for a cowl. He died July 25, 1564, 
with the fame of an able prince, leaving 
3 sons and 10 daughters. According to 
the directions given in his will, the three 
brothers divided the patrimony, so that 
Maximilian II., the eldest son, who suc¬ 
ceeded his father as emperor, obtained Aus¬ 
tria, Hungary, and Bohemia; Ferdinand, 
the second son, received Tyrol and Hither 
Austria; and Charles, the third, became 
master of Styria, Carintliia, Carniola, and 
Gorz. But in 1595, after the death of the 
Archduke Ferdinand, the husband of Phil¬ 
ippine Welser, the fair maid of Augsburg, 
his sons Andrew (cardinal and bishop of 
Constance and Brixen, and governor of the 
Netherlands for Spain) and Charles (Mar¬ 
grave of Burgau) were declared incom¬ 
petent to succeed their father, and his pos¬ 
sessions reverted to his relations. In 
Hungary the Emperor Maximilian met with 
far better fortune than his father had done. 
The death of Soliman at Szigeth in 1566 
was followed by a peace, and in 1572 Maxi¬ 
milian crowned his eldest son, Rodolph, 


King of Hungary; he was afterward 
crowned King of Bohemia, and was elected 
King of Rome. In his attempts to add 
the Polish crown to his Austrian do¬ 
minions he was equally unsuccessful 
with his fourth son, Maximilian, who 
engaged in a similar enterprise after 
the decease of Stephen Bathori in 1587. 
Maximilian died Oct. 12, 1576, and Rodolph 
the eldest of his five sons, succeeded to the 
the imperial throne. The most remark¬ 
able events by which his reign is distin¬ 
guished are the war against Turkey and * 
Transylvania, the persecutions of the Prot¬ 
estants, who were all driven from his do¬ 
minions, and the circumstances which 
obliged him to cede Hungary in 1698, and 
Bohemia and his hereditary estates in Aus¬ 
tria in 1611, to his brother Matthias. 

From this time we may date the suc¬ 
cessful exertions of the Austrian sovereigns 
to put down the restless spirit of the na¬ 
tion, and to keep the people in a state of 
abject submission. Matthias, who succeed¬ 
ed Maximilian on the imperial throne, con¬ 
cluded a peace for 20 years with the Turks; 
but he was disturbed by the Bohemians, 
who took up arms in defense of their re¬ 
ligious rights. Matthias died March 20, 
1619, before the negotiations for a com¬ 
promise were completed. The Bohemians 
refused to acknowledge his successor, Fer¬ 
dinand II., and chose Frederick V., the head 
of the Protestant league, and elector of the 
palatinate, for their king. After the bat¬ 
tle of Prague, 1620, Bohemia submitted to 
the authority of Ferdinand. He immedi¬ 
ately applied himself to eradicate Protes¬ 
tantism out of Bohemia proper and Moravia. 
At the same time he deprived Bohemia of 
the right of choosing her king, and of her 
other privileges. He erected a Catholic 
court of reform, and thus led to the emi¬ 
gration of thousands of the inhabitants. 
The house of Hapsburg has presented an 
example, which stands alone in history, of 
the manner in which violence and tyranny 
can check the progress of civilization; and 
Bohemia, the land of Huss, the land where 
religious freedom has been defended with 
such heroic zeal, was long greatly inferior 
in cultivation to every other country of 
Western Europe. The Austrian States also 
favoring, in general, the Protestant relig¬ 
ion, were compelled by Ferdinand to swear 
allegiance to him, and Lutheranism was 
strictly forbidden in all the Austrian do¬ 
minions. The province of Hungary, which 
revolted under Bethlem Gabor, Prince of 
Transylvania, was, after a long struggle, 
subdued. This religious war dispeopled, 
impoverished, and paralyzed the energies 
of the most fertile provinces of the house 
of Austria. During the reign of Ferdinand 
III., the successor of Ferdinand IT. (1637- 
1657), Austria was continually the theater 
of war. 



Austria 


Austria 


In the midst of these troubles Ferdinand 
ceded Lusatia to Saxony at the peace of 
Prague, concluded in 1035; and when the 
war was ended he ceded Alsace to France, at 
Hie peace of Westphalia in 1648. The 
Emperor Leopold I., son and successor of 
Ferdinand III., was victorious through the 
talents of his minister Eugene, in two wars 
with Turkey; and Vienna was delivered 
by John Scbieski (see Sobieski) and the 
Germans from the attacks of Kara Musta- 
pha in 1G83. In 1087 he changed Hungary 
into an hereditary kingdom, and joined to 
it the territory of Transylvania, which had 
been governed by distinct princes. More¬ 
over, by the peace of Carlovitz, concluded in 
1699, he restored to Hungary the country 
lying between the Danube and the Theiss. 
It was now the chief aim of Leopold to 
secure to Charles, his second son, the in¬ 
heritance of the Spanish monarchy, then 
in the hands of Charles II., King of Spain, 
who had no children to succeed him; but 
his own indecision, and the artful policy of 
France, induced Charles II. to appoint the 
grandson of Louis XIV. his successor. 
Thus began the war of the Spanish Succes¬ 
sion in 1701. Leopold died May 5, 1705, 
before it was terminated. Emperor Joseph 
I., his successor and eldest son, contin¬ 
ued the war, but died without children, 
April 17, 1711. His brother Charles, the des¬ 
tined King of Spain, immediately hastened 
from Barcelona to his hereditary States, to 
take upon him the administration of the 
government. He was elected emperor Dec. 
24 of the same year; but was obliged to ac¬ 
cede to the peace of Utrecht, concluded 
by his allies at Rastadt and Baden in 1714. 
By this treaty Austria received the Neth¬ 
erlands, Milan, Mantua, Naples, and Sar¬ 
dinia. In 1720 Sicily was given to Aus¬ 
tria in exchange for Sardinia. The duchy 
of Mantua, occupied by Joseph in 1708, was 
now made an Austrian fief, because it had 
formed an alliance with France prejudicial 
to the interests of Germany. 

This monarchy now embraced 191,621 
square miles. Its annual income was be¬ 
tween 13,000,000 and 14,000,000 florins, and 
its army consisted of 130,000 men; but its 
power was weakened by new wars with 
Spain and France. In the peace concluded 
at Vienna 1735 and 1738, Charles VI. was 
forced to cede Naples and Sicily to Don 
Carlos, the Infante of Spain, and to the 
King of Sardinia a part of Milan, for which 
he received only a part of Parma and Pia¬ 
cenza. In the next year, by the peace of 
Belgrade, he lost nearly all the fruits of 
Eugene’s victories, even the province of 
Temeswar; for he was obliged to transfer to 
the Porte Belgrade. Servia, and all the pos¬ 
sessions of Austria in Walachia and Bosnia. 
All this Charles VI. willingly acceded to, in 
order to secure the succession to his daugh¬ 
ter, Maria Theresa, by the Pragmatic Sanc¬ 


tion. This law of inheritance was passed 
1713-1719, and acknowledged one after an¬ 
other by all the European powers. 

Austria under the House of Hapsburg- 
Lorraine. —I. From 1740 to 1790. By the 
death of Charles VI., Oct. 20, 1740, the 
male line of the Austrian house of Haps- 
burg became extinct; and Maria Theresa 
having married Stephen, Duke of Lorraine, 
ascended the Austrian throne. On every 
side her claims were disputed, and rival 
claims set up. A violent war began in 
which she had no protector but En¬ 
gland. Frederick II. of Prussia subdued 
Silesia; the Elector of Bavaria was crowned 
in Lintz and Prague, and in 1742 chosen 
emperor under the name of Charles Vll. 
Hungary alone supported the heroic and 
beautiful queen. But in the peace of Bres¬ 
lau, concluded June 4, 1742, she was obliged 
to cede to Prussia Silesia and Glatz, with 
the exception of Teschen, Jagerndorf, and 
Troppau. Frederick II., by assisting the 
party of Charles VII., soon renewed the 
war. But Charles died Jan, 20, 1745, and 
the husband of Theresa was crowned Em¬ 
peror of Germany under the title of Francis 
I. A second treaty of peace, concluded Dec. 
25, 1745, confirmed to Frederick the pos¬ 
session of Silesia. By the peace of Aix- 
la-Chapelle, Oct. 18, 1748, Austria was 
obliged to cede the duchies of Parma, Pia¬ 
cenza, and Guastalla to Philip, Infante of 
Spain, and several districts of Milan to 
Sardinia. The Austrian monarchy was now 
firmly established; and it was the first 
wish of Maria Theresa to recover Silesia. 
With this object in view she formed an 
alliance with France, Russia, Saxony, and 
Sweden. This was the origin of the Seven 
Years’ War; but, by the peace of Huberts- 
berg, 1763, Prussia retained Silesia, and 
Austria had sacrificed her blood and treas¬ 
ure in vain. 

The first paper money was now issued in 
Austria, called state obligations, and the 
Emperor Francis erected a bank to ex¬ 
change them. After his death, Aug. 18, 
1765, Joseph II., his eldest son, was ap¬ 
pointed colleague wLh his mother in the 
government of his hereditary States, and 
elected Emperor of Germany. To prevent 
the extinction of the male line of her fam¬ 
ily Maria Theresa now established two col¬ 
lateral lines; the house of Tuscany, in her 
second son, Peter Leopold; and the house 
of Este, in the person of the Archduke 
Ferdinand. For these separations Maria 
Theresa indemnified the country by the con¬ 
fiscation of several cities, formerly pledged 
to Poland by Hungary, without paying the 
sum for which they stood pledged; by 
obtaining Galicia and Lodomeria in the 
first profligate division of the kingdom of 
Poland in 1772; and by the capture of Bu- 
kowina, which was ceded by the Porte in 
1777. In the peace of Teschen, May 13 ; 




Austria 


Austria 


1779, Austria received Innviertel, and the 
vacant county of Hohenembs in Suabia, the 
county of Falkenstein, and the Suabian ter¬ 
ritories of Tettnang and Argen; and thus at 
the death of the empress, Nov. 28, 1780, 
Austria contained 234,084 square miles; 
it had lost 1G,36G square miles, and gained 
34,301. The population was estimated at 
24,000,000; but the public debt also had 
increased to 160,000,000 florins. The ad¬ 
ministration of the empress was distin¬ 
guished by substantial improvements in 
connection with government, agriculture, 
trade, and commerce, the education of the 
people, the promotion cf the arts and sci¬ 
ences, and of religion. The foreign rela¬ 
tions of the kingdom also, even those with 
the Roman court, were happily conducted 
by the talents of her minister, Kaunitz. 

Her successor, Joseph II., was active and 
restless; impartial, but too often rash and 
violent. While a colleague with his mother 
in the government he diminished the ex¬ 
penses of the State, and introduced a new 
system in the payment of pensions and of 
officers. But after the death of his mother 
all his activity and talent as a sovereign 
was fully developed. As severe to the mili¬ 
tary as to the civil officers, he adhered, 
however, to liberal principles. The censor¬ 
ship of the press was reformed; the Prot¬ 
estants received full toleration, and the 
rights of citizens; the Jews were treated 
with kindness; 900 convents and religious 
establishments were abolished, and even the 
visit of Pius YI. made no alteration in 
Joseph’s system of reformation. The sys¬ 
tem of education he subjected to revision 
and improvement; and he tried to foster 
manufactures by duties on foreign goods. 
But his zeal excited the opposition of the 
enemies of improvement. The Low Coun¬ 
tries revolted, and his vexation probably 
led him to attempt the exchange of the 
Netherlands, under the title of the king¬ 
dom of Austrasia, for the palatinate of 
Bavaria under an elector. But the proj¬ 
ect was frustrated by the constancy and 
flrmness of the next agnate, the Duke of 
Deux-Ponts, and by the German league 
concluded by Frederick II. Joseph was 
equally unsuccessful in the war of 1788 
against the Porte. His exertions in the 
field destroyed his health; and grief at 
the rebellious disposition of his heredi¬ 
tary States accelerated his death, which 
happened Feb. 20, 1790. 

II. From 1790 onward.— Joseph II. 
was succeeded by his eldest brother, Leo¬ 
pold II. By his moderation and firmness 
he quelled the turbulent spirit of the 
Netherlands, and restored tranquillity to 
Hungary. The treaty of Reichenbach 
with Prussia, July 27, 1790, and the 

treaty of Sistova, Aug. 4, 1791. led to a 
peace with the Porte. The unhappy fate 
of his sister and her husband, Louis XVI. 


of France, induced him to form an alli¬ 
ance with Prussia, but he died March 1, 
1792, before the revolutionary war broke 
out. Soon after the accession of his son, 
Francis II., to the throne, and before July 
14, 1792, when he was elected German 
emperor, France declared war against 
him as King of Hungary and Bohemia. 
In the first articles of peace, dated at 
Campo Formio, Oct. 17, 1797, Austria 

lost Lombardy and the Netherlands, and 
received, as a compensation, the largest 
part of the Venetian territory; two years 
previous, in 1795, in the third division of 
Poland, the Austrian dominions had been 
enlarged by the addition of West Galicia. 
In the beginning of the year 1799 the Em¬ 
peror Francis, in alliance with Russia, re¬ 
newed the war with France. But Napo¬ 
leon extorted the peace of Luneville, Feb. 
9, 1801, and Francis acceded to it, without 
the consent of England. By the con¬ 
ditions of the treaty he was to cede the 
county of Falkenstein and the Frickthal. 
Ferdinand, Grand-Duke of Tuscany, at the 
same time renounced his claim to this 
province, and received, in return for it, 
Salzburg and Berehtesgaden, with a part 
of the territory of Passau, and was after¬ 
ward made master of the largest part of 
Eichstadt, and honored with the title of 
elector. Austria obtained the Tyrolese 
archbishoprics Trent and Brixen, and, not¬ 
withstanding: its cessions of territory to 
France, had gained, including its acquisi¬ 
tions in Poland, 9,580 square miles; this 
made the whole extent 253,770 square 
miles. The public debt had also increased 
to 1,220,000,000 florins. 

The first Consul of France now caused 
himself to be proclaimed emperor; and 
Aug. 11, 1804, Francis declared himself 
hereditary Emperor of Austria, and united 
the Austrian States under the name of the 
empire of Austria. Immediately after this 
important act he took arms once more with 
his allies, Russia and Great Britain, 
against the government of France. The war 
of 1805 was terminated by the peace of 
Presburg (Dec. 26, 1805). By the condi¬ 
tions of the treaty Francis was obliged to 
cede to France the remaining provinces of 
Italy; to the King of Bavaria, Burgau, 
Eichstadt, a part of Passau, all Tyrol, Vor- 
arlberg, Hohenembs, Rothenfels, Tett¬ 
nang, Argen, and Lindau; to the King of 
Wiirtemberg the five towns lying on the 
Danube, the county of Hohenberg, the land- 
graviate of Nellenburg, Altdorf, and a part 
of Brisgau; and to the Grand-Duke of Ba¬ 
den the remainder of Brisgau, Ortenau, 
Constance, and the commandery of Meinau. 
He received, in return, Salzburg and Berch- 
tesgaden; the Elector of Salzburg was com¬ 
pensated by the province of Wfirzburg; 
and the dignity of grand-master of the 
Teutonic order was made hereditary in the 





Austria 


Austria 


house of Austria. Thus ended a war which 
cost the Austrian monarchy, besides the 
territories just enumerated, 90,000,000 
florins, which were carried away by the 
French from Vienna, and 800,000,000 for 
the other expenses of the war; of which 
Francis paid a large proportion from his 
private purse. After the formation of the 
Confederation of the Rhine (July 12, 
1800) Francis was forced to resign his dig¬ 
nity as Emperor of Germany (Aug. 6, 
1806), which had been in his family more 
than 500 years. The old German, or Holy 
Roman, empire thus came to an end, and 
Francis had now only the title of Francis 
I., Emperor of Austria. In 1809 he re¬ 
solved on a new war with France, aided 
only by Great Britain, which did nothing 
more than furnish some pecuniary assist¬ 
ance, and made a useless attack on Wal- 
cheren. Austria fought courageously, but 
in vain. The peace of Vienna (Oct. 14, 
1809) cost the monarchy 42,380 square 
miles of territory, 3,500,000 subjects, and 
more than 11,000,000 florins of revenue. 
The public debt was also increased to 
1,200,000,000 florins, and all the paper 
money in circulation was estimated at 950,- 
000,000. 

Napoleon, after tearing from the Austrian 
monarchy its fairest provinces — the duchy 
of Salzburg, with Berclitesgaden, Innvier- 
tel, Western Hausruckviertel, Carniola, and 
Gorz, Trieste, the circle of Villach, a large 
part of Croatia, Istria, a part of the Gri- 
sons, the Bohemian territories in Saxony, 
all West Galicia, the circle of Zamoski in 
East Galicia, Cracow, with half the salt 
works of Wieliczka, the circle of Tarnopol, 
and many other territories which were given 
to Russia — formed a personal connection 
with the ancient family of Hapsburg, by his 
marriage with Maria Louisa, daughter of 
the Emperor of Austria, and (March 14, 
1812) concluded an alliance with the Em¬ 
peror Francis against Russia. But the Em¬ 
peror of France was repulsed on his inva¬ 
sion of this country; Prussia rose up 
against him; and after the Congress of 
Prague had separated without accomplish¬ 
ing anything, Francis (Aug. 12, 1813) de¬ 
clared war against France, and formed an 
alliance (Sept. 9, 1813) at Teplitz, with 
Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Swed¬ 
en, against his son-in-law. In the battle 
of Leipsic, the Austrian troops took an hon¬ 
orable part. The firmness with which the 
emperor signed the act of proscription 
against his son-in-law, and fixed the fate 
of his daughter and her infant, excited gen¬ 
eral respect. He signed the same act against 
Napoleon a second time, when he returned 
from Elba. He also opposed Murat in 
Italy. Yet the Austrian cabinet endeavored 
to provide for young Napoleon in the set¬ 
tlement of the affairs of France. 

By the Congress of Vienna, 1814-1815, 


Austria gained the portion of Italy which is 
usually known as Lombardy and Venetia, 
and recovered, together with Dalmatia, the 
hereditary territories which it had been 
obliged to cede. The former Grand-Duke of 
Wurzburg, on the contrary, ceded his ter¬ 
ritory to Bavaria, and again took posses¬ 
sion of Tuscany. The final act resulting 
from the congress was signed in 1820. In 
1821 liberal movements in Italy were put 
down. The July revolution of 1830, in 
France, caused warlike preparations to bo 
made; but after Great Britain had ac¬ 
knowledged the new government, Austria 
acknowledged it also. Insurrections which 
took place in Modena, Parma, and the Papal 
States, 1831-1832, were suppressed without 
much difficulty. In the London conference 
relative to the affairs of Belgium Austria 
took an active share; but in proportion as 
Great Britain and France became more 
closely united, Austria entered into more 
intimate relations with Russia and Prussia. 
In the Polish insurrection Austria ultimate¬ 
ly gave indications of a strong leaning in 
favor of Russia. 

The death of the Emperor Francis I. 
(March 2, 1835) and the accession of Fer¬ 
dinand I. made little change in the Aus¬ 
trian system of government. Metternich 
still continued at the head of affairs and to 
foster the reactionary policy. In 1846 the 
failure of the Polish insurrection had led 
to the incorporation of Cracow with Aus¬ 
tria, but discontent with the government 
very widely prevailed in the empire. In 
Italy, the declarations of Pio Nono in favor 
of reform, and the concessions into which 
most of the other governments of the Ital¬ 
ian peninsula had been hurried, increased 
the difficulties of Austria. In Hungary the 
constitutional opposition became stronger 
and stronger, and latterly, under the guid¬ 
ance of Kossuth and other popular 
agitators, assumed the form of a great 
constitutional movement. In 1848 the 
expulsion of Louis Philippe shook all 
Europe to its foundations. Metternich 
found it impossible any longer to 
guide the ship of State, and the govern¬ 
ment found itself compelled to grant a free 
press, and allow the citizens freely to arm 
themselves. The popular movement made 
great progress in Hungary; and in ItaW * 
formidable insurrection broke out, threaten¬ 
ing the very existence of the Austrian pow¬ 
er in the peninsula. In the very center of 
the empire, in Vienna itself, the insurrec¬ 
tion made equal progress, and the royal 
family, no longer in safety, removed to 
Innsbruck. 

The Austrian monarchy appeared now to 
be hanging by a thread. The Hungarian 
diet declared itself permanent, under the 
presidency of Kossuth. Various ministerial 
changes took place, and at last the emperor 
abdicated in favor of his nephew, Francis 



Austria 


Austria 


Joseph. More vigorous measures were now 
adopted, and Austria, strongly aided by the 
forces of Russia, succeeded in suppressing 
the Hungarian insurrection. Haynau, on 
the occasion, rendered himself notorious by 
his severity, and Hungary underwent the 
fate of a conquered country. The year 
1855 is memorable in Austrian history for 
the conclusion of a concordat with the Pope 
which put the educational and ecclesiastical 
affairs of the empire entirely into the hands 
of the papal see. It established an eccle¬ 
siastical censorship of the press, and placed 
all schools, even private schools, under the 
surveillance of the bishops; it proclaimed 
the complete independence of the bishops in 
relation to the civil government, so that all 
decrees proceeding from Rome might be 
published without obtaining the royal 
placet, and it authorized the bishops to con¬ 
voke the provincial councils and diocesan 
synods without the consent of the civil au¬ 
thority. 

In 1859 the hostile intentions of France 
and Sardinia against the possessions of 
Austria in Italy became so evident that 
she declared war by sending an army across 
the Ticino, but after disastrous defeats at 
Magenta and Solferino she Avas compelled 
to cede Milan and the N. W. portion of 
Lombardy to the Sardinian king. In 1864 
she joined with Prussia and the other Ger¬ 
man States in the spoliation of Denmark, 
but a dispute about the conquered provinces 
of Schleswig-Holstein involved her in a 
war with her allies (1866), while at the 
same time Italy renewed her attempts for 
the recovery of Venice. Austria had accord¬ 
ingly to show front both in the N. and in 
the S. The S. army under Archduke Albert 
fought successfully, defeating the Italians 
under Victor Emanuel at Custozza (June 
24), and driving them back across the Min- 
cio, but the fortune of the N. army under 
General Benedek w r as very different. On 
July 3, Benedek was completely defeated 
by the Prussian forces at Koniggratz (Sa- 
dowa) in Bohemia, and the road to Vienna 
lay open to the victors. Francis Joseph 
now ceded Venetia to Napoleon III., and 
claimed his intervention to assist in pro¬ 
curing a peace, evidently wishing to make 
a separate treaty with Italy, so as to be at 
liberty to employ the S. army against Prus¬ 
sia. 

This design did not succeed, however. 
Both Italy and Prussia were willing to ac¬ 
cept the mediation of Napoleon, but Italy 
would not hear of a separate arrangement, 
and continued the war. July 20 Admiral 
Tegetthoff defeated the Italian fleet near 
the Dalmatian island Lissa; but, on the 
other hand, the Prussians continued to 
advance into Austria, and threatened Vien¬ 
na. Francis Joseph accordingly saw hin> 
self obliged to conclude a peace with Prus¬ 


sia (Aug. 23), and a little later peace was 
concluded with Italy also (Oct. 3). The 
result of the war was the cession of Vene¬ 
tia through France to Italy, and the with¬ 
drawal of Austria from all interference in 
the affairs of Germany. 

Since 1866 Austria has been occupied 
chiefly with the internal affairs of the em¬ 
pire. The first aim of the government was 
to restore the constitution of the State, 
which had been established in February, 
1861, but which had been suspended since 
1865 owing to the demand of Hungary for 
self-government. As Austrian statesmen 
were anxious for a settlement of the dis¬ 
pute, the Hungarian demands were finally 
agreed to, and the empire of Austria divided 
into two parts, the one made up of the Cis- 
leithan or Slavonic-German provinces, the 
other of the Transleithan provinces, the lat¬ 
ter forming together the kingdom of Ilvin- 
gary. These two divisions of the empire 
w T ere to be entirely independent, except in 
matters of diplomacy and military and na¬ 
val matters — to some extent also in mat¬ 
ters of finance. This settlement was con¬ 
summated by the coronation of the Emperor 
Francis Joseph I. as King of Hungary, 
which took place at Pesth-Ofen, on June 8, 
1867. 

During the session of the Reichsrath, that 
is„ the diet of the Cisleithan provinces, held 
in the same year the important question of 
the concordat of 1855 came up for discus¬ 
sion. The Liberal majority in the diet were 
desirous of seeing it entirely repealed, but 
as they fully recognized the insuperable ob¬ 
stacles in the way of this step, they were 
content to proceed by separate enactments 
intended to weaken the power that had been 
gained to the papal see by the concordat. 
With this end in view three measures were 
brought forward, one for the reestablish¬ 
ment of civil marriage, one for the emanci¬ 
pation of the schools from the domination 
of the Church, and one for the placing of 
the different creeds on a footing of equality. 
Before May 25, 1868, all these measures had 
passed through both houses of the diet, and 
on that day they received the imperial sanc¬ 
tion. These laws were declared by the Pope 
to be “ abominable,” as well as null and 
void. Further enactments having in view 
the weakening of the power of the papal 
see in the State were passed in 1874, and 
were condemned by the Pope in the severest 
terms. 

The fact of the Austro-Hungarian do¬ 
minions comprising so many different na¬ 
tionalities with different languages has 
always given the government a great deal of 
trouble, both in the management of internal 
affairs and in regard to external matters. 
In the recent revival of the Eastern ques¬ 
tion, for instance, the course of Austria was 
hampered by the sympathy shown by the 
Magyars for the Turks, while her Slav sub- 





Austria 


Austria 


jects were naturally more favorable to Rus¬ 
sia. 

Previous to tlie outbreak of hostilities 
between Russia and Turkey she joined with 
the other powers in remonstrance with 
Turkey, but as to the actual struggle re¬ 
mained neutral. At the close of the war in 
the middle of 1878 Austria took part in the 
Congress of Berlin, where the settlement of 
the Eastern question was arranged, and it 
was decided that the provinces of Bosnia and 
Herzegovina should in future be admin¬ 
istered by Austria-Hungary instead of 
Turkey. In 1908 both of these provinces 
and the sanjak of Novi-Bazar were suddenly 
annexed to the empire, and war with Turkey 
was averted only by the intervention of the 
Great Powers. 

Area and Divisions .— The Austrian em¬ 
pire extends from about lat. 42° to 51° N., 
or, exclusive of Dalmatia and the narrower 
part of Croatia, from about lat. 44° 30' to 
51° N., and from Ion. 8° 30' to 26° 30' 
E.; the total area in round numbers is 240,- 
000 square miles. Its greatest length from 
E. to W. is about 860 miles; its greatest 
breadth from N. to S., with the exclusion 
above stated, is about 400 miles; bounded 
S. by Turkey, the Adriatic Sea, and the 
kingdom of Italy; W. by Switzerland, Ba¬ 
varia, and Saxony; N. by Prussia and Rus¬ 
sian Poland; and E. by Russia and Ruma¬ 
nia. On the shores of the Adriatic, along 
the coasts of Dalmatia, Croatia, Istria, etc., 
lies its only sea frontage, which, compared 
to the size of the monarchy, is of insignifi¬ 
cant extent. 

Besides being divided into the two great 
divisions above mentioned, the Austro-Hun¬ 
garian monarchy is further divided into a 
number of governments or provinces. The 
following table exhibits the name and area 
of these governments, with their population 
in 1890 and 1900: 


Natural Features .— Although presenting 
every variety of surface the prevailing char> 
acter of the Austrian dominions is moun¬ 
tainous, there being few districts where 
mountains are not found; while the plains 
do not occupy more than a fifth part of the 
whole superficies. The loftiest ranges, and 
the most extensively ramified, are found in 
Tyrol, Styria, Illyria, and the S. parts of 
Austria proper. In some of these regions 
the scenery is bold and romantic, and has 
been considered equal to that of Switzer¬ 
land. The most extensive tracts of low or 
flat land occur in Slavonia and the S. E. 
and central parts of Hungary; much of this 
level land is remarkably fertile, but it is 
met at various points by vast morasses and 
arid steppes. The principal valleys are 
found in Tyrol, Salzburg, Styria, and Illy¬ 
ria. Extensive plains stretch along the 
courses of the rivers, particularly the Dan¬ 
ube, the Theiss, and the March. The prin¬ 
cipal rivers of Austria are the Danube, the 
Elbe, the Save, the Drave, the Waag, the 
March, the Inn, the Teiss or Theiss, and the 
Maros. The Danube, for upward of 800 
miles, is navigable for pretty large vessels, 
throughout the whole Austrian territory; 
while all the others, most of them tribu¬ 
taries of the Danube, are navigable for ves¬ 
sels of smaller size. All of them abound in 
fish. The lakes are numerous and often 
picturesque, though those in the low lands, 
particularly in the plains of Hungary, are 
rather marshes than lakes. 

Austria lies between the isotherms of 60° 
and 50°, and has a climate nearly as va¬ 
rious as its surface. The N. regions, 
between the 49th and 51st degrees of N. lati¬ 
tude, have an average temperature resem¬ 
bling that of the N. of France. Between 
lat. 46° and 49° the heat is considerable; 
and between 42° and 46°, which comprises 
the whole of South Austria, it is still great- 


Divisions. 


Austrian Provinces — 

Lower Austria... 

Upper Austria . 

Salzburg . 

Styria . 

Carinthia . 

Carniola . 

Coast land . .. 

Tyrol and Vorarlberg 

Bohemia .... .. 

Moravia . 

Silesia . 

Galicia .. .. 

Bukowina . 

Dalmatia . 


Hungarian Provinces — 

Hungary and Transylvania. 

Croatia and Slavonia. 

Fiume . 

Military out of the country 


Area in 


Population, 


sq. m. 


Dec. 31, 1890. 


7,654 

4,631 

2,767 

8,670 

4,005 

3,856 

3,084 

11,324 

20,060 

8,583 

1,987 

30,307 

4,035 

4,940 


2,661,799 

785,831 

173,510 

1,282,708 

361,008 

498,958 

695,384 

928,769 

5,843,094 

2,276,870 

605,649 

6,607,816 

646,591 

527,426 


Population, 
Dec. 31, 1900. 


3.100.493 
810,246 
192,763 

1.356.494 
367,337 
508,150 
756,546 
981,989 

6,318,697 

2,437,706 

680,422 

7,315,816 

730,195 

593,783 


115,903 


23,895,413 


26,150,597 


108,258 

16,773 

8 


15,231,527 

2,201,927 

30,337 

25,752, 


16,656,904 

2,397,249 

38,139 

114,811 


125,039 


17,489,543 


19,207,103 


240,942 


41.384,956 


45,357,700 


Total 















































Austria 


Austria 


er; the winter lasting two or three months 
only, and being, in general, extremely mild. 
The principal products of the N. are wheat, 
barley, oats, and rye; in the center, vines 
and maize are added; and in the S., olives. 
The productive capabilities of the soil, how¬ 
ever, are not rendered available to their full 
extent. The wines of Austria are inferior 
on the whole, with exception of a few choice 
kinds, including the well-known Tokay. A 
great portion of the worst wine is made 
into brandy. The average produce of wine 
is about 540,000 gallons, of which Hungary 
yields by far the largest proportion. The 
forests cover 69,000 square miles, or one- 
third of the productive soil of the empire, 
and yield timber of excellent quality, adapt¬ 
ed for all purposes. Wild deer, wild swine, 
chamois, foxes, lynxes, and a species of 
small black bear, are found in many dis¬ 
tricts, the fox and lynx being particularly 
abundant. Herds of a native breed of 
horses, of small size, roam wild over the 
plains of Hungary. All the domestic ani¬ 
mals of England are known throughout the 
empire. 

A large portion of the countries now com¬ 
posing the Austrian empire was at one time 
submerged by the sea, particularly Hun¬ 
gary, where the general appearance of its 
vast plains, the nature of their soil, and, 

1 above all, the occurrence of fossil sea shells, 
leave no room to doubt the former dominion 
of the ocean. Throughout all Austria the 
Tertiary formation prevails, with a margin 
of the Secondary formation, stretching to a 
greater or lesser extent into the surround¬ 
ing countries, and diversified by patches of 
igneous rocks of the Tertiary and Alluvial 
epochs. In mineral productions Austria is 
very rich, possessing, with the exception of 
platinum, all the metals. We may more 
particularly mention gold, silver, iron, cop¬ 
per, lead, zinc, quicksilver, coal, and salt. 
The total annual value of the mineral prod¬ 
ucts of the Austrian empire is estimated 
at upward of £12,000,000; of which £2,300,- 
000 represents coal; £2,000,000 lignite; 
£4,300,000 smelted ores; and £3,400,000, 
salt. 

Manufactures and Commerce .— 'Manufac¬ 
tures are in the most flourishing condition 
in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lower 
Austria; less so in the E. provinces, and 
insignificant in Dalmatia, Bukowina, and 
the Military Frontiers. The total money 
value of manufactured products amounts to 
at least £130,000,000, the value of agricul¬ 
tural products to more than £200,000,000. 
As regards the individual branches of 
manufacture, there are machines produced 
yearly to the value of £4,000,000 to £5,000,- 
000, and the supply about equals the de¬ 
mand. In the manufacture of musical and 
scientific instruments Austria holds a high 
position; those of Vienna are especially cel¬ 
ebrated. The manufacture of stoneware and 


chinaware is very extensive, being valued 
at about £2,500,000 yearly, and giving rise 
to a brisk export trade. The glass manufac¬ 
ture is one of the oldest and most highly de¬ 
veloped branches of industry in Austria. 
The manufactories, about 200 in number, 
are spread over the whole of the monarchy, 
but are most numerous in Bohemia, where 
glass and glasswares of every kind are pro¬ 
duced. The yearly value of this class of 
manufactures is estimated at about £2,500,- 
000, of which a very considerable quantity 
is exported. The manufacture of metal 
goods is carried on to a great extent, being 
valued at about £10,000,000; and some of 
the iron and steel goods, such as scythes and 
reaping hooks, have a world-wide reputa¬ 
tion. The manufacture of gold and silver 
plate and jewelry is also important, and 
the articles of Vienna workmanship compete 
successfully with the French. The produc¬ 
tion of chemicals reaches the amount of 
£5,000,000, and about covers the home de¬ 
mand. As regards articles of food, the 
sugar from beets has an annual value of 
about £12,000,000; of beer the production is 
£4,000,000 in value, the number of breweries 
is over 2,000; spirits are distilled to the 
value of £3,500,000. The manufacture of 
tobacco is a State monopoly, and is carried 
on in 38, mostly large, establishments. Of 
textile industries, the silk manufacture, 
since the loss of the Lombardo-Venetian 
provinces, has become greatly limited. The 
manufactures of woolen, hemp, and flax are 
among the oldest and most important of the 
State. The first gives employment to about 
400,000 persons, and turns out about £14,- 
000,000 worth of goods yearly, of which a 
considerable proportion is annually export¬ 
ed. In the whole monarchy there are about 
650,000 spindle-s and 65,000 looms employed 
in woolen weaving. The linen manufacture 
(including also hemp and jute) gives em¬ 
ployment to a greater number of persons 
than any other branch of industry (many of 
them in their homes), and produces goods to 
a greater value. The chief seats of the 
manufacture are Bohemia, Moravia, and Si¬ 
lesia. The annual produce of the cotton 
manufacture is next in value to that of 
woolens. Although about 2,400,000 spin¬ 
dles are in activity, cotton yarn has to be 
imported. On the other hand, however, 
cotton cloths, which enjoy a very good repu¬ 
tation, are exported. Tanning is carried on 
to the greatest extent in Moravia, Lower 
Austria, and Bohemia, yet not sufficiently 
to supply the demand. The manufacture 
of leather goods, however, is very large, 
and in the production of gloves (in Vienna 
and Prague) Austria stands next to France. 
Altogether the manufacture of leather and 
leather goods employs about 200,000 persons 
and produces goods to about £ 10 , 000,000 
yearly. 



Austria 


Austria 


In addition to the general import and ex¬ 
port trade, Austria carries on — partly 
from its central position in the continent of 
Europe, and partly from its numerous nav¬ 
igable streams, excellent roads, and in 
later times its partially completed railway 
system — a very considerable amount of 
business in the transit of goods through her 
territory to other countries. In 1887 the 
total value of the imports into Austria- 
Hungary was, in round numbers, £53,900,- 
000, while the value of the exports was 
£69,800,000; the respective figures for the 
year 1897 w r ere £62,940,000 and £63,854,000. 
These values were exclusive of coin and 
bullion, the import of which into Austria- 
Hungary in 1897 amounted to £8,322,000, 
while the export for the same year was £4,- 
304,000. The principal import is raw cot¬ 
ton, which was imported in 1897 to the 
value of £4,225,000; wool being imported to 
the value of £3,209,000; cotton and woolen 
yarn to the value of £2,433,000; silk and 
silk goods to the value of £2,725,000; coffee 
to the value of £2,192,000; tobacco leaf and 
manufactured to the value of £2,167,000; 
coal and coke to the value of £3,100,000. 
Among the other chief articles furs and 
hides were imported to the value of £1,842,- 
000; leather was imported to the value of 
£1,783,000; machinery, locomotives, etc., to 
the value of £1,642,000; hardware and 
clocks to the value of nearly £1,000,000; 
books, newspapers, and maps to the value of 
£1,492,000; grain to the value of £3,400,- 
000; cattle to the value of £1,300,000. Wood 
formed the chief article of export, the value 
of this product being in 1897 £7,000,000; 
next came sugar, value £5,120,000; cattle 
to the value of £3,800,000. Among other 
exports of importance were grain to the 
value of £3,475,000; leather and leather 
wares (including gloves), £2,242,000; hard¬ 
ware, £1,533,000; eggs, £3,660,000; coal and 
coke, £2,850,000; woolen manufactures, 
£1,542,000; glass and glassware, £1,867,000; 
paper and paperwares, £909,000; wool; 
£883,000; malt, £2,042,000; wooden goods, 
£1,600,000; hides, etc., £1,420,000; etc. 
Nearly one-half of the commerce of Aus¬ 
tria is carried on with Germany, the next 
places being occupied by Great Britain, 
Italy, Russia, and the United States. 

Including fishing vessels and small craft, 
Austria-Hungary, in the beginning of 1897, 
had 12,447 vessels of all sizes, with a ton¬ 
nage of 270,250, and employing 34,431 men. 
Of these 227 of 212,069 tons were sea-going 
vessels, the coasting vessels being 1,739 in 
number w T ith a tonnage of 35,515. . The 
principal ports of the empire are Trieste, 
Pola, and Fiume. In 1898 there were 
20,445 miles of railway open for traffic in 
the empire, of which 10,598 were in Austria, 
and 9,847 in Hungary. 

Money , Weights, and Measures.— On Jan. 
1 1900, a new monetary system went into 


effect, the coinage being changed from a sil¬ 
ver to a gold basis, and the standard coin 
and money of account being the crown 
(equal to 20.3 cents in United States gold). 
Practically the chief medium of exchange is 
banknotes, of various denominations. The 
Austrian centner, the weight by which all 
large quantities are rated, is 123% pounds 
avoirdupois. The metze (pi., metzen), the 
largest dry measure =1.7 of a bushel, or 
somewhat less than the fourth part of an 
English imperial quarter, nine metzen mak¬ 
ing two quarters nearly. The eimer, the 
most generally used liquid measure, is 
equal to 14.94 English wine gallons. The 
Vienna foot is equal to 12.45 inches En¬ 
glish. The joch of land is 1.43 English 
acre. 

Population .— None of the European 
States, with the exception of Russia, ex¬ 
hibits such a diversity of race and language 
among their population as does the Aus¬ 
trian empire. The Slavs, who amount to 
above 19,000,000, or 45 per cent, of the 
total population, are the chief of the com¬ 
ponent nationalities of the monarchy in 
point of numbers, forming the great mass 
of the population of Bohemia, Moravia, 
Carniola, Galicia, Dalmatia, the kingdom 
of Croatia and Slavonia, and Northern 
Hungary, and half the population of Si¬ 
lesia and Bukowina. This preponderance, 
however, is only apparent, as none of the 
other races are split up into so many 
branches differing so greatly from each 
other in language, religion, civilization, 
manners, and customs. These branches are 
the North Slavic Czechs, Moravians, and 
Slovaks, the Ruthenians and Poles, and 
the South Slavic Slovenians, Croats, Serbs, 
and Bulgarians. The Germans, about 10,- 
570,000 in number, are scattered over the 
whole monarchy, and form almost the sole 
population of the archduchy of Austria, 
Salzburg, the greatest portion of Styria and 
Carinthia, almost the whole of Tyrol and ' 
Vorarlberg, considerable portions of Bo¬ 
hemia and Moravia, the whole of the W. of 
Silesia, etc.; and they are also numerous 
in Hungary and Transylvania. The Mag¬ 
yars or Hungarians (7,440,000 in number, 
or about 16 per cent, of the total popula¬ 
tion) form the great bulk of the inhabitants 
of the kingdom of Hungary and of the 
E. portion of Transylvania. To the Italic 
or Western Romanic stock belong the inhab¬ 
itants of South Tyrol and parts of the coast 
lands and Dalmatia, numbering about 700,- 
000 in all. A considerable portion of the 
S. E. of the empire is occupied by mem¬ 
bers of the Rumanian (or Eastern Ro¬ 
manic) stock, who number altogether about 
2,800,000, and form more than half the 
population of Transylvania, besides being 
spread over the S. E. parts of Hungary, 
Bukowina, and part of Croatia and Sla¬ 
vonia. The number of Jews is also very 





Austria 


Austria 


considerable (above 1,000,000), especially 
in Galicia, Hungary, Bohemia, and Mora¬ 
via, There are also several other races 
whose numbers are small, such as the Gyp¬ 
sies (95,000), who are most numerous in 
Hungary and Transylvania, and the Al¬ 
banians in Dalmatia and neighboring re¬ 
gions. The population is thickest in Lower 
Austria, Bohemia, Silesia, and Moravia; 
thinnest in Salzburg. Generally speaking, 
it decreases in density from W. to E. 

Religion. — The State religion of Austria 
is the Roman Catholic, and next in num¬ 
bers is the Greek Church. Calvinism and 
Lutheranism are also professed by a large 
body of the people; the former mostly in 
Hungary and Transylvania, the latter in 
the German provinces and in Galicia. The 
civil power exercises supreme control in all 
ecclesiastical matters, the emperor being, 
in everything but the name, head of the 
Church; and as no sentence of excommuni¬ 
cation, or other ecclesiastical edict, can be 
issued without the sanction of the crown, 
the Pope’s direct authority in Austria is 
somewhat limited. In 1890 there *were in 
the Austrian portion of the monarchy 18,- 
784,063 Roman Catholics, 2,797,089 Greek 
Catholics united to the Roman Church, 
540,715 non-united, 430,849 Protestants, 
and 1,135,118 Jews. In Hungary and 
Transylvania there were 8,823,105 Roman 
Catholics, 1,670,283 Greek united and 
2,633,491 non-united, 3,427,896 Protestants, 
and 724,588 Jews. 

Education. — The intellectual culture of 
the people is at very different stages of ad¬ 
vancement among the different races. It is 
highest in the German provinces, and low¬ 
est in the E. In Upper and Lower Austria, 
Salzburg, Tyrol, Moravia, Silesia, and Bo¬ 
hemia, almost all the children of suitable 
age are in attendance on the public schools; 
while in Bukowina only about 34, and in 
Galicia about 59 per cent, of them are at 
the schools. The educational system has 
been entirely remodeled in recent times. 
The elementary schools, or those in which 
the common branches are taught, are 
designated national schools or schools 
for the people (Vollcsschulen) , and there 
children have to attend from the end of 
their 6th to the end of their 14th (in 
some provinces only their 12th) year. A 
higher class of elementary schools are known 
as town schools (Biirgcrschulen) , in which 
a superior education may be obtained. For 
the training of instructors for the people’s 
schools, there are 43 normal schools for 
male teachers and 26 for female. As sec¬ 
ondary schools or institutions of a more 
advanced grade, there are the gymnasia and 
the “ real-schools,” as they are called. The 
gymnasia resemble the best sort of our 
grammar schools, being intended chiefly to 
prepare pupils for the universities, and 
great attention being paid in them to the 


classical languages. In the real-schools a 
more practical end is kept in view, and mod¬ 
ern languages and physical science form 
the groundwork of the educational course. 
A complete course in a gymnasium extends 
over four years, in a real-school either three 
or four. There are also schools of an in¬ 
termediate stamp known as “ real-gymna¬ 
sia.” The higher education is provided for 
by the universities, the polytechnic insti¬ 
tutes, and the various institutions in which 
particular subjects are taught. There are 
11 universities in the monarchy, viz., in 
Vienna, Prague (two — a German and a 
Bohemian), Pestli, Gratz, Cracow, Lemberg, 
Innsbruck, Klausenburg, Agram, and Czer- 
nowitz. Most of these have four faculties 
— Catholic theology, law and politics, medi¬ 
cine, and philosophy. There are also sev¬ 
eral technical high schools in which math¬ 
ematics, physics, and natural science are 
the chief objects of study. Besides these 
there are theological institutions; schools 
for jurisprudence and philosophy; schools 
of commerce, industrial arts, agriculture, 
arboriculture, and mining; military schools, 
naval schools, art schools, conservatories of 
music, etc. The principal libraries are the 
royal library at Vienna, with 450,000 vol¬ 
umes, 24,000 manuscripts, and 7,000 in¬ 
cunabula; and the university libraries of 
Vienna and Prague. 

Constitution , Revenue, Army, and Navy. 
—As already mentioned, the Austrian do¬ 
minions now consist of a German, or Slavo- 
Germanic, or Cisleithan empire, and a 
Transleithan or Hungarian kingdom, each 
with its own parliament, ministers, and 
government. The same hereditary sover¬ 
eign rules over both, and they have a com¬ 
mon army and navy, and a sort of common 
parliament known as the Delegations. The 
Delegations „ consist of 120 members, one- 
half of whom are chosen by and represent 
the legislature of German Austria, and the 
other half that of Hungary, the upper house 
of each legislature returning 20 and the 
lower house 40 deputies. In all matters 
affecting the common affairs of the mon¬ 
archy the Delegations have a decisive vote, 
and their resolutions do not require the con¬ 
firmation of the representative assemblies 
in which they have their source. The Dele¬ 
gations meet alternately in Vienna and 
Budapest. Their ordinary mode of proced¬ 
ure is to sit and vote in two chambers, the 
60 deputies of Cisleithan Austria forming 
the one, and the 60 of Hungary the other. 
But if no agreement can be arrived at in 
this manner, the two bodies must meet to¬ 
gether and without further debate give their 
final vote, which is binding for the whole 
empire. The jurisdiction of the Delega¬ 
tions extends specially to all matters affect¬ 
ing foreign affairs, war, and finance. The 
constitution of German Austria was finally 
established in December, 1867. The prov 4 



Austria 


Authorized Version of the Bible 


inces have each a diet or legislature of their 
own for provincial affairs, these diets being 
16 in number, one each for Bohemia, Dal¬ 
matia, Galicia, Upper Austria, Lower Aus¬ 
tria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, 
Bukowina, Moravia, Silesia, Tyrol, Vorarl- 
berg, Gorz and Gradisca, and Istria, the 
municipal council of Trieste having similar 
functions. The provincial diets are com¬ 
posed of the archbishops and bishops, the 
rectors of the universities, the representa¬ 
tives of the great estates, of towns, of 
boards of commerce, of rural communes, 
etc. The laws passed in these diets have 
reference to provincial taxation, agricul¬ 
tural, educational, and other matters. The 
National Parliament or legislature of Ger¬ 
man Austria, called the Reichsrath (or 
council of the realm), consists of an upper 
house or house of lords (Herrnhaus ), and 
a lower house or house of deputies {Ah- 
geordnetenhaus ). The former is composed of 
princes of the imperial family, of nobles 
whose families have a hereditary right to 
this dignity, of the archbishops, the bishops 
of princely rank, and of a certain number of 
life members nominated by the emperor. The 
lower houses consist of 353 members, elect¬ 
ed by all citizens above 24 possessing a small 
property qualification. The rights belong¬ 
ing to the Reichsrath are — consent to all 
laws relating to military service; coopera¬ 
tion in the legislation on commercial mat¬ 
ters, customs, railways, etc.; and examina¬ 
tion of the estimates of the income and 
expenditure of the State, and other financial 
matters. The constitution of Hungary, in¬ 
cluding also Croatia, Slavonia, and Tran¬ 
sylvania, dates from the foundation of the 
kingdom, or about 895 a. d. It rests upon 
a number of statutes published at long in¬ 
tervals, the principal of these being the 
Bulla Aurea or Golden Bull of Andrew II., 
granted in 1222, by which the government 
was defined as an aristocratic monarchy. 
The legislative power is vested in the king 
and the parliament ( Reichstag) conjointly. 
The latter consists of an upper house or 
house of magnates, and of a lower house or 
house of representatives. The house of 
magnates consists of the archdukes of the 
imperial family who have attained their 
majority, 54 ecclesiastical dignitaries, 151 
counts, and 36 barons as hereditary mem¬ 
bers, 84 life members nominated by the 
sovereign, or elected by the chamber, etc. 
The lower house (of 453 members) is com¬ 
posed of elected representatives. The.Hunga¬ 
rian Reichstag corresponds to the Reichsrath 
of the Cisleithan provinces, and accord¬ 
ingly only deals with such matters as 
are common to the provinces belonging to 
the Hungarian crown. Transylvania is, so 
far as legislation and administration are 
concerned, entirely incorporated with Hun¬ 
gary. Croatia and Slavonia, however, have 
a Landtag or diet of their own, which, like 
3G 


the provincial diets of the Cisleithan por¬ 
tion of the empire, consists of only one 
chamber, and which is competent to deal 
with all matters belonging to the interior 
administration of the provinces, with re¬ 
ligion and education, and with the adminis¬ 
tration of justice. Fiume, which was for¬ 
merly associated with Croatia and Slavonia, 
and subject to the Landtag of these prov¬ 
inces, has, since August, 1870, been put 
directly under the central Hungarian gov¬ 
ernment. 

There being three distinct parliaments in 
the empire, there are also three budgets, 
viz., that for the whole empire, that for 
Cisleithan, and that for Transleithan Aus¬ 
tria. In the budget of the whole empire 
for 1902 the revenue and expenditure were 
each estimated at 365,181,966 crowns; in 
that for Cisleithan Austria the revenue was 
estimated at 1,685,966,357 crowns, and the 
expenditures at 1,685,117,944 crowns; and 
in that for Transleithan Austria the es¬ 
timated revenue was 1,086,870,018 crowns, 
the estimated expenditure being a little 
less. A small portion of the imperial rev¬ 
enue of Austria is derived from customs and 
other sources, and the remainder is made up 
by the two divisions of the empire, 70 per 
cent, thereof being contributed by the Cis¬ 
leithan and 30 per cent, by the Transleithan 
portion. 

Military service is obligatory on all citi¬ 
zens capable of bearing arms who have at¬ 
tained the age of 20, and lasts up to the 
age of 42, either in the active army, in the 
landwehr, or the landsturm. The period of 
service in the active army is 12 years, of 
which three are passed in the line, seven in 
the reserve, and two in the landwehr. In 
1900 the standing army numbered 361.693 
men (including officers) on the peace foot¬ 
ing, and 1,826,940 men and 45,238 officers 
on the war footing. 

The Austrian navy comprises about 120 
vessels of all kinds, including 8 battleships, 
10 port defense ships (4 monitors on the 
Danube), and 33 cruisers. The other ves¬ 
sels are mostly torpedo craft. The crews 
number about 8,500 officers and men. 

Authorized Version of the Bible, the 

veision of the Bible into English, made at 
the suggestion of James I. by 47 learned 
divines. It took three year* — viz., from 
1607 to 1610 — to execute, and was first 
published in 1611. It is the only one ap¬ 
pointed to be read in churches, and till 
quite recently its title-page contained the 
words “ printed by authority.” It has held 
its place so long more by its own great mer¬ 
its than by the artificial support of law; 
and while there are numerous minute de¬ 
fects, which have been corrected in the re¬ 
vised version of the New Testament, it re¬ 
mains, in all essential respects, the same 
Bible which for nearly three centuries has 




Authors 


Automobile 


been the most potent factor in the spiritual 
education ot the English-speaking race, ana 
through it, more or less, of all the other 
families of mankind. 

Authors, British Society of, an asso¬ 
ciation of authors formed in London in 
1883, for social and business purposes; has 
a governing committee of 30 members; main¬ 
tains an attractive club-room and publishes 
a periodical called “ The Author.” The late 
Lord Tennyson was its president till his 
death. 

Authors* Club, an American organiza¬ 
tion founded in New York city in 1882, and 
incorporated in 1887. It is governed by an 
executive committee without a president. 
Any person who is the author of a published 
book proper to literature, or of creditable 
literary work equivalent to such a book, is 
eligible to membership. The club has apart¬ 
ments in Carnegie Hall, holds meetings 
semi-monthly, and gives Saturday receptions 
for ladies in the winter season. It has a 
library consisting of the publications of its 
members and another devoted to literary 
biography. 

Authors, French Society of, an organi¬ 
zation founded in Paris, in 1837, for the 
protection of authors in their rights, and 
open to any man of letters. It is governed 
by an elective committee of 24 members. 
This society has a pension fund which pro¬ 
vides for aid in work, for sick, and for age. 
Besides publishing a journal, the “ Chron- 
ique,” the society has collected a large sum 
of money from pirating publishers. 

Authors’ Guild, American, an organi¬ 
zation founded in New York city, in 1892, 
and incorporated, in 1895, has for its ob¬ 
jects the promotion of a professional spirit 
among authors and a better understanding 
between authors and their publishers, and, 
in general, the protection of literary prop¬ 
erty and the advancement of the interests 
of American authors and literature. All 
persons engaged in literary pursuits are eli¬ 
gible to membership. The guild has a pen¬ 
sion fund for members who may become 
needy. 

Autocracy, a word signifying that form of 
government in which the sovereign unites 
in himself the legislative and the executive 
powers of the State, and thus rules uncon¬ 
trolled. Such a sovereign is, therefore, 
called an autocrat. Nearly all Eastern gov¬ 
ernments are of this form. Among Euro¬ 
pean rulers, the Emperor of Russia alone 
bears the title of Autocrat, the name indi¬ 
cating his freedom from constitutional re¬ 
straint of every kind. Such is the theory 
or principle of an autocracy, but it should 
be remembered that even the most rigorous 
autocrat must in practice have regard to the 
feelings and opinions of those about him. 
There are real, though not formal, checks. 


In autocratic States, palace or court revolu¬ 
tions are not infrequent. This has been a 
marked feature of Russian history, es¬ 
pecially in the 18th century. These revolu¬ 
tions often result in the deposition and as¬ 
sassination of the sovereign. In point of 
fact, the peculiar feature of an autocracy 
is the absence of regular and constitutional 
limits; it is a strong form of personal rule. 

Automatic Gun. See Machine Gun. 

Automaton, a self-moving machine per¬ 
forming actions like those of a living be¬ 
ing. We find very early mention of them. 
In ancient times Daedalus is said to have 
made walking statues, and Archytas a fly¬ 
ing dove. In modern times Friar Bacon 
had the reputation of having constructed 
a brazen head which spoke, and Regiomon¬ 
tanus an iron fly, which, after making the 
tour of the room, returned to its master. 
Albertus Magnus, in the 13th century, is 
said to have spent 30 years in constructing 
a human figure which advanced to the door 
when anyone knocked, opened it, and sa¬ 
luted the visitor. In the water-clock pre¬ 
sented to Charlemagne by Haroun al 
Rascliid, 12 doors in the dial opened re¬ 
spectively at the hour which they repre¬ 
sented; they continued open till noon, when 
12 knights issued out on horseback, parad¬ 
ed round the dial, and then returning shut 
themselves in again. Camus 'constructed 
an ingenious toy for Louis XIV., consisting 
of a carriage drawn by two horses, contain¬ 
ing a little figure of a lady with a coach¬ 
man and attendants. The coachman cracked 
his whip, the horses moved their legs nat¬ 
urally, and when the carriage arrived op¬ 
posite the king’s seat it stopped; the page 
stepped down and opened the door; the 
lady alighted and presented a petition to 
Louis. The flute-players, the tambour- 
player, and the wonderful duck of Vaucan- 
son are celebrated for the astonishing in¬ 
genuity displayed in their construction. 
Of all automata among the most remarkable 
are the whist-playing and other figures of 
Mr. Maskelyne. 

Automobile, a self-propelled, or motor- 
driven vehicle intended to run on highways, 
as distinguished from a locomotive intended 
to be run on a track. 

The name automobile, rather incongru¬ 
ously derived from the Greek, autos, self, 
and the Latin, mobilis, movable, is of very 
recent origin. The motor-driven road-ve¬ 
hicle, however, dates from the early days 
of the nineteenth century, when it was for 
nearly two decades a formidable rival of 
the developing railroad. One of the earliest 
was that built by Richard Trevithick, who 
designed the earliest high-pressure steam 
engine to propel it. Other brilliant design¬ 
ers were the Englishmen, Goldsworthy, 
Gurney and Walter Hancock, who produced 




AUTOMOBILES. 




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LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF GASOLINE CAR. 


















































































































































































































Automobile 


Automobile 


several improvements in boilers and en¬ 
gines, which were valuable contributions to 
the young science of steam engineering. 
These inventors built large passenger 
coaches, several of which had been in actual 
service for several years, when the growing 
popularity of the railroads, combined with 
the unjust discriminations of Parliament, 
operated to discourage their use on the high¬ 
ways. Thereafter, for nearly fifty years, 
nothing worthy of mention was accomplished 
in the way of developing motor vehicles. 

The new impetus came with the improve¬ 
ment of the light, high-speed gasoline en¬ 
gine at the hands of Gottlieb Daimler of 
Cannstadt, Germany, in 1884. Daimler ap¬ 
plied his improved engine to the propulsion 
of bicycles and four-wheeled carriages. His 
example was followed by the French en¬ 
gineers, Panhard and Levassor, the Peugeot 
brothers, and others now equally famous, 
by whom the modern gasoline automobile 
was first developed along the lines since 
followed throughout the world. 

About the same time, Leon Serpollet, of 
Paris, invented his famous “flash boiler,” 
an extremely compact' and efficient type of 
steam generator, which was used by him on 
steam cycles and wagons, and also gave a 
powerful impulse to the development of 
steam carriages on both sides of the At¬ 
lantic. Flashers designed along the lines 
laid down by Serpollet have been used on 
several makes of high-powered steam wag¬ 
ons in England, also by such well-known 
American steam carriages as the W hite. 

Probably no mechanical invention, not 
even the steam railway locomotive, has oc¬ 
casioned a greater activity in invention and 
begotten a greater or more inclusive group 
of allied industries than the automobile. 
Starting as an interesting mechanical nov¬ 
elty about twenty-five years since, it has rap¬ 
idly become a necessity, and is now a recog¬ 
nized feature in commercial life, in the shape 
of trucks, delivery wagons and cabs, as well as 
for personal and pleasure use. The grow¬ 
ing complexity of travel conditions in large 
cities must inevitably lead to its exclusive 
use for heavy draughting in the near fu¬ 
ture. 

Three types of automobile are now rec¬ 
ognized, their discrimination being based on 
the motor used: the steam, the gasoline and 
the electric. The last-named, driven by an 
electric motor energized by a storage bat¬ 
tery, was originated in 1894 by Henry G. 
Morris and Pedro G. Salom, engineers of 
Philadelphia, and by Jeanteaud and Bogard 
of Paris. Since that time it has been steadily 
developed both in efficiency and travel ra¬ 
dius, thanks to battery improvements, and, 
with the virtual eclipse of the steam ma¬ 
chine, has become the only serious rival of 
the gasoline automobile, particularly for 
heavy trucking service. 


As a vehicle designed to operate under 
peculiar and very trying conditions, the 
automobile demands certain constructions 
and devices foreign alike to both railway 
cars and horse-drawn wagons. Having no 
track to limit and guide its travel, it re¬ 
quires efficient means: (a) for steering or 
changing its line of travel, and (b) for 
compensating. the motions of its driven 
wheels on curves. The first of these require¬ 
ments is found in the stud steering axles, 
by which the front, or steering, wheels are 
practically hinged to the axletree. 

The horse-drawn wagon has the front ax¬ 
letree center-pivoted under the body on the 
so-called “fifth wheel.” This arrangement, 
however, would be impracticable in an auto¬ 
mobile, since, owing to the fact that the two 
wheels in turning do not describe concentric 
arcs, none but the longest and most gradual 
turns would be possible, the pivoted stud 
axles, on the other hand, being connected 
by and operated through a transverse drag- 
link, are so geared as to allow the outer 
wheel on a turn to assume a greater incli¬ 
nation from the normal than the inner. 
Consequently the two, pushed by the motor- 
driven rear wheels, describe arcs developed 
from a common center, without side slip or 
dragging. This is the only means by which 
a motor car may be turned without danger 
of breakage or upsetting. 

The necessity of easy turning involves 
another conspicuous need—that the two 
rear-driven wheels shall rotate at different 
speeds. If the motive power be applied to 
only one rear wheel, this result is readily 
accomplished, except for the fact that the 
car could, then, turn in only one direction. 
The effect is practically achieved by the 
use of the differential or compensating gear. 
Briefly described, the typical form of this 
device consists of a sprocket or a bevel gear, 
according as the drive is-by chain or by pro¬ 
peller shaft. Several spokes of this sprocket 
or gear serve as spindles for small bevel 
pinions, all of which mesh, at either side, 
with two bevel gears. These latter, in turn, 
are keyed to the inner ends of the center 
divided rear axle, the two road wheels being 
attached to the two outer ends. In operation 
the motor rotates the sprocket, and, as is 
evident, so long as the travel of the car is 
straight ahead, the bevel pinions, meshed 
with their gears, form a sort of clutch, 
holding the two parts of the divided axle 
rigidly to the sprocket, the whole rotating 
together, and thus transmitting equal power 
and motion to both road wheels. So soon, 
however, as a turn is made, and one road 
wheel must act as a pivot, the small bevel 
pinions begin rotating on their axes, allow¬ 
ing the pivot wheel to rotate as slowly as 
required, or to remain fixed, while at the 
same time transmitting nearly full speed 
to the other. 




Automobile 


Automobile 


Because the travel on ordinary highways 
involves constant encountering of rough sur¬ 
face, stray obstacles, and the resistance of 
mud or sand, some method of neutralizing 
the shocks of travel is essential. This end 
is commonly achieved by the use of pneu¬ 
matic tires, whose action has been described 
as a “swallowing-up” of unevennesses. The 
elasticity of the compressed air within the 
pneumatic tire permits of a constant redis¬ 
tribution of pressure within, so that the 
jolts resulting from contact with most ob¬ 
stacles are largely “absorbed,” and the body 
of the car is spared many a shock that 
might otherwise lead to disablement. 

Highly resilient supports, like pneumatic 
tires, are essential with small or moderate¬ 
sized wheels and high speeds. With low 
speeds solid rubber tires are sufficient, even 
with small wheels. The effect of absorbing 
shocks may be achieved with wheels of large 
diameter, with rubber tires used only to 
promote traction. In fact, ease of travel in¬ 
creases as the square of the wheel’s diam¬ 
eter. This is the secret of the success of 
the numerous high-wheel automobiles now 
on the market. 

In the early days of automobiles the pneu¬ 
matic tire was a constant occasion of trou¬ 
ble on account of ever-recurring liability to 
puncture. Continual improvement, however, 
in the quality and structure of tires has 
greatly reduced this, and at the present 
time puncture and rim-cutting are no more 
common than other forms of mishap. Great 
advances have also been made in the devel¬ 
opment of the several types of detachable 
rim, which obviate the difficult task of pry¬ 
ing the shoe over the rim of the tire in or¬ 
der to reach and repair the inner tube. 

The transmission of an automobile, or the 
device for imparting the motion of the engine 
to the road wheels, is of two general types: 
(a) by chain and sprocket from a counter¬ 
shaft carrying the differential to each of the 
drive wheels, which turn loose on a “dead,” 
or non-rotating, rear axle; (ft) by longi¬ 
tudinal “propeller shaft,” carrying a bevel 
pinion, which meshes with a bevel gear on 
the differential of the center-divided rear 
axle. The latter type is constantly growing 
in favor, being preferred by many builders 
and users of motor cars as an efficient means 
of driving, which also does away with chain 
troubles. Some early gasoline cars had the 
motor shaft geared to a spur on the rear 
axle differential; others, particularly the 
early American types, used one chain engag¬ 
ing a sprocket on the rear axle differential. 

The gasoline automobile has received so 
large a share of favor that it is now, fairly, 
the typical motor vehicle. Under the im¬ 
petus given by the demand for the most ef¬ 
ficient engine for motor car use, the gas en¬ 
gine has been developed to a degree of perfec¬ 
tion that might otherwise have been long de¬ 


layed. Not only has the weight per horse¬ 
power been reduced by nearly nine-tenths 
the average recognized twenty years ago, 
but ease and quietness of operation have 
been immensely increased. 

The four-cycle engine is the prevailing 
type for automobiles. The most effective 
method of properly balancing a gasoline en¬ 
gine, which is the real occasion of smooth 
operation, is by increasing the number of 
the cylinders. Daimler and his early French 
collaborators used single-cylinder motors. 
An American, Charles E. Duryea, was the 
first to use multiple cylinders. In 1890 he 
built a two-cylinder horizontal engine to 
propel a motor buggy. 

Later lie used three-cylinder engines. The 
general trend within the last ten years has 
been steadily toward the use of four, and 
later, of six-cylinder engines, the reason be¬ 
ing that, particularly with the latter, an 
approximately constant power-effort may 
be realized, thus avoiding the vibration and 
noise inevitable from the constant varia¬ 
tions of pressure throughout the engine 
cycle, when only one or two cylinders are 
used. The use of multiple-cylinder engines 
explains the absence of the terrific vibra¬ 
tion, so familiar in motors of ten years ago, 
in automobiles built at the present time. 

The fuel exploded in the cylinder of an 
automobile engine is a mixture of vaporized 
gasoline and air, produced as required in 
an apparatus known as the carburetter or 
mixer. There have been several types of 
this instrument in use, the most familiar 
being (a) the surface carburetter, in which 
air is drawn under suction of the engine 
over a surface wet with the liquid spirit, 
and (ft) the float or gravity carburetter, in 
which the spirit is atomized through a fine 
nozzle, being drawn by air-suction from a 
chamber, whose entrance is normally closed 
by a float bearing against the feed port. 
Both types are still in use, having been 
brought to high perfection by constant ex¬ 
periment. The proportions of air and gas 
in the fuel mixture may be precisely de¬ 
termined by adjusting the supply of air 
drawn through the mixing chamber by the 
inspiration stroke of the engine piston. The 
power effect and the rapidity of the igni¬ 
tion depend upon tlie proportions of air and 
gas in the mixture. Excess of either in¬ 
gredient is detrimental to perfect operation 
of the engine. 

Ignition of the fuel charge in the cylinder 
is regularly accomplished by an electric 
spark. There are two types in use: fa) 
the break, or low-tension, spark, produced 
by opening the circuit with a mechanical 
contact-breaker, and (6) the jump, or high- 
tension, spark, produced by an arc between 
two slightly separated finely-pointed ter¬ 
minals. The latter method is the one more 
generally favored. The spark gap is fixed 
in an instrument known as the spark plug. 






Autonomy 


Autun 


The current is produced, either from a 
chemical battery or small dynamo, being 
stepped up to the required tension in an 
induction coil, or from a magneto-generator, 
frequently of the high-tension type. 

The intense heat of the cylinder is ab¬ 
sorbed by the cooling system, which may 
use either water circulating in and out 
through ‘•jackets” on the cylinder walls, or 
by suitable radiating pins or flanges, through 
which air circulates. Several highly effi¬ 
cient types of air-cooling system have been 
devised, although water-cooling is the 
favorite method. 

The motion of the engine shaft is trans¬ 
mitted to the road wheels through a speed¬ 
changing device, which operates to vary the 
final driving speed, also the final effective 
power, as for hill-climbing, by some device 
of varying the ratios of motion between the 
main motor shaft and the second shaft that 
drives direct to the road wheels. The favorite 
method of speed change is by spur gears, 
which, mounted on two parallel shafts, the 
one driven by the engine, the other driving 
direct to the transmission, may be readily 
slid into or out of mesh. When a spur on 
the driving or engine shaft meshes with one 
of twice its diameter on the driven, or sec¬ 
ond shaft, the final speed sent to the driven 
axle-gear is one-half that of the engine shaft. 
When the ratio from the engine shaft is two 
to one, the speed is twice that of the engine 
shaft. Other speed ratios are proportional. 

The engine is connected to the first shaft 
through some form of friction clutch, usu¬ 
ally of the cone type, although compression 
discs have constantly gained in favor of 
late years. 

With the practical perfection of motors 
and other accessories, the size and power of 
automobiles has steadily increased. The 
prevailing types at the present time are the 
high-powered touring cars and the heavy- 
duty trucks. The automobile is rapidly 
solving the freight transportation problem, 
not only in large cities, where trucks of sev¬ 
eral tons’ capacity are rapidly becoming 
every-day necessities, but also, following the 
example of England, for long-distance haul¬ 
age. In the field of commercial utility the 
motor car will doubtless find its widest ap¬ 
plication. J. E. Homans. 

Autonomy, the arrangement by which 
the citizens of a State manage their own 
legislation and government; and this evi¬ 
dently may, with certain restrictions, be 
the case also within limited bodies of the 
same people, such as parishes, corporations, 
religious sects. Autonomy is frequently 
used to designate the characteristic of the 
political condition of ancient Greece, where 
every city or town community claimed the 
right of independent sovereign action. Re¬ 
cently the word is more specifically used of 
territories or provinces, which, while sub* 


ject in some matter to a higher sovereignty, 
are autonomous in other respects. Thus 
the Treaty of Berlin made Eastern Ru- 
melia an autonomous province; though 
subject to the direct political and military 
authority of the Sultan, it was to have 
administrative autonomy in all its in¬ 
ternal affairs. Egypt possesses a higher 
autonomy. The self-government enjoyed 
by the British colonies may be described as 
a modified form of autonomy. 

Autoplasty, a mode of surgical treatment 
which consists in replacing a diseased part 
by means of healthy tissue from another 
part of the same body. The most familiar 
instance is the rhinoplastic or taliacotian 
operation,, for supplying a new nose from 
the skin of the forehead. It is more popu¬ 
larly known as skin-grafting. 

Autopsy, eye-witnessing, a direct obser¬ 
vation; generally applied to a post mortem 
examination, or the dissection of a dead 
body. 

Autotype, a method of phototyping. Tis¬ 
sue, being prepared with a liquid composed 
of gelatine, sugar, and bichromate of pot¬ 
ash, is then used for taking a collodion 
negative in the ordinary way. It is next 
applied under water with the face down 
to a plate of glass, metal, or other paper, 
coated with gelatine and chrome alum. 
Means are then taken to remove the parts 
not hardened by light, and, finally, by an¬ 
other elaborate process, the plate is made 
ready for the printing-press. 

Autotypography, a process invented by 
Mr. Wallis, by which drawings made on 
gelatine can be transferred to soft metallic 
plates, and afterward used for printing 
from, like ordinary copper plates. 

Autumn, the season of the year which 
follows summer and precedes winter. 
Astronomically, it is considered to extend 
from the autumnal equinox, Sept. 23, in 
which the sun enters Libra, to the winter 
solstice, Dec. 22, in which he enters Cap¬ 
ricorn. Popularly, it is believed to embrace 
the months of September, October and 
November. 

Autran, Joseph (o-tran'), a French poet, 
born in Marseilles, in June, 1813. His verse 
is admired for its purity of form and refined 
sentiment. He attracted attention in 1832 
with an ode to Lamartine, “ The Departure 
for the East.” His works include “ The 
Sea,” poems (1835); “ Milianah,” an epic 
(1842); “Rural Life” (1856); and “The 
Daughter of JEscliylus,” drama (1848), 
which won a prize from the French Acad¬ 
emy. He died in Marseilles, March 6, 1877. 

Autun (o-tun'), a city of France, in the 
Department of Saone-et-Loire, on the Ar- 
roux, 43 miles S. W. of Dijon, on the rail¬ 
road to Nevers. It is picturesquely situated. 




Auvergne 


Avalanches 


The Church of St. Martin, built by Queen 
Brunehaut, and containing her tomb, fur¬ 
nishes a variety of architectural styles. 
Autun is one of the most ancient French 
cities, and was made a Roman colony by 
Augustus, from whom it derived its old 
name of Augustodunum. It still presents 
many fine Roman remains. Talleyrand was 
Bishop of Autun at the commencement of the 
French Revolution. The Abbe Roquette, 
whom Moliere is said to have taken for a 
model, was also one of the bishops. 

Auvergne (o-varn), a province of Cen¬ 
tral France, now merged into the Depart¬ 
ments of Cantal and Puy-de-Dome, and an 
arrondissement of Haute-Loire. The Au¬ 
vergne Mountains, separating the basins of 
the Allier, Cher, and Creuse from those of 
the Lot and Dordogne, contain the highest 
points of Central France: Mt. Dore, 6,188 
feet; Cantal, 6,003 feet, and Puy-de-Dome, 
4,806 feet. The number of extinct volcanoes 
and general geologic formation make the 
district one of great scientific interest. 

Auvergne, Counts and Dauphins of, 

a title which was, about the middle of the 
8th century, conferred on Blandin, who 
served the Duke Waifre in his opposition to 
Pepin le Bref, founder of the Carlovingian 
dynasty. The name figures through a great 
part of early French history. 

Auxerre (oz-ar'), the chief town of the 
French Department of Yonne, on the Yonne 
river, 109 miles S. E. of Paris, in a rich 
district abounding in vineyards. It pre¬ 
sents an imposing aspect from a distance, 
the most prominent feature being the noble 
Gothic cathedral, which dates from 1215, 
but was not completed till the 16th cen¬ 
tury. There are two other interesting 
churches, a museum, a large library, stat¬ 
ues of Fourier and Davout, etc. Auxerre 
was a flourishing town before the Roman in¬ 
vasion of Gaul. It was destroyed by the 
Huns in 451, and in 486 was wrested by 
Clovis from the Romans. The county of 
Auxcrrois came finally in 1477 to the king¬ 
dom of France. The principal manufactures 
are wine (a light Burgundy), candles, chem¬ 
icals and hosiery. Pop. (1901) 18,901. 

Auzout, Adrian (o-zo), a French mathe¬ 
matician ; inventor of the micrometer, which 
is still in use among astronomers to meas¬ 
ure the apparent dia?neter of celestial bod¬ 
ies. He was the first who thought of ap¬ 
plying the telescope to the astronomical 
quadrant. He died in 1691. 

Ava, Arva, Yava, or Kava (piper metliys- 
ticum ), a plant of the natural order piper- 
acece, possessing narcotic proprieties. Un¬ 
til recently, it was ranked in the genus 
piper (pepper). It is a shrubby plant, with 
heart-shaped acuminate leaves, and very 
short, solitary, axillary spikes of flowers. 
It is a native of many of the South Sea 


islands, where the inhabitants intoxicate 
themselves with a fermented liquor pre¬ 
pared from the upper portion of the root 
and the base of the stem. The rhizome is 
thick, woody, rugged, and aromatic. The 
intoxicating liquor is prepared by macerat¬ 
ing it in water. The savage Tahitians were 
accustomed to prepare it in a very odious 
manner; much as the Indians of the Andes 
prepare chica, or maize beer ■— chewing the 
root, depositing it in a bowl, straining 
through cocoanut husk, and mixing with 
water or cocoanut milk. As the beverage 
was drunk immediately afterward, no fer¬ 
mentation could have taken place, and the 
narcotic property is, therefore, ascribed to 
an acrid resin, kawine, which is present in 
the root. The taste is unpleasant to those 
unaccustomed to it, and lias been likened 
to that of rhubarb and magnesia. The in¬ 
toxication is not like that produced by ar¬ 
dent spirits, but rather a stupefaction like 
that caused by opium. It is succeeded by 
a copius perspiration. The habitual use of 
ava causes a whitish scurf on the skin, 
which, among the heathen Tahitians, was 
reckoned a badge of nobility, the common 
people not having the means of indulgence 
requisite to produce it. Ava is, like cocaine, 
a local anaesthetic. 

Avalanches, masses of snow or ice that 
slide or roll down the declivities of high 
mountains, and often occasion great devas¬ 
tation. They have various names, accord¬ 
ing to their nature. Drift or powder ava¬ 
lanches consist of snow, which, loose and 
dry from strong frost, once set in motion 
by the wind, accumulates in its descent, and 
comes suddenly into the valley in an over¬ 
whelming dust-cloud. Avalanches of this 
kind occur chiefly in winter, and are dan¬ 
gerous on account of their suddenness, suf¬ 
focating men and animals, and overturning 
houses by the compression of the air which 
they cause. Another kind of avalanche re- 
sembles a landslip. When the snow begins 
to melt in spring, the soil beneath becomes 
loose and slippery; and the snow slides down 
the declivity by its own weight, carrying 
with it soil, trees, and rocks. The greatest 
danger is where elevated tracts of moderate 
declivity are separated from the valleys by 
precipitous walls of rock; the softened snow 
of spring, beginning to roll or slide on these 
slopes, is hurled over the precipices with 
fearful force into the valleys. The very 
wind caused by them prostrates forests and 
houses. Ice avalanches are those that are 
seen and heard in summer thundering down 
the steeps — e. g., of the Jungfrau. They 
consist of masses of ice that detach them¬ 
selves from the glaciers in the upper re¬ 
gions. They are most common in July, 
August and September. Nine great Alpine 
avalanches, which cost 447 lives, are on rec¬ 
ord between 1518 and 1879, the most de- 



Avalon 


Ave Marla 


structive being one of 1827, which swept 
away half the village of Biel, in the Upper 
Valais, with 88 inhabitants. Sudden ava¬ 
lanches, larger or smaller, constitute one 
of the special dangers of Alpine climbing. 

Avalon, a peninsula forming the E. part 
of Newfoundland, in which St. John’s, the 
capital, is situated. 

Avalon, in medieval romances, the name 
of an island in the ocean, possessing a castle 
of loadstone. It is most fully described in 
the old French romance of Ogier le Danois. 
Avalon, as the abode of King Arthur, the 
old British hero, is generally identified 
with what is called the Isle of Glaston¬ 
bury, in Somersetshire, England. 

Avars, a people, probably of Turanian 
origin, who at an early period may have 
migrated from the region E. of the Tobol in 
Siberia to that about the Don, the Caspian 
Sea, and the Volga. A part advanced to 
the Danube in 555 a. d., and settled in 
Dacia. They served in Justinian’s army, 
aided the Lombards in destroying the king¬ 
dom of the Gepidae, and in the 6th century 
conquered under their khan, Bajan, the re¬ 
gion of Pannonia. They then won Dal¬ 
matia, pressed into Thuringia and Italy 
against the Franks and Lombards, and sub¬ 
dued the Slavs dwelling on the Danube, as 
well as the Bulgarians on the Black Sea. 
But they were ultimately limited to Pan¬ 
nonia, where they were overcome by Charle¬ 
magne, and nearly extirpated by the Slavs 
of Moravia. After 827 they disappear from 
history. Traces of their fortified settle¬ 
ments are found, and known as Avarian 
rings. 

Avatar f-a-tar'), more properly Avatara, 
in Hindu mythology, an incarnation of the 
Deity. Of the innumerable avatars the chief 
are the ten incarnations of Vishnu, who ap¬ 
peared successively as a fish, a tortoise, a 
boar. 

Avatcha (-vii'cha), a volcano and bay 
in Kamtchatka. The volcano, which is 
9,000 feet high, was last active in 1855. The 
town of Petropavlovsk lies in the bay. 

Avebury, a village of England, in Wilt¬ 
shire, occupying the site of a so-called 
Druidical temple, which originally consisted 
of a large outer circle of 100 stones, from 
15 to 17 feet in height, and about 40 feet 
in circumference, surrounded by a broad 
ditch and lofty rampart, and inclosing two 
smaller circles. Few traces now remain of 
the structure. On the neighboring downs 
are numerous barrows or tumuli, one of 
which, called Silbury Hill, rises to the 
height of 130 feet, with a circumference of 
2,027 feet at the base, covering an area of 
more than five acres. 

Avebury, Sir John Lubrock, Baron, 
an English archaeologist, naturalist, and 


politician; born in London, April 30, 1834. 
He was educated at Eton, and in 1848 en¬ 
tered his father’s banking house, becoming 
a partner in the business in 1856. In 1870 
and 1874 he was elected to Parliament as 
member for Maidstone in the Liberal inter¬ 
est, from 1880 to 1900 sat for London Uni¬ 
versity, and in the latter year was elevated 
to the peerage. He became a recognized 
authority on financial and educational 

questions, and his name is associated with 
over twenty important measures, including 
the Bank Holidays Act, and acts concerning 
ancient monuments, shop hours, and public 
libraries. But he attained even greater 
distinction as a popularizer of science, espe¬ 
cially in the department of entomology 

through notable observations of ants, bees, 
and wasps. Among his numerous works 
may be mentioned: “Prehistoric Times” 
(1865; new edition 1900), a very valuable 
archa'ological text-book; “Origin of Civil¬ 
ization” (1870; new edition 1902) ; “Origin 
and Metamorphosis of Insects” (1873) ; “On 
British Wild Flowers” (1873); “Mono¬ 
graph on the Collembola and Thysanura” 

(1873); “Fifty Years of Science” (1882); 
“Ants, Bees, and Wasps” (1882), which 
has gone through many editions; “Flowers, 
Fruits, and Leaves” (1886); “The Senses 
and Instincts of Animals” (1888) ; “On Re¬ 
presentation” (1890) ; “The Pleasures of 
Life” (1891), his most popular book; “The 
Beauties of Nature” (1892); “The Use of 
Life” (1894); “The Scenery of Switzer¬ 
land” ( 1896) ; “Buds and Stipules” (1898) ; 
“The Scenery of England” (1902); “Coins 
and Currency” (1902); “Essays and Ad¬ 
dresses” (1903); “Free Trade” (1904). 

Avellaneda y Arteaga, Gertrudis Go= 

mez de (a-va-lya-mVda e ar-ta-ag'a), a 
Spanish author; born in Puerto Principe, 
Cuba, March 23, 1814. Under the pseudo¬ 
nym “Peregrina” she contributed to Andalu¬ 
sian journals many “Lyric Poems” (1851- 
1854), and afterward wrote a series of 
spirited novels: “Two Women,” “The 

Baroness de Joux,” “Dolores,” and others. 
She gained still higher distinction with the 
tragedies “Alfonso Munio,” the hero of 
which was her own ancestor, and “ The 
Prince of Viana.” Her later compositions 
had a tone of melancholy, but are not in¬ 
ferior to those that went before them. She 
died in Madrid, Feb. 2, 1873. 

Ave Maria (a'vama-re'a) (“Hail, 
Mary”), the first two words of the angel 
Gabriel’s salutation (Luke i: 28), and the 
beginning of the very common Latin prayer 
to the Virgin in the Roman Catholic Church. 
Its lay use was sanctioned at the end of the 
12th century, and a papal edict of 1326 or¬ 
dains the repetition of the prayer thrice each 
morning, noon, and evening, the hour being 
indicated by sound of bells called the Ave 



Avena 


Averkiyev 


Maria or Angelas Domini. The prayers 
are counted upon the small beads of the 
rosary, as the pater nosters are upon the 
large ones. 

Avena, a genus of plants belonging to the 
order graminaceaz, or grasses. The A. fatua, 
or wild; the A. strigosa, or bristle pointed; 
the A. pratenis, or narrowed-leaved peren¬ 
nial; the .4. planicuhnus, or flat-stemmed; 
the A. pubescens, or downy; and the A. 
flavcscens, or yellow oat, are species in¬ 
cluded in this genus. The first of these 
species is akin to the A. sativa, or cultivated 
oat. It is a cereal suitable for cold clim¬ 
ates, not reaching proper maturity in the 
South. It attains perfection in Scotland, 
and is largely grown there. A. nuda is 
the naked or hill oat, or peel corn, formerly 
cultivated and used extensively by the poorer 
classes in the N. of England, Wales and 
Scotland. 

Avenel, Paul (av-nel'), a French poet 
and novelist, born at Chaumont, Oct. 9, 
1823. Educated for commerce, he turned 
to literature and was active in connection 
with several periodicals. Besides a number 
of vaudevilles, he wrote “ The Peasant 
Woman from the Abruzzi ” (1861), a 

drama; “The King of Paris” (1860), a 
historical romance; “ The Calicoes ” (1866), 
scenes of real life. Among several col¬ 
lections of poems may be mentioned “ Alcove 
and Boudoir,” interdicted in 1855 and re¬ 
published in 1885. 

Avenzoar (av-en'zor), or, to give his 
complete name, Abu-Merwan-Moiiammed- 
ben-Abdalmalec-ben-Zoiiar, an Arabian 
physician of the 12tli century, born at Se¬ 
ville, in Spain, where his father practiced 
medicine. He became eminent in his pro¬ 
fession, traveled much, and passed through 
many adventures, among which was a long 
imprisonment at Seville. He had the care 
of a hospital, and composed a work entitled 
“ A1 Theiser,” containing a compendium of 
medical practice, and including many facts 
and observations not found in the preceding 
writers, which was probably the result of 
his own experience. He died at Morocco, 
in 1169. The report of his having lived 
to the age of 135 is probably an error aris¬ 
ing from his having been confounded with 
his son, of the same name and profession, 
who lived at Morocco, and was the author of 
a treatise on the regimen of health. 

Average, formerly the apportionment of 
losses by sea or elsewhere in just propor¬ 
tions among different individuals; now the 
medium or mean proportion between certain 
given quantities. It is ascertained by ad¬ 
ding all the quantities together and divid¬ 
ing their sum by the number of them. For 
instance, to ascertain the average income 
of the clergy of any given church, their 
several incomes must be all added together, 


and the sum total be divided by the number 
of clergymen. The more that the extremes 
vary, the less possible is it to reason out 
any individual case from a study of the 
average. Thus the knowledge of the aver¬ 
age age at which people die in the United 
States affords no aid whatever toward dis¬ 
covering when any particular person will 
die, for some do so almost at the moment 
of birth and others linger on for nearly, 
if not quite, ^a 100 years. But for find¬ 
ing out general laws, the study of averages 
is of immense value. The average of quali¬ 
ties is ascertained in a similar way to that 
of quantities. 

Average, or General Average. — A contri¬ 
bution made by merchants proportionally 
to the value of the goods which each has on 
board a particular vessel, to meet the loss 
which arises when in a storm the goods of 
one have had to be cast overboard to 
lighten the ship. 

Particular Average. — The sum required 
to make good any fortuitous injury to the 
goods belonging to one person. It falls on 
him or on his insurers. 

Petty Average. — An estimate of the prob¬ 
able aggregate amount of various petty 
charges, as for harbor dues, pilotage, etc., 
which the captain of a vessel must, in the 
first instance, pay, but which, of course, do 
not fall on him ultimately. Formerly they 
were often met, as they still are, by agree¬ 
ment between the owners of the vessel and 
those to whom the goods sent in it belongs. 
Hence in bills of lading the words occur, 
“ paying so much freight, with primage and 
average accustomed.” 

Averell, William Woods, an American 
military officer, born in Cameron, N. Y., 
Nov. 5, 1832; was graduated at the United 
States Military Academy in 1855; served on 
the frontier and in several Indian cam¬ 
paigns till the beginning of the Civil War, 
when he was appointed Colonel of the 3d 
Pennsylvania Cavalry, and assigned to the 
command of the cavalry defenses of Wash¬ 
ington. During the war he distinguished 
himself on numerous occasions as a cavalry 
raider and commander, and at its close 
was brevetted Major-General of volunteers. 
He resigned from the regular army while 
holding the rank of captain, in 1865, and, 
under an act of Congress, was reappointed 
captain in August, 1888, and was placed on 
the retired list in the same month. He 
was United States Consul-general at Mon¬ 
treal in 1866-1869. He died in Bath, N. Y., 
Feb. 3, 1900. 

Averkiyev, Dmitry Vassilyevich (av- 

er'kS-yev), a Russian dramatist and critic, 
born Oct. 12, 1836. He wrote over 20 
dramas and comedies, besides numerous 
literary criticisms. Among the former, 
mostly taken from old Russian life, the 
best are “In Old Kashira” (1872), a his- 



Avernus 


Aviary 


torical tragedy; and “Frol Skobejeff” i 
(1808), a comedy. 

Avernus, or Averno, a lake in tlie neigh¬ 
borhood of Naples, about 2miles N. W. 
of Puzzuoli, and near the coast of Baise, 
the waters of which were so unwholesome 
and putrid that no birds ever visited its 
banks. The ancients made it the entrance 
of hell, by which Ulysses and JEneas de¬ 
scended into the lower regions. In the 
time of Vergil, a communication between it 
and the neighboring Lucrine Lake was made 
by Agrippa; but in 1538, the latter was 
filled by a volcanic eruption, when Monte 
Nuovo rose in its place, rendering the 
Averno again a separate lake. On its banks, 
instead of pestilential marshes, are now 
beautiful gardens and vineyards. The 
grotto of the Cumaean sibyl is still to be 
seen here. It may be observed that all 
lakes whose stagnated waters were putrid 
and offensive to the smell were indiscrimi¬ 
nately called Averna. 

Averrhoa (av-er-ho'a), a genus of plants, 
order oxalidacece. It consists of two species, 
both of which form smiall trees in the East 
Indies. They are remarkable for their 
leaves, which are pinnated, possessing, in a 
slight degree, the kind of irritability found 
in the sensitive plant; and for their fleshy 
oval fruits with five thick longitudinal 
wings. In the earambola (A. aciambola ), 
the leaves are smooth, the flowers of a 
violet pirrple, and the fruit about the 
size of a goose’s egg; it is of a pale yellow 
color, and is said to be agreeably acid in 
the East Indies. The other species, called 
the blimbing {A. blimbi), has downy leaves 
and fruit resembling a small cucumber. 
The latter is intensely acid and cannot be 
eaten raw. It is pickled or candied, 
or a syrup is obtained from it by boiling 
with sugar, and its juice is found an ex¬ 
cellent agent for removing iron mold or 
other spots from linen. To the Malays it 
answers the same purposes as the citron, 
the gooseberry, the caper and the cucumber 
of Europe. 

Averroes (av-er-o'az), or Averrhoes 
(corrupted from Ebn or Ibn Rosiid or 
Rushd ), an Arabian philosopher and phy¬ 
sician, born 1120. He succeeded his father 
in the chief magistracy of Cordova, capital 
of the Moorish dominions in Spain; was 
afterward nominated chief judge in Mo¬ 
rocco, and, having there appointed deputies 
to his office, he returned to Spain. The 
liberality of his opinions, however, caused 
him to be persecuted by the more orthodox 
Moslems, and he was imprisoned; but, after 
doing penance and making recantation, he 
was liberated. Averroes greatly admired 
Aristotle, and his commentaries on the 
writings of that philosopher procured for 
him the title of “ The Commentator.” Of the 
personal character of Averroes almost noth¬ 


ing is known. Penan says, with perfect 
truth, that neither by his studies nor his 
character does he appear to have departed 
much from the type of the “ learned Mussul¬ 
man.” He knew what the others knew: 
in medicine, Galen; in philosophy, Aristotle, 
or his translators; in astronomy, the Alma¬ 
gest. Like every Mohammedan, he culti¬ 
vated jurisprudence; and, like every dis¬ 
tinguished Arabian, he was devoted to 
poetry. He died at Morocco in 1198. 

Avery, Benjamin Parke, an American 
journalist and diplomatist, born in New 
York city in 1829; went to California in 
1849 and became connected with several 
papers on the Pacific coast, among them 
being the San Francisco “ Bulletin.” In 
18/2 he was appointed editor of the “ Over¬ 
land Monthly.” From 1874 to 1875 he was 
United States Minister to China. His chief 
work is “ Californian Pictures in Prose and 
Verse” ( 1877). He died in Pekin, China, 
Nov. 8, 1875. 

Avery, Samuel Putnam, an American 
merchant, born in New York city, March 
17, 1822; became a copper-plate and wood 
engnaver, and subsequently an art publisher 
and dealer, and retired from business in 
1883. He was a founder of the Metropoli¬ 
tan Museum of Art; life member of the 
American Museum of Natural History, 
American Geographical Society, American 
Historical Society, American Zoological So¬ 
ciety; president of the Grolier Club, and 
first president of the Sculpture Society. In 
1891, with his wife, he created and endowed 
the Avery Architectural Library, in Colum¬ 
bia University, as a memorial of his deceased 
son; and in May, 1900, he presented to the 
trustees of the New York Public Library 
a collection of etchings, lithographs and 
photographs, numbering more than 17,500 
pieces, and many large volumes illustrated 
by the same arts. He died Aug. 13, 1904. 

Avesta. See Zendavesta. 

Aveyron (a-va-ron), a Department occu¬ 
pying the S. extremity of the central plat¬ 
eau of France, traversed by mountains be¬ 
longing to the Cevennes and the Cantal 
ranges; principal rivers: Aveyron, Lot and 
Tarn, the Lot alone being navigable. The 
climate is cold, and agriculture is in a 
backward state, but considerable attention 
is paid to sheep breeding. It is noted for 
its Roquefort cheese. It has coal, iron, and 
copper mines, besides other minerals. Area, 
3,340 square miles; capital, Rhodez. Pop. 
(1900) 377,299. 

Aviary, a building or inclosure for keep¬ 
ing, breeding and rearing birds. Aviaries 
appear to have been used by the Persians, 
Greeks and Romans, and are highly prized 
in China. In England they were in use 
at least as early as 1577, when William 
Harrison refers to “ our costlie and curious 




Avicebron 


Avison 


aviaries.” An aviary may be simply a kind 
of very large cage; but the term usually 
has a wider scope than this. 

Avicebron, or Avencebrol (a-ve-tha- 
brdn'), properly Solomon ben Jeiiuda ibn 
Gabriol, Hebrew poet and philosopher, born 
at Cordoba, about 1028. Of his poetical 
works, “ The Royal Crown ” is the most 
famous; of the philosophical, “The Foun¬ 
tain of Life,” written in Arabic, but known 
only through a Latin translation (re-edited 
in Munster, in 1895). He died about 1058. 

Avicenna, or Ebn=Sina, an Arabian 
philosopher and physician, born near Bok¬ 
hara, a. d. 980. After practicing as a 
physician he quitted Bokhara at the age of 
22, and for a number of years led a wander¬ 
ing life, settling at last at Hamaden, lat¬ 
terly as vizier of the Emir. On the death 
of his patron he lived in retirement at 
Hamadan, but having secretly offered his 
services to the Sultan of Ispahan he was 
imprisoned by the new Emir. Escaping, he 
fled to Ispahan, was received with great 
honor by the Sultan, and passed there in 
quietness the last 14 years of his life, writ¬ 
ing upon medicine, logic, metaphysics, as¬ 
tronomy and geometry. He died in 1037, 
leaving many writings, mostly commenta¬ 
ries on Aristotle. Of his 100 treatises the 
best known is the “ Canon Medicinse,” which 
was still in use as a text-book at Louvain 
and Montpelier in the middle of the 17th 
century. 

Avicennia, or White Mangrove, a 

genus of verbenacecc, consists of trees or 
large shrubs resembling mangroves, and, like 
them, growing in tidal estuaries and salt 
marshes. Their creeping roots, often stand¬ 
ing six feet above the mud in crowded pyra¬ 
midal masses, and the naked asparagus¬ 
like suckers which they thrown up, have 
a singular appearance. The bark of A. 
tomentosa, the white mangrove of Brazil, 
is much used for tanning. A green, resinous 
substance exuding from A. rcsinifera is 
eaten by the New Zealanders. The genus 
is named in memory of the Arabian phy¬ 
sician Avicenna. 

Avienus, Rufus Festus (av-e-en'us), a 
Latin descriptive poet, who flourished about 
the end of the 4th century after Christ, 
and wrote “Descriptio Orbis Terrae,” a gen¬ 
eral description of the earth; “ Ora Mari- 
tima,” an account of the Mediterranean 
coasts, etc. 

Avignon (av-en-yon') (ancient Avenio), 
a city of France, capital of the Department 
of Vaucluse, on the left bank of the Rhone, 
76 miles N. N. W. of Marseilles, on the 
railway to Paris. Avignon was for a long 
time the residence of the Popes, and accord¬ 
ingly filled with convents, churches, etc., 
many of which are now in decay. It is 
situated in a fine plain, and is surrounded 


by high walls, flanked with numerous tow* 
ers. The promenades along the walls, and 
the quays along the river, are both very 
fine. The streets are, in general, narrow 
and gloomy. The ancient palace of the 
Popes stands on the declivity of a rock. 
It is a Gothic building of different periods, 
and of vast extent, and now serves as a 
prison, military depot, and barracks. The 
Cathedral Church of Notre Dame des Dons 
is very ancient, as is also the spire of the 
Church of the Cordeliers. The latter church 
contained the tomb of Laura, immortal¬ 
ized by Petrarch. Avignon existed before 
the Roman invasion, and afterward became 
a Roman colony. In 1309, Clement V. 
transferred thither the abode of the Popes, 
who continued to reside here till 1377, when 
they returned to Rome; but two schismati- 
cal Popes, or Popes elected by the French 
cardinals, resided at Avignon till 1409. 
Avignon and its territory remained the 
property of the Holy See until 1797, when 
it was incorporated with France. Pop. 
(1901) 46,209. 

Avila ( a've-la), a town of Spain, capital 
of the Province of Avila, a modern division 
of Old Castile. It is the see of the bishop 
suffragan of Santiago, with a fine cathedral, 
and was once one of the richest towns of 
Spain. Principal employment in the town, 
spinning; in the province, breeding sheep 
and cattle. Pop. (1900), town, 11,885; 
province, 200,457. 

Avila, Gil Gonzalez d\ a Spanish anti¬ 
quary and biographer, 1577-1658; made 
historiographer of Castile in 1612, and of 
the Indies in 1641. Most valuable works: 
“ Teatro de las Grandezas de Madrid ” 
(1623), and “Teatro Ecclesiastico ” (1645- 
1653). 

Avila, Juan de, a celebrated Spanish 
preacher, commonly called the “ Apostle of 
Andalusia,” was born at Almodavar del 
Campo, in 1500. His missionary labors in 
Andalusia were prosecuted with untiring 
zeal and singular success, until he arrived 
at the age of 50, when, with a worn-out 
constitution, he was obliged to desist. Died 
in 1569. His “Spiritual Letters” have 
been translated into most European langu¬ 
ages. 

Avila y Zuniga (a've-la e tho-nye'ga), 
Don Luis d\ a Spanish general, diplomat¬ 
ist, and historian; a favorite of Charles V.; 
born about 1490, died after 1552. His chief 
work, translated into five or six languages, 
was on the war of Charles V. in Germany. 

Avison, Oliver R., an English physician, 
born in Yorkshire, June 30, 1860; removed 
to Canada in youth; was educated in the 
Ontario College of Pharmacy, the Toronto 
Medical School, and the Victoria University, 
and became Professor of Materi Medica, 
Instructor of Microscopy and Demonstrator 





Avitus 


Ax 


of Materia Medica in the University of To¬ 
ronto. In 1893 he went to Korea as a 
medical missionary; the same year he was 
appointed to the charge of the Royal Korean 
Hospital, and in the following year became 
physician to the royal family. 

Avitus, Marcus Maecilius, an Emperor 
of the West. He was of a Gaulish family 
in Auvergne, and gained the favor of Con- 
stantius, the colleague of Honorius, and of 
Theodoric, King of the Visigoths. He served 
with distinction under iEtius, became Pre¬ 
fect of Gaul, and concluded a favorable 
treaty with the Goths. He afterward re¬ 
tired into private life until the invasion of 
Attila, when he induced the Goths to join 
the Romans against the common enemy. 
Avitus was proclaimed Emperor in 455, 
took for his colleague Marcianus, and died 
the year following. 

Aviz, Order of (av'eth), an institution 
created in 1147, by Alphonso I., the founder 
of the Portuguese monarchy, and raised by 
him, in 1102, to the rank of an ecclesias¬ 
tical order of chivalry. The knights were 
then called Knights of Evora, but took 
their present title in 1287, from their gal¬ 
lant defense of the fortress of Aviz against 
the Moors. The Order was changed from 
an ecclesiastical to a civil institution in 
1789. The King of Portugal is the Grand 
Master of the Order. 

Avlona, the best seaport in Albania, in 
the Province of Janina, on an eminence 
near the Gulf of Avlona, an inlet of the 
Adriatic, protected by the Island of Sas- 
seno, the ancient Saso. It is one of the 
stations of the Austrian Lloyd steamers, 
and carries on considerable trade with 
Brindisi, etc. The Christian inhabitants, 
who are chiefly Italians, are engaged in 
commerce, exporting oil, wool, salt, pitch, 
and especially some 40,000 tortoise shells 
yearly. The Turks are employed in the 
manufacture of weapons and woolen fab¬ 
rics. Valonia, a material imported to Eng¬ 
land for tanning, is the pericarp of an 
acorn grown in the neighborhood. Up to 
1691 the town belonged to the Venetians. 

Avoca, or Ovoca, a beautiful valley and 
river of Ireland, near Glendalough, in the 
county of Wicklow, and celebrated as being 
the scene which gave rise to one of the 
finest of Moore’s “ Irish Melodies.” 

Avocado, a West Indian fruit, called also 
avocado pear, alligator pear, subaltern’s 
butter tree, avigato, and sabacca. It be¬ 
longs to the order lauracece (laurels), and 
is the persea gratissima. It is found in 
tropical America. The fruit is about the 
size and shape of a^large pear. A consider¬ 
able part of it is believed to consist of a 
fixed oil. It is highly esteemed. The fruit 
itself is very insipid, on which account it 


is generally eaten with the juice of lemons 
and sugar to give it poignancy. 

Avocet, or Avoset, the English name of 
a genus of birds, with their feet so webbed 
that they might seem to belong to the 
natatores (swimmers), but which, by the 
other parts of their structure, are placed 
in the family scolopacidce (snipes), and 
the sub-family totanince (tattlers). Their 
great peculiarity 'is a long, feeble bill, 
curved upward, with which they explore 
the sand for prey. Recurvirostra avocet la 
is a British bird. It was formerly abun¬ 
dant in the fenny districts, but is now 
rare. R. americana differs from it by hav¬ 
ing a red cap; and there are a few other 
foreign species. 

Avogadro’s Law, in physics, asserts 
that equal volumes of different gases at 
the same pressure and temperature contain 
an equal number of molecules. 

Avoirdupois, a system of weights used 
for all goods except precious metals, gems, 
and medicines, and in which a pound con¬ 
tains 10 ounces, or 7,000 grains, while a 
pound troy contains 12 ounces, or 5,700 
grains. A hundredweight contains 112 
pounds avoirdupois. 

Avon, the name of several English and 
Scottish rivers, the best known of which is 
that Avon which rises in Northamptonshire, 
and flows into the Severn at Tewkesbury, 
after a course of 100 miles. Oh its banks 
is Stratford-on-Avon, the birthplace and 
abode of Shakespeare, who has hence been 
styled the Bard of Avon. 

Avondale, a parish of Scotland, in the 
county of Lanark. At the battle of Drum- 
clog, fought near this place June 1, 1679, 
Grahame of Claverhouse, the famous Vis¬ 
count Dundee, was defeated by the forces 
of the Scottish Covenant. A graphic de¬ 
scription of this battle is found in Sir Wal¬ 
ter Scott’s “ Old Mortality.” 

Awe, Loch, a lake of Scotland, in Ar- 
gyleshire, 18 miles N. W. of Inverary. It 
is 23 miles long, by 3 broad. On one of its 
many islands stand the magnificent ruins of 
Kilchurn Castle, for centuries the baronial 
fortress of the Campbells, Earls of Breadal- 
bane. In allusion to the vast territorial 
possessions of this family, extending over 
a tract of country for 100 miles, there is a 
saying in the Highlands, “ It is a far cry 
to Loch Awe.” This lake receives the river 
Urchan; and at its N. W. extremity rises 
the great mountain of Ben Cruachan, 3,670 
feet in height. 

Ax, or Axe, an instrument for cutting 
or chopping timber, or smaller pieces of 
wood. It consists of an iron head with one 
edge sharp, and a handle or helve, generally 
of wood. As a rule, it is used with both 
hands, while a hatchet, which is smaller, 
is intended for one. 




Axayacat 


Axis 


Axayacat, or Axayacatl, a Mexican fly, 
the eggs of which, deposited abundantly on 
rushes and flags, are collected and sold as 
a species of caviare. The use of these as an 
article of diet was learned by the Spanish 
settlers from their predecessors, the native 
Indian Mexicans, who called the dish 
ahuauhtli. 

Axelsen, or Axelsen Tott, a powerful 
Danish family who flourished in the latter 
half of the loth century, and the members 
of which figured in the wars of Christian 
I. and John IV. of Denmark, and Karl 
Knutsen and Eric the Pomeranian, Kings 
of Sweden. Peter Axelsen was the head 
of the family. Of his nine sons, the eldest, 
Olaf, made himself master of Gothland; the 
second, Iver, retained that possession, and 
became a corsair; the third, Eric, was 
governor of Stockholm; and the fourth, 
Aage, became a Danish councilor of State. 

Axil, in botany, the angle between the 
upper side of a leaf and the stem or branch 
from which it grows. Buds usually grow 
out from the stem in axils of leaves, and 
this position is naturally termed axillary. 
In anatomical terminology, the axilla is the 
armpit. 

Axim, an important station and port on 
the African Gold Coast, a little to the 
E. of the mouth of the Ancobrah river. 
Inland from Axim, in the basin of that 
river, and in the district between it and 
the Prali, gold mining operations have been 
carried on on a large scale. 

Axinite, a triclinic mineral, called also 
yanolit and thumite. The crystals are 
broad with their edges sharp. The hardness 
is 6.5-7, the sp. gr. 3.271, the luster 
glassy, the color clove-brown, plain blue, 
and pearl-gray, these hues varying greatly 
according to the direction in which it is 
viewed. It has strong double refraction. 
Composition: Silica, 41.50 to 45; alumina, 
13.56 to 19; lime, 12.50 to 25.84; sesqui- 
oxide of iron, 7.36 to 12.25; sesquioxide 
of manganese, 1.16 to 10; boric acid, 0 to 
5.61; magnesia, 0 to 2.21; and potassa, 
0 to .64. It is found, both in its normal 
state and altered, in Europe and in the 
United States. 

Axinomancy, a mode of divination much 
practiced by the ancient Greeks, particu¬ 
larly with the view of discovering the per¬ 
petrators of great crimes. An ax was 
poised upon a stake, and was supposed to 
move so as to indicate the guilty person; 
or the names of suspected persons being 
pronounced, the motion of the ax at a 
particular name was accepted as a sign of 
guilt. Another method of axinomancy was 
by watching the movements of an agate 
placed upon a red-hot ax. This is only 
one of a multitude of analogous modes of 


divination practiced in all ages and among 
all nations. 

Axiom, a Greek word meaning a de¬ 
cision or assumption, is commonly used 
to signify a general proposition which the 
understanding recognizes as true, as soon 
as the import of the words conveying it 
is apprehended. Such a proposition is, 
therefore, known directly, and does not 
need to be deduced from any other. Of this 
kind, for example, are all propositions 
whose predicate is a property essential to 
our notion of the subject. Every rational 
science requires such fundamental propo¬ 
sitions, from which all the truths compos¬ 
ing it are derived; the whole of geometry, 
for instance, rests on comparatively a very 
few axioms. Whether there is, for the 
whole of human knowledge, any single, 
absolutely first axiom, from which all else 
that is known may be deduced, is a ques¬ 
tion that has given rise to much disputa¬ 
tion; but the fact that human knowledge 
may have various starting-points answers 
it in the negative. Mathematicians use the 
word axiom to denote those propositions 
which they must assume as known from 
some other source than deductive reason¬ 
ing, and employ in proving all the other 
truths of the science. The rigor of method 
requires that no more be assumed than are 
absolutely necessary. Every self evident 
proposition, therefore, is not an axiom in 
this sense, though, of course, it is desirable 
that every axiom be self evident; thus, 
Euclid rests the whole of geometry on 15 
assumptions, but he proves propositions 
that are at least as self evident as some 
that he takes for granted. That “ any two 
sides of a triangle are greater than the 
third,” is as self-evident as that u all right 
angles are equal to one another,” and much 
more so than his assumption about paral¬ 
lels. Euclid’s assumptions are divided into 
three postulates, or demands, and 12 com¬ 
mon notions; the term axiom is of later 
introduction. The distinction between ax¬ 
ioms and postulates is usually stated in 
this way: an axiom is “a theorem granted 
without demonstration; ” a postulate is “ a 
problem granted without construction ”— 
as, to draw a straight line between two 
given points. 

Axis, a straight line, real or imaginary, 
passing through a body, and around which 
that body revolves, or at least may revolve; 
also, the imaginary line connecting the 
poles of a planet, and around which the 
planet rotates. 

In geometry, an imaginary line drawn 
through a plane figure, and about which 
the plane figure is supposed to revolve, with 
the result of defining the limits of a solid. 
Thus, a circle revolving about one of its 
diameters, and at right angles to that di- 



Axis 


Axis 


ameter, will constitute a sphere; lienee the 
axis of a sphere is any one of its diameters. 
If an isosceles triangle revolve around an 
imaginary line connecting its apex with 
the center of its base, it will constitute a 
cone; hence the axis of a cone is an imagin¬ 
ary straight line drawn from its apex to 
the center of its base. A rectangle revolv¬ 
ing around a straight line connecting the 
centers of any two of the opposite sides will 
produce a cylinder; hence the axis of a 
cylinder is a straight line drawn from the 
center of its apex to the center of its base. 
The axis of a parabola is the diameter 
which passes through its focus. In an 
ellipse the axis major (Latin = greater 
axis) is the diameter which passes through 
the foci; and the axis minor (Latin = lesser 
axis) the diameter at right angles to the 
axis major. In a hyperbola, the axis ma¬ 
jor is the diameter which passes through 
the foci; the axis minor is the distance 
between two points formed when a straight 
line drawn through the center of the hyper¬ 
bola, and at right angles to its major axis, 
is intersected by a circle described around 
a principal vertex as its center, and with a 
radius equal to the eccentricity of the 
hyperbola. 

The conjugate axis of an ellipse or of a 
hyperbola is the straight line drawn 
through its center perpendicular to the 
transverse axis. The transverse axis of an 
ellipse or of a hyperbola is the straight 
line drawn through the two foci. The axis 
of symmetry of a body is any line in a 
regular polygon bisecting an angle or bi¬ 
secting a side perpendicularly. 

In astronomy the axis of the earth or 
the axis of rotation of the earth, is that 
diameter about which it revolves. It is 
the one which has for its extremities the 
North and South Poles. The term is simi¬ 
larly used of the sun, the moon and the 
planets. The axis of the celestial sphere 
is the imaginary line around which the 
heavens appear to revolve. The axis of an 
orbit is the major axis of the orbit of a 
planet, the lino joining the aphelion and 
perihelion points. The minor axis is the 
line perpendicular to the former, and pass¬ 
ing through the center of the ellipse. 

In mechanics, the axis of suspension of 
a pendulum is the point from which it is 
suspended, and, consequently, around which 
it turns. The axis of oscillation of a com¬ 
pound pendulum is an exis constituted by 
a series of points, so situated that their 
motion is neither retarded nor accelerated 
bv their constituting part of a solid body, 
which, of course, can only move together. 
The axis of a balance is the line around 
which it turns. The axis in peritrochia is 
the same as the wheel and axle; one of 
the six mechanical powers, consisting of a 
peritrochium, or wheel and an axle. 


In optics, the axis of a lens is a line 
passing through the center of its curved, 
and perpendicular to its plane, surface. 
The optic axis is the line corresponding to 
this in the eye. The ray of light passing 
along it is the only one wdiich is not re¬ 
fracted. The other rays of light entering 
the eye have axes also, but this is the only 
one to which the term optic axis is applied. 
The visual axes are the axes of the several 
rays of light which enter the eye. The axis 
of refraction is a straight line drawn per¬ 
pendicular to the plane of a transparent 
body, and, passing through the point of in¬ 
cidence of a luminous ray, striking it from 
without. As regards axes of double refrac¬ 
tion, all doubly refracting substances have 
one or more lines, or one or more planes, 
along which no doubly refracting force ex¬ 
ists. If there is one such line or plane, then 
the body is said to have one axis, or plane of 
axes, of double refraction; if two, two axes, 
or planes of axes, of double refraction, and 
so forth. A real axis, or plane of axes of 
double refraction, is one in which the 
doubly refracting force really does not ex¬ 
ist; while a resultant axis, or plane of axes, 
or an axis or plane of compensation, is one 
in which it exists, but is neutralized by a 
counter force of equal intensity. A positive 
axis of double refraction is the term used 
when the refracted ray is bent toward the 
axes, or plane of axes of the body; and a 
negative axis of double refraction is the 
expression employed when it is bent in the 
contrary direction. 

In architecture, a 
spiral axis is the 
axis of a spirally 
twisted column. The 
axis of an Ionic capi¬ 
tal is a line passing 
perpendicular- 
1 y through the mid¬ 
dle of the eye of the 
volute. 

In geology an axis 
is an imaginary line 
on the opposite sides 
of which the strata 
dip in different di¬ 
rections. If the 
angle formed at 
their point of junction be a salient one, 
they form an anticlinal axis, or anticlinal; 
but, if it is a re-entering one, then they 
constitute a synclinal axis, or synclinal. 

In botany, the axis is that part of a 
plant around which the organs are sym¬ 
metrically arranged. The ascending axis 
means the stem. The descending axis is the 
root. Recessory axes are axes in addition 
to the main one, found in the stems of 
calvcanthus, chimonanthus, and some other 
plants. The appendages of the axis are 
scales, leaves, bracts, flowers, sexes, and 
fruit. The axis of inflorescence is a peduncle 







Axis 


Ayeshah 


which proceeds in a nearly straight line from 
the base to the apex of the inflorescence. 

In anatomy, the axis of the body is the 
vertebral column, around which the other 
portions of the frame are arranged. 

Axis, a species of deer, the cervus axis, 
found in India. It is spotted like the fal¬ 
low deer, from which, however, the adult 
males, at least, may be distinguished by 
their possessing round horns without a 
terminal palm. There are several varieties, 
• if, indeed, they are not distinct species. All 
are called by Anglo-Indian sportsmen hog 
deer. 


Axminster, a market town of England, 
in the county Devon, on the Axe, at one 
time celebrated for its woolen cloth and car¬ 
pet manufactures, and giving name to an 
expensive variety of carpet having a thick, 
soft pile, and also to a cheaper variety. 
Pop. (1801) 4,985. 

Axolotl (amblystoma maculatum), a 
curious Mexican amphibian, not unlike a 
newt, from 8 to 10 inches in length, with 
gills formed of three long, ramified or 
branch-like processes floating on each side 


of the neck. It re¬ 
produces by laying 
eggs, and was for 
some time regarded 
as a perfect animal 
with permanent 
gills. It is said, 
however, that thev 
frequently lose their 
gills like the other 
members of the genus, though some au¬ 
thorities maintain that the true axolotl 
never loses its gills, and that merely con¬ 
fusion with A. tigrinum has led to the be¬ 
lief, as this species sometimes retains its 
branchiae, though usually it loses them. The 
axolotl is esteemed a luxury by the Mexi¬ 
cans. There a e a number of species of am- 
blystoma in North America. 

Axum, a town in Tigre, a division of 
Abyssinia, once the capital of an important 
kingdom, and at one time the great depot 
of the ivory trade in the Red Sea. The 
site of the town still exhibits many remains 
of its former greatness; but modern Axum 
is onlv a miserable village. 

Ayacucho (a-a-so'Go), formerly Huamanga 
or Guamanga, a town in the Peruvian de¬ 
partment of the same name, 220 miles E. S. 
E. of Lima. Founded by Pizarro in 1539, 
it is now a handsome and thriving town. 
Here, on Dec. 9, 1824, the combined forces 
of Peru and Colombia — the latter then 
comprising Ecuador, New Granada, and 
Venezuela — totally defeated the last Span¬ 
ish army that ever set foot on the conti¬ 
nent. Pop. 9,387. 

Ayala, Adelardo Lopez de (a-y&'la), a 
Spanish dramatist, born at Guadalcanal, 



AXOLOTL. 


Badajoz, March, 1829. After studying law 
in Seville, he went to Madrid, where he de¬ 
voted himself entirely to poetry and speed¬ 
ily won national fame. Ilis first drama, 
“A Statesman ” (1851), met with imme¬ 
diate success, and was followed in the same 
year by “ The Two Noblemen,” and “ Pen¬ 
alty and Pardon.” To the modern comedy 
of manners, his specific domain, he first 
contributed “ The Glass Roof,” and in 1861 
attained to wide reputation with “ Percent¬ 
age.” Of his other works the most note¬ 
worthy are “ The Modern Don Juan ” 
H863) ; and “ Consuelo ” (1878), a drama, 
lie has also written beautiful sonnets. He 
died Dec. 30, 1879. 

Ayala, Pedro Lopez de,a Spanish histo¬ 
rian, poet, and statesman, born in 1332. 
In great favor with the Castilian kings, 
Peter the Cruel, Henry II., John I., and 
Henry III., he was invested with the high¬ 
est dignities of State. His “ Chronicles of 
the Kings of Castle ” contains the history 
of that kingdom from 1350 to 1396. Of his 
poetical works, the “ Rhyme-Work of the 
Palace,” a didactic poem on social and po¬ 
litical questions, stands foremost. He died 
in 1407. 

Aye=aye, an animal of Madagascar, so 
called from its cry, now referred to the 
lemur family. It is about the size of a 
hare, has large, flat ears and a bushy tail; 
large eyes; long, sprawling fingers, the 



AYE-AYE. 

third or slender as to appear shriveled; 
color, musk-brown, mixed with black and 
gray ash; feeds on grubs, fruits, etc.; 
habits, nocturnal. 

Ayeen, or Akbery, a very valuable sta¬ 
tistical description of the Mogul Empire as 
it was in the reign of Akbar. It was com¬ 
piled by Abul Fazi, the Vizier of the Em¬ 
peror Akbar. There is an English transla¬ 
tion of it by Gladwin. 

Ayeshah (I-esh'a), also Aysha or Aisba, 
the favorite wife of Mohammed, and daugh¬ 
ter of Abu-Bekr, was born at Medina about 
610 a. d.; and was only nine years of age 





Aylesford 


Ayrer 


when the Prophet married her. She was 
the only one of Mohammed’s wives who ac¬ 
companied him in his campaigns. Although 
Ayeshah bore no children to Mohammed, 
she was tenderly beloved by him. She was 
accused of adultery, but Mohammed pro¬ 
duced a revelation from Heaven (now in 
the Koran) to the effect that she was in¬ 
nocent. Mohammed expired in her arms 
(632). She now successfully exercised her 
influence to prevent, Ali, the Prophet’s son- 
in-law, from becoming caliph, and secured 
the succession for her father, Abu-Bekr. 
Again, on Othman’s death, she headed a 
force to resist the accession of Ali, but the 
troops under her were in 656 defeated by 
Ali, and she was taken prisoner. She died 
at Medina (677 a. d.), highly venerated by 
all true Mussulmans, and named the 
Prophetess and the Mother of Believers. 

Aylesford, a town and parish of Eng¬ 
land, in the county of Kent, 3 miles from 
Maidstone. In its vicinity is the remark¬ 
able monument called Kit’s Coty House, a 
kind of Druidical cromlech of which the 
origin is obscure, and much contested among 
antiquaries. 

Aylmer, John, an English prelate, born 
in Norfolk, 1521 ; was tutor to Lady Jane 
Grey. On the accession of Mary, he was 
forced to leave his country, but found a 
quiet retreat amid the beautiful scenery of 
Zurich. When Queen Elizabeth came to 
the throne, he returned to England; and 
in 1576 was made Bishop of London. He 
was a very diligent prelate, and severe 
against the Puritans, for which he has been 
severely censured by their writers; but it 
is said that he was learned in the languages, 
a deep divine, and a ready disputant. He 
died at Fulham in 1504. 

Aylmer, Matthew, a Canadian military 
officer, born in Melbourne, P. Q., March 28, 
1842; was educated in Montreal and at 
Trinity College, Dublin; and entered the 
British army in 1864; retired from the 
Imperial service and entered the Canadian 
Volunteer militia in 1870; and became 
Adjutant-General of the Dominion militia, 
the highest military office in Canada next 
to that of the Major-General commanding, 
in 1896; 8th Baron Aylmer in 1901. 

Aylmer=Gowing, Mrs. Emilia, an Eng¬ 
lish poet and reciter, born in Bath, Octo¬ 
ber, 1846. She was educated partly in 
Brighton, partly in Paris, where she re¬ 
ceived the attention of Lamartine. After 
a short career on the stage she successfully 
produced two dramas, “A Life Race,” and 
“A Crown for Love.” Her “Ballads and 
Poems.” and “The Cithern” have become 
popular, as well as two novels, “The Jewel 
Reputation,” and “An Unruly Spirit.” In 
1891 she published “Ballads of the Tower 
and Other Poems.” 


Aymon (a-moiV), the surname of four 
brothers, called respectively Alard, Richard, 
Guiscard, and Renaud, sons of Aymon or 
Haimon, Count of Dordogne, who figure 
among the most illustrious heroes of the 
chivalric poetry of the Middle Ages; but 
their historic existence must be considered 
problematical, as the deeds attributed to 
them possess, in so large a measure, a 
miraculous character. Their career belongs 
to the cycle of marvels of which Charle¬ 
magne is the central point, and their ad¬ 
ventures furnished rich material to the 
romantic narratives of Italy in the 15th 
and 16th centuries, and, in fact, were the 
exclusive subject of some of these. A novel, 
entitled “ The Four Aymon Brothers,” by 
Huon de Villeneuve, a French poet of the 
age of Philip Augustus, details very mi¬ 
nutely their exploits. Finally, Ariosto con¬ 
ferred a poetical immortality on the family 
by the publication of his “Roland,” in 
which Renaud, the bravest of the four 
brothers, plays continually the most distin¬ 
guished part. 

Ayoubites, or Ayyubites, the Saracenic 
dynasty founded by Saladin, which in 
Egypt, supplanted the Fatimite caliphs, 
about a. d. 1171. Several of the descend¬ 
ants of Saladin, known as Ayoubites, after¬ 
ward ruled in Egypt, Syria, Armenia, and 
Arabia Felix. In the 13th century their 
power was destroyed by the Mamelukes. 

Ayr (ar), a town of Scotland, a royal 
and parliamentary borough and capital of 
Ayrshire, at the mouth of the river Ayr, 
near the Firth of Clyde. It was the site 
of a Roman station. William the Lion built 
a castle here in 1197 and constituted it a 
royal borough in 1202; and the Parliament 
which confirmed Robert Bruce’s title to the 
crown sat in Ayr. It is picturesquely situ¬ 
ated, and ranks among the better class of 
provincial towns. Two bridges connect Ayr 
proper with the suburbs of Newton and 
Wallacetown. One of the bridges, opened 
in 1879, occupies the place of the “new 
brig” of Burns’ “Brigs of Ayr,” the “auld 
brig” (built 1252) being still serviceable 
for foot traffic. Carpets and lace curtains 
are manufactured. The harbor accommo¬ 
dation is good, and there is a considerable 
shipping trade, especially in coals. The 
house in which Burns was born stands 
within U/ 2 miles of the town, between it 
and the Church of Alloway (“Alloway’s 
auld haunted kirk”), and a monument to 
him stands on a height between the kirk 
and the bridge over the Doon. Pop. (1901) 
23,697. 

Ayrer, Jacob, a German dramatist; next 
to Hans Sachs the most prolific dramatist 
of Germany in the 16th century; in 1595- 
1605 lie wrote more than 100 new plays, of 
which the “Opus Theatricum” (Nurem¬ 
berg, 1C 18) contains 30 tragedies and com- 




Ayres 


Ayutbia 


edies, and 3G Shrovetide plays and vaude¬ 
villes. In liis dramas the influence of the 
English stage is apparent. He died in 
Nuremberg, March 26, 1G05. 

Ayres, Anne, an American author, born 
in England in 1816; was the first member 
of an American sisterhood in the Protestant 
Episcopal Church. She wrote “ Evangeli¬ 
cal Sisterhood” (18G7) ; “Life of Augustus 
Muhlenberg.” She died in February, 1896. 

Ayrton, William Edward, an English 
electrician and inventor, born in London, 
in 1847; was graduated at University Col¬ 
lege, London, in 1867; entered the Indian 
telegraph service, having studied electrical 
engineering with Prof. William Thomson; 
became electrical superintendent and in¬ 
troduced throughout India the system of 
determining the position of a fault by elec¬ 
trically testing one end of a line. In 1873— 
1879 he was Professor of Natural Philoso¬ 
phy and Telegraphy at the Imperial College 
of Engineering in Japan; in 1879 became 
Professor of Applied Physics in London 
Technical College, and, in 1884, Chief Pro¬ 
fessor of Physics at the Central Institute, 
South Kensington. He was elected Presi¬ 
dent of the Institute of Electrical Engineer¬ 
ing in 1892. With Prof. Perry, he invented 
the ammeter, voltmeter, electric power 
meter, ohmmeter, and dispersion-photom¬ 
eter; and, with Profs. Jenkin and Perry, 
the system of telpherage. He has been a 
voluminous writer and is widely known for 
his “ Practical Electricity.” 

Aytoun, Sir Robert, poet, born in Fife- 
shire, Scotland, in 1570. After studying at 
St. Andrews he lived for some time in 
France, whence, in 1603, he addressed a 
panegyric in Latin verse to King James on 
his accession to the crown of England. By 
the grateful monarch he was appointed one 
of the gentlemen of the bed chamber, and 
private secretary to the Queen, receiving 
also the honor of knighthood. At a later 
period of his life he was secretary to Hen¬ 
rietta Maria, Queen of Charles I. His 
poems are few in number, but are distin¬ 
guished by elegance of diction. Several of 
his Latin poems are preserved in the work 
called “ Delicise Poetarium Scotorum.” He 
died in 1638. 

Aytoun, William Edmondstoune, poet 
and prose writer, born at Edinburgh in 
1813; studied at the University of Edin¬ 
burgh became a writer to the signet in 
1835, and passed as advocate in 1840. He 
issued a volume of poems in 1832, by 1836 
was a contributor to “ Blackwood’s Maga¬ 
zine,” and he published the “ Life and Times 
of Richard I.” in 1840. In 1848 he pub¬ 
lished a collection of ballads entitled “Lays 
of the Scottish Cavaliers,” which has proved 
the most popular of all his works. It was 
followed in 1854 by “ Firmilian^ a, Spasmodic 


Tragedy ” (intended to ridicule certain pop¬ 
ular writers) ; the “Bon Gaultier Ballads” 
(parodies and other humorous pieces, in 
conjunction with Theodore Martin), 1855; 
in 1856 the poem “ Bothwell,” and in sub¬ 
sequent years by “ Norman Sinclair,” “ The 
Glenmutchkin Railway,” and other stories. 
In 1858 he edited a critical and annotated 
collection of the “ Ballads of Scotland.” A 
translation of the poems and ballads cf 
Goethe was executed by him in conjunction 
with Theodore Martin. In 1845 he became 
Professor of Rhetoric and English Litera¬ 
ture in the University of Edinburgh, a place 
he held till his death. In 1852 he was ap¬ 
pointed sheriff of Orkney and Shetland. He 
died at Blackhills, Elgin, 1865. 

Ayuntamiento (a-on-tam-yen'to), the 
name given in Spain to the councils or gov¬ 
erning bodies of towns. Sprung from the 
institutions of the Romans, and firmly es¬ 
tablished during the long struggles with 
the Moors, the ayuntamientos acquired 
great influence and political power, the no¬ 
bility being admitted to them without their 
class privileges. Although this importance 
was gradually impaired, and under the 
Bourbons the last shadow of municipal free¬ 
dom was lost, the remembrance of it con¬ 
tinued to be cherished by the people. Ac¬ 
cordingly, the Cortes, in 1812, adopted the 
leading features of the former system. On 
the return of Ferdinand VII., the aynn- 
tamientos were abolished; restored in 5823; 
after the invasion by France, once more set 
aside; and again restored in 1837. The 
ayuntamiento, with the alcalde as presi¬ 
dent, was appointed by the free choice of 
the people. The government could pro¬ 
visionally annul its acts, but must after¬ 
ward procure the ratification of the Cortes. 
The ayuntamientos were empowered to make 
up the lists of electors and jurors, to organ¬ 
ize the national guards, to command the 
police within their own bounds, to direct 
the apportionment and raising of taxes, and 
to manage the funds of the commune. Sub¬ 
sequently they have been more than once 
modified, not without opposition, especially 
after the events of 1843. The municipal 
law of 1870 deprived them of all political 
authority, and regulated them as adminis¬ 
trative bodies, subject in certain respects to 
the authorities of the provinces, the law 
courts, and the Cortes. 

Ayuthia (I-6th-ya'), the ancient capital 
of Siam, on the Menam, 50 miles N. of 
Bangkok. It was founded in 1357, and was 
the capital until 1767, when it was sacked 
and half destroyed by the Burmese. In the 
16th century it was three leagues in cir¬ 
cumference, and was till recently the sec¬ 
ond city of the kingdom. It is now called 
Krung-Krao, and is mainly built on piles 
over the water. Some magnificent buildings 
still remain, now crumbling into ruins and 



Azalea 


Azores 


overgrown with luxuriant vegetation; nota¬ 
ble among them are Buddhist temples, 
especially the Golden Mount, 400 feet high. 

Azalea, a genus of plants belonging to 
the order ericacecc (heathworts). Several 
foreign azaleas are cultivated in gardens 
and greenhouses on account of the abun¬ 
dance of their fine flowers, and, in some 
cases, their fragrant smell. There are 
numerous varieties of the species, and 
hybrids may be formed between azalea and 
the nearly-allied genus rhododendron. 
Azaleas are best cultivated in a peaty soil. 
The most delicate species is azalea inclica. 

Azamgarh, or Azimgurh (Azim’s fort), 
a town in the Northwest Provinces of 
India, on the Tons river, 81 miles N. of 
Benares. It was founded in 1065 by Azam 
Khan, a large landholder in the neighbor¬ 
hood. The Europeans here were compelled 
to flee during the mutiny of 1857; the 
native infantry murdered their officers, and 
carried ofT the treasure to Fyzabad. 

Azeglio (a-zal'yo), Massimo Taparelli, 

Marquis d’, an Italian author, artist, diplo¬ 
matist, and statesman, born at Turin, in 
1801, was the descendant of an ancient and 
noble Piedmontese family. At the age of 
14 he was excommunicated for an assault 
upon his teacher, who was an ecclesiastic. 
In 1810 he accompanied his father to Rome, 
and there occupied his time principally with 
painting and music. He was already favor¬ 
ably known as a painter, when, in 1830, he 
went to Milan, married the daughter of 
Manzoni, the great novelist, and wrote sev¬ 
eral romances. The earliest of these was 
“ Ettore Fieramosca,” published in 1833, 
which, conceived in the style of Manzoni, 
and full of patriotic sentiments, was re¬ 
ceived with great enthusiasm. His next 
romance, “ Niccolo de’ Lapi,” published 
eight years afterward, became equally popu¬ 
lar, and is esteemed by Italian critics the 
best historical novel in any language. 
Deeply imbued with the spirit of Italian 
nationality, in 1842 Azeglio abandoned his 
favorite pursuits, and, with his friends, 
Balbo and Gioberti, he made a tour through 
the provinces of Italy, awakening the revo¬ 
lutionary spirit which troubled the last 
years of Gregory XVI. After the Revolu¬ 
tion of 1848 he supported the cause of the 
King of Piedmont, and, at the head of the 
Papal troops, fought against the Austrians 
at Vicenza, where he was wounded. In 
1849, Victor Emmanuel appointed him 
President of the Cabinet of Ministers, an 
office he undertook solely out of love for his 
King and country, and which he resigned 
in 1852 to his political adversary, Count 
Cavour. In 1859, after the peace of Villa- 
franca, he undertook a confidential mission 
as Ambassador Extraordinary to England; 
j*nd was afterward appointed governor of 
the city of Milan. His failing health, his 
37 


love of art, and some differences of opinion 
with his colleagues, caused him, however, to 
withdraw finally from public life. He died 
Jan. 15, 1866. 

Azerbijan (az-er-bi-jan'), a Province of 
Northwestern Persia; area, 40,000 square 
miles; pop. est. at 2,000,000. It con¬ 
sists generally of lofty mountain ranges, 
some of which rise to a height of between 
12,000 and 13,000 feet. Principal rivers, the 
Aras or Araxes, and the Kizil-Uzen, which 
enter the Caspian; smaller streams dis¬ 
charge themselves within the Province into 
the great salt lake of Urumiyah. Agri¬ 
cultural products are wheat, barley, maize, 
fruit, cotton, tobacco, and grapes. Horses, 
cattle, sheep, and camels are reared in con¬ 
siderable numbers. Chief minerals, iron, 
lead, copper, salt, saltpeter, and marble. 
Tabreez is the capital. 

Azimuth, the angular distance of a ce¬ 
lestial object from the N. or S. point of 
the horizon (according as it is the N. 
or S. pole which is elevated), when the 
object is referred to the horizon by a verti¬ 
cal circle. Or the angle comprised between 
two vertical planes, one passing through 
the elevated pole, the other through 
the object. It is generally reckoned east¬ 
ward or westward, from the N. or S. 
point for 180° either way; but Herschel 
prefers always reckoning it from the points 
of the horizon most remote from the ele¬ 
vated pole westward, so as to agree in its 
general direction with the apparent diurnal 
motion of the stars. Of course, he there¬ 
fore counts from 0° to 360°. Azimuths, 
called also vertical circles, are great circles 
intersecting each other in the zenith and 
nadir, and cutting the horizon at right 
angles in all the points thereof. On these 
are reckoned the altitude of the stars, and 
of the sun when he is not in the meridian. 
A magnetical azimuth is an arch of the 
horizon, contained between the sun’s azi¬ 
muth circle and the magnetical meridian; 
or it is the apparent distance of the sun 
from the N. or S. point of the compass. 

Azof. See Azov. 

Azores, or Western Islands, a Portu¬ 
guese archipelago, in the mid-Atlantic, be¬ 
tween 36° 55' and 39° 55' N. lat. and 
between 25° 10' and 31° 16' W. long. 

Stretching over a distance of 400 miles, 
their nine islands are divided into three 
distinct groups — Sta Maria and Sao 
Miguel in the S. E.; Terceira, Sao Jorge, 
Pico, Graciosa, and Fayal in the middle; 
and Flores and Corvo in the N. W. Of 
these, Flores lies 1,176 miles W. of Cape 
Rocca in Portugal, 1,484 S. W. of Fal¬ 
mouth, and 1,708 E. S. E. of Halifax. In 
1431-1453 the Azores were taken possession 
of by the Portuguese. They were at that 
time uninhabited; but that they bad been 



Azote 


Aztecs 


visited by the Carthaginians is proved by 
Punic coins found on Corvo. They seem 
to have been known to the Arabian geog¬ 
rapher Edrisi in the 12th century; and they 
are marked distinctly on a map of 1351. 
The Portuguese colonists called the whole 
group Azores, from acor or azor, a hawk; 
and thev named two individual islands, 
Corvo and Sao Jorge, from Corvi Marini 
and San Zorze, which, according to a map 
of 1375, had been previously seen in the 
Western ocean. In 14G6 Alfonso V. made a 
life grant of the island of Fayal to his 
aunt, the Duchess of Burgundy, and from 
this circumstance manv settlers migrated 
thither from Flanders. 

The total area of the group is 922 square 
miles, and the pop. (1900) 256,291. The 
area, population, and the maximum alti¬ 
tude of the different islands are as follows: 
Sta Maria (38 square miles; 5,880; 1,889 
feet) ; Sao Miguel (299 square miles; 127,- 
566; 3,854 feet); Terceira (164 square 

miles; 48,920; 3,435 feet); Graciosa (24 
square miles; 8,394) ; Sao Jorge (91 square 
miles; 16,13.8); Pico (173 square miles; 
24,125; 7,013 feet); Fayal (69 square 

miles; 22,385); Flores (54 square miles; 
10,700; 3,087 feet) ; Corvo (7 square miles; 
1.000). The capital is Angra, in Terceira; 
but Ponta Delgada, in Sao Miguel, is a 
larger town. The Azores are of volcanic 
origin, and with the exception of Corvo, 
Flores, and Graciosa are still liable to erup¬ 
tions and violent earthquakes, the worst 
of 21 shocks since 1444 having been those 
of 1591, 1638, 1719, and 1841. Hot mineral 
springs are numerous; and the baths of 
Furnas, in Sao Miguel, are much resorted 
to by invalids. The coast is generally steep 
and rugged; the interior abounds in ravines 
and mountains. Perhaps the greatest want 
of the group is a good harbor. The Azores 
are regarded as a Province, not a colony, of 
Portugal, and as belonging to Europe. 

Azote, a name formerly given to nitro¬ 
gen ; hence substances containing nitrogen 
and forming part of the structure of plants 
and animals are known as azotized bodies. 
Such are albumen, fibrine, casein, gelatine, 
urea, kreatine, etc. 

Azotine, a substance procured by decom¬ 
posing wool by the action of steam at 150° 
C. under a pressure of five atmos¬ 
pheres ; the product, afterward dried by 
evaporation, contains nitrogen completely 
soluble in water. Azotine is mixed with 
dried blood for a fertilizer. 

Azov, a town in the S. of Russia, on 
the left bank of the Don, 7 miles from 
its mouth. The sand and mud deposited by 
the river have choked up the port, so that 
its trade and shipping have dwindled away, 
and the inhabitants depend mostly on fise¬ 
curing. Pop. 11,000. Azov was built 9 
miles from the site of the ancient Greek 


colony of TanaTs; and when, in the 13th 
century, it was taken possession of by the 
Genoese, they altered its name to Tana. 
They were driven out of it by Timur 
(Tamerlane) in 1392. In 1471 it was taken 
bv the Turks, and in 1696 by Peter the 
Great; and it was finally ceded to Russia in 
1774. 

Azov, Sea, of, named after the town, is 
a large gulf of the Black Sea, formed by the 
Crimean peninsula, or rather an inland lake 
connected with the Black Sea by the Strait 
of Yenikale or Kertch (ancient Bosporus 
Cimmerius), 28 miles long, and barely 4 
wide at the narrowest. The intricate Si- 
wash or Putrid Sea, which is just a suc¬ 
cession of swamps, is cut off from the 
W. portion of the Sea of Azov by the long, 
narrow slip of low, sandy land called the 
Peninsula of Arabat. The ancient name ol 
the Sea of Azov was Palus Mseotis or 
Mseotic marsh, from the Mteotoe dwelling on 
its shores; by the Turks it is called Balik- 
Denghis, or fish sea, from its abundance of 
fish. The water is almost fresh. The whole 
sea is shallow, from 3 to 52 feet deep; 
and measuring 235 by 110 miles, it occu¬ 
pies an area of 14,500 square miles. The 
largest river emptying into it is the Dor. 
During the Crimean War, an expedition, 
having on board 16,500 English, French, and 
Turks, was sent to this sea in May, 1855, 
which bombarded the ports, and cut off sup¬ 
plies intended for Sebastopol. 

Azpeitia (ath-pit'ya), a town in the Span¬ 
ish Province of Guipuzcoa, in a fine valley 
on the Urola, 18 miles S. W. of San Se¬ 
bastian. A mile from it is the famous con¬ 
vent of Loyola, now converted into a mu¬ 
seum, built somewhat in the form of an 
eagle with outspreading wings, by the Ro¬ 
man architect, Fontana, in 1683. It com¬ 
prises a tower of the Santa Casa, in which 
St. Ignatius of Loyola, the great founder of 
the Jesuits, was born in 1491. Here every 
year in July a great festival is held in his 
honor, to which pilgrims flock from all quar¬ 
ters. 

Azrael, the name given to the angel of 
death by the Mohammedans. 

Azrek, Bahr=El, or the Blue River, 

the principal stream of Abyssinia, which, 
after a winding course through Abyssinia 
and Sennaar, falls into the Nile above 
Gerri. 

Aztecs, a race of people who settled in 
Mexico early in the 14th century, ultimately 
extended their dominion over a large ter¬ 
ritory, and were still extending their su¬ 
premacy at the time of the arrival of the 
Spaniards, by whom they were speedily 
subjugated. Their political organization, 
termed by the Spanish writers an absolute 
monarchy, appears to have consisted of a 
military chief exercising important, but 



Aztecs 


Azzubeydi 




not tmlimited,power in civil affairs, in which 
the council of chiefs and periodic assemblies 
of the judges had also a voice. On 
the arrival of Cortes in 1519 the Aztec 
throne was occupied by Montezuma, an en¬ 
ergetic prince, who, after his election to the 
throne, which for several generations had 
been occupied by his ancestors, made suc¬ 
cessful war on the powerful and highly civ¬ 
ilized neighboring State of Tlascala, and on 
Nicaragua and Honduras. After a time, 
however, he grew indolent, and alienated 
the affections of his subjects by his arro¬ 
gance and exactions, and by his unremit¬ 
ting devotion to the services of the temples. 
According to the oracles which he fre¬ 
quently consulted, great changes were im¬ 
pending over the empire, and the return of 
Quetzalcoatl was near at hand; and the 
fall of his race was impending. The tid¬ 
ings of the arrival on the coast of the ex¬ 
pedition of Grigalya in 1518 terrified Mon¬ 
tezuma and his priestly councilors; and 
when the hieroglyphic reports of his pro¬ 
vincial officers announced the landing in the 
following year of Cortes and his compan¬ 
ions, he endeavored to propitiate the dread¬ 
ed strangers by sending an embassy charged 
with valuable gifts to meet him. The road 
to success was thus open to the Spanish 
captain, who, with a handful of men, ad¬ 
vanced from St. Juan de Ulloa to Mexico, 
and subdued the Aztecs, whose power crum¬ 
bled before the energy and civilization of 
their Christian invaders. 

Slavery and polygamy were both le¬ 
gitimate, but the children of slaves 
were regarded as free. Although ig¬ 
norant of the horse, ox, etc., they had a 
considerable knowledge of agriculture, 
maize and the agave being the chief pro¬ 
duce. Silver, lead, tin, and copper were 
obtained from mines, and gold from the 
surface and river beds, but iron was un¬ 
known to them, their tools being of bronze 
and obsidian. In metal-work, feather-work, 
weaving and pottery they possessed a high 
degree of skill. To record events they used 
an unsolved hieroglyphic writing, and their 
lunar calendars were of unusual accuracy. 
They believed in one supreme invisible cre¬ 
ator of all things, the ruler of the uni¬ 
verse, named Taotl, a belief, it is conjec¬ 
tured, not native to them, but derived from 
their predecessors, the Toltecs. Under this 
supreme being stood 13 chiefs and 200 in¬ 
ferior divinities. At their head was the 
patron god of the Aztecs, the frightful 
Huitzilopochtli, the Mexican Mars. Quet¬ 
zalcoatl, the beneficent god of light and air, 
with whom at first the Aztecs w T ere disposed 
to identify Cortes, also claimed their rev¬ 
erence. Their temples, with large, terraced, 
pyramidal bases, were in charge of an ex¬ 
ceedingly large priesthood, with whom lay 
the education of the young. As a civiliza¬ 
tion of apparently independent origin, yet 


closely resembling in many features the 
archaic Oriental civilizations, the Aztec 
civilization is of the first interest, but in 
most accounts of it a large speculative 
element has to be discounted. 

Azuline, or Azurine, blue dyes belonging 
to the coal-tar class. 

Azulai, Hayim David (hil'Gem dii'ved fi- 
zo-li'), a Jewish bibliographer, born in 
Jerusalem; lived in the 18th century. 
Most of his life was spent at Leghorn. Of 
his numerous works the best known is 
“ Shem-ha-Ged6lIm ” (the names of the 
great), a bibliography containing the names 
of over 1,300 Jewish authors, and more than 
2,200 of their works. He died at Leghorn, 
Italy. 

Azuni, Domenico Alberto (az-o'ne), an 
Italian jurist, born in Sassari, Sardinia, in 
1749. He became judge of the Tribunal of 
Commerce at Nice, and in 1795 published a 
work in which he endeavored to reduce 
maritime laws to fixed principles, and which 
appeared in French in 1805, under the 
title of “ Droit Maritime de l’Europe.” 
Napoleon appointed him one of the com¬ 
missioners for compiling the new commer¬ 
cial code. He died Jan. 23, 1827. 

Azure, the heraldic term for the color 
blue, represented in engraving by horizontal 

lines. 

Azurine (leuciscus cccrulcus), a fresh 
water fish of the same genus as the 
roach, chub and minnow; called also blue 
roach. 

Azurite, a mineral, called also lazulite; 
also a brittle, transparent, or subtranslucent 
mineral, with monoclinic crystals. The 
hardness is 3.5-4.25; the sp. gr., 3.5-3.831; 
the luster vitreous, or verging on adaman¬ 
tine; the color azure-blue, passing into Ber¬ 
lin blue. Composition: Carbonic acid, 24 
to 25.40; oxide of copper, 08.5 to 70; and 
water, 5.40 to 0. It is found in England, 
as also in France, Austro-Himgary, and Si¬ 
beria. 

Azzarkal (az-ar-kal'), an Arabian mathe¬ 
matician and astronomer, born in Cordoba 
in the first half of the 11th century. He 
was royal astronomer of Al-Mamoun, King 
of Toledo. He invented divers instruments 
for making observations, constructed a 
water-clock of extraordinary dimensions, as 
well as a planisphere and an astrolabe, upon 
new principles. 

Azzubeydi (az-b-bl'de), Mohammed Ibn 

el Hasan, an Arabian lexicographer, born in 
Seville in 927. He was cadi of Seville and 
preceptor of Hischeam, son and heir of the 
Sultan. He wrote an abridgement of the 
great biography of the Spanish grammari¬ 
ans, by Khalil; a treatise on grammar, and 
a work upon the character of the syntax of 
the Arabic language. He died in 989. 




b, the second letter in all 
European alphabets, in He¬ 
brew, and most other lan¬ 
guages. It belongs to the 
mutes and labials, and as 
all labials are easy to 
be pronounced, b is one 
of the first letters which 
children learn to speak, after they utter a. 
The first syllable which they pronounce is 
generally ba or pa. The difference in the 
pronunciation of b and v is so slight, that 
in all original languages a considerable 
period elapses before the two sounds cease 
to be used indifferently. In some lan¬ 
guages b continues to be pronounced v, un¬ 
der certain circumstances. In the Spanish 
it has this sound between two vowels in the 
middle of a word, and generally when it 
occurs between a vowel preceding and an 
r succeeding it. The modern Greeks pro¬ 
nounce b always v, and represent our sound 
of b by combining the two letters p.Tr ; for 
example, Boston they write M ttocttov. The 
languages of the American Indians have few 
perfect labials, and are therefore spoken 
with an open mouth, and scarcely any mo¬ 
tion of the lips. Another letter into which 
b is often changed is p, which requires 
merely a stronger breathing. In one part 
of Saxony p and b are used indifferently, in 
another part b is not used at all. Some lan¬ 
guages regularly change b into p under cer¬ 
tain circumstances; as the Latin, when 
this letter occurs before p; thus ob is 
changed into op before ponere (opponere ). 
The German pronounces b, at the end of a 
word or syllable, invariably p. 

B is often used as an abbreviation, and 
its common meanings are before (as in 
b. c.), and bachelor (as in B. A., B. D., 
LL. B.). With the Greeks and Hebrews 
B signified 2; among the Romans, 300; with 
a dash over it, 3,000; and with a sort of 
accent under it, 200. 

In music B is the designation of the sev¬ 
enth note in the natural diatonic scale of C. 
The ancients denoted by B the second inter¬ 
val in their musical scale, beginning with 
A — the only interval with them which had 
two chords differing half a note. The lower 
one was denoted by a small b, the higher 
one by a large B. See also Abbreviations, 


Baader, Franz Xaver von (bil'der), a 
German philosopher and speculative Roman 
Catholic theologian, born in Munich, in 1765. 
He studied engineering, became superintend¬ 
ent of mines, and was ennobled for his ser¬ 
vices. He was deeply interested in the re¬ 
ligious speculations of Eckhart, St. Martin, 
and Bolime, and in 1826 was appointed Pro¬ 
fessor of Philosophy and Speculative The¬ 
ology in the University of Munich. During 
the last three years of his life he was inter¬ 
dicted from lecturing for opposing the in¬ 
terference in civil matters of the Roman 
Catholic Church. He died in 1841. 

Baal, the chief male divinity among the 
Phoenicians, as Ashtoretli "was the leading 
female one. The Carthaginians, who sprang 
from the Phoenicians, carried with them 
his worship to their new settlements, as is 
proved, among other evidence, by the names 
of some of their world-renowned heroes: 
thus Hannibal, written in Punic inscrip¬ 
tions, Hannibaal, signifies the grace of 
Baal; and Hasdrubal, or Asdrubal, Azru- 
baal = “ Help of Baal.” The worship of 
Baal early existed among the Canaanites 
and the Moabites, whence it spread to the 
Israelites, becoming at last for a time com¬ 
pletely dominant among the 10 tribes, and 
to a certain extent even among the two, in 
consequence of the ill-advised marriage of 
Ahab with Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal 
(the name means “ with Baal ”), King of 
Sidon. A number of places in Palestine and 
the neighboring countries commence with 

Baal, such as Baal-gad (Josh, xi: 17), 
Baal-meon (Numb, xxxii: 38), but whether 
in the sense of lord, possessor, or signify¬ 
ing Baal, is a matter of dispute. One place 
is simply called Baal (1 Chron. iv: 33). 
This divinity seems to have symbolized the 
sun, and less frequently the planet Jupiter. 
He was worshipped under different forms, or 
in different relations: thus there were Baal- 
berith = the Covenant Baal, or lord; Baal- 
zebub = the fly-lord; Baal Peor = the Baal 
of Mt. Peor, or Baal of the opening, the 
Moabitish national divinity. Perhaps the 
Babylonian Bel was only Baal with a dia¬ 
lectic difference of spelling, though Prof. 
Rawlinson thinks differently (Isa. xlvi: 1). 
There was an affinity between Baal and Mo- 








Baalbek 


Babbage 


% 


loch. The Beltein or Beltane fires, lit in 
early summer in Scotland and Ireland, seem 
to be a survival of Baal’s worship. 

Baalbek (ancient Heliopolis, city of the 
sun), a place in Syria, in a fertile valley 
at the foot of Antilibanus, 40 miles from 
Damascus, famous for its magnificent ruins. 
Of these, the chief is the temple of the Sun, 
built either by Antoninus Pius or by Sep¬ 
timus Severus. Some of the blocks used 
in its construction are 60 feet long by 
12 thick; and its 54 columns, of which 
6 are still standing, were 72 feet high and 
22 in circumference. Near it is a temple of 
Jupiter, of smaller size, though still larger 
than the Parthenon at Athens, and there 
are other structures of an elaborately or¬ 
nate type. Originally a center of the sun- 
worship, it became a Roman colony under 
Julius Caesar, was garrisoned by Augustus, 
and acquired increasing renown under 
Trajan as the seat of an oracle. Under 
Constantine its temples became churches, 
but after being sacked by the Arabs in 748, 
and more completely pillaged by Tamerlane 
in 1401, it sank into hopeless decay. The 
work of destruction was completed by an 
earthquake in 1759. 

Baal-zebub. See Beelzebub. 

Baar (bar), a plateau in Germany, in the 
province of Baden and Wtirtemberg, for¬ 
merly constituting a county of the Fursten- 
berg principality. It contains the sources 
of the Danube. 

Baasha, in Bible history, a King of Is¬ 
rael, son of Abijah. While Nadab, King of 
Israel, was engrossed in the siege of Gib- 
betlion, Baasha instituted a plot against 
his life, and after slaying him, massacred 
all his relations. He then seized the king¬ 
dom, proving a wicked and irreligious ruler, 
and inimical to Judah. His war with Asa 
was made unsuccessful by the defection of 
Benhadad, King of Syria, who had hitherto 
allied himself with Israel. Through the 
prophet Jehu, Baasha was warned that his 
idolatry would lead to the extirpation of 
his direct descendants, which happened in 
the succeeding generation. 

Bab, a name assumed by Mirza Ali Mo¬ 
hammed ibn Redha, founder of the Babists. 
See Babi. 

Baba (the old), in Slavonic mythology, 
©riginally a thunder-witch (the devil’s 
grandmother), was represented, like Dame 
Holle, as a little, ugly old woman, with a 
monstrous nose, long teeth, and disheveled 
hair, flying through the sky in an iron mor¬ 
tar. By the Czechs she is called now the 
iron, now the golden, Baba. 

Baba, a Turkish word, signifying father, 
originating, like our word papa, in the first 
efforts of children to speak. In Persia and 
Turkey it is prefixed as a title of honor to 


the names of ecclesiastics of distinction, es¬ 
pecially of such as devote themselves to an 
ascetic life; it is often affixed in courtesy, 
also, to the names of other persons, as Ali 
Baba. 

Baba, a cape near the N. W. point of Asia 
Minor. 

B^ba Budan (ba-ba bo-dan')) a spur of 
the West Ghats, Mysore, India, which 
strikes E. for 15 miles, leaving a narrow 
opening at its W. end for the passage of the 
Bhadra, then S. in an unbroken line for 
20 miles, inclosing between itself and the 
main chain of the Ghats a rich, but un¬ 
healthy valley. To this spur belong three 
peaks above 6,000 feet high, among these 
Mulaina-giri, 6,317 feet, the highest in the 
West Ghats. On the slopes of Kalhatti, 
one of these peaks, is a hill station, a resort 
of Europeans during the heat. Coffee was 
first planted in India on another part of 
this spur toward the close of the 17th cen¬ 
tury, by a Mohammedan saint named Baba 
Budan. 

Babbage, Charles, an English mathe¬ 
matician and inventor of a calculating ma¬ 
chine; born near Teignmouth, England, 
Dec. 26, 1792. He was educated first at the 
Totness grammar school, then at the private 
school of the Rev. Stephen Freeman, of Forty 
Hill, Enfield. Thence he was transferred to 
Peterhouse, Cambridge, where he became 
closely associated with Herschel (afterward 
Sir John) and Mr. Peacock, then tutor of 
Trinity College. Being in possession of an 
independent fortune, Babbage was in a posi¬ 
tion to devote all his time and energies to his 
favorite studies—mathematics and mechan¬ 
ics. In 1822 we find him broaching the idea of 
a difference engine, by which intricate arith¬ 
metical calculations could be correctly and 
rapidly performed. Through the recommen¬ 
dation of the Royal Society he received, in 
1823, a grant from the government of £1,500 
for the construction of such a machine. After 
a series of experiments lasting eight years, 
and an expenditure of £17,000 (£4,000 of 
which was sunk by the originator of the 
scheme, the balance voted by the govern¬ 
ment), Babbage abandoned the undertaking 
in favor of a much more complicated work, 
an analytical engine, worked with cards, 
like the jacquard loom. The government, 
alarmed at the probable demands, refused 
to support Babbage in his new adventure, 
and as a quarrel ensued with his engineer, 
who withdrew his tools, the pet project was 
never completed. The machine, along with 
some 400 or 500 plans, was presented in 
1843 to the King’s College Museum, Lon¬ 
don. Among the many treatises he published 
on subjects connected with mathematics and 
mechanics, the most valuable and interest¬ 
ing are: “On the Economy of Machinery 
and Manufacturesj” “The Decline of Sci* 




Babbitt 


B^be! 


ence”; and an autobiographic sketch, 
“ Passages in the Life of a Philosopher.” 
In 1828 he was appointed Lucasian Profes¬ 
sor of Mathematics in his university, an 
office he held for 11 years. In 1832 and 
1834 he stood for Finsbury in the Radical 
interest, but was unsuccessful. He was one 
of the founders of the Royal Astronomical 
Society, and a fellow of the Royal Society. 
He died in London, Oct. 18, 1871. 

Babbitt, Isaac, an American inventor, 
born in Taunton, Mass., July 2G, 1799; 

learned the goldsmith's trade; early became 
interested in the production of alloys; and 
in 1824 manufactured the first hritannia 
ware in the United States. In 1839, he dis¬ 
covered the well known anti-friction metal 
which bears his name, Babbitt metal. For 
this discovery, the Massachusetts Charitable 
Mechanics’ Association awarded him a gold 
medal in 1841, and subsequently Congress* 
voted him $20,000. He died in Somerville, 
Mass., May 20, 1802. 

Babbitt Metal, a soft metal resulting from 
alloying together certain proportions of cop¬ 
per, tin, and zinc, or antimony, used with 
the view of as far as possible obviating fric¬ 
tion in the bearings of journals, cranks, 
axles, etc. Invented by Isaac Babbitt. 

Babcock, Charles, an American clergy¬ 
man; born in, Ballston Spa, N. Y.; was 
graduated at Union College, New York, in 
1847; ordained deacon in the Protestant 
Episcopal Church in 1800, and priest in 
1804; held charges in New York in 1803- 
1892; and was Professor of Architecture at 
Cornell University in 1871-1901. He was 
an honorary member of the American Insti¬ 
tute of Architects and the Royal Institute 
of British Architects. 

Babcock, Earle Jay, an American edu¬ 
cator; born in St. Charles, Minn., June 11, 
1805; was graduated at the University of 
Minnesota in 1889; worked extensively with 
the United States Geological Survey; and 
in 1902 was director of the State School of 
Mines of North Dakota, and Professor of 
Chemistry and Geology in the State Uni¬ 
versity. He was the author of many spe¬ 
cial scientific articles and of geological re¬ 
ports. 

Babcock, Orville E., an American mili¬ 
tary officer, born in Franklin, Vt., Dec. 25, 
1835; served with distinction in the Civil 
War, and was a member of Gen. Grant’s 
staff. When the latter was elected Presi¬ 
dent, Babcock became his secretary, and the 
superintending engineer of several import¬ 
ant public works. He was indicted in 1876 
for taking part in revenue frauds, but on 
his trial was acquitted. He died in Flor¬ 
ida, June 2, 1884. 

Babcock, Stephen Moulton, an Amer¬ 
ican educator; born in Bridgewater, N. Y., 


Oct. 22, 1843; was' educated at the Bab¬ 
cock High School, Clinton Liberal Institute, 
Tufts College, Cornell University, and at 
Gottingen, Germany; and was graduated 
at Tufts College in 1800. He gave special 
attention to the chemistry of milk and its 
products, and was the inventor of the Bab¬ 
cock milk-tester. He was instructor of 
chemistry at Cornell University in 1875- 
1870; chemist to the New York State Ex¬ 
periment Station in 1882-1887 : Professor of 
Agricultural Chemistry at the University of 
Wisconsin from 1887; author of numerous 
articles on the composition of milk and 
butter; joint author of “A Manual of 
Qualitative Chemical Analysis.” 

Babcock, Washington Irving, an Amer¬ 
ican shipbuilder; born in Stonington, Conn., 
Sept. 21, 1858; was graduated at the Brook¬ 
lyn Polytechnic Institute in 1876 and at 
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1878; 
was employed at the Roach Shipyard, 
Chester, Pa., in 1878-1885, and with the 
Providence and Stonington Steamship Co., 
New York, in 1S85-1887; was superintend¬ 
ent of the Union Dry Dock Co., Buffalo, N. 
Y., in 1887-1889; manager of the Chicago 
Shipbuilding Co., in 1889-1899, and became 
president of the latter in 1900. 

Babel, a place or circumstances in which 
confusion of sounds — as, for instance, by 
several people speaking at once — is the pre¬ 
dominating characteristic. The reference is 
to the confusion of tongues divinely sent in 
consequence of the building of the Tower of 
Babel (Gen. xi: 1-9). The magnificent 
temple of Belus, asserted to have been orig¬ 
inally this tower, is said to have had lofty 
spires, and many statues of gold, one of 
them 40 feet high. In the upper part of 
this temple was the tomb of the founder, 
Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred Scriptures), 
who was deified after death. The Tower of 
Babel is most frequently identified by schol¬ 
ars with the Birs Nimrud, a ruin outside 
the limits of Babylon. On this site re¬ 
searches have been made by Rich, Layard, 
Rassam, Rawlinson and others. Among 
the clay cylinder records found by Rawlin¬ 
son in the corners of the ziggurat or high 
place of Birs Nimrud, there is an account 
of the restoration by Nebuchadnezzar of an 
enormous ruined tower which he rebuilt 
into a seven staged ziggurat. The remains 
of Nebuchadnezzar’s tower constitute the 
present Birs Nimrud, and exploration has 
brought to light the seven stages mentioned 
by the monarch. The mound of Birs Nim¬ 
rud is so oriented that its corners are di¬ 
rected approximately toward the cardinal 
points of the compass. The remains of the 
tower are situated toward the S. E. edge of 
the mound. The masses of brick show a 
fusion that is apparently the result of a 
great conflagration. 



BSbl 


Bab=eI=Mandet> 

Bab=eI=Mandeb (i■ e., the gate of tears), 
so called from the danger arising to small 
vessels from strong currents, is the name 
of the strait between Arabia and the con¬ 
tinent of Africa, by which the Red Sea is 
connected with the Gulf of Aden and the 
Indian Ocean. The Arabian peninsula here 
throws out a cape, bearing the same name as 
the strait, rising to the height of 8G5 feet. 
About 20 miles distant from this cape 
stands the wall-like coast of Africa, rising 
in Ras es Sean to the height of over 400 
feet. Within the straits, but nearer to 
Arabia, lies the bare, rocky Island of Perim, 
since 1857 occupied by the British as a fort; 
its guns command the entrance to the Red 
Sea. The strait on the E. side of this island 
is called the Little Strait, and that on the 
W. the Great Strait. 

Babenberg, an old, princely Franconian 
family, whose castle occupied the site of the 
later Bamberg Cathedral. They were most 
prominent in the wars of the lOtli century. 
The Austrian dynasty of 970-1246 was for¬ 
merly believed to be sprung from them . 

Baber (or “The Tiger”), the historical 
surname of Zehir-ed-din-Moliammed, the 
conqueror of Hindustan and founder of the 
so called Mogul dynasty. Baber was of 
mixed Turkish and Mongol origin, being de¬ 
scended from Timour the Great on the 
father’s side, and from Genghis Khan on the 
mother’s. In feeling, as in personal charac¬ 
teristics, he was a Tartar (Turk), and of¬ 
ten in his memoirs speaks most contemptu¬ 
ously of Mongols or Moguls. Yet Hindu 
ignorance has designated the throne which 
he established in India, as that of the Great 
Mogul (Mongol). Baber was born on Feb. 
14, 1483, and at the age of 12, on his father’s 
death, ascended the insecure throne of 
Ferghana in Turkestan; soon after he was 
attacked on all sides by his uncles and other 
neighboring princes, which obliged him, in 
his turn, to assume the aggressive. Accord¬ 
ingly, at the age of 15, Baber seized on 
Samarcand, the capital of Timour,but,while 
thus engaged, a revolution at home deprived 
him of his sovereignty. After many years 
of an adventurous and romantic career, he 
raised an army, entered Hindustan, and was 
met by Ibrahim, the ruling Sultan of that 
country. The two armies fought the battle 
of Paniput, which decided the fate of India, 
on April 21, 1525. Baber, with his army 
of 12,000 men, completely overthrew that 
of Ibrahim, numbering 100,000, and entered 
Delhi in triumph. Difficulties and fresh 
foes had still to be encountered and mas¬ 
tered, but in the battle of Sakri,in February, 
1527, Baber utterly defeated the opposing 
Hindu princes, and then proclaimed himself 
Padishah, or Emperor of Hindustan. After 
a rule of four years, he died near Agra, Dec. 
26, 1530. 


Babeuf, or Baboeuf, Francois Noel 

(bii-bef), a French communist, who called 
himself Caius Gracchus, born at Saint- 
Quentin, 17G0; founded in Paris a journal 
called the “Tribune of the People” (1794), 
in which he advocated his system of com¬ 
munism, known as Babceuvism, and contem¬ 
plating absolute equality and community of 
property. His followers were called Babceuv- 
ists. Betrayed in a conspiracy against the 
Directory, aiming to put his theories into 
practice, he was guillotined in Paris, May 
27, 1797. His principal works were “ Per¬ 
petual Register of the Survey of Lands ” 

(1780), and “ Of the System of Population ” 
(1794). 

Babi (ba-be'), the name of a modern Per¬ 
sian sect, derived from the title, Bab-ed- 
Din (gate of the faith), assumed by its 
founder, Mirza Ali Mohammed, a native of 
Shiraz, who, in 1843, after a pilgrimage to 
Mecca, undertook to form a new religion 
from a mixture of Mohammedan, Christian, 
Jewish, and Parsee elements. His contro¬ 
versies with the mollahs shortly led to his 
confinement to his own house, where he 
formulated his doctrines, privately in¬ 
structed his disciples, and increased his pre¬ 
tensions. He now laid aside the title of 
Bab, assuming that of Nokteli (point), and 
claimed to be the focus to which all pre¬ 
ceding dispensations converged. He sent out 
missionaries in various directions, the most 
famous of whom was a woman, Gurred-ul- 
Ain (consolation of the eyes), remarkable 
for beauty and intelligence, who preached 
against polygamy. The sect soon became 
numerous, and were not molested by the 
reigning Shah; but on the accession of 
Nasir-ed-Din in 1848, apprehending persecu¬ 
tion, they took up arms, proclaiming the 
advent of the Bab as universal sovereign. 
Several Persian armies were routed, but 
finally the insurgents were reduced by fam¬ 
ine, and most of them executed 11849—1850). 
The Bab had held aloof from the revolt,but he 
was arrested and put to death, after a long 
imprisonment, in 1850. His successor was 
recognized in the youthful son of the Gov¬ 
ernor of Teheran, who retired to Bagdad, 
where he afterward lived quietly. An at¬ 
tempt of three belie vers to assassinate the 
Shah, in 1852, led to a terrible persecution 
of the sect; numbers were tortured and 
burned, among them Gurred-ul-Ain. Babism 
has nevertheless gained in strength, and is 
at present widely diffused in Persia; its 
members live in apparent conformity to or¬ 
thodox Mohammedanism, but privately hold¬ 
ing the Bab’s doctrines, which are contained 
in an Arabic treatise, “ Biyan ” (the exposi¬ 
tion), written by the founder himself. They 
form essentially a system of Pantheism, with 
Gnostic and Buddhistic additions. All be¬ 
ings are emanations from the Deity, by 
whom they will ultimately be reabsorbed. 



Babington 


Baboon 


Babism enjoins few prayers, and those only 
on fixed occasions j encourages hospitality 
and charity; prohibits polygamy, concubin¬ 
age, and divorce; discourages asceticism and 
mendicancy; and directs women to discard 
the veil, and share as equals in the inter¬ 
course of social life. 

Babington, Anthony, a Roman Catholic 
gentleman of Derbyshire, who associated 
with others of his own persuasion to assas¬ 
sinate Queen Elizabeth, and deliver Mary, 
Queen of Scots. The plot being discovered, 
the conspirators were executed in 1586. 

Babington, Churchill, an English phil¬ 
ologist, born in Leicestershire in 1821; edu¬ 
cated at St. John’s College, Cambridge; Dis¬ 
ney Professor of Archaeology there in 1865- 
1880; was a voluminous writer on ornithol¬ 
ogy, botany, archaeology, numismatics, etc.; 
and a contributor to Smith's “ Dictionary 
of Christian Antiquities.” He died Jan. 13, 
1889. 

Babingtonite [named after Dr. Babing¬ 
ton, of England, who, besides being a dis¬ 
tinguished physician, published several im¬ 
portant works on mineralogy in 1795-1799. 
A small gathering of mineralogists at his 
house ultimately developed in 1807 into the 
great Geological Society of London], a 
mineral placed by Dana under his amphi- 
bole group, the pyroxine sub-group, and the 
section of it with triclinic crystallization. 
The hardness is 5.5 to 6; the sp. gr. 3.35- 
3.37; the luster is vitreous, splendent; the 
color, dark, greenisli-black. Composition: 
Silica, 47.46 to 54.4; protoxide of iron, 10.26 
to 21.3; lime, 14.74 to 19.6; sesquioxide of 
iron, 0 to 11; protoxide of manganese, 1.8 
to 17.91; magnesia, 0.77 to 2.2; alumina, 
0 to 6.48. It occurs in the Shetland Islands, 
at Arendal in Norway, and in North Amer¬ 
ica. 

Babiroussa (a Malay word signifying 
stag hog), a species of wild hog, sometimes 
called the horned or stag hog, from the 
great length and curvature of its upper 
tusks or canines, which curl upward and 
backward somewhat like the horns of 
Ruminantia, the lower canines being also 
very prominent. It is nearly of the size of 
a common hog, but rather longer, and with 
more slender limbs. The head, which is 
small, is brown above, and the body, which 
has a rough, thick skin, occasionally form¬ 
ing folds, particularly between the ears and 
cheeks, is of a dirty brown, covered sparing¬ 
ly, not with bristles, but a very short hair, 
growing out of the small tubercles, to Which 
the roughness of the skin seems to be chief¬ 
ly owing; the upper part of the neck and 
belly, as well as the inside of the limbs, 
has a decidedly reddish tint, while a light 
dorsal band, about an inch broad near the 
neck where it begins, extends down the back 
and terminates near the tail. This band is 


better furnished with hair than the rest of 
the body, and is more distinctly marked 
in the male than in the female. The ivory 
of the tusks is less hard and durable than 
that of the elephant, but of very fine qual¬ 
ity; and the flesh is very savory, having 
a greater resemblance to that of the stag 
than the hog, but surpassing both in the 
delicacy of its flavor. The babiroussa is very 
numerous in Celebes, the Moluccas, and 
Java. It is hunted with dogs, and when 
taken makes little resistance; sometimes 
when pressed it endeavors to reach the sea, 
and eludes its pursuer by its dexterity in 
diving and swimming. The Dutch traveler, 
Valentyn, who had ample opportunity of 
studying the habits of the animal in its 
wild state, says that it has a nice sense 
of smell, and when endeavoring to scent 
its enemy, it often stands on its hind legs 
and leans against the trunk of a tree. 

Babism. See Babi. 

Babo (ba'bo), Josef Marius von, a 

German poet, born in Elirenbreitstein, Jan. 
14, 1756; was made Professor of Fine Art3 
at Munich in 1778, and of Aesthetics at 
Mannheim; later became director in the 
Munich Military Academy, and superintend¬ 
ent of the theatre. He was the author of 
“Otto of Wittelsbach,” a tragedy (1781); 

“ Oda ” (1782); “ Dagobert, the Frankish 
King” (1787); “The Pulse,” a comedy 

(1804), etc. He died in Munich, Feb. 5, 
1822. 

Baboo, or Babu, a Hindu title of respect 
equivalent to sir or master, usually given 
to wealthy and educated native gentle¬ 
men, especially when of the mercantile 
class. 

Baboon, a common name applied to a 
genus of monkeys, natives of Africa. This 
genus is the Cynocephalus or dog-headed 
monkey of modern naturalists, and is divid¬ 
ed into two sub-genera, well characterized 
by the difference of their tails; the first is 
the baboon proper, having the tail longer 
than or nearly as long as, the body, and con¬ 
tinuous with the dorsal spine; the second 
named mandrill, is characterized by a short, 
slender, and pig-like tail, placed perpendic¬ 
ular to the dorsal spine. These are some¬ 
times considered as independent genera, the 
baboons proper being put in the genus Cyno¬ 
cephalus, the mandrill in the genus Papio. 
They are admirably adapted for their mode 
of existence, and a study of their natural 
habits would probably modify the disgust 
with which they are regarded in captivity. 
The most striking peculiarity of the baboons 
is the elongated, dog-like head, with its flat, 
compressed cheeks, projecting and strong 
teeth, and forehead depressed below the lev¬ 
el of the superior margins of the orbits. 
Notwithstanding this close approximation 
to the shape of the dog’s head, the form and 



Babrius 


Babylon 


position of the eyes, combined with the 
similarity of the arms and hands, give to 
these creatures a resemblance to humanity 
as striking as it is disgusting. The whole 
aspect of the animal impresses the beholder 
with an idea of great physical strength, 
united with a temper at once incorrigibly 
vicious and brutally ferocious. Such is the 
true character of the baboons, capable of 
being ruled only by the severest treatment. 
Left to their own will, their savage nature 
immediately resumes its sway, and their 
actions are exceedingly cruel, destructive, 
and disgusting. In the vicinity of the Cape 
of Good Hope, where a species of baboon 
called the chacma or ursine baboon ( Gyno - 
cephalus porcarius) is found in considerable 
numbers, the inhabitants wage war against 
them, on account of the ravages they com¬ 
mit in the fields and gardens. They make 
a very obstinate resistance to dogs, and 
only retreat before men when armed with 
guns. They feed exclusively on fruits, 
seeds, and other vegetable matter, and dis¬ 
play a great deal of cunning and audacity 
when engaged in their marauding expedi¬ 
tions. This animal has the remarkable in¬ 
stinctive power of being able to detect the 
presence of water, and in South Africa is 
often employed for this purpose when the 
ordinary water supply fails. The baboon 
can never be called tamed, however long his 
confinement may have endured. 

Babrius (ba'bre-us), a Greek writer of 
fables in verse; variously referred to the 
time immediately preceding the Augustan 
age, and to the 3d century of our era; his 
name also shows variants, as Babrias, Ga-. 
brius. Till 1842 only a few fragments of 
Babrius were known to be extant; but in 
that year, in the Laura of Mt. Atlios, was 
discovered a manuscript containing 123 of 
his fables. In 1846 Sir George Cornewall 
Lewis published them together with the pre¬ 
existing fragments, and in 1859 or 1860 
appeared a good English version by James 
Davies. The fables have also been edited 
by W. G. Rutherford and by F. G. Schnei- 
dewin. 

Babuyanes (ba-bo'ya-nes), or Madji= 
cosima Islands, a number of islands lying 
about 30 miles N. of Luzon, and generally 
considered the most northern of the Philip¬ 
pines. They are subject to the Loo-Choo 
Islands; aggregate pop. about 12,000. 

Babylon, the capital of Babylonia, on 
both sides of the Euphrates, one of the 
largest and most splendid cities of the an¬ 
cient world, now a scene of ruins, and earth- 
mounds containing them. Babylon was a 
royal city 1600 years before the Christian 
era; but the old city w r as almost entirely 
destroyed in 683 n. c. A new city was built 
by Nebuchadnezzar nearly a century later. 
This was in the form of a square, each side 


15 miles long, with walls of such immense 
height and thickness as to constitute one 
of the wonders of the world. It contained 
splendid edifices, large gardens and pleas¬ 
ure-grounds, especially the hanging-gardens, 
a sort of lofty terraced structure support¬ 
ing earth enough for trees to grow, and the 
celebrated tower of Babel, or temple of 
Belus, rising by stages to the height of 
625 feet. (See Babel.) After the city was 
taken by Cyrus in 538 b. c., and Babylonia 
made a Persian province, it began to de¬ 
cline, and had suffered severely by the time 
of Alexander the Great. He intended to 
restore it, but was prevented by his death, 
which took place here in 323 b. c., from 
which time its decay was rapid. 

Rccen t D iscoveries. — Interesting discov¬ 
eries have been made on its site in recent 
times, more especially of numerous and val¬ 
uable inscriptions in the cuneiform or ar¬ 
row-head character. The modern town of 
Hillah is believed to represent the ancient 
city, and the plain here for miles around is 
studded with vast mounds of earth and 
brick and imposing ruins. The greatest 
mound is Birs Nimrud, about 6 miles from 
Hillah. It rises nearly 200 feet, is crowned 
by a ruined tower, and is commonly be¬ 
lieved to be the remains of the ancient tem¬ 
ple of Belus. Another great ruin mound, 
called Mujellibeh, has also been assigned 
as its site. In January, 1898, the German 
Oriental Society was organized at Berlin, 
for the purpose of exploring the mounds of 
ruins which lie along the banks of the Ti¬ 
gris and Euphrates. The first expedition 
of this society was sent to explore the ruins 
of storied Babylon, the city of Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar. At Easter, 1899, the work was be¬ 
gun on the mound that covers ancient Baby¬ 
lon. It was the beginning of bringing to 
life the so-called “ City of Life,” which had 
been dead to the world for 3,000 years or 
more. One or two towers still protrude 
above the broad ruins of the gigantic city, 
the great mountain height of which has 
gained it the name “ Kasr,” citadel, from 
the Arabs. Here must be the palaces by 
Nebuchadnezzar, the conqueror of Jeru¬ 
salem (588 b. c.), and inhabited first by 
him, then used by the Persian conquerors as 
their winter residence, and afterward fell 
into the hands of Alexander the Great. 
Nineveh and the palace of Sardanapalus 
have been the pride of England’s discover¬ 
ers; Babylon and the palaces of Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar are to reflect age-long glory on the 
German genius for exploration. It is no 
small task, but fortunately it is in the best 
of hands, those of Dr. Robert Koldewey, the 
leader of the expedition, who may be relied 
upon to work wonders if given due support. 
Herodotus, who visited Babylon in the time 
of Artaxerxes I., said that the city was sur¬ 
rounded by a wall 50 royal ells (84 feet) 




Babylonia 


Babylonia 


wide and 200 ells (33G feet) high, and that 
on top of this wall, on each edge, were one- 
story houses, leaving a space between the 
rows of houses on which four chariots 
abreast could drive. 

The Great Wall .— As soon as Dr. Kolde- 
wey made his first attack on the mound, 
digging into it from the E. side of 
“ Kasr ” he struck this wall, undoubtedly 
the one mentioned by Herodotus. This was 
of course to be expected, if this was the ruin 
of Babylon, but, on digging farther into 
the mound, the thickness of the wall was 
ascertained to surpass all expectations. 
The outer, or E. shell, or retaining 
wall, was built of baked bricks and as¬ 
phalt, and was 23% feet thick. Beyond this 
was found a filling in of sand and gravel 69 
feet thick, and then another retaining wall 
44 feet thick, making the entire wall 136% 
feet thick. This wall, to which there is no 
parallel on earth, took some hot, hard work 
to dig over and expose, and it was then 
found that the top of it was about 22% 
feet below the surface of the mound. Then 
came the final and absolute proof that 
Diodorus, too, was correct when he stated 
that the bricks in the walls and citadels of 
Nebuchadnezzar were adorned with magnifi¬ 
cent reliefs in colors. There can be little 
doubt that the walls uncovered point the 
way to the palaces of Nebuchadnezzar — 
the most promising field for wonderful dis¬ 
coveries to come. In April, 1900, Dr. Kol- 
dewey informed the Oriental Society of the 
discovery of a canal, built of Aramean brick, 
which is believed to be the long sought East 
Canal. A temple called Ernach, of the god¬ 
dess Ninniach, was laid bare, and stones 
found inscribed from the time of Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar. 

Babylonia (now Irak Arabi), an old Asi¬ 
atic empire, occupying the region watered 
by the lower course of the Euphrates and 
the Tigris, and by their combined stream. 
The inhabitants, though usually designated 
Babylonians, were sometimes called Chal¬ 
deans, and it is thought that the latter name 
represents a superior caste who at a com¬ 
paratively late period gained influence in 
the country. At the earliest period of which 
we have record, the whole valley of the 
Tigris and Euphrates was inhabited by 
tribes of Turanian or Tartar origin. Along 
with these, however, there early existed an 
intrusive Semitic element, which gradually 
increased in number till at the time the 
Babylonians and Assyrians (the latter being 
a kindred people) became known to the 
western historians they were essentially 
Semitic peoples. The great city of Babylon, 
or Babel, was the capital of Babylonia, 
which was called by the Hebrews Shinar., 
The country was, as it still is, exceedingly 
fertile, and must have anciently supported 
a dense population. The chief cities, be¬ 


sides Babylon, were Ur, Calneh, Erech, and 
Sippara. Babylonia and Assyria were often 
spoken of together as Assyria. 

Cuneiform, Inscriptions .— The discovery 
and interpretation of the cuneiform inscrip¬ 
tions have enabled the history of Babylonia 
to be carried back to about 4000 b. c.% at 
which period the inhabitants had attained 
a considerable degree of civilization, and the 
country was ruled by a number of kings or 
princes, each in his own city. About 2700 
B. c., Babylonia came under the rule of a 
single monarch. Latterly it had serious 
wars with neighboring nations, and for sev¬ 
eral hundred years previous to 2000 b. c. 
Babylonia was subject to the neighboring 
Elam. It then regained its independence, 
and for 1,000 years it was the foremost 
State of Western Asia in power, as well 
as in science, art, and civilization. The rise 
of the Assyrian empire brought about the 
decline of Babylonia, which latterly was 
under Assyrian domination, though with 
intervals of independence. Tiglath-Pileser 
II. of Assyria (745-727) made himself mas¬ 
ter of Babylonia; but the conquest of the 
country had to be repeated by his successor, 
Sargon, who expelled the Babylonian king, 
Merodaeh-Baladan, and all but finally sub¬ 
dued the country, the complete subjugation 
being effected by Sennacherib. After some 
60 years the second or later Babylonian em¬ 
pire arose under Nabopolassar, who, joining 
the Medes against the Assyrians, freed 
Babylon from the superiority of the latter 
power, 625 n. c. The new empire was at 
its height of power and glory under Nabo- 
polassar’s son, Nebuchadnezzar (604-561), 
who subjected Jerusalem, Tyre, Phoenicia, 
and even Egypt, and carried his dominion 
to the shores of the Mediterranean and 
northward to the Armenian Mountains. 
The capital, Babylon, was rebuilt by him, 
and then formed one of the greatest and 
most magnificent cities the world has ever 
seen. He was succeeded by his son, Evil- 
Merodach, but the dynasty soon came to an 
end, the last King being Nabonetus, or Nabo- 
nadius, who came to the throne in b. c. 555, 
and made his son, Belshazzar, co-ruler with 
him. Babylon was taken by Cyrus, the Per¬ 
sian monarch, in 538, and the second Baby¬ 
lonian empire came to an end, Babylonia 
being incorporated in the Persian empire. 
Its subsequent history was similar to that 
of Assyria. 

Civilization and Arts .— The account of 
the civilization, arts, and social advance¬ 
ment of the Assyrians already given in the 
article Assyria, may be taken as generally 
applying also to the Babylonians, though 
certain differences existed between the two 
peoples. In Babylonia, stone was not to be 
had, and, consequently, brick was the al¬ 
most universal building material. Sculp¬ 
ture was thus less developed in Babylonia 





Babylonish Captivity 


Bacchanalia 


than in Assyria, and painting more. Baby¬ 
lonian art had also more of a religious char¬ 
acter than that of Assyria, and the chief 
edifices found in ruins are temples. Weav¬ 
ing and pottery were carried to high per¬ 
fection. Astronomy was cultivated from 
the earliest times. The Babylonians had a 
number of deities, but latterly the chief or 
national deity was Bel Merodach, originally 
the sun-god. Education was well attended 
to, and there were schools and libraries in 
connection with the temples. On the in¬ 
scribed tablets that have been discovered 
are writings relating to religion, law, magic, 
poems, etc. 

Babylonish Captivity, a term usually ap¬ 
plied to the deportation of the two tribes of 
the kingdom of Judah to Babylon by Nebu¬ 
chadnezzar, 585 b. c. The duration of 
this captivity is usually reckoned 70 years, 
though strictly speaking, it lasted only 56 
years. A great part of the 10 tribes of 
Israel had been previously taken captive to 

Assyria. 

«/ 

Babyroussa. See Babiroussa. 

B. A. C., the abbreviation universally 
used by astronomers in referring 
to “ The Catalogue of Stars of 
the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science,” by 
Francis Baily, London, 1845. It 
contains the places of 8,377 stars, 
with precessions, proper mo¬ 
tions, constants for the reduction 
to apparent place, etc., together 
with an elaborate preface, giving 
much valuable information. 

Baccalaureus, a Latin word 
of the Middle Ages (of doubtful 
origis), which appears also in 
several other forms, and has 
given rise to the English word 
bachelor. It was used in va¬ 
rious senses, being applied to a warrior 
not advanced to full knighthood, to a 
canon of the lowest rank, and to a 
scholar at a university who had passed 
three academical courses and examinations, 
and was himself entitled to give lectures 
without being reckoned among the independ¬ 
ent lecturers. This was consequently the 
lowest academical degree, and the bacca¬ 
laureus or bachelor is still one who holds 
a degree which is inferior to that of master 
or doctor. In the modern universi¬ 
ties there are bachelors in the depart¬ 
ments or faculties of arts, law, divinity, 
medicine, surgery, science, and music. At 
Oxford and Cambridge the bachelor created 
in the regular form is distinguished as a 
formed bachelor; one created by an extra¬ 
ordinary diploma is a current bacheloi. 

Baccarat, (ba-ka-ra'), a town of France, 
in the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle; 
has the most important plate glass works 
in France. Fop. of commune (1891) 5,723. 


Baccarat, or Baccara, a game played 
with the ordinary playing cards; very sim¬ 
ple in its details and freer from complica¬ 
tions than most games at cards. Any num¬ 
ber of players may participate, and as many 
packs of cards may be used as necessary, 
the number being increased to correspond 
with the number of players. One member 
of the party is selected to act as banker. 
He deals out the cards from a box, after 
they have been shuffled. The face cards each 
count 10, and the others according to the 
numbers of their spots. After the bets have 
been made, the banker deals two cards to 
each of the players, including himself, but 
the other players must receive their cards 
before the banker is served. The aim of the 
players is to make the numbers 9, 19, 29, 
or as nearly those as possible, as 8, 18, and 
28. Any player is at liberty either to 
“ stand ” or to be “ content ” with the two 
cards at first dealt, or to call for more, at 
the risk of exceeding 29, when his stake is 
forfeited to the dealer. If, after the first 
distribution of two cards to each, any playsr 
has a “natural”— i. <?., a sum making 9, 
or next in value, 19 — he declares it wins, 


and the banker pays all who hold superior 
hands to his own, and claims from those 
holding inferior hands. The players stake 
their money separately, there being, in fact, 
as many separate games in progress as there 
are players, and the spectators may wager 
their money on any one of them, all of 
which must be accepted by the banker. Prior 
to the banker making a start, he states the 
amount of the bank. Any one sitting down 
at the table has the right to call the whole 
of the bank, selecting the left or the right 
on which to pick up the cards. Previous to 
the banker dealing the cards, it is the duty 
of two croupiers, one on the right and the 
other on the left, to count up the stakes de¬ 
posited on either side, and then make up the 
bank. Thus the banker knows, to the small¬ 
est coin, the exact amount of his liabilities. 

Bacchanalia, or Dionysia, feasts in honor 
of Bacchus, or Dionysos, characterized by 
licentiousness and revelry, and celebrated in 
ancient Athens. In the processions were 

























Bacchante 


Bacchus 


bands of Bacchantes of both sexes, who, in- ] 
spired by real - or feigned intoxication, wan¬ 
dered about rioting and dancing. They were 
clothed in fawn-skins, crowned with ivy, and 
bore in their hands thyrsi, that is, spears en¬ 
twined with ivy, or having a pine cone stuck 
on the point. These feasts passed from the 
Greeks to the Homans, who celebrated them 
with still greater dissoluteness till the Sen¬ 
ate abolished them in b. c. 187. 

Bacchante (bak-an'te), a person taking 
part in revels in honor of Bacchus. 

Bacchiglione (bak-il-yo'na), a river of 
Northern Italy, rises in the Alps, passes 
through the towns of Vicenza and Padua, 
and enters the Adriatic near Chioggia, after 
a course of about 90 miles. 

Bacchus (in Greek generally Dionysos), 
the god of wine, born of a mortal mother, 
yet one of the immortal gods. His history 
is one of the most perplexing in the Greek 
mythology. Semele was pregnant with him 
by Zeus. Before his birth, however, she 
became a victim of the craft of Hera. Zeus 
hastened to save the unborn fruit of his 
embrace, and concealed it till mature in 
his own thigh. He afterward committed 
the infant to Hermes, who carried him to 
the nymphs of Nysa in India, where he 
grew and prospered. His teacher was Sile- 
nus, afterward his constant companion. 

In the vales of Nysa Bacchus invented 
the preparation of a beverage from grapes, 
and taught the planting of vines. To spread 
the knowledge of his invention die traveled 
over almost the whole known world, and re¬ 
ceived in every quarter divine honors. 
Drawn by lions (some say panthers, tigers, 
or lynxes), he began his march, which re¬ 
sembled a triumphal pomp, with a great 
suite of men and women, Sileni, Satyrs, and 
Mtenades. Inspired by the presence of the 
god, rejoicing, brandishing the thyrsus, and 
crowned with vines and ivy, they danced 
around him, shouting “ Evoe! Eleleus!” 
over hill and valley, accompanied by the 
tones of Phrygian llutes and timbrels. The 
Thebans would not acknowledge his divini¬ 
ty, and Pentheus armed himself against 
him. Bacchus resolved to punish the crime, 
and inspired the women with a fury which 
drove them from their dwellings to wander 
on Mount Cithawon. Pentheus himself was 
torn in pieces by his own mother and her 
sisters, to whom he appeared a wild beast. 
Bacchus punished the daughters of Mynias, 
who derided his feasts, with frenzy and 
transformation. At Naxos some Tuscan 
sailors attempted to carry him off to Italy, 
supposing him from his purple robe to be 
the son of a king. They fettered him; but 
the fetters fell off, vines and ivy entwined 
the vessel, and kept it fixed in the midst 
of the sea: the god transformed himself 
to a lion, and the seamen, seized with mad¬ 
ness, leaped into the waves, where they were 


changed into dolphins. On the other hand, 
he rewarded such as received him hospita¬ 
bly and rendered him worship, as, for 
instance, Midas, who restored to him the 
faithful Silenus. 

His love was shared by several; but 
Ariadne, whom he found deserted upon Nax¬ 
os, alone was elevated to the dignity of a 
wife, and became a sharer of his immortali¬ 
ty. To confer the same favor on his moth¬ 
er, Semele, he descended into the realms of 
Pluto, and conducted her to Olympus, where 
she was henceforth called Thyone. In the 
dreadful war with the giants he fought he¬ 
roically, and saved the gods from impending 
ruin. During the rejoicing for victory Zeus 
joyfully cried to him, “Evan, evoe! >} 
(Well done, my son!), with which words 
Bacchus was afterward usually saluted. 
We find him represented with the round, 
soft, and graceful form of a maiden rather 
than with that of a young man. An orna¬ 
ment peculiar to him is the tiara. His long 
waving hair is gathered behind in a knot, 
and wreathed with sprigs of ivy and vine 
leaves. He is usually naked; sometimes he 
has an ample mantle hung negligently 
round his shoulders; sometimes a fawn 
skin hangs across his breast. The bearded 
Bacchus is properly of Indian or Egyptian 
origin. His head is sometimes shown with 
small horns (the symbol of invincible 
force). In his hand is borne a thyrsus , or 
a drinking cup. The bull, panther, ass, and 
goat were symbolically associated with this 
god. 

The feasts consecrated to Bacchus were 
termed Bacchanalia, Dionysia, or in general 
Orgia. They were celebrated with peculiar 
solemnity in Athens, where the years were 
universally reckoned by them. During their 
continuance the least violence toward a 
citizen was a capital crime. The great Diony¬ 
sia were celebrated in spring. The most 
important part of the celebration was a pro¬ 
cession representing the triumph of Bacchus. 
This was composed of the above-mentioned 
train of Bacchantes of both sexes, who, in¬ 
spired by real or feigned intoxication, wan¬ 
dered about rioting and dancing, and gave 
themselves up to the most extravagant li¬ 
centiousness. They were masked, clothed in 
fawn skins, crowned with ivy, and bore in 
their hands drinking cups and rods en¬ 
twined with ivy (thyrsi). Amidst this mad 
crowd marched in beautiful order the dele¬ 
gated bodies of the phratria (corporations 
of citizens). They bore upon their heads 
consecrated baskets, which contained first- 
fruits of every kind, cakes of different 
shape, and various mysterious symbols. 
This procession was usually in the night¬ 
time. The day was devoted to spectacles 
and other recreations. At a very early hour 
they went to the theater of Bacchus, where 
musical or dramatical performances were 
exhibited. Thespis, known as the inventor 



Bacchylides 


Bach 


of tragedy is said to have introduced into 
the Bacchic performance an actor who car¬ 
ried on a dialogue with the coryphaeus 
(leader) regarding the myths narrated of 
Bacchus or some other divinity. The chorus 
surrounding its leader, stood on the steps of 
the altar of Bacchus, while the actor occu¬ 
pied a table. Some regard this as the 
origin of the stage. The vintage festivals 
in rural districts were celebrated by Bac¬ 
chic processions, ruder in form than those 
of Athens, but characterized by the same 
wild license and ribaldry. Coarse ridicule 
of individuals was a marked feature of these 
occasions. All over Athens reigned licen¬ 
tiousness and revelry. These feasts passed 
from the Greeks to the Homans, who cele¬ 
brated them with still greater dissoluteness, 
till the senate abolished them, b. c. 187. 

Bacchylides (bak-il'e-des), a Greek poet, 
a native of Julis, a town on the Island of 
Cos. He was a cousin of the still more fa¬ 
mous lyric poet Simonides, with whom he 
remained for some time at the court of 
Hiero in Sicily. He traveled also in the 
Peloponnesus. He is said to have been a 
rival of Pindar. He flourished about 470 
b. c. Until recently, this poet was known 
to the modern world only in fragments of 
beautiful versification. In 1895, however, 
a well preserved text was discovered and 
published, and Bacchylides has now taken 
permanent place as a master of Greek verse. 
The Macmillan Co. published a translation 
of the poems in 1897. 

Bacciferous (bak-sif'er-us), a term ap¬ 
plied to those trees that bear berries. They 
are of four kinds: (1) Such as bear a 

caliculate, or naked berry ; the flower and 
calix both falling off together, and leaving 
the berry bare; as the sassafras trees. (2) 
Such as have a naked monospermous fruit; 
that is, containing in it only one seed; as 
the arbutes. (3) Such as have but poly- 
spermous fruit; that is, containing two or 
more kernels or seeds within it; as the jes- 
minum, ligustrum. (4) Such as have their 
fruit composed of many acini, or round, soft 
balls, set close together, like a bunch of 
grapes;- as the uva marina. 

Bacciocchi, Felice Pasquale (ba-che- 
ok'e), a Corsican captain, poor, but of good 
family, born in Corsica, May 18, 17G2. In 
1797 he married Maria Elisa Bonaparte. 
In 1805, when Napoleon made his sister 
Princess of Lucca and Piombino, Bacciocchi 
was crowned with his wife. After the Em¬ 
peror’s fall, he lived quietly and in some 
poverty at Bologna, where he died April 27, 
1841. 

Bacciochi, Maria Bonaparte, eldest sis¬ 
ter of Napoleon Bonaparte, born at Ajaccio, 
Corsica, in 1777, married Felice Bacciochi, 
and was created by her brother, in 1805, 
Princess of Lucca, Piombino, Massa, and 
Carrara, and in 1809 Grand Duchess of Tus¬ 


cany. She shared her brother’s fall, and 
spent her last years in Austria, dying on 
her estate near Trieste, Aug. 7, 1820. Her 
only son died in 1833, and her only daugh¬ 
ter, the Countess Cariierata, in 1869. 

Baccio della Porta. See Bartolommeo. 

Bach, Alexander von (bach), an Aus¬ 
trian statesman, born in Loosdorf, Jan. 4, 
1813; was Minister of Justice in 1848, of the 
Interior in 1849-1859; and, subsequently, 
ambassador to Rome. In 1855, he negotiated 
the Concordat with the Papacy which 
brought Austria into submission to the Ro¬ 
man Church. He died Nov. 15, 1892. 

Bach, Heinrich, a German musician, born 
Sept. 16, 1615; member of the celebrated 
family of musicians, father of Johann Chris¬ 
toph and Johann Michael Bach; was organ¬ 
ist at Arnstadt, where he died July 10, 1691. 

Bach, Johann Christian, a German mu¬ 
sician, born in Erfurt, in 1640; a member 
of the family of musicians; son of Johannes 
Bach, the great uncle of Johann Sebastian 
Bach. He died in Erfurt, in 1682. 

Bach, Johann Christian, a German mu¬ 
sician, born in Leipsic, in 1735; a son of 
Johann Sebastian Bach; was organist in the 
Cathedral of Milan in 1754-1759, and in 
London in 1759-1782, from which residences 
he was surnamed “ the Milanese ” and “ the 
English.” He composed operas, masses, Tc 
Dcums , etc. He died in London, in 1782. 

Bach, Johann Christoph Friedrich, a 

German musician, born in Leipsic, in 1732; 
a son of Johann Sebastian Bach; music 
master to Count Schaumburg at Biickeburg. 
He died in Biickeburg, in 1795. 

Bach, Johann Michael, a German com¬ 
poser and instrument maker, born in 1648; 
a son of Heinrich Bach; father-in-law of 
Johann Sebastian Bach. He died in Arn¬ 
stadt, in 1694. 

Bach, Johann Sebastian, a celebrated 
musician, born at Eisenach, Upper Saxony, 
March 21, 1685. 

When he was 10 
years old his fa¬ 
ther, who was a 
musician at Eis¬ 
enach, died, and 
Bach sought the 
protection of an 
elder brother, 
who, dying soon 
after, ho was 
again left desti¬ 
tute, and, to earn 
a livelihood, en¬ 
tered the choir of 
St. Michael’s, 

Luneberg, as a so- johann Sebastian bach. 
prano singer. In 

1703 he became court musician at Weimar, 
the following year organist at Arnstadt, and 
in 1708 court organist at Weimar. While 




Bach 


Bachelor 


holding this office he labored to make him¬ 
self master of every branch of music. In 1717 
he was made Director of Concerts, and six 
years afterward Director of Music and Can¬ 
tor to St. Thomas’ School, Leipsic, an ap¬ 
pointment which he held to his death. 
About 10 vears later the distinctions of 
kapellmeister to the Duke of Weissenfels 
and court composer to the King of Poland 
were conferred upon him. Bach, who had a 
son in the service of Frederick the Great, 
received a pressing request to visit Potsdam, 
on the occasion of a concert there. He went, 
and acquitted himself to the satisfaction of 
that monarch, some of whose music he 
played at first sight. Bach’s close studies 
affected his eyes, and an operation left him 
totally blind and hastened his death, in 
Leipsic, July 28, 1750. With the excep¬ 
tion of Handel, Bach had no rival as an 
organist. 

Bach, Karl Philipp Emanuel, a Ger¬ 
man musician, born in Weimar, March 14, 
1714; son of Johann Sebastian Bach; was 
court musician in the service of Frederick 
the Great in 1740-17G7. lie wrote on the 
theory of piano playing and was a volumin¬ 
ous composer of piano music, oratorios, etc. 
He died in Hamburg, Dec. 14, 1788. 

Bache, Alexander Dallas (bach), an 
American scientist, born in Philadelphia, 
Pa., July 19, 1800; was graduated at the 
United States Military Academy, .at the head 
of his class, in 1825; became Professor of 
Natural Philosophy and Chemistry at the 
University of Pennsylvania in 1828 ; was the 
organizer and first President of Girard Col¬ 
lege, 1830; and was appointed superintend¬ 
ent of the United States Coast Survey, in 
1843. In the last office he performed ser¬ 
vices of lasting and invaluable character. 
He was regent of the Smithsonian Institu¬ 
tion in 1840-1807; an active member of the 
United States Sanitary Commission during 
the Civil War; and President of the Na¬ 
tional Academy of Sciences in 1803. Be¬ 
sides a long series of notable annual reports 
of the United States Coast Survey, he pub¬ 
lished a report on “ Education in Europe ” 
(1839), and “ Observations at the Magnetic 
and Meteorological Observatory at the Gir¬ 
ard College” (3 vols., 1840-1847). He died 
in Newport, R. I., Feb. 17, 1807. 

Bache, Franklin, an American chemist, 
born in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 25, 1792; 
was appointed Professor of Chemistry at 
the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy in 
1831, and at the Jefferson Medical College 
in 1841. He published “ System of Chem¬ 
istry for Students of Medicine” (1819), 
and was one of the authors of Wood & 
Bache’s “Dispensatory of the LTnited States” 
(1833). He died in Philadelphia, March 
19, 1804. 

Bache, George M., an American naval 
officer, born in the District of Columbia, 


Nov. 12, 1840; was graduated at the United 
States Naval Academy, in 1800; commanded 
the iron clad “ Cincinnati ” in the various 
engagements on the Mississippi river, .until 
she was sunk by the Vicksburg batteries. 
May 27, 1803. He was highly commended 
by Admiral Porter, Gen. Sherman, and Secre¬ 
tary Welles for his conduct in the last en¬ 
gagement. Subsequently, he took part in 
both attacks on Fort Fisher, and, in the 
second one, Jan. 15, 1805, he led the naval 
assault on the fort. He was retired with 
the rank of commander, April 5, 1875, 
and died in Washington, D. C., Feb. 11, 
1890. 

Bache, Hartman, an American military 
engineer, born in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 3, 
1798; was graduated at the United States 
Military Academy, in 1818; entered the 
United States Topographical Corps; and for 
47 years was constantly employed on sur¬ 
veys and on works of hydrographic and civil 
engineering. On March 13, 1805, was ap¬ 
pointed Brigadier-General, and March 7, 
1807, was retired. His most notable achieve¬ 
ments were the building of the Delaware 
Breakwater and the application of iron- 
screw piles for the foundation of lighthouses 
upon sandy shoals and coral reefs. He died 
*n Philadelphia, Oct. 8, 1872. 

Bache, Sarah, an American philanthrop¬ 
ist, born in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 11, 1744; 
was the only daughter of Benjamin Frank¬ 
lin, and the wife of Richard Bache. Dur¬ 
ing the Revolutionary War she organized 
and became chief of a band of patriotic la¬ 
dies who made clothing for the soldiers, and 
in other ways relieved their sufferings, es¬ 
pecially during the severe winter of 1780. 
At one time she had nearly 2,500 women 
engaged under her direction in sewing for 
the army. -She personally collected large 
sums of money to provide the material for 
this work, and also for the purchase of 
medicines and delicacies for the soldiers in 
the hospitals, where she also personally 
acted as nurse. She died Oct. 5, 1808. 

Bacheller, Irving, an American novelist, 
born in Pierpont, N. Y., Sept. 20, 1859. He 
was graduated at St. Lawrence University 
in 1879 and became a reporter of the Brook¬ 
lyn “ Times.” Subsequently he established 
a newspaper syndicate. Chief works: “The 
Master of Silence,” “ The Unbidden Guest,” 
“ Eben Holden,” “ D’ri and I.” 

Bachelor, a term applied anciently to a 
person in the first or probationary stage of 
knighthood who had not yet raised his stan¬ 
dard in the field. It also denotes a person 
who has taken the first degree in the liberal 
arts and sciences, or in divinity, law, or 
medicine, at a college or university; or a 
man of any age who has not been married. 
A knight bachelor is one who has been 
raised to the dignity of a knight without 




Bachelor’s Buttons 


Back-Staff 


being made a member of any of the orders 
of chivalry such as the Garter or the Thistle. 

Bachelor’s Buttons, the double flowering 
buttercup ( ranunculus acris ), with white 
or yellow blossoms, common in gardens. 

Bachian (bach'an), one of the Molucca 
Islands, immediately S. of the equator, S. 
W. of Gilolo; area, 800 square miles. It is 
ruled by a native Sultan under the Dutch. 

Bachman, John, an American clergyman 
and naturalist, born in Dutchess county, N. 
N., Feb. 4, 1790; became pastor of a Lutheran 
church in Charleston, S. C. He published, 
among other works, “ Characteristics of 
Genera and Species as Applicable to the 
Doctrine of the Unity of the Human Race” 
(1854); but is best known by reason of 
his association with Audubon in the mak¬ 
ing of the “ Quadrupeds of North America,” 
he writing the principal part of the text, 
which Audubon and his sons illustrated. 
He died in Charleston, S. C., Feb. 25, 1874. 

Bacillaria, a genus of microscopic algae 
belonging to the class diatomacecc , the sili¬ 
ceous remains of which abound in Cretace¬ 
ous, Tertiary, and more recent geological de¬ 
posits. 

Bacillus, a name given to certain filiform 
bacteria, which have assumed much import¬ 
ance of late, principally because of their 
constant presence in the blood and tissues 
in splenic fever and malignant pustule. 
See Bacteria. 

Back, Sir George, an English explorer, 
born in Stockport, Nov. 0, 1796; entered the 
British navy in 1808, and in 1817 was in the 
expedition to Spitzbergen. He accompanied 
Sir John Franklin to the Arctic regions in 
1819 and again in 1825. In 1833 iie led a 
party in search of Sir John Ross, then in 
the Arctic Ocean, and in 1836, in command 
of the “ Terror,” he made his last trip to 
the North. The Geographical Society 
awarded him a gold medal in 1837, and in 
1839 he was knighted. He became Rear Ad¬ 
miral in 1857, and Admiral in 1867. Among 
his works are “ A Narrative of the Arctic 
Land Expedition” (1836); a “Narrative 
of the Expedition in Her Majesty’s Ship 
‘Terror’” (1838), etc. He died in London, 
June 23, 1878. 

Backgammon, a game of chance and cal¬ 
culation. It is played by two persons, with 
two boxes, and two dice, upon a quadrangu¬ 
lar table, or board, on which are figured 
24 points, or fleches, of two colors, placed 
alternately. The board is divided into four 
compartments, two inner and two outer 
ones, each containing six of the 24 points 
(alternate colors). The players are each 
furnished with 15 men, or counters, black 
and white. These are arranged upon the 
board in the following manner: To play 
into the left hand bable, two of your men 
are placed upon the ace-point of your op¬ 


ponent’s inner table, five upon the sixth 
point in his outer table, three upon the 
cinque-point in your own outer table, and 
five upon the sixth point in your own inner 
table. The adversary’s men are to be placed 
in corresponding order, in a position di¬ 
rectly opposite. The game consists in mov¬ 
ing your men from point to point, so as 
to bring them around into your own inner 
table ( i. e., that on your left hand), and 
then moving or bearing them off the board. 
The player who first clears off his men wins. 
The moves of the men are determined by the 
throws of the dice, according to the direc¬ 
tions for playing. It will there be seen that 
the most advantageous throw at the outset 
is that of aces, as it blocks the bar, or sixth 
point in your outer table, and secures the 
cinque-point in your inner table, so that 
your adversary’s two men cannot move if 
he throw either quatre, cinque, or size. This 
throw is frequently contested by inferior 
players, at the commencement of the game, 
by way of odds. As the grand object of the 
game consists in bringing around your men 
into your own inner table, all throws that 
contribute toward that end, and prevent 
your adversary from doing the same, are ad¬ 
vantageous, and vice versa. During the 
progress of the game you should endeavor 
to block up or detain a part of your adver¬ 
sary’s men in your own tables, and to ob¬ 
struct his re-entering such of them as you 
may happen to have taken up, unless all 
your own men have passed his main body, 
and are so far advanced to your inner table 
(which we will here call home) as to pos¬ 
sess the best chance, should he seek to win 
by running away. Each party plays into 
one of the tables on his own side; thus, if 
black plays into his left hand table, white 
plays into his right ( i . e., that which is ex¬ 
actly opposite) and vice versa, their men 
advancing in contra-position to each other. 
For right of first play each party throws a 
single die; he who throws the highest num¬ 
ber wins, and may, if he chooses, adopt and 
play the joint number of the preliminary 
throw. 

Backhuysen, Ludolf (bak'hoi-zen), a 
celebrated painter of the Dutch school, par¬ 
ticularly in sea pieces, born in 1631. His 
most famous picture is a sea piece which 
the burgomasters of Amsterdam commis- 
sioned him to paint as a present to Louis 
XVI. It is still at Paris. He died in 1709. 

Back Land, name applied to the region 
around the Arctic Circle, in British North 
America. It was explored by Capt. Back in 
1831. 

Back=Staff, an instrument invented by 
Capt. Davies, about a. d. 1590, for taking 
the altitude of the sun at sea. It consisted 
of two concentric arcs and three vanes. The 
arc of the longer radius was 30°, and that 
of the shorter one 60°; thus both together 



Backstrom 


Bacon 


constituted 90°. It is now obsolete, being 
superseded by the quadrant. 

Backstrom, Per Johan Edvard (bale' 
strem), a Swedish dramatist and lyric poet, 
born in Stockholm, Oct. 27, 1841. His prin¬ 
cipal work is “ Dagvard Frey” (1876), a 
tragedy; besides this, the dramas “A 
Crown ” (I860); “Eva’s Sisters” (1869), 
and “The Prisoner of Kallo ” (1870), met 
with success. His lyrics were published in 
three collections (1860, 1870, 1876). He 
died in Stockholm, Feb. 13, 1886. 

Backus, Truman Jay, an American edu¬ 
cator, born in Milan, N. Y., Feb. 11, 1842; 
was graduated at the University of Roches¬ 
ter in 1864; and became President of the 
Packer Collegiate Institute in Brooklyn, N. 
Y. After going to Brooklyn, he served on 
several State commissions. His publications 
include “ Great English Writers,” “ Outlines 
of English Literature,” and a revised edi¬ 
tion of Shaw’s “ History of English Liter¬ 
ature.” He died March 25, 1908. 

Bacolor (bak'o-lor), a town in the Island 
of Luzon, Philippine Islands; 10 miles N. 
W. of Manila; was the capital of the Philip¬ 
pines during the British invasion in 1762, 
when the Spaniards feared a bombardment 
and seizure of Manila; and was a scene of 
much activity in American operations against 
the Filipinos in 1899. Pop. (1903) 13,493. 

Bacon, a word applied to the sides of a 
pig which have been cured or preserved by 
salting with salt and saltpeter, and after¬ 
ward drying with or without wood smoke. 
By the old process of rubbing in the saline 
mixture, the curing occupied from three to 
four months. The method now generally 
adopted on a larger scale is to place the 
prepared flitches in a fluid pickle. The pick¬ 
ling, drying, and smoking now occupy not 
more than six weeks. Bacon may be called 
the poor as well as the rich man’s food. 
By the former it is prized as a necessary of 
life; by the latter, for its exquisite flavor. 
The nitrogenous, or flesh forming, matter in 
bacon is small, one pound of bacon yielding 
less than one ounce of dry, muscular sub¬ 
stance, while the amount of carbon com¬ 
pounds, or heat givers, is large, exceeding 
60 per cent. Its digestibility, however, ow¬ 
ing to the large proportion of fat it con¬ 
tains, is not less than that of beef or mut¬ 
ton. 

Bacon, Alice Mabel, an American edu¬ 
cator, born in New Haven, Conn., Feb. 26, 
1858; was educated privately and took the 
Harvard examinations in 1881; taught at 
the Hampton Normal and Agricultural In¬ 
stitute in 1883-1888, and in Tokio, Japan, 
in 1888-1889; returned to the Hampton In¬ 
stitute in 1889, and founded the Dixie Hos¬ 
pital for training colored nurses in 1890. 
She published “ Japanese Girls and Wo¬ 
men,” “Japanese Interior,” etc. 


Bacon, Benjamin Wismer, an Amer¬ 
ican educator, born in Litchfield, Conn., 
Jan. 15, 1860; studied in Germany and 
Switzerland; and was graduated at Yale 
College in 1881; held several Congrega¬ 
tional pastorates; and in 1896 became Pro¬ 
fessor of New Testament Criticism and Exe¬ 
gesis in Yale University. 

Bacon, Delia, an American author, 
born in Tallmadge, O., Feb. 2, 1811; was 
eminent in her day as a teacher, and wrote 
several stories, but is now remembered only 
as an eloquent advocate of the theory that 
the plays of Shakespeare were written by 
Lord Bacon. She herself did not originate 
the idea, but was the first to give it any 
currency, in her “ Philosophy of the Plays 
of Shakespeare Unfolded” ( 1857). The 
book had the honor of a preface from the 
pen of Nathaniel Hawthorne, and the theory 
has been accepted by a few persons in both 
England and the United States, who, though 
more noisy than numerous, have wasted not 
a little ingenious reasoning in its advocacy. 
She died in Hartford, Conn., Sept. 2, 1859. 

Bacon, Edwin Munroe, an American au¬ 
thor; born in Providence, P. I., Oct. 20, 
1844; received an academical education; was 
on the staff of several Boston papers; and 
wrote “King’s Handbook of Boston”; 
“Boston Illustrated”; “Historic Pilgrim¬ 
ages in New England”; “Literary Pilgrim¬ 
ages in New England”; “Boston of To¬ 
day and many other historical works also 
relating to Boston and New England. 

Bacon, Francis, Viscount St. Albans, one 
of the most remarkable men of whom any 
age can boast; a reformer of philosophy, by 
founding it on the observation of nature, 
after it had consisted, for many centuries, of 
scholastic subtleties and barren dialectics; 
born in London, Jan. 22, 1561, his father 
being Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord keeper of 
the great seal. In his 13th year he entered 
the University of Cambridge, where he made 
astonishing progress in all the subjects 
there taught. He had not completed his 
16th year when he wrote against the Aris¬ 
totelian philosophy, which seemed to him 
more calculated to perpetuate disputes than 
to enlighten the mind. It was then the 
custom in England to send abroad young 
men destined for public life. Bacon went 
to Paris in the suite of Sir Amias Paulet, 
who soon after sent him to England with an 
important message. He discharged it to the 
satisfaction of the queen (Elizabeth), re¬ 
turned to France, and traveled through 
several provinces of that country to study 
its manners and laws. The death of his 
father, in 1579, called him back to En¬ 
gland where, in order to be enabled to live 
suitably to his rank, he devoted himself to 
jurisprudence, and pursued the study of the 
law with so much success that he was made 




Bacon 


Bacon 


counsel extraordinary to the queen before 
he was 28 years old. This place was more 
honorable than lucrative. His professional 
labors did not, however, make him lose sight 
of the idea which he had early conceived, 
of reforming the plan of scholastic studies 
agreeably to sound philosophy. 

Bacon’s talents and his connection with the 
lord-treasurer, Burleigh (who was married 
to a sister of Bacon’s mother), and his son 
Sir Robert Cecil, first secretary of state, 
seemed to promise him the highest promo¬ 
tion. In 1584 he was sent to Parliament as 
member for Melcombe Regis, in 158G he sat 
for Taunton. About 1591 he became a friend 
of the Earl of Essex, and when disappointed 



in not being made attorney-general the lat¬ 
ter presented him with an estate in land. 
Bacon, however, soon forgot his obligations 
to his generous benefactor, and not only 
abandoned him as soon as he had fallen into 
disgrace, but without being obliged took 
part against him on his trial. Against this 
ingratitude the public voice was raised, and 
whatever Bacon might say in his justifica¬ 
tion, he remained at court the object of 
hatred to one party and of jealousy to the 
other, and the queen did not appear inclined 
to do anything in his favor. In Parliament 
he conducted himself for some time with 
dignity and independence. He had been 
chosen member for the county of Middlesex 
in 1593, and voted with the popular party 
against the measures of the ministers, 
though he continued in the service of the 
crown. But toward the end of Elizabeth’s 
reign his parliamentary conduct became 
more servile. If anything can excuse him it 
is his poverty, which was so great that he 
was twice arrested for debt. The reign of 
38 


James I. was more favorable to him. This 
prince, who was ambitious of being consid¬ 
ered a patron of letters, conferred upon him 
in 1603 the order of knighthood. Having 
been commissioned to make a representation 
of the oppressions committed by the royal 
purveyors in the king’s name, he executed 
the task with so much address as to satisfy 
both the king and the Parliament. The 
House of Commons voted him the public 
thanks, and James made him one of the 
king’s counsel, with a pension of £40, which 
was soon followed by another of £60. His 
situation now continually improved; he con¬ 
tracted an advantageous marriage; was 
made solicitor-general and then attorney- 
general; in 1617 became lord keeper of the 
seals; in 1618 was made lord high chan¬ 
cellor and created Baron of Verulam, and 
in 1621 Viscount St. Albans. 

He might now have lived with splendor 
without degrading his character by those 
acts which have stained his reputation. Nev¬ 
ertheless, great complaints were made 
against him. He was accused before the 
House of Lords of having received money 
for grants of offices and privileges under the 
seal of State. He was unable to justify 
himself, and, desiring to avoid the mortifica¬ 
tion of a trial, confessed his crimes and 
threw himself on the mercy of the peers, be¬ 
seeching them to limit his punishment to the 
loss of the high office which he had dishonor¬ 
ed. After he had acknowledged bv an ex¬ 
plicit confession the truth of almost all the 
charges, notwithstanding the intercession 
of the king, and the interest which they 
themselves took in one of their most dis¬ 
tinguished members, the lords sentenced him 
to pay a fine of £40,000, and to be im¬ 
prisoned in the Tower during the pleasure of 
the king. He was also declared forever in¬ 
capable of place or employment, and for¬ 
bidden to sit in Parliament or to appear 
within the verge of the court. This severe 
sentence was doubtless just; yet it must be 
allowed that he was actuated neither by 
avarice nor corruption of heart, but that his 
errors are rather to be attributed to a weak¬ 
ness of character, which was abused by 
others. Traits of generosity and independ¬ 
ence, which his life also displays, show 
clearly that he knew and valued virtue. He 
was unfaithful to it because he had not 
sufficient firmness to refuse the unjust de¬ 
mands of others. His sentence was not 
rigorously executed; he was soon released 
from the Tower, anu the rest of his punish¬ 
ment was by degrees remitted entirely. He 
survived his fall only a few years, and died 
in Highgate, April 9, 1626. 

All the studies and efforts of this great 
man aimed at a reform in the system of hu¬ 
man knowledge. He examined the whole 
circle of the sciences, investigated their rela¬ 
tions. and attempted to arrange them ac¬ 
cording to the different faculties of the hu- 







Bacon 


Bacon 


man mind to which each belongs. In this, 
however, he could not succeed for want of a 
well-founded and natural division of the 
powers of the mind; for he divided the 
sciences into those of the memory, of the 
understanding, and the imagination. This 
he explains in his “ Instauratio Magna,” un¬ 
der the head “ De Dignitate et Augmentis 
Scientiarum.” He further perceived that, 
in all the branches of natural science, the 
only way to truth is by the observation of 
nature. How this observation is to be di¬ 
rected, and how nature is to be examined, 
is illustrated in several places. He ex¬ 
plained his ideas on this subject in the 
above-mentioned treatise (De Dignitate, 
etc.), and in the “Novum Organum Scien¬ 
tiarum.” His universal genius had attended 
to all the sciences; he perceived to what 
point each of them had advanced, what false 
directions they had taken, and how they 
were to be brought back to truth. As a metar 
physician he displays no less penetration 
than profoundness in his views of the opera¬ 
tions of the mind, of the association of ideas, 
and of the prejudices which surround us 
from our cradle, and prevent the free exer¬ 
cise of reason. As a natural philosopher he 
brought forward very ingenious views, and 
was on the route to several important dis¬ 
coveries. He invented a kind of pneumatic 
machine, by his experiments with which he 
was led to suspect the elasticity and gravity 
of the air, which Galileo and Torricelli after¬ 
ward discovered. He apparently had a 
glimpse of the law of gravitation, which 
Newton afterward proved. He wanted only 
experiments in order to demonstrate the 
principles of this power. He treated also 
of natural history, but only in a brief 
manner, in his work “ Sylva Sylvarum,” 
etc. 

He wrote treatises dealing with medical 
subjects; among others, one on life and 
death. But physiology and chemistry were 
then so imperfectly understood that he 
could not avoid falling into great errors. 
The science of law he treated not merely as 
a lawyer, but as a legislator and philos¬ 
opher. His aphorisms are not less remark¬ 
able for profound views than for vigor and 
precision of expression. Morals are the 
subject of one of his finest works, entitled 
“ Essays or Sermones Fideles ”— showing 
the most profound knowledge of man and of 
human relations, and written in an eloquent 
and vigorous style. As an historian he is 
less distinguished, though his history of 
Henry VII. possesses solid merits. Of his 
knowledge of antiquity his work “ On the 
Wisdom of the Ancients” bears witness, in 
which he explains the ancient fables by in¬ 
genious allegories. He possessed a less pro¬ 
found knowledge of mathematics, and to this 
it is to be ascribed that he who so generally 
discovered the errors of the human mind, 
and pointed out the truth, opposed the Co- 


pernican system. In this point alone he re¬ 
mained behind some enlightened men of his 
time. In other departments of human in¬ 
vestigation he soared to such a height, that 
his contemporaries could not fully estimate 
the extent of his genius, the justness of his 
views, and the importance of his labors. The 
influence of the Baconian philosophy upon 
the ideals and methods of education was 
destined to effect, during succeeding genera¬ 
tions, a profound change in both the matter 
and the manner of instruction, although its 
practical results were slow in reaching the 
schools. Naturally this influence was first 
felt in the higher institutions of learning, 
but finally has reached even the elementary 
schools. To the inspiration of Bacon’s 
thought was largely due the revolutionary 
character of the works of the great 
educational reformer, Comenius. The 
best edition of his works, which are partly 
in English, partly in Latin, is that by 
Spedding, Ellis, and Heath (1857-1874, 14 
vols.; 7 containing “ Life and Letters ” by 
Spedding). Dr. E. A. Abbott’s “Francis 
Bacon” (1885) is a valuable account of his 
life and works; and Dean Church’s “ Life 
of Bacon ” (in the “ Men of Letters ” series) 
is also valuable, more especially as a cor¬ 
rective to Macaulay’s misleading essay. A 
valuable exposition of his philosophy is 
given in Kuno Fischer’s “ Francis Bacon of 
Verulam ” (1857). 

Bacon, Henry, an American painter, 
born in Haverhill, Mass., in 1839. He served 
in the Civil War, studied art in Paris under 
Cabanel and Edward Frere, and painted, 
among others, “ Boston Boys and Gen. 
Gage” (1875); “ Paying the Scot ” (1870), 
and “The Farewells” (1878). 

Bacon, John, an English sculptor, born 
in London, Nov. 24, 1740; trained as 
a modeler and painter on porcelain, in 1709 
he received the first gold medal for sculp¬ 
ture awarded by the Boyal Academy, of 
which next year he was made an Associate, 
in recognition of the high merit of his statue 
of Mars. Among his principal works are 
the monuments to Lord Chatham in West¬ 
minster Abbey and the Guildhall, to Howard 
and Johnson in St. Paul’s, and to Blackstone 
at All Souls’ College, Oxford. Bacon’s suc¬ 
cess aroused great jealousy, and his rivals 
claimed that he was deficient in imagina¬ 
tion, and had no refined perception of 
beauty; but -some of his emblematical fig¬ 
ures display perfect classical taste. He died 
Aug. 4, 1799. 

Bacon, John Mosby, an American miH- 
tary officer, born in Kentucky, April 17, 
1844; served in the Union army, through 
the Civil War; was appointed Captain in 
the 9th United States Cavalry, in 1866, and 
Colonel of the 8th Cavalry in 1897. On 
May 4, 1898, he was appointed Brigadier- 
General of Volunteers and placed in com¬ 
mand of the Department of Dakota. In Oc- 



Bacon 


Bacon’s Rebellion 


tober of that year he put down the outbreak 
of the Pillager band of the Chippewa Indi¬ 
ans in Cass county, Minn. Subsequently, he 
was assigned to duty in Cuba, with head¬ 
quarters at Neuvitas, till May 8, 1899, when 
he was retired. 

Bacon, Leonard, an American clergy¬ 
man, born in Detroit, Mich., Feb. 19, 1802; 
graduated at Yale in 1820, after Which he 
studied theology at Andover, Mass. In 
1825 he became pastor of the First Congre¬ 
gational Church in New Haven, a post 
which he held officially, though not always 
actively, until his death. He was Professor 
of Didactic Theology in Yale (18GG-1871). 
He was throughout his life an active oppo¬ 
nent of slavery. In 1847 lie joined with 
Drs. Storrs and Thompson to found the New 
York “ Independent,” in the joint editorship 
of which he continued for 16 years. Be¬ 
sides a vast number of reviews and pam¬ 
phlets, he published “ Views and Reviews ” 
(1840); “Slavery Discussed in Occasional 
Essays” (184G), and “Genesis of the New 
England Churches.” He died in New Haven, 
Conn., Dec. 24, 1881. 

Bacon, Nathaniel, an Anglo-American 
lawyer, born in Suffolk, England, Jan. 2, 
1642; became the leader in Bacon’s Rebel¬ 
lion (q. v.), in Virginia, and died Oct. 29, 
1676. 

Bacon, Roger, an English monk, and one 
of the most profound and original thinkers 
of his day, was born about 1214, near II- 
chester, Somersetshire. He first entered the 
University of Oxford, and went afterward 
to that of Paris, where he is said to have 
distinguished himself and received the de¬ 
gree of Doctor of Theology. About 1250 he 
returned to England, entered the Order of 
Franciscans, and fixed his abode at Oxford, 
but having incurred the suspicion of his 
ecclesiastical superiors, he was sent to 
Paris and kept in confinement for 10 years, 
without writing materials, books or instru¬ 
ments. The cause seems to have been sim¬ 
ple enough. He had been a diligent student 
of the chemical, physical, and mathemat¬ 
ical sciences, and had made discoveries, and 
deduced results which appeared so extra¬ 
ordinary to the ignorant that they were 
believed to be works of magic. This opin¬ 
ion was countenanced by the jealousy and 
hatred of the monks of his fraternity. In 
subsequent times he was popularly classed 
among those who had been in league with 
Satan. Having been set at liberty, he 
enjoyed a, brief space of quiet while 
Clement IV. was Pope; but in 1278 he 
was again thrown into prison, where he re¬ 
mained for at least 10 years. Of the close 
of his life little is known. His most im¬ 
portant work is his “ Opus Majus,” where 
he discusses the relation of philosophy to re¬ 
ligion, and then treats of language, meta¬ 


physics, optics, and experimental science. 
He believed in the philosopher’s stone and 
in astrology. There are to be found in his 
writings new views on the refraction of 
light, on the apparent magnitude of objects, 
on the magnified appearance of the sun and 
moon when in the horizon, etc. He describes 
very exactly the nature and effects of con¬ 
vex and concave lenses, and speaks of their 
application to the purposes of reading, and 
of viewing distant objects, both terrestrial 
and celestial; and it is easy to prove from 
his writings that he was either the inventor 
or improver of the telescope. He also gives 
descriptions of the camera obscura, and of 
the burning glass. The discovery of gun¬ 
powder has been attributed to him. He 
was intimately acquainted with geography 
and astronomy, as appears by his discovery 
of the errors of the calendar, and of the 
causes of these inaccuracies, and by his 
proposals for correcting them, in which he 
approached very near to truth. He died 
in Oxford, in 1294. 

Bacon, Thomas Scott, an American theo¬ 
logical writer, born in Saratoga, N. Y., Feb. 
1, 1825. Originally a lawyer, he became 
an Episcopal clergyman (1854). Besides 
sermons, addresses, reviews, etc., he has 
written “ Both Sides of the Controversy Be¬ 
tween the Roman and the Reformed 
Church” (1858) ; “The Reign of God, not 
the Reign of Law” (1879); “The Begin¬ 
nings of Religion” (1887) ; “Primitive and 
Catholic Doctrine as to Holy Scripture,” 
etc. 

Baconian Philosophy, the inductive phil¬ 
osophy of which it is sometimes said that 
Lord Bacon was the founder. This, how¬ 
ever, is an exaggerated statement. What 
Lord Bacon did for this mode of ratiocina¬ 
tion was to elucidate and systematize it; to 
point out its great value, and to bring it 
prominently before men’s notice; lending it 
the support of his great name at a time 
when most of his contemporaries were sat¬ 
isfied with the barren logic of the schools. 
The great triumphs of modern science have 
arisen from a resolute adherence on the part 
of its votaries to the Baconian method of 
inquiry. 

Bacon's Rebellion, a popular uprising 
of the Virginian colonists, headed by Na¬ 
thaniel Bacon, in protest against certain 
government abuses, which prevailed under 
the administration of Sir William Berkeley. 
Parliament had passed an act requiring that 
all goods, destined for Virginia, no matter 
what their source, should first be sent to the 
mother-country for transfer into British 
ships. The inter-colonial duties were also 
objectionable, and when, in 1673, the entire 
revenues of the colony were turned over to 
Lords Culpeper and Arlington, indignation 
was rife. But the most pressing cause of 




Bacsanyi 


Bacteria 


complaint was tlie lack of official protection 
against Indian ravages, and the inattention 
of Governor Berkeley to all appeals for help. 
Bacon was a prominent member of the Coun¬ 
cil, and when the colonists, disgusted by the 
inaction of the Governor, determined to 
take Indian matters into their own hands, 
he was chosen leader. Berkeley proclaimed 
him a rebel, and part of his force deserted, 
but this did not prevent him from attacking 
the red men and capturing their fort. On 
his return he was taken prisoner, but 
quickly released. He promptly attacked 
Jamestown, extracting from the astonished 
Governor a repeal of the most obnoxious 
statutes, a major-general’s commission for 
himself, and a complete acquittal from all 
blame for all concerned in the rebellion. 
He then returned to the Indians, leaving 
Berkeley to collect his scattered thoughts. 
Troops were sent for post-haste, but they re¬ 
fused to take up arms against Bacon. The 
audacious rebel, on repairing to Jamestown, 
found the Governor fled, but as soon as his 
back was turned the Indians recommenced 
their aggressions. He knew that if he 
turned his attention to the latter, Berkeley 
would take Jamestown; nevertheless, he 
decided to dispose of the savages first. This 
he did effectively at Bloody Bun. He then 
marched rapidly to Jamestown, besieged it, 
forced the Governor to take refuge on a 
warship, and burned all the public buildings. 
After partially revising the laws with great 
benefit to the people, he died at the most 
critical moment of his career, and the re¬ 
bellion, left leaderless, came to an end. 

Bacsanyi, Janos (bak-san'ye), a Hun¬ 
garian poet, was born May 11, 17G3, at Ta- 
polcza. His first work, published in 1785, 
procured him an appointment in a public of¬ 
fice, but a liberal poem cost him this in 
1793, as well as his liberty the year after. 
In 179G he went to Vienna, and there he 
married a few years later the German 
poet, Gabrielle Baumgarten — an unhappy 
match. In 1809, Bacsanyi translated Napo¬ 
leon’s proclamation to the Hungarians, and 
was afterward obliged to take refuge in 
Paris. After the Peace of Paris, he lived 
at Linz, and there he died, May 12, 1845. 
His collected poems appeared at Pest in 
1827. 

Bacteria (Gr. bakterion, a little rod 
or staff), a class of very minute microscopic 
organisms or microbes which are regarded as 
of vegetable nature, and as being the cause 
or accompaniment of various diseases, as 
well as of putrefaction, fermentation, and 
certain other phenomena. Some of the bet¬ 
ter known of these organisms are so exceed¬ 
ingly minute, that under the highest power of 
improved miscroscopes they appear no larger 
than the periods of ordinary type. Various 
classifications have been proposed for them, 
for they differ largely in size, form, and 


mode of multiplication. There is the Micro 
coccus, which* is round and no larger than 
the 32,000th of an inch; the Bacterium 
proper, which is rod-shaped and about a 
10,000th part of an inch; the Bacillus is a 
little larger than the latter and also rod¬ 
shaped (but the term “ bacillus ” is also 
used in a general sense) ; while the Spiril¬ 
lum is of a wavy form. In one thing, how¬ 
ever, they all agree. They all consist of a 
kind of proto, lasm (a jelly-like substance 
resembling white of egg) inclosed by a 
colorless or colored membrane, which may 
consist of cellulose or other material, and 
as organs of locomotion they possess the fine 
filaments known as cilia. Their reproduc¬ 
tion is secured either by a dividing process 
(fission), in which the organism breaks in 
the middle, each part becoming an inde¬ 
pendent microbe; or by the formation of 
spores, which, when sufficiently nourished, 
become liberated and develop into forms 
similar to the adults. 

It is only in quite recent times that the 
science of bacteriology lias come into exist¬ 
ence, and while much useful knowledge of 
these micro-organisms has been acquired, 
much still remains to be learned regarding 
them. It has been found that the action 
and life history of some of them are asso¬ 
ciated with serious diseases, such as diph¬ 
theria, tuberculosis, cholera, anthrax, ery¬ 
sipelas, tetanus, etc., each disease having 
its special bacillus; but others again are 
highly beneficial in the work they perform, 
as those that exist in abundance in many 
soils, and that carry on the process of nitri¬ 
fication, and so furnish nitrogen in a form 
in which it may be taken up by plants. For 
scientific purposes and experiment it is now 
common to cultivate bacteria artificially in 
some fluid, especially a gelatinous fluid, or 
in some more or less solid matter, in which 
they can live and multiply. Heat also de¬ 
stroys bacteria, and by this means a fluid 
may be “ sterilized,” that is, the bacteria 
or germs in it may be killed. Bacteria are 
extremely numerous as regards kinds or 
species, and are found almost everywhere 
— in air, soil, and water, in foods and bever¬ 
ages, on man and animals, both externally 
and internally; and it is often very difficult 
to distinguish one of these microbes from 
another. 

Plants or Animals .— Bacteria possess 
characteristics of plants and animals. They 
resemble animals in their common power, 
independent motion, and in their habit of 
living upor. complex bodies for food. But 
in general form, methods of growth, and 
formation of threads and spores they re¬ 
semble plants. Though there are hundreds 
of different species there are only three 
general forms — spheres, rods, and spirals, 
reminding of billiard balls, pencils, and 
cork-screws. There is some, though slight, 



Bacteria 


Bacteria 


variation in size. All are extremely minute 
and never visible to the naked eye. They 
range in size from 1-100,000th to 1-3,000th 
of an inch. Some species have the power of 
active motion, and may be seen moving 
rapidly to and fro in the liquid in which 
they are growing. This motion is pro¬ 
duced by flagella, which protrude from 
the body. 

Marvellous Multiplication .— They multi¬ 
ply by simple division or fission. Each in¬ 
dividual elongates and then divides in the 
middle into similar halves; each of which 
then repeats the process. With some spe¬ 
cies the individuals remain attached after 
division, forming long chains; others pro¬ 
duce solid groups of fours, eights, or six- 
teens. Some species that have been carefully 
watched under the microscope have been 
found, under favorable conditions, to grow 
so rapidly as to divide every half hour. 
At this rate in one day each microbe would 
produce over 16.000,000 descendants. At 
the end of the third day they would number 
millions of millions, the bulk and weight of 
which would be enormous, were it not that 
their rate of multiplication is checked either 
by lack of food or by the accumulation of 
their own excreted products, which are in¬ 
jurious to them. 

Harmful Bacteria .— Bacteria abound in 
all putrescent or fermenting mixtures con¬ 
taining organic matter, and are the cause of 
fermentation and putrefaction. Some are 
present in, and the cause of, certain of the 
zymotic or ferment diseases,'such as malig¬ 
nant pustule, erysipelas, tuberculosis, etc. 
Micrococci are spheroidal bacteria, and 
very small, never more than 1-25000th of 
an inch in diameter, often less. If they are 
kept out of surgical wounds there is no sup¬ 
puration. The discovery of this fact made 
hundreds of operations possible which of old 
were thought to be out of the reach of art — 
hence the wonderful success of antiseptic 
surgery. The disease called pyaemia con¬ 
sists of infection by micrococci. The mi¬ 
nute capillaries all over the body are stuffed 
with these. In tropical dysentery, the in¬ 
testinal walls are full of them, and they 
are abundant in puerperal fever, hospital 
gangrene, and ulcerative endocarditis. Bac¬ 
teria were first seen by Leeuwenhoek in 1675. 
They abound near the earth in the air, but 
Tyndall was unable to detect their pres¬ 
ence on the higher Alpine summits. Later 
investigations, however, by Dr. Binot show¬ 
ed that though rare on the summit of Mt. 
Blanc, bacteria are brought theie by the 
wind from adjacent wooded regions. Ac¬ 
cording to Binot, these germs “ sink into 
the ice or old snow, which contains one or 
two to the cubic centimeter, on the average.” 
Bacteria may be collected by drawing air 
through cotton wool, which stops the germs, 
and other methods also are used. Pasteur 
and Tyndall proved that liquid exposed to 


air which has been filtered from bacteria 
never putrefies. If we admit germs 
for one instant the fluid putrefies in a 
few hours. All dust is full of the 
spores of bacteria, and they are even found 
in distilled water, being so small as to pass 
through 16 superimposed layers of filter- 
paper. These spores resist drying for a 
long time, some for many years. In study¬ 
ing bacteria we plant them in suitable cul¬ 
ture materials and grow them at our lei¬ 
sure. There, are many such; perhaps the 
best in blood serum, coagulated and steril¬ 
ized by heat. A few drops of the medium 
are placed on a microscope slide, inoculated 
by a platinum needle, heated to redness, and 
thus sterilized. The needle is dipped into 
the fluid the bacteria of which it is desired 
to grow, and drawn across the culture- 
serum on the glass. In a few hours the 
track of the needle will be covered with col¬ 
onies of young bacilli, grown from the scat¬ 
tered germs left by the infected needle. Un¬ 
less in large colonies bacteria are invisible, 
owing to their minute size and transpar¬ 
ency, and one of the greatest discoveries of 
medical science has been that these growths 
are susceptible of staining, and may thus 
be rendered visible, as well as the fact that 
various forms of them stain different ways, 
and may thus be distinguished. In 1880 
Pasteur found that these disease germs can 
be weakened by certain processes, so that the 
attenuated virus may be used as an inocu¬ 
lation to prevent the stronger disease, just 
as vaccine lymph protects from small pox. 
He found that if he cultivated the chicken 
cholera bacillus, and put more than two 
months between each cultivation, the virus 
became weaker and weaker, and at last in¬ 
nocuous. This weak cultivation he used for 
protection very successfully in the case of 
chicken cholera, as well as in anthrax and 
hydrophobia. Bone dust used as manure 
has been known to infect human beings, as 
the spores are of almost incredible endur¬ 
ance in resisting destructive agents, age 
seeming in nowise to impair their virulence. 
Dr. Sternberg, Surgeon-General, United 
States Army, found them perfectly active 
after 11 years; even five months’ sojourn 
in alcohol having a tonic effect on them 
rather than the contrary. When introduced 
into the body they grow with enormous ra¬ 
pidity, and live upon the oxygen of the 
blood, hence death results from asphyxia, 
with dyspnoea, cyanosis, and low tempera¬ 
ture. Hydrophobia, that much dreaded dis¬ 
ease, was shorn of much of its terrors by 
Pasteur, and he successfully attenuated its 
virus, and protected thereby the lower ani¬ 
mals. In pneumonia abundant micrococci 
exist, and their inoculation, or even pres¬ 
ence in the air, caused the disease, an acute 
lobular pneumonia, in animals, the lungs 
swarming with the organisms. In typhoid 
fever a peculiar bacillus is found, but as 





Bacteria 


Bacteria 


none of the lower animals are subject to this 
disease it has not been artificially produced. 
In leprosy the bacillus leprte. is well 
known, and is used to make the diagnosis; 
but, for a similar reason, the disease has 
not yet been distinctly inoculated. 

Bacillus Tuberculosis. — Very great inter¬ 
est attaches to the bacillus tuberculosis, 
which is so constantly present that it is used 
as a means of differentiating the inflamma¬ 
tory diseases of the lungs from tuberculosis. 
This organism always produces the disease 
when inoculated into animals. Statistics 
have been published showing that the bacil¬ 
lus was present in 2,417 out of 2.509 cases 
of supposed tuberculosis, and, as it is found 
in very small and infrequent numbers in 
some cases, it is probable that it was really 
present sometimes when overlooked, as it is 
so small, and the staining is not always well 
done. There are several forme of lesions 
long considered to be tuberculosis, as cheesy 
glands and the like, and in many of these 
the bacillus has been found, proving what 
surgeons had suspected a long time, that 
these sluggish inflammatory foci may be the 
source of a general tubercular infection. 
They have long been removed for cosmetic 
reasons, and wisely, as it now seems. The 
cholera, or comma bacillus, is the latest 
discovery, and as Koch has successfully in¬ 
oculated it, producing in animals rapid 
death by cholera, the appearances, both 
ante and post mortem , being charac¬ 
teristic, it seems as if the true cause was 
found. Dr. Ferr&n, of Barcelona, in 1885 
vaccinated more than 500 persons, among 
whom were several medical men, with an 
attenuated cultivation of cholera virus. The 
symptoms of actual inoculation were pro¬ 
nounced and unmistakable. After convales¬ 
cence was fully established a more active 
dose of the cultivated virus was injected 
under the skin, and invariably without 
further effect: a fact which would seem to 
show that tne person who had been so 
treated was no longer susceptible to the 
contagion of cholera. 

Useful Bacteria. — In many respects bac¬ 
teria are man’s greatest benefactors; for 
upon their activities is founded the contin¬ 
ued life of the animal and vegetable king¬ 
doms. As microbes consume the material 
which serves them as food they produce 
chemical changes therein, resulting in sim¬ 
pler products called decomposition or 
cleavage products. Sometimes, however, 
they possess the power of building other 
compounds out of the fragments, thus build¬ 
ing up as well as tearing down. There are 
various industries based upon the decompo¬ 
sition powers of bacteria ■— viz.: The mace¬ 
ration industries — in the separation of the 
valuable fibers from the useless fibrous ma¬ 
terial in the preparation of linen, jute, 
hemp, and cocoanut fiber; also in the com¬ 
mercial preparation of sponges, and often 


in the early stages of leather preparation. 
Some 50 years ago it was found that the 
mysterious substance known to brewers as 
yeast or barm was really composed of a 
vast number of minute oval particles en¬ 
dowed with the powers of growth and mul¬ 
tiplication, and, therefore, undoubtedly liv¬ 
ing. Pasteur spent many of the best years 
of his life studying yeast. He found that 
success in brewing depends upon the use of 
pure yeast. Hansen has found that for each 
particular kind of beer a particular kind of 
yeast must be used. This has led to the cul¬ 
tivation of pure yeasts for brewing pur¬ 
poses. This cultivation requires the great¬ 
est technical skill and scientific accuracy, 
and special laboratories have been estab¬ 
lished for the purpose. 

Bacteria as Inebriates. — There is one ex¬ 
ception to the general antipathy manifested 
by the lower creation for alcohol, which ex¬ 
ercises such a mesmeric influence over the 
human race. We find among the lowest of 
living organisms, a single form, the capacity 
for alcohol of which not only equals, but 
far exceeds, that of the most confirmed ine¬ 
briate. The organism is a microbe, the ex¬ 
istence and properties of which were first 
revealed by Pasteur. It has the property of 
taking up its abode in alcoholic liquids of 
moderate strength and of there multiplying 
with extraordinary rapidity, consuming the 
alcohol and transforming it into acetic acid 
or vinegar, but it refuses to have anything 
to do with spirituous liquids which contain 
more than about 10 per cent of alcohol. 
Through the agency of this small organism 
the wine prepared according to the most ap¬ 
proved methods from the choicest vintages, 
matured for years in the best cellars in cask 
and bottle, is converted in a few hours into 
a sour liquid, and its value reduced from 
dollars to as many cents. 

Bacteria in the Dairy. — In the majority 
of butter-making countries the cream is sub¬ 
jected to a process known as ripening or 
souring before it is churned; the cream 
is allowed to stand for from 12 to 17 hours, 
thus giving the bacteria an opportunity to 
grow in it. As a result the cream becomes 
somewhat soured, slightly curdled, and ac¬ 
quires a peculiarly pleasant taste and an 
aroma which was not present in the fresh 
cream. Then the cream is churned. Not 
only does the ripened cream churn more 
rapidly and give a larger yield of butter 
than the sweet cream, but there are devel¬ 
oped the peculiar flavor and aroma which 
are characteristic of the highest product. 
The process is really a fermentation compar¬ 
able to the fermentation that takes place in 
a brewer's malt. Bacteriologists have shown 
that the desirable flavors and aromas de¬ 
pend upon the proper bacteria. The dairy¬ 
men in the great butter producing countries 
of Northern Europe are making practical 



Bacteria 


Bacteriology 


use of this knowledge and are utilizing 
pure cultures of certain bacteria which 
have been found to be advantageous for the 
purpose of cream ripening and the produc¬ 
tion of agreeable flavors. In this way the 
product is more accurately regulated. In 
this country the use of pure cultures is 
still quite new. In cheese making the dairy¬ 
man is even more dependent upon bacteria 
than he is in butter making. The value of 
cheese depends on its flavor, which is de¬ 
veloped during the ripening, and this ripen¬ 
ing is the result of bacterial growth, plus 
favorable warmth and moisture. Attempts 
to make cheese from sterilized milk are al¬ 
ways unsuccessful. The cheese does not 
ripen. As yet cheese manufacturers have 
obtained no practical results along the line 
of inoculation with cultures. The food 
value of cheese depends upon the amount of 
casein it contains. The market value, how¬ 
ever, is controlled entirely by its flavor, 
and this flavor is a product of bacterial 
growth. 

Nitrifying Bacteria .— Everywhere in fer¬ 
tile soil is a class of bacteria which has re¬ 
ceived the name of nitrifying bacteria. 
Thev feed on the soil ingredients and have 
the same effect on the simple nitrogen cleav¬ 
age products the vinegar-producing species 
have on alcohol — viz.: bringing about a 
union with oxygen. Thus these nitrifying 
organisms form the last link in the chain 
that binds the animal kingdom to the vege¬ 
table kingdom. For the nitrates are left in 
the soil, and may now be seized upon by the 
roots of plants and begin once more the 
journey around the food cycle. In this way 
it will be seen that while plants, by building 
up compounds, form the connecting link be¬ 
tween the soil and animal life, bacteria in 
the other half of the cycle, by reducing them 
again, give us the connecting link between 
animal life and the soil. The food cycle 
would be as incomplete without the agency 
of bacterial life as it would be without the 
agency of plant life. It has been shown in 
recent years that we depend on our friends, 
the bacteria, as agents, in reclaiming the 
free nitrogen from the atmosphere. More¬ 
over, it was found that some species of 
plants, chiefly the great family of legumes 
which contains the pea plant, the bean, etc., 
are able to obtain nitrogen from some other 
source than the soil in which they grow. 
When a legume thus obtains that material 
it develops upon its roots little bunches 
known as root nodules, or root tubercles. 
Microscopic examination shows that these 
nodules are simply nests of bacteria which 
possess the power of extracting the nitrogen 
from the atmosphere which permeates the 
soil. 

Aids to Digestion .— The attention of in¬ 
vestigators has recently been directed to a 
hitherto unknown class of bacteria which 


have a share in the process of digestion in 
the stomach of man and the animals. It 
has long been known that the mouth, throat, 
intestines and other organs of the humar. 
system were inhabited by harmless bacte¬ 
ria. The so-called colon bacillus, occasionally 
found in water, indicates that the supply 
has been contaminated; but unless the ty¬ 
phoid bacillus accompanies it, no fears are 
entertained in regard to the immediate con¬ 
sequences of drinking such a fluid. The 
colon bacillus does not exercise any particu¬ 
larly useful function; but it was announced 
by Vignal, several years ago, that certain 
other microbes found habitually in the 
stomach possess properties similar to that 
of the saliva in aiding digestion. Numerous 
specimens were obtained and pure cultures 
made. With the artificially bred microbes 
a lot of experiments were tried. At least 
two kinds of organism were distinguished. 
One promoted the digestion of starch and 
another that of meat and albuminous sub¬ 
stances. One acted most efficiently when 
it was slightly acidulated. The other needed 
to be a little alkaline. A third species 
seemed to have a special fitness for promot¬ 
ing the action of bile on fats. Vignal shows 
in a general way that these microbes played 
a part in the work of digestion. But no 
evidence was adduced as to how beneficial 
such activity was. Dr. M. Schottelius now 
reveals this in the “ Archiv fur Hygiene und 
Infektionskrankheiten.” His investigation 
was conducted with chickens. He made no 
cultures of bacteria for this purpose. He 
assumed that newly hatched chickens would 
acquire them with their food very soon after 
hatching, if no precautions were taken to 
prevent such a result. In order to institute 
a proper comparison, therefore, he made 
elaborate provision for raising part of his 
chickens in such a manner that they would 
not have any bacteria in them. The differ¬ 
ence in the rapidity with which the chickens 
grew in size was highly significant. Those 
which were confined in a sterilized vessel, 
ate sterilized food and breathed sterilized 
air, increased in weight 25 per cent, in 12 
days. After that there was a trifling de¬ 
crease. On the other hand, those which were 
brought up in the ordinary manner made a 
gain of 140 per cent, in *12 days. This is 
nearly six times as great a development as 
that of the protected chicks. But the in¬ 
crease continued, and on the 17th day the 
unprotected chickens weighed 10 times as 
much as when newly hatched. This was 10 
times the growth of the specimens from 
which the bacteria had been so carefully ex¬ 
cluded. 

Bacteriology, that branch of biology 
which treats of bacteria. The study of 
these microscopic organisms has developed 
into one of the most important branches of 
modern biological science. Their importance 




Bactria 


Badeau 


feo mankind rests chiefly in the fact that 
their nourishment consists of albuminous 
substances, which they convert into complex 
chemical compounds, many of which are 
highly poisonous. TlM?se poisons are called 
toxins, and a very minute quantity is suffi¬ 
cient to produce destructive changes in the 
blood and tissue of man and animal, caus¬ 
ing various diseases and death. The study 
of the chemistry of bacteria has shown that 
many of them do not grow upon living mat¬ 
ter, but will flourish upon decomposing and 
putrefying substances, especially those which 
will only multiply in animal tissue, and in 
combination with certain mineral or vege¬ 
table acids from definite chemical com¬ 
pounds, some of which resemble the vege¬ 
table alkaloids, not alone in their basic 
properties, but also in their poisonous char¬ 
acter. These products are termed pto¬ 
maines. 

Bactria (bac'tre-a), a province of the an¬ 
cient Persian empire, lying N. of the Paro- 
pamisus.(Hindu Kush) Mountains, on the 
Upper Oxus. A northern branch of the same 
range separated it from the Sacoe, and it 
had Sogdiana on the N. and Ariana on the 
S. It thus corresponded pretty nearly with 
the modern Balkh. Here many scholars lo¬ 
cate the original home of the Aryan or Indo- 
European family of nations. Its capital, 
Bactra, or Zariaspa, was also the cradle of 
the Zoroastrian religion. Originally a pow¬ 
erful kingdom, it maintained its independ¬ 
ence until its subjugation by Cyrus about 
540 b. c., when it became a satrapy of the 
Persian empire. It was included in the con¬ 
quests of Alexander, and formed a part of 
the kingdom of the Seleueidce until the foun¬ 
dation, about 256 b. c., by Diodotus, of the 
Greek kingdom of Bactria, which extended 
to the Indus, and which, after a long strug¬ 
gle, was overthrown by the Barthians. Nu¬ 
merous coins with Greek legends have been 
found in the to])cs, or burial places to the 
N. E. of Kabul. 

Bactrites (bak'trites, or bak-trl'tes), a 
genus of fossil ammonitidee, with a straight 
shell, and indented, but not ramified septa. 
The genus ranges from the lower silurian 
to the devonian. 

Bactrus, the ancient name of a river in 
the province of Balkh, Central Asia, upon 
which Bactria was situated. 

Baculites (bak-u-ll'tes), a genus of fossil 
ammonites, characteristic of the chalk, hav¬ 
ing a straight, tapering shell. 

Bacup, a municipal borough of England, 
in Lancashire, 18 miles N. of Manchester. 
The chief manufacturing establishments are 
connected with cotton spinning and power- 
loom weaving; there are also iron works, 
Turkey-red dyeing works, and in the neigh¬ 
borhood numerous coal pits and immense 
stone quarries. Pop. (11)01) 22,505. 


Baczko, Ludwig von (baks'ko), a Ger¬ 
man historian and scholar, born in Lick, 
Prussia, June 8, 1756; was educated at 
Konigsberg, studying philosophy, medicine, 
and law, but became blind in 1777, through 
an attack of small-pox. In 1816, he was 
appointed Director of the Institute for the 
Blind at Konigsberg. He is the author of 
“ A History of Prussia,” a “ History of the 
French Revolution,” and “ Concerning My¬ 
self and Mv Companions in Misfortune, the 
Blind ” (1807). He died March 27, 1823. 

Badagri, or Badagry, a British seaport 
on the Bight of Benin, in the extreme S. 
W. corner of the British Niger Territory, 
Africa. Early in its history, it was a noted 
slave mart; contained important manufac¬ 
tories; and had a population of 10,000. It 
was from this place that in 1825 Clapperton 
and Lander started on their expeditions to 
explore the African interior. 

Badajoz (bli-da-hoth'), the fortified cap¬ 
ital of the Spanish province of Badajoz, on 
the left bank of the Guadiana, winch is 
crossed by a stone bridge of 28 arches. It 
is a bishop’s see, and has an interesting 
cathedral. During the Peninsular War, 
Badajoz was besieged by Marshal Soult, and 
taken in March, 1811. It was twice at¬ 
tempted by the English, on May 5 and 20, 
1811; was besieged by Wellington on March 
16, and taken April 6, 1812. Pop. 30,809. 

Badakshan (bad-ak-shan'), a territory of 
Central Asia, tributary to the Ameer of 
Afghanistan. It lias the Oxus on the N. 
and the Hindu Kush on the S.; and has 
lofty mountains and fertile valleys; the 
chief town is Faizabad. The inhabitants 
profess Mohammedanism. Pop. 100,000. 

Badalocchio, Sisto Rosa (ba-dal-ok'yo), 
an Italian artist, born in Parma, in 1581; 
was a pupil of Annibale Carracci, and af¬ 
terward his assistant. His most celebrated 
painting is “ St. Francis Receiving the Stig- 
mati,” and he also executed a number of en¬ 
gravings of paintings by Carracci, Corregio, 
Raphael, etc. He died in Bologna, in 1647. 

Badderlocks, also sometimes honeyware, 
or henwaro (alaria esculenta), an olive- 
colored sea weed belonging to the pliceos- 
porcce, and allied to the common laminaria, 
which grows on rocks in deep water on the 
shores of Britain, Iceland, and the northern 
parts of Europe. It has a short cylindrical 
stem with lateral spore bearing processes, 
and a membranous olive green frond of 
2 to 12 feet long, with a stout midrib. 
This midrib, together with the fruits, is 
eaten by the inhabitants of the sea coasts 
of Iceland, Denmark, Scotland, Ireland, etc., 
and is said to be the best of the esculent 
algae. The name is supposed to be a cor¬ 
ruption of balder-locks. 

Badeau, Adam (ba-do'), an American 
military officer, born in New York city, Deo. 



Baden 


Baden=bei= Wien 


29, 1831; educated at private schools. He 
served with gallantry in the Union army 
during the Civil War; was on the staff of 
General Sherman in 1862-1803, and secre¬ 
tary tc General Grant in 1SG4-1869; and 
in the latter year was retired with the rank 
of Captain in the regular army and of Bre¬ 
vet Brigadier-General of Volunteers, and was 
appointed Secretary oi Legation in London. 
He was Consul-General in London, 1870- 
1881, and during this period was given leave 
of absence to accompany General Grant on 
his tour around the world (1877-1878). In 
1882-1884 he w r as Consul-General in Havana. 
After the death of General Grant he brought 
suit against his heirs for. payment of ser¬ 
vices which he asserted had been rendered 
in the preparation of General Grant's “ Me¬ 
moirs,” but lost his case. His publications 
include “ The Vagabond ” (New York, 1889); 
“ Military History of Ulysses S. Grant ” 
(3 vols., 18G7-1881); “Conspiracy; A 
Cuban .Romance ” (1885); “Aristocracy 

in England (1886), and “ Grant in Peace ” 
(1886). He died in Ridgewood, N. J., March 
19, 1895. 

Baden (blid'en), Grand Duchy of, one 

of the more important States of the German 
empire, situated in the S. W. of Germany, 
to the W. of Wiirtemberg. It is divided 
into four districts, Constance, Freiburg, 
Karlsruhe, and Mannheim; has an area of 
5,823 square miles, and pop. (1905) 2,010,- 
728. 

Topography .— It is mountainous, being 
traversed to a considerable extent by the 
lofty plateau of the Schwarzwald, or Black 
Forest, which attains its highest point in 
the Feldberg (4,904 feet). The nucleus of 
this plateau consists of gneiss and granite. 
In the N. it sinks down toward the Oden- 
wald, which is, however, of different geolog¬ 
ical structure, being composed for the most 
part of red sandstone. The whole of Baden, 
except a small portion in the S. F., in which 
the Danube takes its rise, belongs to the 
basin of the Rhine, which bounds it on the 
S. and W. Numerous tributaries of the 
Rhine intersect it, the chief being the 
Neckar. Lakes are numerous, and include 
a considerable part of the Lake of Con¬ 
stance. The climate varies much. The hilly 
parts, especially in the E., are cold and have 
a long winter, while the valley of the Rhine 
enjoys the finest climate of Germany. The 
principal minerals worked are coal, salt, 
iron, zinc, and nickel. The number of min¬ 
eral springs is remarkably great, and of 
these not a few are of great celebrity. The 
vegetation is peculiarly rich, and there are 
magnificent forests. The cereals comprise 
wdieat, oats, barley, and rye. Potatoes, 
hemp, tobacco, wine, and sugar beet are 
largely produced. Several of the wines, both 
white and red, rank in the first class. Baden 
has long been famous for its fruits, also. Of 


the total area, 42 per cent, is under cultiva¬ 
tion, 37 per cent, under forest, and 17 per 
cent, under meadows and pastures. The 
farms are mostly quite small. The manu¬ 
factures are important. Among them are 
textiles, tobacco, and cigars, chemicals, ma¬ 
chinery, pottery ware, jewelry (especially 
at Pforzheim), wooden clocks, confined 
chiefly to the districts of the Black Forest, 
musical boxes and other musical toys. The 
capital is Karlsruhe, about 5 miles from 
the Rhine; the other chief towns are Mann¬ 
heim, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, with a Roman 
Catholic university; Baden, and Heidelberg. 
Baden has warm mineral springs, which 
were known and used in the time of the Ro¬ 
mans. Heidelberg lias a university (Protes¬ 
tant), founded in 1386, the oldest in the 
present German empire. The railways have 
a length of 850 miles, and are nearly all 
State property. 

History .— In the time of the Roman Em¬ 
pire, Southern Baden belonged to the Ro¬ 
man province of Rhoetia. Under the old 
German empire it wa3 a margravate, which 
in 1533 was divided into Baden-Baden and 
Baden-Durlacli, but reunited in 1771. The 
title of Grand Duke was conferred by Na¬ 
poleon in 1806, and in the same year Baden 
was extended to its present limits. The ex¬ 
ecutive power is vested in the Grand Duke, 
the legislative in a House of Legislature, 
consisting of an Upper and a Lower Cham¬ 
ber. The former consists partly of heredi¬ 
tary members; the latter consists of elected 
representatives of the people. The revenue 
is mainly derived from taxes on land and 
incomes, and the produce of crown-lands, 
forests, and mines. The revenue in 1898 was 
$19,283,644, and the expenditure, $20,876,- 
540. Baden sends three members to the 
German Bundesrath, or Federal Council, and 
14 deputies to the Diet. Two-thirds of the 
population are Roman Catholics, the rest 
Protestants. 

Baden=Baden, a town in the Grand Duchy 
of Baden; pop. (1905) 16,238. It is chiefly 
celebrated for its medicinal springs, which 
were known at the time of the Romans. Its 
gaming tables, the most renowned in Eu¬ 
rope, were closed with the rest of the li¬ 
censed German gaming houses in 1872. The 
mineral springs consist of thermal saline 
waters, whose temperature varies from 
130° to 154° F. They contain chloride of 
sodium, with sulphate of lime, carbonate 
of iron, and carbonic acid, and a small quan¬ 
tity of lithia, and are used chiefly as hot 
baths, while the sufferer from chronic gout 
and rheumatism, dyspepsia from overwork, 
nervous affections, etc., is enjoying change 
of scene and a mild, pure atmosphere. 

Baden=bei=Wien (bad'en-bl-ven'), a much 
frequented watering place of Lower Aus¬ 
tria, about 15 miles S. S. W. of Vienna. 
It was the Aquae Pannonise, or Cethice of tho 




Baden=PoweIl 


Badger 


Homans, and is still famous for its warm 
mineral springs, which are frequented dur¬ 
ing the season by from 12,000 to 15,000 per¬ 
sons, chiefly from the Austrian capital. 
Season from July to September. Pop. 0,050. 

Baden=Powell, Sir George Smyth, an 

English politician and political writer, born 
in Oxford, Dec. 24, 1847. He became a mem¬ 
ber of various important commissions, 
among others that on United States and 
Canadian fisheries (1886-1887); the new 
Malta Constitution (1887) ; the Bering Sea 
inquiry (1891) ; the Joint High Commission 
(Washington, 1892) ; and the Paris Arbitra¬ 
tion (1893). He was author of “New Homes 
for the Old Country” (1872), a storehouse 
of information about Australia; “ Protec¬ 
tion and Bad Times” (1879); “State Aid 
and State Interference” (1882); “The 
Truth About Home Rule” (1888); “The 
Land Systems of India” (1892), etc. He 
was a member of Parliament from Liver¬ 
pool from 1885 till his death, Nov. 20, 1898. 

Baden=Powell, Robert Stevenson 
Smyth, a British military officer; born in 
London, Feb. 22, 1857; was educated at the 
Charterhouse School; joined the 13th Hus¬ 
sars in 1876; was Adjutant in India, Af¬ 
ghanistan, and South Africa; Assistant 
Military Secretary on the staff in South 
Africa in 1887-1889; took part in the op¬ 
erations ill Zululand, for which he was 
highly commended, in 1888; Assistant Mil¬ 
itary Secretary in Malta in 1890-1893; on 
special service in Ashanti, commanding the 
native levies, 1895, for which he was bre- 
vetted Lieutenant-Colonel; chief staff offi¬ 
cer in the Matabeleland campaign, for which 
he was brevetted Colonel and became Lieu¬ 
tenant-Colonel, commanding the 5th Dra¬ 
goon Guards, in 1897. In the war in 
South Africa in 1899-1900, he signally dis¬ 
tinguished himself by his grand defense of 
Mafeking, Cape Colony. The Boers made 
the first attack on the town, Oct. 15, 1899, 
and were repulsed by his small force. 
On Oct. 21, the town was bjmbarded for 
four hours, and thereafter was fired upon 
almost daily. In November, the beseiged 
made a successful attack on the Boers, but 
in the following month they sustained heavy 
losses in a sortie against them. The first 
column for the relief of the town started 
on Dec. 3. On Feb. 18, 1900, the Boers 
made a determined assault on the outworks, 
but were again repulsed. The relieving 
column met with reverses Feb. 2, March 
14, and March 31. A second relief column 
was started March 5, and a third, March 
25. On the last date the town was again 
bombarded, but without serious effects. On 
April 24, a still more determined bombard¬ 
ment was opened; on May 12, a desperate 
engagement occurred between the besieged 
and the besiegers; and on the 16th, the 
plucky garrison was relieved. In recogni¬ 


tion of this heroic defense, the Queen pro¬ 
moted Baden-Powell to be a Major-General. 
In 1903 he visited the United States and re¬ 
ceived high honors. He published “ Recon¬ 
naissance and Scouting” (1890); “Vedette” 
(1890); “Cavalry Instruction” (1895); 
“The Downfall of Prempeh ” (1896) ; “The 
Matabele Campaign” (1896), etc. 

Badeni (bad'en-e), Count Cassimir 
Felix, an Austrian statesman; born in Po¬ 
land, Oct. 14, 1846. His father, though 
poor, was a man of intellect, and was made 
a count by the King of Poland just before 
the birth of Cassimir. He also fell heir to 
a fortune, and his two sons received a uni¬ 
versity education. Cassimir entered the 
Austrian civil service; became district chief 
at Zolkiew in 1871; Minister of the Interior 
in 1873; Governor of Galicia in 1888; and 
Prime Minister of Austria-Hungary, Sept. 
15, 1895. In April, 1897, because of inabil¬ 
ity to maintain a Liberal majority in the 
newly elected Reichsrath, he resigned with 
his cabinet, but the emperor declined to 
accept his resignation, and he remained in 
office until Nov. 28, when he again re¬ 
signed and a new cabinet was organized. 
The principal feature of his administration 
and the one which not only caused his fall, 
but a long period of political agitation, was 
his introduction of what is known as the 
“ language ordinance,” which allowed the 
official use of the Czech language in Bo¬ 
hemia and Moravia. This measure alienated 
the Germans and f provoked a racial conflict 
of a most bitter character between them 
and the Czechs. He died July 9, 1909. 

Badenweiler (bad'en-vi'ler), a watering 
place in the grand duchy of Baden, near 
Mtillheim. Its mineral springs are now 
rated among the indifferent waters, and it is 
of interest chiefly for the ruins of Roman 
baths that were discovered in 1847. The 
foundation of the town is referred to the 
time of Hadrian, and the remains of the va¬ 
por baths, of which there are excellent speci¬ 
mens, are supposed to be of the same period. 
The ruins show a division for men and for 
women, each having a large outer court 
opening into a dressing-room; there is the 
hot-air bath, the warm bath, and the cold 
bath. The walls and steps are in their orig¬ 
inal position. The whole structure is 318 
feet by 90 feet. 

Badge, a distinctive device, emblem, 
mark, honorary decoration, or special cogni¬ 
zance, used originally to identify a knight or 
distinguish his followers, now worn as a 
sign of office or licensed employment, as a 
token of membership in some society, or gen¬ 
erally as a mark showing the relation of the 
wearer to any nerson, occupation, or order. 

Badger, a plantigrade, carnivorous mam¬ 
mal, allied both to the bears and to the 
weasels, of a clumsy make, with short, thick 
legs, and long claws on the fore feet. The 



Badger 


Badinguet 


only species known are two, the European] 
{M. vulgaris) and American ( M. Labrado- 
rica ). The European badger has a broad, 
white stripe from its forehead down to the 
nose; and a longitudinal black stripe be¬ 
gins between the eye and snout, on each side, 
dilating as it goes backward, until it in¬ 
cludes the eye and the ear, behind which it 
terminates. The hair covering the body is 
harsh, long, scattered, and of three colors, 
white, black, and red, differing in the pro¬ 
portion of these tints in different parts. 
Black is the predominant color on the in¬ 
ferior parts of the body. 

The American badger is only found in the 
remote W. sections of the United States and 
in some parts of the British possessions in 
North America. It is very different from the 
European in physiognomy, having a fore¬ 
head projecting considerably above the root 
of the nose, which, in the European species, 
forms a continuous line with the forehead, 
and in having a longer tail, covered with 
long hair, reaching almost to the ground 
when the animal is walking. The tail of the 
European badger is not more than half the 
length of the legs. The color of the Amer¬ 
ican badger is chiefly grayish, and lighter 
than that of the European. The hair is soft 
and is used in furriery; a white stripe runs 
between the ears from nose to neck. It is 
more carnivorous than the European badger. 
The weight of the American species is from 
14 to 18 pounds. 

Badger, George Edmund, an American 
statesman, born in Newbern, N. C., April 
13, 1795; was graduated at Yale College in 
1813; became a lawyer at Raleigh; and was 
Judge of the North Carolina Superior Court 
in 1820-1825. Pie was appointed Secretary 
of the Navy, March 14, 1841, resigning af¬ 
ter the death of President Harrison, and 
was elected to the United States Senate in 
184G and 1848. In 1853 he was nominated 
for Justice of the United States Supreme 
Court, but was not confirmed. He served 
in the State Convention called to pass on 
the question of secession, although opposed 
to such measure, and after making a strong 
speech in defense of the Union, was after¬ 
ward known as a member of the Conserva¬ 
tive Party. He died in Raleigh, N. C., April 
13, 1866/ 

Badger, Oscar C., an American naval 
officer, born in Windham, Conn., Aug. 12, 
1823; entered the United States navy, Sept. 

9, 1841; became Lieutenant-Commander, 

July 16, 1862; Commander, July 25, 1866; 
Captain, Nov. 25, 1872; Commodore, Nov. 
15, 1881; and was retired Aug. 12, 1885. 
He served on the steamer “Mississippi” 
during the Mexican War, taking part in the 
attack on Alvarado, in 1846; led the party 
that attacked and destroyed the village of 
Vutia, Fiji Islands, while on the sloop 
“John Adams,” in 1855-1856; and in the 


Civil War commanded the ironclads “ Pa- 
tapsco ” and “ Montauk,” in the operations 
in Charleston Harbor in 1863; and was 
Acting Fleet Captain on the flagship “ Wee- 
hawken ” in the attack on Fort Sumter, 
Sept. 1, 1863. Pie died in Concord, Mass., 
June 20, 1899. 

Badghis (biid'gis), a region N. of Herat, 
comprising the country between the Mur- 
gliab and the Harirud rivers, as far N. 
as the edge of the desert. It lies just to 
the S. of the boundary line between Af¬ 
ghanistan and the Russian territories, as de¬ 
fined in 1887. 

Badgley, Sidney Rose, a Canadian ar¬ 
chitect, born near Kingston, Ont,, May 28, 
1850. Pie studied architecture in Toronto, 
and, after practicing some time in St. Cath¬ 
arines, established himself in Cleveland, 0. 
He has made a specialty of the architecture 
of churches and public buildings, and has 
planned and erected churches in almost all 
parts of Canada and the United States, and, 
among other structures, the Massey Music 
Hall, Toronto; the Slocum Library and 
Perkins Observatory, in Ohio; Wesleyan 
University, in Delaware, and the Medical 
College, in Cleveland. He published an 
“Architectural Souvenir” (1896). 

Badham, Charles, an English educator, 
born in Ludlow, July 18, 1813; was consid¬ 
ered one of the most eminent classical schol¬ 
ars of his day; and after serving for sev¬ 
eral years as Head Master of King Edward 
VI.’s Grammar School at Louth, he became 
Professor of Classics and Logic in the Uni¬ 
versity of Sydney, Australia, in 1867. 
While in Sydney he established a system 
of teaching by correspondence, similar to the 
present university extension scheme. He 
published a number of works on Greek 
classics, and “ Criticism Applied to Shakes¬ 
peare ” (18461. He died in Sydney, Feb. 
26, 1884. 

Badia y Lablich, Domingo (bild-e'a-e- 
la-bleck'), a Spanish traveler, best known 
by his assumed name, Ali Bey, born in 
Barcelona, in 1766; acquired the mastery 
of Arabic, and, disguising himself as a 
Mussulman, Avent to Africa in 1801, and, 
after residing in Morocco Uvo years, made 
a journey to Mecca, being the first Christian 
to visit that city since the institution of 
Islam. On his return to Spain, in 1812, 
he was appointed Prefect of Cordova. He 
published “ Voyage d’ Ali-Bei en Afrique et 
en Asie” (1814). He died in Syria, Aug. 
30, 1818. 

Badigeon (bad-e'je-on), a preparation of 
sawdust, slaked lime, powdered stone, and 
alum, for coloring the walls of houses; a 
mixture of plaster and freestone used by 
sculptors in repairing defects in their work; 
a kind of cement used by joiners, etc. 

Badinguet (bad-an-ga), afterward Radot, 
a Moor, as whom Napoleon III. masque- 




Badlam 


Baeyer 


raded to escape from the fortress of Ham 
in 1840; afterward a nickname for Na¬ 
poleon III. He died in 1883. 

Badlam, Stephen, an American military 
officer, born in Milton, Mass., March 25, 
1748; entered the Revolutionary army in 
1775; became commander of the artillery, 
in the Department of Canada. On the an¬ 
nouncement of the adoption of the Declara¬ 
tion of Independence, he took possession of 
the heights opposite Ticonderoga, and named 
the place Mt. Independence. Subsequently 
he rendered good service at Fort Stanwix, 
and in 1799 was made Brigadier-General. 
He died in Dorchester, Mass., Aug. 24, 
1815. 

Bad Lands, tracts of land in the N. W. 
part of the United States. The absence of 
vegetation enables the rains to wash clean 
the old lake beds, and in many instances 
to disclose remarkable fossils of extinct ani¬ 
mals. They were first called Bad Lands 
(mauvaiscs terres) by the French explorers 
in the region of the Black Hills in South 
Dakota, on account of the ever changing ir¬ 
regularity of the surface, which the rain 
causes by the unconsolidated sediment mov¬ 
ing into hills and ravines upon the solid 
strata. 

Badminton, 'a special, sweetened claret, 
named for the Duke of Beaufort (of Bad¬ 
minton ). As he was a patron of pugilists, 
the term came to mean, in the prize ring, 
blood, for which claret was previously a 
slang term. 

Badminton, a popular game, closely re¬ 
sembling lawn tennis, played with battle¬ 
dore and shuttlecock on a rectangular por¬ 
tion of a lawn. The ground is divided cross¬ 
wise by a strip of net, not less than three 
inches wide, suspended from poles at a 
height of five feet. As in lawn tennis, the 
ground on either side of the net is divided 
lengthwise into right and left courts. The 
first player, standing on a specified part of 
his right court, must strike the shuttlecock 
so as to fall across the net into the back 
section of the right court opposite. The op¬ 
ponent strikes it back, then it is returned 
by the first player, and so on till the first 
player misses the shuttlecock. After the 
first stroke, it suffices that the shuttlecock 
be sent across the net, if it does not fly 
beyond the boundaries. 

Badrinath (-at'), a peak of the main 
Himalayan range, in Garhwal district, 
Northwestern Provinces, India; 23,210 feet 
above the sea. On one of its shoulders, at 
an elevation of 10,400 feet, stands a cele¬ 
brated temple of Vishnu, which some years 
attracts as many as 50,000 pilgrims. 

Baebia Gens (be'bj^a or blb'ya), a plebe¬ 
ian clan of ancient Rome. The first member 
of the family to obtain the consulship was 
Cn. Baebius Tamphilus (182 b. c.). The 


other distinguished ones are known under 
their family names, Dives, Herennius, Sulca, 
etc. 

Baedeker (ba'de-ker), Karl, a German 
publisher, born in 1801; originator of a 
celebrated series of guide-books for travel¬ 
ers. He died in 1859. 

Baele (ba'le), an African tribe, dwelling 
N. E. of Lake Tchad. It is nomadic, half 
heathen and half Mohammedan, and owns 
large herds of cattle, camels, goats, and 
sheep. 

Baena, Antonio (ba-ya'na), a Portuguese- 
Brazilian historian and geographer, born in 
Portugal about 1795; was an officer in the 
Portuguese, afterward in the Brazilian, 
army. He studied the geography and his¬ 
tory of the Amazon valley. His principal 
works were “The Ages of Para” (1838), a 
historic compend stopping at 1823, and 
“ Chorographic Essay on the Province of 
Parh ” (1839) , a geographical and statis¬ 
tical work, giving the details of explora¬ 
tions made by himself. He died in Parh, 
March 28, 1850. 

Baer, Karl Ernst von (bar), a Russian 

naturalist, famous especially as an embry¬ 
ologist, born at Piep, Esthonia, Feb. 28, 
1792; was Professor of Zoology at Ivonigs- 
berg (1819), and Librarian of the Academy 
of Sciences at St. Petersburg (1834). His 
principal works were “ History of the De¬ 
velopment of Animals” (2 vols., 1828- 
1837), and “ Researches Into the Develop¬ 
ment of Fishes” (1835). He died at Dor- 
pat, Nov. 28, 1876. 

Baert, Alexandre Balthazar Francois 
de Paule, Baron de (bar), a French‘'au¬ 
thor, born in Dunkirk, about 1750; became 
a Deputy in the General Assembly of 1789. 
When the Revolution became the Reign of 
Terror, he fled to the United States, remain¬ 
ing there some years. He returned to France 
in 1815, and once more became Deputy, 
maintaining liis old position as a moderate 
reformer. He published two historical 
works, one on Great Britain and her colon¬ 
ies, the other on the country between the 
Black and Caspian Seas. He died in Paris, 
March 23, 1825. 

Baetica (bi'te-ka), an old Roman prov¬ 
ince, the central of the three divisions of 
ancient Spain, famed for its fertility, its 
mines of iron, gold, and silver, and its de¬ 
lightful climate. These advantages gave 
rise to a number of fabulous stories, which 
made it the home of Geryon, an assailant 
of Hercules, and placed there the Elysian 
Fields. Its cities were chiefly Phoenician 
and Carthaginian colonies, and became Ro¬ 
man possessions. Later it passed into the 
hands of the Vandals, and it was the first 
province conquered by the Moors. 

Baeyer, Adolf von (ba'yer), a German 
chemist, born in Berlin, Oct, 31, 1835; son 



Baeyer 


Bagatelle 


of Johann Jakob Baeyer; became Professor 
of Chemistry at Strasburg' in 1872, and at 
Munich, in 1875, succeeding Liebig at the 
latter. He made many important discover¬ 
ies in organic chemistry, especially cerulein, 
eosin, and indol. 

Baeyer, Johann Jakob, a Prussian ge¬ 
ometrician, born in Mtiggelsheim, Nov. 5, 
1794; was an army volunteer in the com- 
paigns of 1813 and 1814; joined the army 
in 1815; and became a Lieutenant-General 
in 1858. He had charge of a number of 
geodetic surveys; was elected President of 
the Geodetic Institute in Berlin in 1870; 
and was the author of numerous treatises 
on the refraction of light in the atmosphere, 
the size and form of the earth, etc. He died 
in Berlin, Sept. 10, 1885. 

Baez, Buenaventura (ba'ath), a Domin¬ 
ican statesman, born in Azua, Haiti, about 
1810; aided in the establishment of the Do¬ 
minican Republic; was its President in 
1849-1853; was then expelled by Santa Ana 
and went to New York city; was recalled in 
185G, on the expulsion of Santa Ana, and 
again elected President; and was re-elected 
President in 1805 and 18G8. During his 
last term, lie signed treaties with the United 
States (Nov. 29, 1869) for the annexation 
of Santo Domingo to the United States, and 
for the cession of Samana Bay. The treat¬ 
ies failed of ratification in the United 
States Senate, and caused the downfall 
of Baez. He died in Porto Rico, March 21, 
1884. 

Baeza (ba-a'tha), a town, Spain, in An¬ 
dalusia, 22 miles E. N. E. from Jaen, with 
10,851 inhabitants. The principal edifices 
are the cathedral, the university (now sup¬ 
pressed), and the old monastery of St. 
Philip de Neri. 

Baffa (ancient Paphos), a seaport on the 
S. W. coast of Cyprus. Pop. 1,000. It oc¬ 
cupies the site of New Paphos, which, under 
the Romans, was full of beautiful temples 
and other public buildings. Old Paphos 
stood a little to the S. E. 

Baffin, William, an English navigator 
and discoverer, believed to have been born 
in London about 1584; but the earliest 
known fact regarding him is that he sailed 
in 1612 as pilot of the “Patience” from 
Hull, on a voyage of discovery to Green¬ 
land. In 1613-1614 he served in the Spitz- 
bergen whale fishery, and he wrote an ac¬ 
count of this and his previous voyage. In 
1615 he took service with a company as 
pilot of the “ Discovery,” in search of a 
northwest passage, and made a careful ex¬ 
amination of Hudson Strait. His recorded 
latitudes and notes of the tides are in re¬ 
markable agreement with those of a later 
date. In the following year, with Capt. 
Bylot, he discovered, charted, and named 


Smith Sound, and several others, and ex¬ 
plored the large inlet now associated with 
his name. Later investigation has confirmed 
his descriptions. His last voyages, 1616— 
1621, were to the East. At the siege of 
Ormuz, which the English were helping the 
Shah of Persia to recover from the Portu¬ 
guese, he was killed, Jan. 23, 1622. See 
“Voyages of William Baffin, 1612-1622,” 
edited by C. R. Markham (1880). 

Baffin Land, a Canadian island, crossed 
by the Arctic Circle; area, 236,000 square 
miles. 

Baffin Sea (erroneously styled a Bay), a 
large expanse of water in North America, 
between Greenland and the lands or islands 
N. of Hudson Bay, extending from 68° to 78° 
N., and 55° to 80° W. It communicates 
with the Atlantic Ocean by Davis Strait 
on the S., with the Arctic Ocean by Lan¬ 
caster Sound and Jones Sound on the W., 
and with the Polar Sea by Smith Sound and 
Robeson Channel on the N. Depth, 200- 
1,050 fathoms. The tides do not rise more 
than 10 feet. The surface of the sea is cov¬ 
ered with ice during the greater part of 
the year, which extends from shore to shore 
in winter, though possessing a slow, south¬ 
ward movement. In spring and summer, 
the great mass, known as the middle ice, 
begins to move less slowly southward, leav¬ 
ing navigable passages on the side of Green¬ 
land and America, and occasional channels, 
or crossings, between these coasts. The 
coasts are mountainous, barren, and deeply 
indented with gulfs. Whale and seal fish¬ 
ing is followed. This sea was discovered 
by the English navigator, Baffin, in 
1616, while in search of a passage to the 
Pacific. 

Bagamoyo (bag-a-moi'o), a town of Ger¬ 
man East Africa, on the coast opposite the 
island of Zanzibar; pop. (1899).about 13,000, 
It is an important trading station for ivory, 
gum and caoutchouc. There is telegraph 
connection with Zanzibar and the neighbor¬ 
ing coast towns. Bagamoyo is a point of 
departure for caravans into the interior, 
but its harbor is not accessible to the larg¬ 
est vessels. The chief imports are cottons, 
iron ware, rice, oil, spirits, and beer. 

Bagasse (bii-gas'), the sugar cane in its 
dry, crushed state, as delivered from the 
mill, and after the main portion of its 
juice has been expressed; used as fuel in 
the sugar factory, and called also cane 
trash. 

Bagatelle, a game played on a long, fiat 
board, covered with cloth like a billiard- 
table, with spherical balls and a cue, or 
mace. At the end of the board are nine 
cups, or sockets, of just sufficient size to 
receive the balls. These sockets are ar¬ 
ranged in the form of a regular octagon, 




Sagaudae 


Baggara 


with the ninth in the middle, and are num¬ 
bered consecutively from one upward. Nine 
balls are used, generally one black, four 
white, and four red, the distinction between 
white and red being made only for the sake 
of variety. In the ordinary game, at start¬ 
ing, the black ball is placed on a point in 
the longitudinal middle line of the board, 
a few inches in front of the nearest of the 
sockets, and the player places one of his 
eight balls on a corresponding point at the 
other end of the board, and tries to strike 
the black ball into one of the sockets with 
his own. After this, his object is to place 
as many of his balls as possible in the sock¬ 
ets. Each ball so placed counts as many 
as the socket is numbered for, and the 
black ball always counts double. He who 
first makes the number of points agreed on 
wins. 

Bagaudae (bag'o-di), a Gallic tribe which 
revolted under Diocletian and was subdued 
by Maximian in 28G a. d. 

Bagby, George William, an American 
physician and humorist, born in Bucking¬ 
ham co., Va., Aug. 13, 1828; wrote under 
the pseudonym “ Mozis Addums.” lie was 
editor of the Lynchburg “ Express ” (1853), 
and “ Southern Literary Messenger” (1850); 
State Librarian of Virginia (1870-1878), 
and contributor to various magazines. 
He wrote “John M. Daniel’s Latch-Key” 
(18G8) ; “What I Did With My Fifty Mil¬ 
lions” (1875), and “ Meekins’ Twinses ” 
(1877). He died in Richmond, Va., Nov. 
29, 1883. 

Bagdad (bag-dad'), capital of the Tur¬ 
kish vilayet anil city of the same name, in 
the southern part of Mesopotamia (now 
Irak Arabi). The greater part of it lies 
on the eastern bank of the Tigris, which is 
crossed by a bridge of boats; old Bagdad, 
the residence of the caliphs (now in ruins), 
was on the western bank of the river. The 
modern city is surrounded with a brick wall 
about G miles in circuit; the houses are 
mostly built of brick, the streets unpaved, 
and very narrow. The palace of the Gov¬ 
ernor is spacious. Of the mosques, only a 
few attract notice; the bazaars are all large 
and well stocked; that of Dawd Pasha still 
ranks as one of the most splendid in the 
world. Manufactures: leather, silks, cot¬ 
tons, woolens, carpets, etc. Steamers ply 
on the river between Bagdad and Bassorah, 
and the city exports wheat, dates, galls, 
gum, mohair, carpets, etc., to Europe. Bag¬ 
dad is inhabited by Turks, Arabs, Persians, 
Armenians, Jews, etc., and a small number 
of Europeans. The Turks compose three- 
fourths of the whole population. The city 
has been frequently visited by the plague, 
and, in 1831, was nearly devastated by that 
calamity. Bagdad was founded in 7G2, by 
the Caliph Almansur, and raised to a high 


degree of splendor, in the 9th century, by 
Haroun A1 Raschid. It is the scene of a num¬ 
ber of the tales of the “ Arabian Nights.” 
In the 13th century it was stormed by Hu- 
laku, grandson of Genghis-Klian, who caused 
the reigning caliph to be slain, and destroyed 
the caliphate. The vilayet has an area of 
54,503 square miles, and an estimated popu¬ 
lation of 850,000, and the city an estimated 
population of 145,000. 

Bagdad, a town in Tamaulipas, Mexico, 
near the mouth of the Rio Grande; was of 
great importance during the Civil War to 
Confederate blockade runners. 

Bage, Robert (baj), an English novelist, 
born at Darley, Derbyshire, Feb. 29, 1728; 
began to write at the age of 53. Among his 
works were “Mount Henneth ” (1781); 

“Barham Downs” (1784); “ Ilermsprong, 
or Man as Fie Is Not” (179G), etc. He 
died at Tam worth, Sept. 1, 1801. 

Bagehot, Walter (bfij'ot), an English 
writer on political economy and government, 
born in Langport, Somersetshire, Feb. 3, 
1826; was graduated at University College, 
London, studied law, and was admitted to 
the bar; but never entered practice. He 
became connected with his father’s banking 
house and was drawn to. the study of eco¬ 
nomics and political science. At first, a fol¬ 
lower of Ricardo, he grew independent in 
his treatment of economic themes, and in 
certain aspects prepared the way for the 
labors of the historic school. For many 
years he was proprietor and editor of the 
“ London Economist.” As a writer, B'age- 
liot was marked by a rare combination of 
spirited, brilliant style and deliberate judg¬ 
ment. His chief works are: “ The English 
Constitution” (18G7); “Physics and Poli¬ 
tics,” in which the life and growth of na¬ 
tions are studied in the light of Darwin’s 
theory (1863); “Lombard Street: a De¬ 
scription of the Money Market,” a treatise 
on money and its functions of great vogue 
(1873; 8th ed. 1878); “The Depreciation 
of Silver” (1877); and, posthumously, 
“Literary Studies” (1879); “Economic 
Studies” (1880), and “Biographical Stud¬ 
ies” (1880). He died in Langport, En¬ 
gland, March 24., 1877. 

Baggage, a term supposed to be derived 
from the old French word bague, meaning 
bundle. As ordinarily used, it includes 
trunks, valises, portmanteaus, etc., which 
a traveler carries with him on a journey. 
In England the word luggage is used to 
convey the same meaning. In a military 
sense, the word includes the tents, furniture, 
utensils, and whatever else is indispensable 
to the comfort of an army. 

Baggara (bag'ra), an Arabic-speaking 
Hamitic tribe of the Upper Nile Valley. 
They occupy this valley as far E. as the ter- 



Baggesen 


Bagni di Lucca 


ritory of their neighboring negro tribesmen, 
the Shilluk. They are nomads, Egyptian 
soldiers, hunters, etc. 

Baggesen, Jens (biig'e-sen), a Danish 
poet; born in Korsor, Zealand, Eeb. 15, 1704. 
He became inolved in a great literary feud 
with Oelilensclilager. His lirst poetic ef¬ 
fort, “Comic Tales” (1785), at once at¬ 
tracted attention; but “The Labyrinth” 
(1792), afterward entitled “Wanderings 
of a Poet,” a description of his traveling 
impressions, equally distinguished for 
its overflowing humor and finished 
style, is his most important work, a 
landmark in Danish prose literature. 
In 1790 he was appointed a professor in the 
University of Copenhagen; in 1811 Profes¬ 
sor of the Danish Language in the Univer¬ 
sity of Kiel; in 1814 he returned to Copen¬ 
hagen, where his feud with Oehlenschliiger 
led him to take up his abode in Paris in 
1820. Several collections of his works have 
been published. He died in Hamburg, Get. 
3. 1820. 

Baghelkartd (bao'el-kand), a tract of 
country in Central India, occupied by a col¬ 
lection of native States (Rewah being the 
chief, under the Governor-General’s agent 
for Central India); area, 11,323 square miles; 
pop. 1,512,595. 

Bagheria, or Bagaria, a town of Sicily, 

8 miles E. by S. of Palermo by rail. It is 

beautifullv situated at the base of the isth- 
«/ 

mus which separates the Bay o* Palermo 
from that of Termini, and is surrounded by 
groups of palatial villas of the Sicilian no¬ 
bility. Pop. 12,050. 

Baghistan. See Beitistun. 

Bagirmi (baG-er'me), or Baghermi, a 
country in Central Africa, bounded on the 
W. by Bornu and a 'portion of Lake Tchad, 
and with the powerful Sultanate of Wadai 
to the N. E. Its area is estimated at nearly 
71,000 square miles. The surface is flat, 
with a gentle rise toward the N. — its gen¬ 
eral elevation being about 1,000 feet above 
sea level. It, is traversed and watered by the 
Shari and its affluents. The soil yields 
durra and millet, which the natives barter 
for tobacco, pearls, and cowry shells. The 
total population is about 1,500,000. Mo¬ 
hammedanism has been introduced among 
them, but gross superstitions still prevail. 
Dr. Nachtigal describes the natives as of 
the Sonrliai type, of low stature, and not 
of pleasant features. Though they wear al¬ 
most no clothing, they are in many respects 
semi-civilized, having a regular government 
in the capital, Maseiia, as well as a mili¬ 
tary system. The Sultan of Wadai took 
the capital in 1871, reducing the Sultan of 
Bagirmi to a more complete state of vassal- 
age to him. The country was first visited 
by Barth in 1852. Most of it was recognized 
as in the German sphere by the Anglo-Ger¬ 


man agreement of 1893; but in 1900 it came 
under French influence. 

Bagley, Worth, an American naval offi¬ 
cer, born in Raleigh, N. C., April 6, 1874; 
was graduated at the United States Naval 
Academy in 1895; promoted to Ensign, July 
1, 1897, and was detailed as inspector to 
the new torpedo-boat “Winslow” in No¬ 
vember following. This beat went into com¬ 
mission the next month, and he was ap¬ 
pointed her executive officer. In April, 1898, 
the “ Winslow ” was assigned to the Amer¬ 
ican fleet off the coast of Cuba, and on May 
9, while on blockading duty at the harbor 
of Cardenas, with the “Wilmington” and 
“ Hudson,” drew the fire of several Spanish 
coast-guard vessels. All the American ves¬ 
sels escaped untouched. Two days after¬ 
ward, the three vessels undertook to force 
an entrance into the harbor, when they were 
fired on by Spanish gunboats. The “ Wins¬ 
low ” was disabled, and with difficulty was 
drawn out of the range of the enemy’s guns. 
The “Wilmington” then silenced the Span¬ 
ish fire, and as the action closed, Ensign 
Bagley and four sailors on the “ Winslow ” 
were instantly killed by a shell, he being the 
first American naval officer to fall in the 
war with Spain. 

Baglivi, Giorgio (bag-le-ve), an Italian 
physician, born in Ragusa, Sicily, in 1G69; 
became a disciple of the celebrated physiol¬ 
ogist and anatomist, Malpighi; was ap¬ 
pointed Professor of Medicine in the College 
de Sapienza, in Rome, by Pope Clement XI., 
and afterward became Professor there of 
Anatomy also. In opposition to the system 
known as Galenism, in medicine, he founded 
that of solidism. His principal writings 
were published under the title of “ Opera 
Omnia Medico-Practica ” (1704). He died 
in Rome, in 1707. 

Bagnacavallo, Bartolommeo Ramenghi 

(ban-ya-ka-va'lo), an Italian painter, born 
in 1484; called Bagnacavallo from the vil¬ 
lage where he was born. At Rome he was 
a pupil of Raphael, and assisted in decorat¬ 
ing the gallery of the Vatican. He died in 
1542. 

Bagneres de Bigorre (ban-yar' de be- 
gor'), a watering place of France, Depart¬ 
ment of Hautes Pyrenees, on the left bank 
of the Adour. It owes its chief celebrity to 
its baths, which are sulphurous and saline, 
but it has also manufacturing and other in¬ 
dustries. 

Bagneres de Luchon (lii-shSn'), a town 
of France, Department of Haute Garonne, 
in a valley surrounded by wooded hills; one 
of the principal watering places of the 
Pyrenees, having sulphurous thermal waters, 
said to be beneficial in rheumatic com¬ 
plaints. 

Bagni di Lucca (biin-ve de lo'kfl), a bath¬ 
ing place of Italy, 17 miles N. of Lucca; In 




Bagno a Ripoli 


Bahama Islands 


the fine valley of the Lima river, a branch 
of the Serchio; has hot eprings of various 
temperature from 90° to 130° F. 

Bagno a Ripoli, an Italian village, 5 
miles distant from Florence, containing 
baths, around which wealthy Florentines 
have built palaces and villas. 

Bagno in Romagna (ro-man'ya), an Ital¬ 
ian bathing place, 35 miles E. by N. of Flor¬ 
ence, on the right bank of the Savio, near 
its source. It has hot springs of temper¬ 
ature 108°-110° F., in which natron is 
present. 

Bagpipe, a musical wind instrument of 
very great antiquity, having been used 
among the ancient Greeks, and being a fa¬ 
vorite instrument over Europe generally in 
the 15tli century. It still continues in use 
among the country people of Poland, Italy, 
the S. of France, and in Scotland and Ire¬ 
land. Though now often regarded as the 
national instrument of Scotland, especially 
Celtic Scotland, it is only Scottish by adop¬ 
tion, being introduced into that country 
from England. It consists of a leather bag, 
which receives the air from the mouth, or 
from bellows; and of pipes, into which the 
air is pressed from the bag by the perform¬ 
er’s elbow. In the common, or Highland 
form, one pipe (called the chanter) plays 
the melody; of the three others (called 
drones), two are in unison with the lowest 
A of the chanter, and the third and longest 
an octave lower, the sound being produced 
by means of reeds. The chanter has eight 
holes, which the performer stops and opens 
at pleasure, but the scale is imperfect and 
the tone harsh. There are several species of 
bagpipes, as the soft and melodious Irish 
bagpipe, supplied with wind by a bellows, 
and having several keyed drones; the old 
English bagpipe (now no longer used) ; the 
Italian bagpipe, a very rude instrument, etc. 

Bagratidae (ba-gra'te-de), Bagratides, 
or Bagratians, a line of kings and princes 
of Armenia that ruled in that country from 
the year 885 to the lltli century. After the 
seizure of Asia Minor by the Seljuks, some 
of the princes retained power as independ¬ 
ent lords, holding the possession of moun¬ 
tain fastnesses. The dynasty ended with 
Leo IV., who was assassinated in 1342. 

Bagration, Peter Ivanovich, Prince, a 

Russian general, descended from the royal 
family of the Bagratidse of Georgia and 
Armenia, born in 1765. He entered the Rus¬ 
sian service in 1783, and was trained under 
Suvorof. In 1788 he was engaged at the 
storming of Okzakof; fought in 1792 and 
1794 against the Poles; in 1799, in Italy 
and Switzerland; and distinguished himself 
in the Austro-Russian War of 1805 against 
the French, especially in the sanguinary 
engagement of Nov. 16 of that year, 
when, with only 6,000 troops, he bravely 


stood during six hours against a force of 
30,000 under Murat. Subsequently, he was 
engaged in the battles of Austerlitz, Eylau, 
and Friedland, and took a part in the Rus¬ 
sian campaign against the Turks, especially 
in the siege of Silistria, 1809. In the cam¬ 
paign of 1812, he commanded the Second 
Russian Army of the West, and had the mis¬ 
fortune to fail in his attacloon Davout, near 
Mohilev; but succeeded in forming a junc¬ 
tion with the main army at Smolensk. He 
was, however, mortally wounded in the bat¬ 
tle of Borodino, and died Oct. 7, 1812. 

Bagshaw, Edward, an English author, 
date of birth unknown; espoused at first the 
cause of the Puritans, but later became a 
Royalist, and sat in the Parliament that 
Charles T. convened at Oxford; was taken 
prisoner by the Parliamentary army, and, 
during his detention, he composed various 
books, the most important of which is “ The 
Right of the Crown of England as Estab¬ 
lished by Law.” He died in 1662. 

Bagshot Beds, in geology, the lowest 
strata of the Eocene formation of the Brit¬ 
ish Islands. A white clay, forming one of 
the strata, exhibits beautifully distinct fos¬ 
sils. Bagshot sand is the collective name 
for a series of beds of siliceous sand, occu¬ 
pying extensive tracts around Bagshot, in 
Surrey, and in the New Forest, Hampshire, 
England, the whole reposing on the London 
clay; generally devoid of fossils. 

Bahama Bank, Great and Little, shoals 

among the West India Islands; the former 
between 22° and 26° N., 75° and 79° W., 
having S. and W. the Bahama old and new 
channels. On it are the Islands of Prov¬ 
idence, Andros, and Exuma. The Little 
Bank, N. W. of the foregoing, between 26° 
and 27° N., 77° and 79° W., has on it the 
Great Bahama and Abaco Islands. 

Bahama Bank, a shifting sand across 
Ramsey Bay, Isle of Man, with a light-ves¬ 
sel, ltyj miles S. E. of S. E. tail of the bank, 
in 54° 19' 40" N., and 4° 12' 55" W., visible 
11 miles. 

Bahama Channel, Old and New, two 

American channels; the former separates 
the Great Bahama Bank and Cuba; the lat¬ 
ter, also called the Gulf of Florida, is be¬ 
tween the Great and Little Bahama Banks 
and Florida, and forms a part of the chan¬ 
nel of the great Gulf Stream, which flows 
here at the rate of from 2 to 5 miles an 
hour. 

Bahama Islands, or Lucayos, a group 
of islands in the West Indies, forming a 
colony belonging to Great Britain, lying N. 
E. of Cuba and S. E. of the coast of Florida, 
the Gulf Stream passing between them and 
the mainland. They extend a distance of up¬ 
ward of 600 miles, and are said to be 29 in 
number, besides keys and rocks innumerable. 
The principal islands are Grand Bahama* 



Bahawulpur 


Bahr-el-Ghazal 


Great and Little Abaco, Andros Islands, 
New Providence, Eleuthera, San Salvador, 
Great Exuma, Watling Island, Long Island, 
Crooked Island, Acklin Island, Mariguana 
Island, Great Inagua. Of the whole group 
about 20 are inhabited, the most populous 
being New Providence, which contains the 
capital, Nassau, the largest being Andros, 
100 miles long, 20 to 40 broad. They are 
low and flat, and have in many parts exten¬ 
sive forests. Total area, 5,450 square miles. 
The soil is a thin but rich vegetable mold, 
and the principal product is pine apples, 
which form the most important export. 
Other fruits are also grown, with cotton, 
sugar, maize, yams, groundnuts, cocoanuts, 
etc. Sponges are obtained in large quan¬ 
tity and are exported. In 1897 the revenue 
was £62,754; expenditure, £63,405; imports, 
£186,010; exports, £149,085; and public 
debt, £119,026. The currency is English, 
but American coins circulate freely. The 
islands are a favorite winter resort for 
those afflicted with pulmonary diseases. 
San Salvador, or Cat Island, is generally 
believed to be the same as Guanahani, the 
land first touched on by Columbus (Oct. 12, 
1492) on his first great voyage of discovery. 
The first British settlement was made on 
New Providence toward the close of the 17th 
century. A number of loyal Americans set¬ 
tled in the islands after the War of Inde¬ 
pendence. Pop. (1901) 53,735. 

Bahawulpur (ba-lni'wal-por), a town of 
India, capital of the State of the same name 
in the Punjab, two miles from the Sutlej; 
surrounded by a mud wall and containing 
the extensive palace of the Nawab. Pop. 
13,635. The State has an area of 17,285 
square miles, of which 10,000 is desert, the 
only cultivated lands lying along the Indus 
and Sutlej. Pop. (1901) 720.877. 

Bahia (bii-e'a), formerly San Salvador, 
a town of Brazil, on the Bay of All Saints, 
in the State of Bahia. It consists of a lower 
town, which is little more than an irregular, 
narrow, and dirty street, stretching about 
four miles along the shore; and an upper 
town, with which it is connected by a steep 
street, much better built. The harbor is 
one of the best in South America; and the 
trade, chiefly in sugar, cotton, coffee, to¬ 
bacco, hides, piassava, and tapioca, is very 
extensive. Pop. (1900) 230,000. The State, 
area, 164,649 square miles; pop. (1900) 
2,117,956,‘has much fertile land, both along 
the coast and in the interior. 

Bahia Honda (ba-e'c 1 , on'da), a seaport 
of Cuba, on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, 
and lying on a small bay, bearing the same 
name. The town and bay are about 50 miles 
W. of Havana, being commanded by a small 
fort. There are mines of coal and copper 
in the vicinity. A short distance to the S. 
are the sulphur springs of Aguacate. 

39 


Bahr (bar), an Arabic word signifying 
sea or large river; as in Bahr-el-Huleh, the 
Lake Meroin in Palestine; Bahr-el-Abiad, 
the White Nile, Bahr-el-Azrek, the Blue Nile, 
which together unite at Khartum. 

Bahr, Johann Christian Felix (bar), 
a German philologist, born at Darmstadt, 
June 13, 1798; educated at Heidelberg 
Gymnasium and University, of which last 
he became ordinary Professor of Classical 
Philology in 1823. His chief work is his 
“History of Roman Literature” (1828; 
4th ed., 1868-1870), which is noted for its 
clearness and comprehensiveness. Three 
supplements to this work deal with the 
“ Christian Poets and Historians of Rome ” 
(1836); the “Christian-Roman Theology” 
(1837) ; and the “ History of Roman Liter¬ 
ature in the Carlovingian Period” (1840). 
His edition of “Herodotus” (2d ed., 1855- 
1861) is also noteworthy. He died Nov. 29, 
1872. 

Bahraich (bar-Ic'), a town of Oudh, 
India, near the old bed of the Gogra, 70 
miles N. E. of Lucknow. It is an old town, 
with some local trade in piece goods and 
copper utensils. To the shrine of Masafid, 
a warrior and Mussulman saint, there is a 
great concourse of pilgrims annually in the 
month of May. Pop. (1901) 27,304. The 
area of the district of Bahraich is 2,741 
square miles, and the population, 878,048. 

Bahrein (ba'rin), Islands, a group of 
islands in the Persian Gulf, in an indenta¬ 
tion on the Arabian coast. The principal 
island, usually called Bahrein, is about 27 
miles in length and 10 miles in breadth. 
The principal town is Menamali or Ma¬ 
nama ; pop. 25,000; and the seat of govern¬ 
ment is Moharek, on an island of that 
name; pop. about 22.000. There are about 
50 villages on the islands. The Bahrein 
Islands are chiefly noted for their pearl- 
fisheries, which were known to the ancients, 
and which employ in the season from 2,000 
to 3,000 boats with from 8 to 20 men 
each. Total pop., est. at 70,000. 

Bahr=eI=Ghazal (bar-el-Gliz'-el), the name 
of the old Egyptian province which incloses 
the district watered by the southern tribu¬ 
taries of Bahr-el-Arab and Bahr-el-Ghazal. 
It was under the control of the Arabs till 
1879, when a settled government was estab¬ 
lished under Gordon by Gessi Pasha on be¬ 
half of Egypt. The province remained in 
the possession of Egypt till the Mahdi’s re¬ 
bellion cut off all communication with 
Khartum and Egypt, and compelled the 
then ruler, Lupton Bey, who made a most 
gallant fight, to surrender in 1884. Lupton 
Bey claimed in 1883 that he was the only 
one of the Sudan governors who could show 
a profit on his administration. This he ac¬ 
complished through the richness of the 
province in ivory, rubber, gum and other 




Bahr Yusuf 


Bailey 


products. It is said to be a good cotton¬ 
growing country, and abounds in timber. 
Slatin Pasha lias drawn attention both to 
the fertility of the province and to its stra¬ 
tegical importance. To the W. of it lies the 
Ubangi district of French Kongo; and it 
was thence that Major Marchand made his 
way through the Bahr-el-Ghazal to Faslioda 
in the summer of 1898. 

Bahr Yusuf (bar-yo'suf), or Bahr el 
Yusuf, an artificial irrigation channel 
from the left bank of the Nile below Sint, to 
the Fayum; 270 miles long. According to 
Koptic traditions it was constructed during 
Joseph’s administration. 

Bai® (bl'e), an ancient Roman water¬ 
ing-place on the coast of Campania, 10 
miles W. of Naples. Many of the wealthy 
Romans had country houses at Baiae, which 
Horace preferred to all other places. Ruins 
of temples, baths, and villas still attract 
the attention of archaeologists. 

o 

Baif, Jean Antoine de (bii-ef'), a French 
poet (1582-1589), one of the literary league 
known as the “ Pleiade,” and the chief ad¬ 
vocate of its plan of reducing French poetry 
to the meters of the classic tongues; also 
a spelling reformer, in favor of the phonetic 
system. His most meritorious works were 
translations of Greek and Roman dramas. 

Baikal (bi'kal), an extensive lake of 
Eastern Siberia; crescent-shaped, and sur¬ 
rounded by high and wild mountains rising 
3,000 to 4,000 feet above its surface. 
Length, S. W. to N. E., 370 miles; breadth, 
20 to 70 miles; altitude, about 1,400 feet; 
greatest ascertained depth, 4,500 feet; aver¬ 
age depth of its southern part, about 800 
feet. It is divided by Olklion Island and 
Svyatoi Nos Peninsula into two basins, 
which may be considered as two longitudinal 
valleys connected together by a transverse 
passage. Receives the Upper Angara, Bar- 
guzin, and Selenga, all from the E., and very 
many mountain streams; its waters are dis¬ 
charged through the Lower Angara into the 
Yenisei. Frozen from January to the first 
part of May. Forms part of the line of 
communications between Russia, the Amur, 
and China, steamers plying between List- 
venichnoye, at the outlet of the Lower An¬ 
gara, and Posolskoye, in the delta of Se¬ 
lenga, smaller steamers plying up this latter 
to Verkhneudinsk, while in the winter the 
lake is crossed on the ice, and a temporary 
station is established half-way. Besides, a 
road has been built around its S. coast, past 
Kultuk, at the foot of the very steep slopes 
of the mountains. The Siberian railway 
will follow this road; but a temporary con¬ 
nection will be established from Listvenich- 
noye to Posolskoye by means of steamers. 

Baikie, William Balfour, an English ex¬ 
plorer, born in the Orkney Islands, Aug. 27, 
1825; joined the British navy, and was 


made Surgeon and Naturalist of the Niger 
Expedition, 1854. He took the command on 
the deaith of the senior officer, and explored 
the Niger for 250 miles. Another expedi¬ 
tion, which started in 1857, passed two 
years in exploring, when the vessel was 
wrecked, and all the members, with the ex¬ 
ception of Baikie, returned to England. 
With none but native assistants he formed 
a settlement at the confluence of the Benu6 
and the Quorra, in which lie was ruler, 
teacher, and physician, and within a few 
years he opened the Niger to navigation, 
made roads, established a market, etc. He 
died in Sierra Leone, Dec. 12, 1864. 

Bail. (1) Of persons: Those who stand 
security for the appearance of an accused 
person at the fitting time to take his trial. 
The word is a collective one, and not used 
in the plural. They were so called because 
formerly the person summoned was baillS, 
that is, given into the custody of those who 
were security for his appearance. 

(2) Pecuniary security given by responsi¬ 
ble persons that an individual charged with 
an offense against the law will, if tempor¬ 
arily released, surrender when required to 
take his trial. 

Several kinds of bail either exist or did so 
formerly at common law. An important 
one, of which much use was once made, was 
that called common bail, or bail below. The 
old practice being to arrest persons who 
now would only be summoned, an excuse 
was required for again letting those go 
against whom the charge was trivial. So, 
with all gravity, there were accepted as 
their securities John Doe and Richard Roe, 
two mythic personages whom no one had 
ever seen in the flesh, and who were known 
to be utterly unproducible if the friend for 
whose appearance they became responsible 
thought fit to decamp. If the charge was a 
more serious one, special bail, called also 
bail above, was requisite; it was that of sub¬ 
stantial men, and in this case no shadowy 
personages would do. Modern legislation 
lias so altered the form of process that 
Messrs. Doe and Roe’s services are now sel¬ 
dom required. 

Bailey, Gamaliel, an American journalist, 
born in Mount Holly, N. J., Dec. 3, 1807; 
with J. G. Birnev, founded the anti-slavery 
journal, the “Cincinnati Philanthropist” 
(1836), the office of which was destroyed by 
a mob, though it continued to be published 
till 1847. He established the well-known 
newspaper, the Washington “ National Era” 
(1847), in which the famous novel, “Uncle 
Tom’s Cabin,” appeared first. He died at 
sea, June 5, 1859. 

Bailey, Jacob Whitman, an American 

scientist, born in Auburn, Mass., April 29, 
1811; was graduated at the United States 
Military Academy, in 1832; and from 1834 
till his death was Professor of Chemistry, 



Bailey 


Bailey 


Mineralogy and Geology at the Military 
Academy. He was the inventor of the 
Bailey indicator and of many improvements 
in the microscope, in the use of which he 
achieved high distinction; and he is re¬ 
garded as the pioneer in microscopic investi¬ 
gation. He was President of the American 
Association for the Advancement of Science 
in 1857; held membership in the principal 
scientific associations of the world, and was 
author of numerous papers on the results 
of his researches. He died in West Point, 
N.Y., Feb. 26, 1857. 

Bailey, James Montgomery, an Amer¬ 
ican author, born in Albany, N. Y., Sept. 
25, 1841; served in the 17th Connecticut 
regiment during the Civil War; returned to 
Danbury, founded the Danbury “News” in 
1870. His humorous articles in this paper 
were widely quoted. He wrote “ Life in 
Danbury” (Boston, 1873); “They All Do 
It” (1877); “ The Danbury Boom ” (1880), 
etc. He died in Danbury, Conn., March 4, 
1894. 

Bailey, Joseph, an American military 
officer, born in Salem, 0., April 28, 1827; 
entered the Union army as a private in 
1861, and signally distinguished himself in 
the Red River campaign under Gen. N. P. 
Banks, in 1864, by building a dam and deep¬ 
ening the water in the channel, which en¬ 
abled Admiral Porter’s Mississippi flotilla 
to pass the Red River rapids in safety, and 
so escape a perilous situation. For this en¬ 
gineering feat, Bailey, who, before entering 
the army was a plain farmer, was breveted 
Brigadier-General, promoted Colonel, voted 
the thanks of Congress, and presented by the 
officers of the fleet with a sword and a purse 
of $3,000. Subsequently, he w r as promoted 
to full Brigadier-General, and was engaged 
on engineering duty till his resignation, 
July 7, 1865. He died in Nevada, Mo., 
March 21, 1867. 

Bailey, Liberty Hyde, an American hor¬ 
ticulturist, born in South Haven, Mich., 
March 15, 1858; graduated at the Michigan 
Agricultural College in 1882; was associate 
to Dr. Asa Gray at Harvard University in 
1882-1883; Professor of Horticulture and 
Landscape Gardening in the Michigan Agri¬ 
cultural College in 1883—1888; and in the 
last year became Professor of Horticulture 
in Cornell University. He was an associate 
editor of the revised edition of “Johnson’s 
Universal Cyclopedia” (1892-1896); editor 
of “American Gardening”; became chair¬ 
man of the Roosevelt Commission on Coun¬ 
try Life in 1908. His works include “ An¬ 
nals of Horticulture,” “ Evolution of Our 
Native Fruits,” “ Principles of Fruit Grow¬ 
ing,” “ Text-book of Agriculture,” etc. 

Bailey, Loring Woart, a Canadian sci¬ 
entist, born in West Point, N. ^ ., Sept. 28, 
1839, a son of Jacob W. Bailey: was gradu¬ 
ated at Harvard College in 1859, and in 


1861 became Professor of Chemistry and 
Natural History in the University of New 
Brunswick, at Fredericton. Among his pub¬ 
lications are “ Mines and Minerals of New 
Brunswick,” “ Geology of South New Bruns¬ 
wick,” “ Elementary Natural History,” etc. 

Bailey, Nathan, an English lexicographer 
and classical scholar. He was a school 
teacher at Stepney, and a Seventh Day Bap¬ 
tist. Besides educational books, he was the 
author of a “ Universal Etymological Eng¬ 
lish Dictionary” (1721), the first English 
dictionary with any pretensions to being 
complete, and the basis of Dr. Johnson’s bet¬ 
ter known work. He wrote also a “ Domes¬ 
tic Dictionary” ( 1736). He died at Step¬ 
ney, June 27, 1742. 

Bailey, Philip James, an English poet, 
born in Basford, Nottinghamshire, April 22, 
1816; he w r as educated in Glasgow, and 
studied law at Lincoln’s Inn, being admitted 
to the bar in 
1840. In his 
twentieth 
year he began 
the composi¬ 
tion of “ Fes- 
tus,” a lyri- 
co - dramatic 
poem on the 
Faust legend 
The poem 
was publish¬ 
ed in 1S39, 
and attracted 
unusual at¬ 
tention. The 
11 til edition 
was published 
in 1889. His 
other works 
include “The Angel World” (1850); 
“The Mystic” (1855); “The Age,” a col¬ 
loquial satire (1858) ; and “ The Universal 
Hymn” (1867). He died Sept. 6, 1902. 

Bailey, Samuel, an English writer on 
political and mental philosophy, was born 
in Sheffield, in 1791, and became a banker. 
His first work was a volume of “ Essays on 
the Formation and Publication of Opin¬ 
ions ” (1821), in which he ably defended the 
proposition that a man’s opinions are inde¬ 
pendent of his will. His “ Essays on the 
Pursuit of Truth and on the Progress of 
Knowledge” (1829), are only less valuable. 
His many controversial books on questions 
of political economy are already almost for¬ 
gotten, though these,as well as his pamphlets 
and treatises on political representation, 
primogeniture, and the like, are character¬ 
ized alike by terse exposition and vigorous 
style. Not less interesting are his “ Review 
of Berkeley’s Theory of Vision” (1842); 
“ Theory of Reasoning ” (1851) ; and “ Let¬ 
ters on the Philosophy of the Human Mind. ” 
(1355-1863). The third series of the last 





Bailey 


Baillie 


contains an able defense of utilitarianism, 
in which the author avows himself a thor¬ 
ough determinist. He died in Sheffield, Jan. 
18, 1870. 

Bailey, Theodorus, an American naval 
officer, born in Chateaugay, N. Y., April 12, 
1805; entered the navy in 1818; served on 
the W. coast of Mexico during the Mexi¬ 
can War; commanded frigate “ Colorado,” 
of the Western Gulf Blockading Squadron, 
in 18G1-18G2; and in the last year com¬ 
manded the right column of Admiral Far- 
ragut’s squadron in the passage of Forts 
St. Philip and Jackson, and led the fleet at 
the capture of the Ohalmette batteries and 
the city of New Orleans. In 1862-1865 he 
commanded the East Gulf Blockading 
Squadron. He was commissioned Rear- 
Admiral and retired in 18GG. Fie died in 
Washington, D. C., Feb. 10, 1877. 

Bailey, Vernon, an American scientist, 
born in Manchester, Mich., June 21, 1863; 
received a university education; and in 
1900 was chief field naturalist of the 
United States Biological Survey. Among 
his publications are “ Spermophiles of Mis¬ 
sissippi Valley,'’ “ Revision of Voles of the 
Genus Evotomvs,” “ Mammals of District 
of Columbia,” etc. 

Bailey, Wiliiam Whitney, an American 
botanist, born in West Point, N. Y., Feb. 
22, 1843. He was educated at Brown and 
Harvard, having been a pupil of Prof. Asa 
Gray. In 18G7 he was botanist of the 
United States Geological Survey of the 
40th parallel; in 18G7-18G9 assistant li¬ 
brarian of the Providence Athenaeum. He 
was appointed Instructor in Botany at 
Brown University in 1 877, and became pro¬ 
fessor there in 1881. He has published 
“Botanical Collector’s Handbook” (1881). 

Baillairge, Charles P. (bl-yarzh'), a 
Canadian architect and civil engineer, born 
in Quebec, Sept. 27, 182G. Among his best 
known works as an architect are the Laval 
University, the asylum and churches of the 
Sisters of Charity and Good Shepherd, the 
Music Hall, the new jail, Dufferin Terrace, 
the aqueduct bridge over the St. Charles, 
and the Monument aux Braves de 1760, 
all in the city of Quebec. In 1863-18G5 
he was joint architect and engineer with 
Messers. Fuller and Page, of the Parliamen¬ 
tary and departmental buildings in Ottawa. 
He is a member of the Royal Academy of 
Arts, Fellow of the Royal Society of Can¬ 
ada, and a past president of the Quebec 
Association of Architects. He has received 
many honors and diplomas from his own 
and other governments, and has published 
a large number of important works, in¬ 
cluding “ Plane and Spherical Geometry 
and Trigonometry” (1863); “Key to the 
Stereometrical Tableau” (1870); “ Homo- 
nymes Francais ” (1891) ; “English Homo¬ 
nyms” (1891), etc. 


Bailiff, essentially a person intrusted by 
a superior with power of superintendence. 
In the United States the word bailiff 
lias no precise meaning. The term is 
most frequently used to denote a court 
officer whose duty it is to take charge of 
juries and wait upon the court. In Eng¬ 
land, an officer appointed for the admin¬ 
istration of justice in a certain bailiwick 
or district. The sheriff is the King's bail¬ 
iff, whose business it is to preserve the 
rights of the King within his “ bailiwick ” 
or county. (1) The governor of a castle 
belonging to the King. (2) A sheriff’s offi¬ 
cer. Bailiffs are either bailiffs of hundreds 
or special bailiffs, (a) Bailiffs of hundreds 
are officers appointed by the sheriff over the 
districts so called, to collect fines, summon 
juries, to attend the judges and justices at 
the assizes and quarter sessions, and to 
execute writs and process. (b) Special 
bailiffs are men appointed for their adroit¬ 
ness and dexterity in hunting and seizing 
persons liable to arrest. They assist the 
bailiffs of hundreds in important work for 
which the latter have no natural aptitude 
or acquired skill. Special bailiffs being 
compelled to enter into an obligation for 
the proper discharge of their duty are 
sometimes called bound bailiffs, a term 
which the common people have corrupted 
into a more homely appellation. (Black- 
stone’s “ Commentaries,” book i, chapter 9.) 

Baillie, Lady Grizel, a Scotch poet, born 
in Redbraes Castle, Dec. 25, 1665; daugh¬ 
ter of the first Earl of Marchmont; mar¬ 
ried George Baillie in 1692; published a 
large number of songs in Ramsay’s “ Miscel- 
lanv ” and other collections. She died Dec. 
6. 1746. 

Baillie, Joanna, a Scotch author; born 

in Both well, near Glasgow, Sept. 11, 1762; 
removed in early life to London, where in 
1798 she published the first volume of her 
well-known “ Plays on the Passions,” in 
which she attempted to delineate the 
stronger passions by making each passion 
the subject of a tragedy and a comedy. 
These plays were not well adapted for the 
stage, but gave Miss Baillie a very extended 
reputation. Her first volume was followed 
by a second volume in 1802, a third (of 
miscellaneous plays) in 1804, and a fourth 
in 1812. Other plays appeared in 1836, 
and a complete edition of her whole dra¬ 
matic works in 1850. The only plays per¬ 
formed on the stage were a tragedy entitled 
the “ Family Legend,” which was brought 
out at the Edinburgh Theater in 1810 under 
the patronage of Sir Walter Scott, and had 
a run of 14 nights and one of the plays on 
the passions entitled “ De Montfort,” which 
was brought out by John Kemble, and play¬ 
ed for 11 nights, though an attempt to re¬ 
vive it at a later period failed. Miss Baillie 
also wrote songs and miscellaneous poems. 
All her productions are full of genius. The 




Baillie 


Bailly 


language is simple and forcible, the female 
portraits are particularly beautiful, and 
great knowledge of the human heart is dis¬ 
played in the delineations of character. She 
was an intimate friend of Sir Walter Scott, 
who greatly admired her writings, and her 
home was frequented by many of the prom¬ 
inent authors of the day. She died in 
Hampstead, Feb. 23, 1851. 

Baillie, Robert, a Scotch Presbyterian 
clergyman, born at Glasgow in 1599, and 
educated at the university of that city. 
In 1638 he sat in that famous General As¬ 
sembly which met in Glasgow to protest 
against the thrusting of Episcopacy on an 
unwilling people. In 1649 he was chosen 
by the Church to proceed to Holland, and 
to invite Charles II. to accept the cove¬ 
nant and crown of Scotland. He performed 
his mission skilfully; and, after the Res¬ 
toration, through Lauderdale’s influence, 
he was made principal of Glasgow Uni¬ 
versity. He died in July, 1662. 

Baillie, Robert, the “ Scottish Sidney,” 
was a natHe of Lanarkshire, who first came 
into notice in 1676 through his rescue of a 
brother-in-law, the Rev. Mr. Kirkton, from 
the clutches of Archbishop Sharp’s princi¬ 
pal informer. In 1683 he took a prominent 
part in a scheme of emigration to South 
Carolina, as he saw no other refuge from 
the degrading tyranny of the government. 
About the same time, however, he entered 
into correspondence with the heads of Mon¬ 
mouth’s supporters in London, Russell and 
Sidney, and subsequently repaired there to 
concert measures for securing adequate re¬ 
forms. On the discovery of the Ryehouse 
plot, he was arrested and sent down to Scot¬ 
land. Accused of conspiring against the 
King’s life, and of hostility to monarchical 
government, he was tried at Edinburgh and 
condemned to death upon evidence at once 
insignificant and illegal. The sentence was 
carried into execution on the very day that 
it was passed, Dec. 24, 1684. 

Baillou, Guillaume de (bl-yo'), a French 
physician, born in 1538; became physician 
to the Dauphin in 1601; was author of 
several works, including “ Adversaria Medi- 
cinalia,” and is considered the first exponent 
of the nature of croup. He died in 1616. 

Bailly, Antoine Nicolas (bii-ye'), a French 
architect, born June 6, 1810; was appointed 
to an office under the city government of 
Paris in 1834, and in 1844 was made archi¬ 
tect to the French government. The Mo- 
liere Fountain and the Tribunal of Com¬ 
merce in Paris, and the reconstruction of 
the Cathedral of Digne, are his work. He 
died in Paris, Jan. 1, 1892. 

Bailly, Jean Sylvain, a French astrono¬ 
mer and statesman, born in Paris, Sept. 15, 
1736. After some youthful essays in verse 
he was induced by Lacaille to devote him¬ 


self to astronomy, and on the death of the 
latter in 1753, being admitted to the Acad¬ 
emy of Sciences, he published a reduction 
of Lacaille’s observations on the zodiacal 
stars. In 1764 he competed ably but un¬ 
successfully for the Academy prize offered 
for an essay upon Jupiter’s satellites, La¬ 
grange being his opponent; and in 1771 
he published a treatise on the light reflected 
by these satellites. In the mean time he 
had won distinction as a man of letters by 
his eulogiums on Pierre Corneille, Liebnitz, 
Moliere, and others; and the same qualities 
of style shown by these were maintained in 
his “History of Astronomy” (1775-1787), 
his most extensive work. In 1784 the 
French Academy elected him a member. 



JEAN SYLVAIN BAILLY. 


The Revolution drew him into public life. 
Paris chose him, May 12, 1789, first deputy 
of the tiers-etat, and in the Assembly itself 
he was made first president, a post occupied 
by him on June 20, 1789, in the session of 
the Tennis Court, when the deputies swore 
never to separate till they had given France 
a new Constitution. As mayor of Paris 
his moderation and impartial enforcement 
of the law failed to commend themselves 
to the people, and his forcible suppression 
of mob violence, July 17, 1791, aroused a 
storm which led to his resignation and re¬ 
treat to Nantes. In 1793 he attempted to 
join Laplace at Melun, but was recognized 
and sent to Paris, where he was condemned 
by the Revolutionary Tribunal, and executed 
on Nov. 12. 

Bailly, Joseph A., a French sculptor, 
born in Paris, in 1825; removed to Phila¬ 
delphia, Pa., ir 1850; and produced “Adam 
and Eve,” “ Eve and Her Two Children,” 
and the marble monument of Washington 
in front of the State-house (1869). He 
died June 15, 1883. 





Bailment 


Baines 


Bailment, “ a delivery of a thing in trust 
for some special object or purpose, and 
upon a contract, express or implied, to con¬ 
form to the object or purpose of the trust.” 
(Story, on “ Bailment.”) There are various 
kinds of bailment, such as the deposit of a 
thing by the owner with another to be kept, 
with or without reward; the committing a 
thing to another to have some act per¬ 
formed with regard to it, either gratu¬ 
itously or for pay; the loan of a thing to 
another for use with or without pay; a 
pledge, or when a thing is bailed to a 
creditor as security for a debt, and the com¬ 
mitting of goods to a common carrier for 
transportation. In most cases the con¬ 
tract involves the restoration of the thing 
bailed, either in specie or in a new form 
agreed upon. The party who delivers the 
thing bailed to another is called the bailor; 
the one receiving it is called bailee. Va¬ 
rious degrees of diligence are required of 
the bailee, according to the nature of the 
bailment. 

Baily, Edward Hodges, an English 
sculptor, born at Bristol in 1788; became 
a pupil of Flaxman in 1807, gained the 
Academy gold medal in 1811, and was 
elected B. A. in 1821. Principal works, 
“ Eve at the Fountain,” “ Eve Listening to 
the Voice,” “ Maternal Affection,” “ Girl 
Preparing for the Bath,” “ The Graces.” 
The has reliefs on the S. side of the 
marble arch, Hyde Park, the statue of Nel¬ 
son on the monument, in London, and va¬ 
rious other public works, were from his 
chisel. He died in London in 1807. 

Baily, Francis, an English astronomer, 
born in Berkshire in 1774; settled in Lon¬ 
don as a stockbroker in 1802. While thus 
actively engaged he published “ Tables for 
the Purchasing and Renewing of Leases,” 
the “ Doctrine of Interest and Annuities,” 
the “ Doctrine of Life Annuities and As¬ 
surances,” and an epitome of universal 
history. On retiring from business with 
an ample fortune in 1825 he turned his 
attention to astronomy, became one of the 
founders of the Astronomical Society, con¬ 
tributed to its “Transactions,” and in 1835 
published a life of Flamsteed. He died in 
1844. 

Baily’s Beads, a phenomenon attending 
eclipses of the sun, the unobscured edge of 
which appears discontinuous and broken 
immediately before and after the moment 
of complete obscuration. It is classed as 
an effect of irradiation. 

Bain, Alexander, a Scotch writer on 
mental philosophy and education, born in 
Aberdeen in 1818; was educated at Maris- 
chal College (then a separate university), 
Aberdeen; was for some years a deputy 
professor in the university; subsequently 
held official costs in London; and in 1860 


was appointed Professor of Logic and Eng¬ 
lish in Aberdeen University, a post which 
he held till his resignation in 1881. His 
most important works are “ The Senses 
and the In- 
tellect” 

(1855); “The 
Emotions 
and the Will” 

(1859), to¬ 
gether form 
ing a com 
plete exposi¬ 
tion of the 
human mind; 

“ Mental and 
Moral Sci¬ 
ence” (18G8); 

“ Logic, De¬ 
ductive and 
Inductive” 

(1870) ;“Mind 
and Body ” 

(1873); “ Education as a Science ” (1879); 
“ James Mill, a Biography ” (1881) ; “ John 
Stuart Mill, a Criticism, with Personal Rec¬ 
ollections ” (1882); “Practical Essays” 

(1884) ; beside an English grammar, “Man¬ 
ual of English Composition and Rhetoric,” 
etc. He died Sept. 18, 1903. 

Bain, Alexander, a Scotch electrician, 
born in Watten, Caithness, in 1810; went 
to London and began a series of electrical 
experiments in 1837; invented electric 
fire alarm and sounding apparatus, and the 
automatic chemical telegraph by which 
high speed telegraphy was for the first time 
possible. He died in 1877. 

Bainbridge, Edmond, an English mili¬ 
tary officer, born in 1841; was educated at 
the Royal Military Academy; joined the 
army in 1860; and became Colonel in 1893. 
From 1876 be was connected with the ord¬ 
nance branch of the military service, serving 
also as instructor in the School of Gunnery; 
and was director-general of British ord¬ 
nance factories in 1899-1903. 

Bainbridge, William, an American naval 
officer, born in Princeton, N. J., May 7, 
1774; became a Captain in 1800; and com¬ 
manded the frigate “ Philadelphia ” in the 
war against Tripoli. In 1812 He was given 
command of a squadron including the “ Con¬ 
stitution,” “ Essex,” and “ Hornet.” With 
the “ Constitution ” as his flagship, he con¬ 
quered, in December of that year, the Brit¬ 
ish frigate “Java,” carrying 49 guns. 
Later he commanded a squadron in the 
Mediterranean, and was afterward sta¬ 
tioned at various coast cities of his own 
country. He died in Philadelphia, July 28, 
1833. 

Baines, Thomas, an English artist and 
explorer, born in Norfolk, in 1822; became 
an artist; and in 1842 went to Cape Col- 



alexandeb bain. 





Baini 


Baird 


°ny, whence he accompanied the British 
army in the Kaffir War as artist. He af¬ 
terward went with Gregory’s party to 
explore Northwest Australia; with Liv¬ 
ingston to the Zambesi; with Chapman’s 
expedition to the Victoria Falls; and 
finally headed an expedition to the gold 
fields of Tati. Everywhere he made large 
numbers of sketches. A handsome folio of 
colored lithographs from his drawings at 
Victoria Falls was published in 18G5. His 
last journey among the Kaffirs was very 
carefully mapped out and sketched. His 
writings are “ Explorations in South¬ 
western Africa” (1864); “The Gold Reg¬ 
ions of Southeastern 'Africa” (1877). 
He died in Durham, Natal, May 8, 1875. 

Baini, Giuseppe (bi'ne), an Italian mu¬ 
sician, born in Rome in 1775; was director 
of the Pope’s choir from 1814 till his death 
in 1844. The severe gravity and profound 
science of his compositions contrasted 
strongly with the careless style and shal¬ 
low dilettanteism of most of his compeers; 
but less by his compositions than by his 
historical researches did Baini secure for 
himself a prominent place in musical litera¬ 
ture. His principal work is his “ Life of 
Palestrina” (1828). 

Bairaktar (bi-rak'dar) (more correctly, 
Bairak-dar), signifying “standard bearer,” 
the title of the energetic Grand Vizier 
Mustapha. Born in 1755, of poor parents, 
he entered the military service at an early 
age, and soon distinguished himself by his 
valor. When he was Pasha of Rustchuk in 
1806, he fought with some success against 
the Russians, and after the revolt of the 
Janissaries in 1807, by which Selim III. was 
deposed from the throne in favor of Musta¬ 
pha IV., Bairaktar marched his troops to 
Constantinople, where they found the dead 
body of Selim lying in the first court of the 
seraglio. Bairaktar executed all those who 
had had any share in the murder, deposed 
Mustapha IV., and proclaimed the brother 
of this prince, Mahmoud II., Sultan on July 
28, 1808. Bairaktar was now appointed 
Grand Vizier, and endeavored to carry out 
Selim’s reforms, and to strengthen the 
regular army. His chief object was the 
annihilation of the Janissaries; but, favored 
by the fanatical people, these prsetorians 
rebelled, and, with the support of the fleet, 
attacked the seraglio on Nov. 15, 1808, and 
demanded the restoration of Mustapha IV. 
Bairaktar defended himself bravely; but 
when he saw that the flames threatened to 
destroy the palace, and that he was in dan¬ 
ger of falling alive into his enemies’ hands, 
he strangled Mustapha, threw his head to 
the besiegers, and then blew himself up. 

Bairam (bi'ram), the name of the only 
two festivals annually celebrated by the 
Turks and other Mohammedan nations. 
The first is also called Id-al-Fitr, i. e., “ the 


festival of the interruption,” alluding to 
the breaking of the universal fast which is 
rigorously observed during the month Ra- 
madhan or Ramazan. It commences from 
the moment when the new moon of the 
month, Sliewal, becomes visible, the appear¬ 
ance of which, as marking the termination 
of four weeks of abstinence and restraint, 
is looked for and watched with great eager¬ 
ness. At Constantinople it is announced 
by the discharge of guns at the seraglio 
upon the sea-shore, and by the sounding of 
drums and trumpets in ail public places of 
the city. This festival ought, properly, to 
last but one day; but the rejoicings are 
generally continued for two days more. 
The second festival, denominated Id-al- 
Azha or Ivurba Bairam, i. e., “ the festival 
of the sacrifices,” is instituted in commemo¬ 
ration of Abraham offering his son Isaac, 
and is celebrated 60 days after the former, 
on the 10th of Zulhijjah, the day appointed 
for slaying the victims by the pilgrims at 
Mecca. It lasts four days. At each of 
these festivals but one Jchutba is read, i. e., 
divine service is only once publicly per¬ 
formed, on the first day, about an hour 
after sunrise; and in the Turkish Empire 
even this solitary act of public worship is 
now no longer announced by the muezzins, 
or public criers, from the tops of the mina¬ 
rets or turrets of the mosques. At Con¬ 
stantinople the two Bairams are celebrated 
with much pomp. The Sultan on this oc¬ 
casion receives the homage of the different 
Orders of the Empire, and proceeds in state, 
followed by all the higher officers, to the 
mosque. As the Mohammedans have a 
lunar year of 354 days, the two festivals 
run, once every 32 years, through all the 
seasons. 

Baird, Absalom, an American military 
officer, born in Washington, Pa., Aug. 20, 
1824; was graduated at the United States 
Military Academy and assigned to the ar¬ 
tillery in 1S49. He became Captain and 
Major in the regular army in 1861, and 
in the volunteer army was commissioned a 
Brigadier-General, April 2S, 1862, and brev- 
etted Major-General, Sept. 1, 1862, for his 
conduct in the Atlanta campaign. On 
March 13, 1865, he was brevetted Major- 
General, United States army, for his meri¬ 
torious services in the field during the war. 
In 1885, he was promoted Brigadier-General 
and Inspector-General, United States army, 
and in 1888 was retired. He was continu¬ 
ally in the field from the Manassas cam¬ 
paign, in 1861, till after the surrender of 
Gen. Johnston’s army in 1865. Died 1905. 

Baird, Andrew Wilson, an English mili¬ 
tary engineer, born in Aberdeen, Scotland, 
April 26, 1842; was educated in Aberdeen 
and at the Royal Military Academy; be¬ 
came a Colonel in the Royal Engineer Corps 
in 1893; was Special Assistant Engineer of 




Baird 


Baireuth 


the harbor JeAnses of Bombay, in 18G4; 
assistant held engineer of the Abyssinian 
expedition in 1808, and, for nearly 20 years 
thereafter, was employed on the great 
trigonometrical survey of India. His ser¬ 
vices were rewarded with numerous official 
commendations, medals, and decorations; 
and he published a number of important 
works cn his labors in India. 

Baird, Charles Washington, an Amer¬ 
ican historian and religious writer, son of 
Robert Baird; born at Princeton, N. J., 
Aug. 28, 1828; besides works on the Pres¬ 
byterian liturgies (which lie was the first 
to collect and investigate) and local his¬ 
tories, he wrote “ History of the Huguenot 
Emigration to America” (2 vols., 1885). 
It is interesting, especially to the genealo¬ 
gist. He died in Rye, N. Y., Feb. 10, 1881. 

Baird, Sir David, a British general, born 
in Scotland in 1757. Entering the army 
in 1778, he served in India, and, while brig¬ 
adier-general, he led the storming party 
that carried Seringapatam by assault, in 
1799. For his gallantry on this occasion he 
was thanked by both Houses of Parliament. 
He subsequently served his country by the 
capture of Cape Town, and at the taking of 
Copenhagen, and shared the glory of 
Corunna under Sir John Moore, after whose 
death on that field he became commander- 
in-cliief. . Ilis severe wounds, however, in¬ 
capacitated him from acting in that capac¬ 
ity. At the close of the war, he was cre¬ 
ated a baronet, and received the Order of 
the Bath. He died in 1829. 

Baird, Henry Carey, an American po¬ 
litical economist, nephew of Henry C. Carey, 
born in Bridesburg, Pa., in 1825. He is a 
publisher at Philadelphia. A protectionist, 
liis economical views generally are similar 
to those of his distinguished uncle. He has 
written numerous economic pamphlets. 

Baird, Hen= 
ry Martyn, 

an American 
author, born 
in Philadel¬ 
phia, Pa., Jan. 
1 7, 1 8 3 2; 

graduated 
from the Uni¬ 
versity of the 
City of New 
York in 1850, 
and, after 
spending 
some years in 
Europe, took 
a course in 
theology at 
Union and 
Princeton. In 
1859 he was appointed Professor of the 
Greek Language and Literature in the Uni¬ 
versity of the City of New York. His prin¬ 


cipal works are the “ History of the llise 
of the Huguenots” (1879); “The Hugue¬ 
nots and Henry of Navarre” (1886), and 
“ The Huguenots and the Revocation of the 
Edict of Nantes.” He died Nov. 11, 1906. 

Baird, Julian William, an_ American 

chemist, born in Battle Creek, Mich., Feb. 

14, 1859; was graduated at the University 
of Michigan in 1882; assistant in the chem¬ 
ical laboratory there, in 1882-1883; in¬ 
structor in chemistry and in charge of the 
qualitative analysis and assaying in Lehigh 
University in 1883—1886; became Professor 
of Analytical and Organic Chemistry in the 
Massachusetts College of Pharmacy, Bos¬ 
ton, in 1S8G, and dean, in 1887. 

Baird, Robert, an American historian, 
born in Fayette county, Pa., Oct. .6, 1798; 
published “ History of the Waldenses, Al- 
bigenses, and Vaudois,” “ History of the 
Temperance Societies” (1836); “Religion 
in America” (1844); etc. He was corre¬ 
sponding secretary of the American and 
Foreign Christian Union (1849-1855, 1861- 
1803). He died at Yonkers, N. Y., March 

15, 1803. 

Baird, Spencer Fullerton, a distin¬ 
guished American naturalist, born at Read¬ 
ing, Pa., Feb. 3, 1823; became Professor of 
Natural Sciences at Dickinson College, Car¬ 
lisle, Pa., 1845; United States Commissioner 
of Fish and Fisheries, 1871; Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution, 1878. A very 
prolific writer, among his more important 
works may be named a “ Catalogue of 
North American Reptiles ” (1853); “Birds 
of North America” (with Cassin and Law¬ 
rence, 18G0) ; “Mammals of North Amer¬ 
ica” (1858) ; “History of North American 
Birds” (with Brewer and Ridgeway, 1874- 
1884), etc. His writings cover nearly every 
branch of natural history. He died at 
Wood’s Holl, Mass., Aug. 19, 1887. 

Baireuth, or Bayreuth, a city and capi¬ 
tal of the Bavarian province of Upper 
Franconia, 43 miles N. N. E. of Nuremberg 
by rail. Beautifully situated on the Red 
Maine, it has broad, well paved streets, in¬ 
terspersed with groves, promenades, fine 
gardens, and public fountains. Its princi¬ 
pal buildings are the old palace, dating 
from 1454; the new palace (1753), con¬ 
taining a gallery of paintings, and the old 
opera house (1748). A magnificent Nation¬ 
al theater for the performance of Wagner’s 
music, finished in 1875, was in the following 
year opened with a grand representation 
of his Nibelungen trilogy. On Feb. 14, 
1883, the great master (who died in Venice) 
was buried in the garden of his villa here. 
The chief articles of industry are cottons, 
woolens, linen, leather, tobacco, parchment, 
and porcelain. An active trade is also car¬ 
ried on in grain and horses. Jean Paul 
Richter died here in 1825, and a monument 
has been erected to his memory. Pop. 



HENRY MARTYN BAIRD. 



Bairut 


Bakarganj 


( 100 ;)) 31,003. The witty and accomplished 
W ilhelmina, the favorite sister of Frederick 
the Great, was married to Frederick, Mar¬ 
grave of the Principality of Baireuth. 
Her “Memoirs” were translated in 1887. 

Bairut. See Beyrout. 

Baiter, Johann Georg (bl'ter), a Swiss 
philologist, born in Zurich, May 31, 1801; 
was professor in the University of Zurich, 
and from 1849 to 1865, director in the gym¬ 
nasium there. He published, alone and with 
Sauppe, Orelli, and others, various editions 
of the classics, “ Panegyrics of Socrates,” 
“Ciceronis Scholistse ” “ The Attic Ora- 
toris” (1839-1850), etc. He died in Zu¬ 
rich, Oct. 10, 1877. 

Baize, a sort of coarse woolen fabric with 
a rough nap, now generally used for linings, 
and mostly green or red in color. 

Baia (ba'yli), an Italian seaport town, 
W. of Napl es. It is the ancient Baee (q. v.). 

Baja, a market town of Hungary, on the 
Danube, 90 miles S. of Pest. It is cele¬ 
brated for its annual swine fair, and its 
trade in grain and wine. Pop. 19,000. 

Bajazet (bi-li-zed'), or Bayazeed, I., an 
Ottoman Sultan, born 1347, succeeded his 
father, Amurath I., in 1389. He was the 
first of his family who assumed the title of 
Sultan. The Turkish Empire at this time 
extended W. from the Euphrates to the 
shores of Europe, and Amurath had crossed 
the Bosphorus, subdued the greater part of 
Thrace, and fixed the seat of his power at 
Adrianople. Bajazet wrested the N. parts 
of Asia Minor from the dominion of va¬ 
rious Turkish emirs whose power had long 
been established there. In Europe he con¬ 
quered Macedonia and Thessaly, and in¬ 
vaded Moldavia and Hungary. Sigsmund, 
King of the latter country, met him at the 
head of 100,000 men, including the flower 
of the chivalry of France and Germany, but 
was totally defeated at Nicopoli, on the 
Danube, Sept. 28, 1390. Bajazet is said to 
have boasted, on the occasion of this vic¬ 
tory, that he would feed his horse on the 
altar of St. Peter at Rome. IIis progress, 
however, was arrested by a violent attack 
of the gout. Bajazet was preparing for an 
attack on Constantinople, when he was in¬ 
terrupted by the approach of Timur the 
Great, by whom he was defeated at Angora, 
in Anatolia, July 28, 1402. He was taken 
captive, and died about nine months after¬ 
ward, at Antioch in Pisidia. He was suc¬ 
ceeded by Mohammed I. Modern writers 
reject as a fiction the story of the iron cage 
in which Bajazet was said to have been 
imprisoned. Bajazet was surnamed Ilderim 
or The Lightning; an epithet acquired 
from the fiery energy of his soul, and the 
rapidity of his destructive march. He was 
succeeded by his son, Soliman I. 


Bajazet II., a Sultan of the Turks; he 
succeeded his father, Mohammed II., in 
1481. His brother, Zizim, contested the 
empire with him, assisted by Caith Bey, 
Sultan of the Egyptian Mamelukes, but was 
compelled to retreat into Italy, where he 
died in 1495. Bajazet undertook an expe¬ 
dition against Caith Bey, bift was defeated, 
with great loss, near Mount Taurus in 
Cilicia, in 1189. He was more fortunate 
in Europe, where, in the same year, his 
generals conquered Croatia and Bosnia. 
Bajazet was engaged in long and bloody 
hostilities with the Moldavians, the Rho¬ 
dians, and especially the Venetians, who 
frequently invaded the S. of Greece; 
and with Ishmael, King of Persia. At 
home, he had to contend against his re¬ 
bellious son, Selim, to whom, at last, he 
resigned the empire. He died in 1512, on 
his way to the place which he had chosen 
for his retirement. It has been supposed 
that he was put to death by the order of his 
son. He was a man of uncommon talents, 
and did much for the improvement of his 
empire, and the promotion of the sciences. 

Bajus. See Baius. 

Bajza, Joseph (boi'za), a Hungarian 
poet and critic, born in 1804; devoted him¬ 
self to the field of history, and edited a 
“ Historical Library ” (1843-1845) and the 
“ New Plutarch ” (“1845-1847 ). From 1831 
he was a member of the Hungarian Acad¬ 
emy, and from 1836 of the Kisfaludy So¬ 
ciety. He ranks among the best lyric 
poets of Hungary. His “ Poems ” was pub¬ 
lished in 1835, and his “ Collected Works ” 
(2d ed., in 6 vols., by Toldy) in 1861. He 
died in 1858. 

Bakacs, Thomas (ba-k;igs'), a Hungarian 
statesman, son of a peasant, was born about 
the middle of the 15th century. He held 
several bishoprics in succession, became 
chancellor of the kingdom, and finally arch¬ 
bishop and cardinal. lie preached a cru¬ 
sade against the Turks; but his army of 
peasants and vagabonds turned their arms 
against the nobility, and a bloody civil war 
ensued. He died in 1521, leaving enormous 
wealth. 

Bakalahari, a Bechuana tribe inhabiting 
the Kalahari Desert, South Africa. 

Bakarganj (ba-kiir-ga'ne), a British dis¬ 
trict in the Dacca division of India, under 
the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, contains 
3,649 square miles. It is fertile, and is 
watered at once by the lower streams of 
the Ganges and the Brahmaputra. In the 
S. of the district are the forest tracts of 
the Sunderbunds. Barisal, the headquar¬ 
ters, on the W. bank of Barisal river, is 
the only town with more than 5,000 inhabi¬ 
tants. Bakarganj, the former capital, situ¬ 
ated near the junction of the Krishnakati 



Bakchiserai 


Baker 


rmd Khairabad rivers, is now in ruins. 
Pop. (1901) 2,291,752. 

Bakchiserai (bag-iz-er-i'), (Turkish, 
“Garden Palace”), a town in the Russian 
government of Taurida, the residence of the 
ancient princes or khans of the Crimea, 
stands in a deep limestone valley, 15 miles 
by rail S. W. of the present capital, Sim¬ 
feropol. Pop. about 12,000, mainly rem¬ 
nants of the old Tartar inhabitants. The 
palace (1519) of the khans has been com¬ 
pletely restored by the Russian government 
in the Oriental style. 

Bake, Jan (bil'kc), a distinguished classi¬ 
cal scholar, born at Leyden in 1787; from 
1817 to 1857 was Professor of Greek and 
Roman Literature in the university there. 
He edited works by Cicero, Longinus, and 
others; and wrote many admirable critical 
papers. He died March 2G, 1864. 

Bakel, a town with a strong fort, in the 
E. of the French colony of Senegal, on the 
left bank of the Senegal river. Pop. 2,600. 

Baker, Sir Benjamin, an English engi¬ 
neer, born near Bath, in 1840. In 1877 
he superintended the removal of Cleopatra’s 
Needle from Egypt to London. In conjunc¬ 
tion with Sir John Fowler he drew the plans 
for the great bridge over the Firth of 
Forth. He has written numerous scientific 
treatises, including “ Long Span Iron 
Bridges,” “ Suspension Versus Cantilever 
Bridges,” “ The Strength of Beams,” and 
“ Transportation and Re-erection of Cleo¬ 
patra’s Needle.” 

Baker, Benjamin W., an American edu¬ 
cator, born in Coles county, Ill., Nov. 25, 
1841; was brought up on a farm; served 
in the Union army through the Civil War; 
was graduated at the Illinois State Normal 
University in 1870; became a Methodist 
Episcopal clergyman in 1874; and was 
financial secretary of the Illinois Wesleyan 
University in 1883-1893; president of Chad- 
dock College in 1893-1898, and of the Mis¬ 
souri Wesleyan College, at Cameron, in 1898- 
1906 ; then pastor at De Funiak Springs, Fla. 

Baker, Charles Whiting, an American 
civil engineer, born in Johnson, Vt., Jan. 
17, 1865; was graduated at the engineering 
department of the University of Vermont 
in 1876; managing editor of “ Engineering 
News” in 1900; and author of h Monopolies 
and the People,” etc. 

Baker, Edward Dickerson, an Amer¬ 
ican soldier and politician, born in London, 
England, Feb. 24, 1811; came to the United 
States in youth. He was elected to the 
Illinois Legislature in 1837, became a State 
Senator in 1840, and was sent to Congress 
in 1844. He served under General Scott in the 
war with Mexico and was elected United 
States Senator from Oregon in I860. He 
entered the Federal army at the outbreak 


of the Civil War, and was killed at the 
battle of Ball’s Bluff, Oct. 21, 1861. 

Baker, Frank, an American zoologist; 
was graduated in the medical department 
of Columbian University in 1880; was Pro¬ 
fessor of Anatomy in the University of 
Georgetown; and in 1900 was superinten¬ 
dent of the National Zoological Park, in 
Washington, D. C. Dr. Baker is a Fellow 
of the American Association for the Ad¬ 
vancement of Science, and a member of the 
Academy of Science, and the Anthropologi¬ 
cal and the Biological Societies, all in 
Washington. 

Baker, George Augustus, an American 
painter, born in New York, in 1821; elected 
to the National Academy in 1851. He was 
especially celebrated as a portrait painter 
and reproduced flesh-tints very accurately. 
His principal works, aside from his por¬ 
traits, are “Love at First Sight,” “Wild 
Flowers,” “ Faith,” and “ The May Queen.” 
He died in New York, April 2, 1880. 

Baker, George Augustus, an American 

writer of verse and stories, born in New 
York, N. Y., in August, 1849; graduated 
from Columbia College Law School, and has 
written: “ Point Lace and Diamonds,” 

light society verse (New York, 1875) ; 
“Bad Habits of Good Society” (1876); 
“ Mrs. Hephaestus and Other Stories ” 
(1887); and comedies. 

Baker, Harriette Newell (Woods) 

(pseudonyms “Madeline Leslie” and “Aunt 
Hatty ”), an American writer of juvenile 
stories, born in 1815. A very voluminous 
writer, several of her works have been 
translated into French and German. She 
has written “ Tim, the Scissors-Grinder ” 
(1861, sequel in 1862), her most popular 
work; “Up the Ladder” (1862); “The 
Two Homes ” (1862); “ The Organ-Grinder ” 
(1863) : “White and Black Lies” (1864) ; 
“Worth and Wealth” (1864); “Tim’s 
Sister” (1864); “Wheel of Fortune” 
(1865); “Courtesies of Wedded Life” 
(1869); “Paul Barton” (1869); “Fash¬ 
ion and Folly” (1869) ; “Lost but Found ” 
(1869); “ Ingleside ” (1886); “This and 
That” (1887) ; etc. She was a daughter of 
Rev. Leonard Woods and wife of Rev. Abi- 
jah R. Baker, and died in 1893. 

Baker, Henry, an English naturalist, 
born in London in 1698; from a bookseller’s 
apprentice became a teacher of deaf-mutes, 
and, making a large fortune, in 1729 
married Defoe’s youngest daughter. In 
1740 he was elected a Fellow both of the 
Royal Society and of the Society of An¬ 
tiquaries. He contributed many papers to 
the “ Transactions ” of the former society, 
received its Copley gold medal (1744) for 
his microscopical experiments, and pub¬ 
lished a philosophical poem on the “ Uni- 



Baker 


Baker 


verse.” He was the founder of the Bakerian 
lectureship, and died Nov. 25, 1774. 

Baker, Ira Osborn, an American edu¬ 
cator, born in Linton, Ind., Sept. 23, 1853; 
became Professor of Civil Engineering in 
the University of Illinois in 1880. He has 
written several scientific works. 

Baker, James Hutchins, an American 
educator, born in Harmony, Me., Oct. 13, 
1848; was graduated at Bates College, 
Lewiston, in 1873; principal of the Denver 
High School in 1875-1791; and in the last 
year became president of the National 
Council of Education and also of the Uni¬ 
versity of Colorado. He has published 
numerous lectures and monographs, and a 
work on “ Elementary Psychology.” 

Baker, John Gilbert, an English bota¬ 
nist, born in Guisbrough, Yorkshire, Jan. 
13, 1834; was appointed assistant curator 
at the herbarium at Kew in 18G6. He was 
for many years lecturer on botany to the 
London hospital, and in 1882 he received 
a like appointment from the Apothecaries’ 
Company; he is also a member of the Royal 
and Linnsean Societies. His voluminous 
writings include works on the flora of dis¬ 
tricts so diverse as the North of England, 
Madagascar, and Brazil; and from his pen 
have come both popular monographs and 
scientific catalogues of high value. 

Baker, Lafayette C., an American de¬ 
tective, born in Stafford, N. Y., Oct. 13, 
1826; was chief of the Secret Service 
Bureau during the Civil War; and reached 
the military rank of Brigadier-General. He 
superintended the pursuit of Wilkes Booth, 
President Lincoln’s assassin. He published 
a “ History of the United States Secret Ser¬ 
vice ” (1868). He died in Philadelphia, 
Pa., July 2, 1868. 

Baker, Marcus, an American cartogra¬ 
pher, born in Kalamazoo, Mich., Sept. 23, 
1849; was graduated at the University of 
Michigan in 1870; became connected with 
the United States Coast and Geodetic Sur¬ 
vey, in 1873, and with the United States 
Geological Survey, in 18S6; and in 1900 
was secretary of the United States Board 
on Geographic Names. He was cartogra¬ 
pher to the Venezuela Boundary Commis¬ 
sion, and after surveying and exploring in 
Alaska and along the Pacific coast, pre¬ 
pared, with William H. Dali, the “Alaska 
Coast Pilot.” He died Dec. 12, 1903. 

Baker, Moses Nelson, an American civil 
engineer, born in Enosburg, Vt., Jan. 26, 
1864; was graduated at the University of 
Vermont in 1886; was editor for several 
years of the “ Manual of American Water¬ 
works,” and in 1900 was associate editor 
of “ Engineering News.” He wrote “ Sew¬ 
age Purification in America,” “ Sewerage 
and Sewage Purification,” etc. 


Baker, Osmon Cleander, an American 

clergyman, born in Marlow, N. H., July 30, 
1812; was educated at Wesleyan Univer¬ 
sity ; spent several years in teaching. He 
was one of the founders of the system of 
Methodist Episcopal Theological schools. 
He was professor in the Biblical Institute 
in Concord, N. H., in 1847-1852, and in the 
last year was elected a bishop of the Church. 
His work, “ Guide-Book in the Administra¬ 
tion of Discipline of the Methodist Epis¬ 
copal Church” (1855), is a standard 
work. He died in Concord, N. IL, Dec. 20, 
1871. 

Baker, Sir Richard, an English histo¬ 
rian, born in Kent in 1568, educated at Ox¬ 
ford, knighted in 1603 by James I., and in 
1620 appointed High Sheriff of Oxfordshire, 
where he had estates. Having given secu¬ 
rity for a debt incurred by his wife’s family, 
he was thrown into Fleet Prison, where, 
after continuing some years, he died in 1645. 
During his imprisonment he wrote some de¬ 
votional books, and his “ Chronicle of the 
Kings of England,” first published in 1641, 
and afterward continued by Edward Phil¬ 
lips, the nephew of Milton, and others — a 
work of great popularity in its day, though 
of no permanent value. 

Baker, Sir Samuel White, a distin¬ 
guished English traveler; born in London, 
June 8, 1821. He was trained as an en¬ 
gineer, and at the age of 24 he went to Cey¬ 
lon, where he founded an agricultural set¬ 
tlement at Nuwara Eliya in 1847. In the 
early part of 1861, accompanied by his 
(second) wife, he set out for Africa on a 
journey of exploration. When he had as¬ 
cended the Nile as far as Gondokoro he met 
Speke and Grant returning after their dis¬ 
covery of the Victoria Nyanza lake, and 
learned from them that another large lake in 
the district had been spoken of by the na¬ 
tives. This lake he determined to discover, 
and after many adventures he and his wife 
beheld the Albert Nyanza from a height on 
March 14, 1864. On his return home he 
was received with great honor and was 
knighted. In 1869 he returned to Africa 
as head of an expedition sent by the 
Khedive of Egypt to suppress the slave 
trade and to annex and open up to trade a 
large part of the newly explored country, 
being raised to the dignity of pasha. He re¬ 
turned home in 1873, having finished his 
work, and was succeeded by the celebrated 
Gordon. In 1879 he explored the island of 
Cyprus, and subsequently he traveled in Asia 
and America. His writings include: *'• The 
Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon” (1854); 
“ Eight Years’ Wanderings in Ceylon ” 
(1855); “The Albert Nyanza” (1866); 
“ The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia ” 
(1867) ; “ Ismailia, a Narrative of the Ex¬ 
pedition to Central Africa” (1874); “Cy¬ 
prus as I saw it in 1879”; “Wild Beasts 



Baker 


Baking 


and Their Ways” (1800); also “Cast up 
by the Sea,” a story published in 1809. He 
died Dec. 30, 1893/ 

Baker, Thomas, an English antiquary, 
born in 1656; educated at Cambridge. As 
a non-juror he lost his living at Long-New¬ 
ton, in 1690, and was compelled to resign 
his fellowship on the accession of George I., 
but continued to reside at St. John’s Col¬ 
lege till his death in 1740. His “ Reflec¬ 
tions on Learning” (1709-1710) went 
through seven editions. He left in manu¬ 
script 42 folio volumes of an “ Athenoe 
Cantabrigienses,” from which a “ History of 
St. John’s College ” was edited by Professor 
Mayor in 1869. 

Baker, Valentine, an English military 
officer, also known as Baker Pasha, was 
born in 1825; a brother of Sir Samuel White 
Baker. For his services in the Crimean 
War he was made Colonel of the 10th Hus¬ 
sars. In the Russo-Turkish War of 1877 
he was in the Turkish service, and subse¬ 
quently he served in Egypt. He wrote 
“ Clouds in the East,” and “ The War in 
Bulgaria.” He died at Tel-el-Kebir, Nov. 17, 
1887. 

Baker, William Bliss, an American art¬ 
ist, born in New York in 1859; studied at 
the National Academy; and is especially 
noted for his landscapes. Among his works 
are “ In the Old Pasture,” “ October Morn¬ 
ing,” and “ Under the Apple-Tree.” He 
died in Ballston, N. Y., in 1889. 

Baker, Sir William Erskine, a British 
military and civil engineer, born in Leith, 
Scotland, in 1808; served in the first Sikh 
War and afterward held many offices in the 
public works department of India. His en¬ 
gineering work in Scinde was very valuable, 
as the scheme of irrigation which he carried 
through has imparted fertility to a barren 
territory. He became a member of the 
Council of India in 1861; Major-General in 
1865; a K.C.B. in 1870; and retired from 
public life in 1875. He died in Somerset¬ 
shire, Dec. 16, 1881. 

Baker, William Henry, an American 
gynaecologist, born in Medford, Mass., 
March 11, 1845; was graduated at the 
Harvard Medical School; and became Pro¬ 
fessor of Gynaecology there. His publica¬ 
tions include “ The Treatment of Cancer of 
the Uterus,” “ Diseases of the Urethra and 
Bladder,” etc. 

Baker City, Ore., a city and county-seat 
of Baker Co., 360 miles E. of Portland, on the 
Powder river, and the railway of Oregon R. R. 
and Navigation Co. Near the eastern border, 
it has a good trade with the surrounding min¬ 
ing, farming, and stock-raising region in sup¬ 
plying their needs and exporting their prod¬ 
ucts. Its industries mostly have reference 
to this trade, in iron works, saw and lum¬ 
ber mills, breweries, brickyards, etc. A bi¬ 
ennially-elected mayor and a city council 


administer the government. The place was 
settled in 1860, and incorporated in 1872. 
Pop. (1900) 6,663; (1910) 0,742. 

Baker, Mount, an occasionally active 
volcano in Whatcom County, Wash., belong¬ 
ing to the Cascade Range; very active in 
1880; elevation, 10,827 feet. 

Baker’s Dozen, a familiar phrase said 
to have originated in an old custom of 
bakers, who, when a heavy penalty was in¬ 
flicted for short weight, used to give a sur¬ 
plus'number of loaves, called the inbread, 
to avoid all risk of incurring the fine. 
Thirteen, therefore, became a baker’s dozen, 
and 13 also is assumed to be the number 
of witches who sat down together at dinner 
on the Lord’s day, even as it was the num¬ 
ber who were at that last Passover supper 
which immediately preceded the betrayal of 
Christ. Thirteen was also called the 
“ devil’s dozen.” 

Baker University, a co-educational insti¬ 
tution at Baldwin, Kan.; founded in 1858, 
under the auspices of the Methodist Epis¬ 
copal Church; has grounds and buildings 
valued at over $220,000; productive funds, 
about $150,000; income, about $90,000; sci¬ 
entific apparatus, $48,000; professors and 
instructors, 40; students, including summer 
school, about 800; volumes in the library, 
over 26,000; number of graduates, over 650. 

Bakewell, Robert, an English agricul¬ 
turist, celebrated for his improvements in 
the breeding of sheep, cattle, and horses, 
was born in Leicestershire in 1725. He 
commenced experiments in breeding sheep 
about 1755, upon his father’s farm at Dish- 
ley, and for 50 years devoted himself to the 
acquisition and diffusion of information 
upon the subject. 

Bakhtegan (bag-te-gan'), or IN iris, a 
salt lake in the Persian province of Far- 
sistan, 47 miles E. of Shiraz. Lying 5.100 
feet above the sea, it extends 74 miles south¬ 
eastward, and varies in width between 4y 3 
and 13*4 miles. It largely dries up in sum¬ 
mer, when its bed yields very fine salt. 

Bakhtiara (bagt-yar'e), or Bakhtyari, 

(1) A range of mountains of Persia ex¬ 
tending parallel to the Arva and Laristan 
ranges. (2) A half-civilized tribe living in 
the above mountains, estimated to number 
232.800. 

Baki (ba'ke'), the greatest lyric poet of 
Turkey; died about. 1600. His “Divan” 
contains almost exclusively odes in praise 
of the Sultan. 

Baking; the mode of cooking food in an 
air-tight chamber or oven. The term is also 
applied in the manufacture of bricks, pot¬ 
tery, etc. The oven that forms part of a 
kitchen range is simply an iron chamber, 
with flues for conveying the heated gases of 
the fire round it. Ovens are often heated 
by water (superheated), and frequently now 
by gas. Meat for baking is placed in a 
dish, from the bottom of which, in some 



Baking Powder 


Balaenlceps 


cases, it is raised on a wire frame or trivet. 
Baking, although a convenient mode of cook¬ 
ing meat, is not considered quite so good 
as roasting. 

Baking Powder, a powder used in bak¬ 
ing as a substitute for yeast. It consists of 
tartaric acid, bicarbonate of soda, and rice 
or potato flour. These ingredients must 
be powdered and dried separately, and then 
thoroughly mixed together. The flour is 
added to keep the powder dry, and prevent 
it absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. 
As the combination of tartaric acid with 
bicarbonate of soda produces tartrate of 
soda, which is an aperient, it would be 
better if manufacturers of baking powders 
would substitute sesquicarbonate of ammo¬ 
nia for the bicarbonate of soda. Baking 
powders are generally free from adultera¬ 
tion, although alum has sometimes been 
found, but in very minute quantity. 

Bakkebakke, a tribe of African pigmies 
dwelling in the French Kongo territory. 

Baksheesh, or Bakshish, an Eastern 
word, meaning a present or gratuity. In 
Egypt and other parts of the Turkish Em¬ 
pire (not, as is sometimes said, in India), 
the traveler has scarcely set foot on shore 
before clamors for baksheesh, on the most 
frivolous pretexts, or in simple beggary, 
without pretext at all, assail his ears from 
every quarter. Baksheesh is the first Arabic 
word with which he becomes acquainted, 
and he acquires it unwillingly. It will be 
for his interest, as soon as possible, in self- 
defense, to learn three words more — “La 
shy hfl,” meaning “ There is none.” 

Baku (ba-ko'), a Russian port on the 
W. shore of the Caspian, occupying part of 
the peninsula of Apsheron. The naphtha 
or petroleum springs of Baku have long 
been known; and the Field of Fire, so called 
from emitting inflammable gases, lias long 
been a place of pilgrimage with the Guebres 
or fire-worshippers. Recently, from the de¬ 
velopment of the petroleum industry, Baku 
has greatly increased, and is now a large 
and flourishing town. About 500 oil-wells 
are in operation, producing immense quan¬ 
tities of petroleum, much of which is led 
direct in pipes from the wells to the re¬ 
fineries in Baku, and it is intended to lay 
a pipe for its conveyance all the way to the 
Black Sea, at Batoum, which is already con¬ 
nected with Baku by railway. Some of the 
wells have had such an outflow of oil as to 
be unmanageable, and the Baku petroleum 
now competes successfully with any other 
in the markets of the world. Baku is the 
station of the Caspian fleet, is strongly for¬ 
tified, and has a large shipping trade. Pop. 
(1900) 179,133. 

Bakunin, Michael (bh-ko'nin), a Russian 
anarchist, the founder of Nihilism, born in 
1814 of rich and noble family, entered the 


army, but threw up his commission after 
two years’ service, and studied philosophy 
at Moscow, with his friends Herzen, Tur- 
genieff, Granowski (historian), and Belinski 
(critic). Having adopted Hegel’s system as 
the basis of a new revolution, he went in 
1841 to Berlin, and thence to Dresden, Ge¬ 
neva, and Paris, as the propagandist of an¬ 
archism. Wherever he went, he was influ¬ 
ential for disturbance, and after undergo¬ 
ing imprisonment in various States, was 
handed over to Russia, in 1851, by Austria, 
imprisoned for five years, and finally sent 
to Siberia. Escaping thence through Japan, 
he joined Herzen in London, on the staff of 
the “Kolokol.” His extreme views, however, 
ruined the paper and led to a quarrel with 
Marx and the International; and having 
fallen into disrepute with his own party in 
Russia, he died suddenly and almost alone 
at Berne, in 1878. He demanded the en¬ 
tire abolition of the State as a State, the 
absolute equalization of individuals, and the 
extirpation of hereditary rights and of re¬ 
ligion, his conception of the next stage of 
social progress being purely negative and 
annihilatorv. 

tr 

Bala, a- township of England, in North 
Wales, county of Merioneth, 37 miles N. W. 
by W. of Shrewsbury, at the W. end of the 
largest of the Welsh lakes, in a wild and 
mountainous country. In the neighborhood 
occur the Bala Beds, a local deposit, which 
form a group in the Lower Silurian of Mur¬ 
chison. They consist of a few beds, rarely 
more than 20 feet in thickness. The beds 
are chiefly composed of hard crystalline lime¬ 
stone, alternating with softer argillaceous 
bands, which decompose more freely, and 
leave the limestone like a cornice molding, 
affording a characteristic by which, at a 
considerable distance, the Bala Beds can be 
distinguished from the rocks of hard, gritty 
slate above and below. Trilobite and cys- 
tidse are the predominant fossils of the 
group. 

Balaam, a heathen seer, invited by Balak, 
King of Moab, to curse the Israelites, but 
compelled by miracle to bless them instead 
(Num. xxii-xxiv). In another account he 
is represented as aiding in the perversion 
of the Israelites to the worship of Baal, 
and as being, therefore, slain in the Midian- 
itish War (Num. xxxi; Josh. xiii). He is 
the subject of many rabbinical fables, the 
Targumists and Talmudists regarding him, 
as most of the fathers did, in the light or 
an impious and godless man. 

Balachong, an Oriental condiment, com¬ 
posed of small fishes, or shrimps, pounded 
up with salt and spices and then dried. 

Balaena, the genus which includes the 
Greenland, or right whale, type of the fam¬ 
ily balcenid(B, or whale-bone whales. 

Balaeniceps, a genus of wading birds, be¬ 
longing to the Sudan, intermediate between 



Balaenidze 


Balance 


the herons and storks, and characterized by 
an enormous bill, broad and swollen, giving 
the only known species (B. rex), also called 
shoe-bird, a peculiar appearance. It feeds 
on fishes, water snakes, carrion, etc., and 
makes its nest in reeds or grass adjoining 
water. The bill is yellow, blotched with 
dark brown, the general color of the plum¬ 
age dusky gray, the head, neck, and breast 
slaty, the legs blackish. 

Balacnidae, the true whales, the most 
typical family of the order cetacea and the 
sub-order cete. They are known by the ab¬ 
sence of teeth and the presence in their 
stead of a horny substance called whale¬ 
bone, or baleen. The family contains two 
genera, balcena and balcenoptera. 

Balaenoptera, fin-back whales. A genus 
of balcenidw, characterized by the possession 
of a soft, dorsal fin, and by the shortness of 
the plates of baleen. Balcenoptera boops is 
the northern rorqual, or fin-fish, called by 
sailors the finner. It is the largest of 
known animals, sometimes reaching 100 feet 
in length. A somewhat smaller species, B. 
muse ulus, inhabits the Mediterranean. 

Balaghat (ba-la-giit'), the name given to 
a large tract of elevated country in the S. 
of India, extending from the rivers Tum- 
buddra and Krishna in the N. to the farthest 
extremity of Mysore in the S. Also the 
name of a British district in the Central 
Provinces. 

Balaguer, Victor (bii-lii-ga'), a Spanish 
historian, born in Barcelona, Dec. 11, 1824; 
became keeper of the archives, Professor of 
History in the University, both in Bar¬ 
celona, an active Liberal politician, and, in 
1888, chief of the council on the Philippine 
Islands. He wrote “ The Troubadours of 
Montserrat” (1850); “Political and Lit¬ 
erary History of the Troubadours” (1878- 
1880); “Poems” (1874); “Don Juan de 
Serravalle ” (5tli ed., 1875), etc. 

Balahissar, a village on the site of the 
ancient Pessinus, in the S. W. part of the 
province of Angora, in Asia Minor. The an¬ 
cient town was famous for its worship of 
Cybele, and among the fragments of marble 
columns, friezes, etc., rise the ruins of her 
gorgeous temple, and remains of a theater 
in partial preservation, a castle, and a cir¬ 
cus. 

Balaklava, a small seaport in the Crimea, 
8 miles S. S. E. Sebastopol, consisting for 
the most part of houses perched upon 
heights, with an old Genoese castle on an 
almost inaccessible elevation. The harbor 
has a very narrow entrance, and though 
deep, is not capacious. In the Crimean War 
it was captured by the British, and a he¬ 
roically fought battle took place here (Oct. 
25, 1854), ending in the repulse of the Rus¬ 
sians by the British. The charge of the 
Light Brigade was at this battle. 


Balalaika, a musical instrument of very 
ancient Slavonic origin, common among the 
Russians and Tartars. It is a narrow, shal¬ 
low guitar with only two strings. 

Balamban, a small town on the W. coast 
of Cebu, Philippine Islands. It was occu¬ 
pied by a garrison of United States infantry 
after a battle with Filipino insurgents early 
in January, 1900. Balambon is on Tanon 
Strait, and has a native population of some 
thousands, and a public school in which 
English is taught. 

Balance, an instrument employed for de¬ 
termining the quantity of any substance 
equal to a given weight. Balances are of 
various forms; that most commonly used, 
and well known under the designation of 
“ the beam and scales,” consists of a sup¬ 
ported horizontal beam capable of turning 
in a vertical plane round its center. The 
scales or scale pans are suspended by chains 
from the extremities of the beam, called the 
centers of suspension. Midway between the 
centers of suspension, and directly above 
the center of motion (that is, the center of 
the beam), there rises from the upper sur¬ 
face of tlie beam a perpendicular slender 
stem called the tongue, which, when the 
beam is level, points to the top of the piece 
by which the whole is suspended. A good 
balance is necessary, not less for the ordi¬ 
nary commerce of society than for the pur¬ 
poses of science; and there are few indeed to 
whom it should be a matter of indifference 
to know the principles of construction which 
contribute to the excellence of this simple 
and useful instrument. 

The characteristics of a good balance are 
three: (1) That the beam should rest in 

a horizontal position when the scales are 
either empty or loaded with equal weights. 

(2) A very small addition of weight put 
into either scale should cause the beam to 
deviate from the level, which property is 
denominated the sensibility of the balance. 

(3) When the beam is deflected from the 
horizontal position by inequality of the 
weights in the scales, it should have a ten¬ 
dency speedily to restore itself and come to 
rest in the level, which property is called the 
stability of the balance. The remarks which 
follow will guide in the construction of a 
balance which shall possess the foregoing 
properties: The arms of the beam should 
be exactly similar, equal in weight and 
length, and as long as possible. The centers 
of gravity and suspension ought to be in 
one straight line, and the center of motion 
should be immediately above the center of 
gravity. The center of motion and the 
centers of suspension should cause as little 
friction as possible, and their axes ought 
to be at right angles to the line which 
measures the length of the beam. The cen¬ 
ter of motion ought to be a knife-edge; and 
if the balance requires to be very delicate. 




Balance 


Balance 


the centers of suspension ought to be knife- 
edges also; and if the centers of suspension 
be not knife-edges, the rings with which they 
are formed should be hard, polished, and of 
an oval form. There are means of testing 
whether or not these conditions have been 
observed in the construction of a balance. 
For if the balance have no tendency to one 
position more than another, when the scales 
are either loaded, empty, or off altogether, 
it is a proof that the centers of gravity and. 
motion coincide, and the remedy is to lower 
the center of gravity. If the beam is dis¬ 
turbed by a small addition of weight to 
either scale, the arm at the loaded end de¬ 
scending and having no tendency to resume 
the horizontal position, then we may infer 
that the center of gravity is above the center 
of motion; and it is to be observed that the 
quicker the descent of the loaded arm of the 
beam is the farther must the center of grav¬ 
ity be lowered before the beam will acquire 
the requisite stability. If it require a con¬ 
siderable addition of weight in either scale 
to deflect, the beam from the level, we may 
infer either that there is too much friction 
at the center of motion, or that the center of 
gravity is too low. If two weights are found 
to be in equipoise, one being in each scale, 
and if, when a transfer of them is made, and 
that which was in one scale is put into the 
other, there is no longer an equilibrium, 
then we may infer that the arms of the beam 
are. of unequal lengths. 

Various contrivances have been employed 
with a view to correct the defects of the com¬ 
mon balance. The whole apparatus is not 
infrequently inclosed in a glass case, which 
prevents the heat from expanding the arms 
unequally, or currents of air from disturb¬ 
ing the equilibrium. A small weight has 
been made to slide up or down on the 
tongue, by which means the center of gravity 
may be raised or depressed at pleasure; and 
to regulate the equality of the length of the 
arms, a regulating screw is employed, by 
means of which the center of suspension of 
either arm may be moved nearer to or far¬ 
ther from the center of motion. Balances 
used for delicate purposes, such as for as¬ 
saying, have the center of motion suspended; 
but that center is fixed on a pedestal, which 
firmly supports the whole. Various forms 
of hydrometer, for example Nicholson’s, may 
be employed as balances. A hydrometer with 
a rather large body and narrow neck, and 
weighing much less than its own volume of 
water, may be fitted up as a convenient form 
of balance known as the hydrostatic balance. 
This form of balance is, however, used, only 
in very special cases, since for ordinary 
purposes it possesses no particular advan¬ 
tages. The balances which we have consid¬ 
ered above all require an assortment of 
weights; and it now remains for us to de¬ 
scribe the more important of those balances 
which require only one weight, but are nev¬ 


ertheless capable of determining a great 
many. Of this description is the statera, 
or Roman steel-yard, which, in all its forms, 
however complicated and elaborate, consists 
essentially of a steel lever movable around 
a fixed fulcrum. On one side of this ful¬ 
crum, and at a known distance from it, a 
fixed pan is suspended from the bar, and the 
body to be weighed is placed in this pan. 
The other arm of the lever is graduated, the 
divisions being shown by notches, and from 
it the single weight is suspended at such a 
distance (ascertained by trial) from the 
fulcrum as to counterbalance the turning 
effect due to the body and the pan and 
produce equilibrium. When that has been se¬ 
cured, we know from the principle of mo¬ 
ments that, provided the apparatus was in 
equilibrium before the body and the weight 
were added, the number of pounds in the 
mass of the body multiplied by the number 
of units in the known distance of the point 
of suspension of the pan from the fulcrum 
must be equal to the number of pounds in 
the movable weight multiplied by the num¬ 
ber of units in its distance from the 
fulcrum. By properly choosing the fixed dis¬ 
tance of the pan and the value of the con¬ 
stant weight we may graduate the long arm 
of the lever so as to read off at once the 
weight of the body in the pan. Thus if the 
pan be suspended at a distance of one inch, 
and the movable weight be one pound, the 
weight of any body placed in the pan is 
equal to the number of inches from the ful¬ 
crum to the sliding weight in the position 
of equilibrium. 

An extremely ingenious balance is that 
used in the Mint and the Bank of England 
for weighing “ blanks ” intended to be coin¬ 
ed, as well as the coins themselves. The in¬ 
strument is self-feeding, and when it has re¬ 
ceived a supply of blanks, each of them is 
in turn pushed into the upper orifice of a 
long flattened tube, which is just capable 
of admitting a disk of the size of a sovereign, 
and which is attached to a pivot at its upper 
end and free at its lower end. By an intri¬ 
cate mechanism, this tube is made to vibrate, 
so that when a blank of full weight is ad¬ 
mitted the lower orifice of the tube is ad¬ 
justed exactly over an opening of equal size 
in a box or compartment beneath, which is 
intended to receive all the blanks of the 
proper weight, and when a blank either too 
heavy or too light is admitted, the tube is 
adjusted in the same way over the open¬ 
ings in other two compartments which are 
respectively intended to receive the “ too 
heavy ” and “ too light ” blanks. 

Balance, in horology: (1) Balance of a 

watch: The circular hoop or ring which 

takes the place of the bob of a pendulum in 
a clock. The action of the hair spring causes 
it to vibrate. (2) Compensating balance 
of a chronometer: A balance, or wheel, fur¬ 
nished with a spiral spring, with metals of 



Balance Electrometer 


Balance of Trade 


different expansibility so adjusted that, in 
alterations of temperature, they work 
against each other and render the move¬ 
ments of the chronometer uniform. 

Balance Electrometer, an instrument 
invented by Cuthbertson for regulating the 
amount of the charge of electricity designed 
to be sent through any substance. Essen- 
tiallv it consists of a beam with both its 
arms terminating in balls. One of these is 
in contact with a ball beneath it, supported 
by a bent metallic tube, proceeding from 
the same stand as that on which the beam 
rests. When electricity is sent through the 
instrument, the two balls repel each other, 
and the beam is knocked up. Its other ex¬ 
tremity consequently descends, the ball there 
coming in contact with another one at the 
top of an insulated column, and a discharge 
will there take place. The weight, overcome 
by the repulsive force, will measure the in¬ 
tensity of the latter. It has been super¬ 
seded by instruments on other principles. 

Balance of Power, a political principle 
which first came to be recognized in modern 
Europe in the 16th century, though it ap¬ 
pears to have been also acted on by the 
Greeks in ancient times, in preserving the 
relations between their different States. The 
object in maintaining the balance of power 
is to secure the general independence of na¬ 
tions as a whole, by preventing the aggres¬ 
sive attempts of individual States to extend 
their territory and sway at the expense 
of weaker countries. The first European 
monarch whose ambitious designs produced 
a fear of his aiming at universal monarchy, 
and consequently induced a combination of 
other States to counteract these, was the 
Emperor Charles V. A similar apprehension 
and counter cooperation took place in the 
end of the 17th century, when the ambition 
of Louis XIV. excited the fears of Europe. 
About a century later the exorbitant power 
and aggressive schemes of the first Napo¬ 
leon led to a general combination against 
him of the allied sovereigns, which resulted 
in his repression and overthrow. More re¬ 
cently we have the instance of the Crimean 
War, entered into to check the despotic power 
of Russia in her projects for coercing and 
ultimately engulfing the Ottoman empire. 
Indeed, the continued existence of Turkey 
as a European State has long been due to 
the operation of this policy among the 
Christian governments of Europe. The 
weakness and maladministration of the 
Sublime Porte would have resulted in the 
loss of the Ottoman possessions W. of the 
Bosporus had it not been for this struggle 
for the balance of power. 

Balance of Torsion, an instrument in¬ 
vented by Coulomb for comparing the inten¬ 
sities of very small forces. It consists of a 
metallic wire suspended vertically from a 
fixed point, to the lower end of which a hor¬ 


izontal needle is attached with a small 
weight designed to keep the wire stretched. 
The magnitude of a small force acting on 
the end of the needle is measured by the 
amount of torsion, or twisting of the wire 
— in other words, by the arc which the 
needle passes over measured from the point 
of repose. In place of the wire, a spun 
glass filament or other fiber is sometimes 
used to suspend the needle. Some of the 
most important of Coulomb’s investigations 
in electricity and magnetism were carried 
on by means of this instrument. The term 
torsion balance is sometimes applied to 
other forms of mechanism designed to meas¬ 
ure delicate forces. In one kind of balance 
a, horizontal wire passes through the cen¬ 
ter of gravity of a beam that tips with 
the torsional movements of the wire. The 
balance invented by Ritchie was of this 
nature. 

Balance of Trade, a term formerly used 
by political economists to signify an excess 
of imports over exports, or of exports over 
imports in the foreign trade of a country, 
which required to be balanced by an export 
or import of the precious metals. Accord¬ 
ing to what was called the “ mercantile 
system,” the country which had such a 
balance in its favor was supposed to be in 
an advantageous, and the country which had 
it against it was supposed to be in a disad¬ 
vantageous position in regard to its foreign 
trade, and many regulations injurious to 
commerce were adopted by the greatest and 
most intelligent nations with a view to reg¬ 
ulate their trade favorably in regard to this 
assumed standard. Since the days of Adam 
Smith the old mercantile system has been 
thoroughly discredited, but the true laws 
which regulate the transactions of different 
communities with each other, and which 
constitute the balance of trade properly so 
called, are yet far from being generally un¬ 
derstood. 

A few elementary positions may be laid 
down regarding them: (1) In the ex¬ 
change of commodities between different 
nations, as between different individuals, the 
tendency of the exchange is always to an 
equilibrium, that is, that a given amount 
of labor, regulated by a given amount of 
skill of one nation, should exchange for an 
equal amount of equally skilled labor of an¬ 
other. The actual course of exchange may 
often diverge very far from this equilibrium, 
but whenever it does diverge, it brings into 
operation forces sufficient ultimately to neu¬ 
tralize the divergence, as the supply of 
labor will always tend most freely to the 
points where it can be pursued to the great¬ 
est advantage. (2) The whole exports 
and imports of a community must, in gen¬ 
eral, be periodically balanced. There are 
communities as well as individuals which 
have a tendency to live on credit, and some¬ 
times imports may be gained in this way for 



Balance of Trade 


Balanoglossus 


which no substantial return is ever made; 
but generally speaking balances of national 
trade cannot be permanently run up, so that 
the whole exports of a community during a 
considerable period, such as a consecutive 
series of years, may be taken as the measure 
of its importing power, and vice versa. 
(3) This real balance of trade does 
not produce any apparent balance. It is not 
and cannot be represented in statistics. As 
Adam Smith demonstrated, it is a matter 
of complete indifference in what sort of 
commodities any community pays a partic¬ 
ular balance against it. The precious metals 
have no superiority over other kinds of 
merchandise. 

There is, however, one phenomenon in re¬ 
gard to the balance of trade which requires 
explanation, as it constantly causes the 
whole subject to be misunderstood. Any 
nation taking the statistics of exports and 
imports at its own ports, that is the value 
of imports as they arrive and of exports as 
they leave, will nearly always make the bal¬ 
ance of its entire foreign trade in its own 
favor; the reason is, that the former are 
estimated with all the expenses of transport 
added, the latter entirely free of these ex¬ 
penses. On statistics taken on equal bases, 
either invariably omitting or invariably in¬ 
cluding the expenses of transit, agency, etc., 
it would, however, be found that some coun¬ 
tries habitually import more than they ex¬ 
port, while others export more than they 
import. The explanation of this is not that 
the one class makes a profit, the other a 
loss, on its foreign trade. Actual profit or 
loss, that is a more or less favorable ex¬ 
change in quantity or value of labor, is not 
at all gauged by statistics, as it directly 
affects the estimated value of the articles 
exchanged. The explanation of the differ¬ 
ence simply refers to the distribution of the 
expenses of transit. In one sense all com¬ 
merce is carried on at a loss. When two 
countries exchange their products, there are 
certain expenses to pay on the exchange. 
The advantage of the exchange consists in 
the fact that each gets an article it wants in 
place of an article it does not want, an ar¬ 
ticle of which its supply is deficient, or 
which it has not at all, in place of an article 
of which its supply is superabundant. But 
the exchange by which this advantage is 
procured entails labor, and this labor must 
be paid for. The actual producers of the 
two countries, consequently, have their gross 
production diminished by the exchange. 
They have to give a portion of it to the 
agents who carry on the exchange. 

Now these agents may belong in a much 
greater proportion to the one country than 
to the other. All the ships which carry on 
the commerce between two countries, for ex¬ 
ample, may be built in one of them; they 
may be regularly managed and receive all 
their most valuable supplies in the same 
40 


country. The ships are not actually ex¬ 
ported, but the country which builds and 
manages them for the mutual benefit o' its 
commerce with another country will neces¬ 
sarily import more from that country than 
it exports to it. It pays, in the first in¬ 
stance, the whole expense of transit, and the 
other country must ultimately contribute 
its share in larger exports. If these expenses 
could be exactly adjusted between t\Vo coun¬ 
tries the estimated value of their whole ex¬ 
ports would exactly balance, provided there 
were no cross transactions with other coun¬ 
tries, whether the exchange between them 
was or was not favorable to the labor of one 
or the other; because if the labor of three 
Englishmen exchange for the labor of nine 
natives of Bengal, the estimated value of 
the labor of the nine will be exactly that of 
the three, and the only difference in the es¬ 
timate of this value which would be made in 
London and Calcutta would be the expenses 
of transit and agency between the two 
places. If we suppose the whole expenses of 
the exchange between the two countries to 
be one-third of the gross produce, and the 
expense to be equally divided, then the three 
Englishmen would receive for their labor 
that of six Indians, while the nine Indians 
would receive only the labor of two English¬ 
men. 

Balanoglossus, a worm-like animal of 
much zoological interest as a connecting 
link between invertebrates and vertebrates. 
The genus, which includes at least four 
species, occupies so unique a position that 
it is regarded as representative of a dis¬ 
tinct class of enteropneusta (gut-breathers). 
The animals live in fine sand, which they 
appear to saturate with slime. They eat 
their way through it, drawing themselves 
on by means of the contractions of the most 
anterior part of their body. The body is 
richly ciliated and extremely soft; and it 
is thus very difficult to obtain large speci¬ 
mens intact. Balanoglossus sarniensis , 
which occurs as a rarity in the English 
Channel, has been aptly compared, as re¬ 
gards its softness, to wet bread. This form 
may attain a length of eight inches or more. 
Two species have been found in the Gulf of 
Naples, and two in more northerly waters. 
The body exhibits four distinct regions, a 
large proboscis in front of the mouth, a mus¬ 
cular collar of some length, a respiratory 
region, through slits in which water flows 
out from the gullet, and lastly, a long, gas¬ 
tric region with most of the digestive and 
reproductive systems. 

Apart from numerous peculiarities in the 
structure and development of balanoglossus, 
the general fact of importance is its re¬ 
markable combination of characters uniting 
it to widely separated types. It is what 
is known as a synthetic type — that is to 
say, it unites features characteristic of 





Balanus 


Balbinus 


very different groups. In the language of 
zoological pedigree, it is a survivor of an 
ancestral group from which several others 
started. The anterior portion of the ali¬ 
mentary canal, which is supported by a 
horny basket-work, is pierced by paired res¬ 
piratory gill-slits, to all appearance com¬ 
parable to those which persist in low verte¬ 
brates, and appear in the embryonic life of 
all. There are also structures which are 
believed by some to be more or less directly 
comparable to the dorsal nerve cord and 
the supporting axis or notochord, so char¬ 
acteristic of vertebrates. Undoubted affini¬ 
ties must be admitted, and this fact like¬ 
wise is interpreted in terms of the history, 
by regarding balanoglossus as a survivor of 
a primitive ancestral group, from which not 
only echinoderms, but vertebrata diverged. 

Balanus (“acorn-shells”), a genus of 
sessile eirripeds, family balanidce , of which 
colonies are to be found on rocks at low 
water, on timbers, crustaceans, shells of 
mollusca, etc. They differ from the barna¬ 
cles in having a symmetrical shell, and 
being destitute of a flexible stalk. The shell 
consists of six plates, with an operculum of 
four valves. They pass through a larval 
state in which they are not fixed, moving 
by means of swimming feet which disappear 
in the final state. All the balanidw are 
hermaphrodite. A South American species 
( B. psittacus) is eaten on the coast of 
Chile, the balanus tintinnabulum by the 
Chinese. The old Roman epicures esteemed 
the larger species. 

Balard, Antoine Jerome (bii-lar'), a 
French chemist, born in Montpelier, Sept. 
30, 1S02; Professor of Chemistry at the 
College of France, Paris; discoverer of 
bromine, also of a process of extracting sul¬ 
phate of soda directly from sea-water. He 
died in Paris, March 31, 1876. 

Balas, a name used to distinguish the 
rose-colored species of ruby from the ruby 
proper. 

Balata, the product of the bullet-tree — 
its milk or juice, in fact — which is a large 
forest tree, ranging from Jamaica and 
Trinidad to Venezuela and Guiana ( B . mi- 
rnusops ). The tree grows to a height of 
120 feet, and has a large, spreading head. 
The bark is about one-lialf inch thick. The 
wood cutters of Guiana regard the tree as 
inexhaustible. So far back as 1863 samples 
of balata were examined in England, and 
the opinion was expressed by Sir William 
Holmes that “ balata was not to be rivaled 
either by india rubber or gutta percha, pos¬ 
sessing much of the elasticity of the one 
and the durability of the other, without 
the intractability of india rubber or the 
brittleness or friability of gutta percha.” 
Its strength is very great, and it is un¬ 
equaled for bands for machinery. It com¬ 


mands a higher price than gutta percha. 
It is somewhat softer at ordinary tempera 
tures, and not so rigid in the cold. The 
manufacturers treat it as simply a supe¬ 
rior kind of gutta percha. The instruments 
used for collecting the milk are an ax- 
for felling obstructing trees, a cutlass for 
making the channels in the bark to cause 
the milk to flow, and two or three gourds 
in which to collect the milk. A tree of 
average size yields three pints of milk. 
The milk is dried in hollow wooden trays. 
When it is sufficiently dry it is removed 
from the trays in strips and hung upon 
lines to harden. 

Balausta, the name given by Richard, 
Lindley, and others to the kind of fruit of 
which the pomegranate is the type. It 
consists of a many-celled, many-seeded, in¬ 
ferior indehiscent fleshy pericarp, the seeds 
in which have a pulpy coat, and are dis¬ 
tinctly attached to the placentte. 

Balbec. See Baalbek. 

Ba!bi, Adrien, an Italian geographer 
and statistician, born in Venice in 1782. 
In 1808 his first work on geography pro¬ 
cured his appointment as Professor of Geog¬ 
raphy in the College of San Michele, at 
Murano, and he became, in 1811, Professor 
of Natural Philosophy in the Lyceum, at 
Fermo. In 1820, he went to Portugal and 
collected there materials for his “ Essai 
Statistique sur le Royaume do Portugal et 
d’Algarve ” and “ Varietes Politiques et 
Statistiques de la Monarchic Portugaise,” 
both published in 1822, in Paris, where he 
resided till 1832. He then settled in Padua, 
where he died in 1848. Balbi’s admirable 
“ Abrege de Geograpliie ” was written at 
Paris, and translated into the principal 
European languages. 

Balbi, Gasparo, a Venetian dealer in 

precious stones, born about the middle of 
the 16th century, who traveled first to 
Aleppo and thence down the Euphrates and 
Tigris to the Malabar coast, sailing finally 
for Pegu, where he remained for two years. 
His “ Viaggio all' In¬ 
die Orientale,” publish¬ 
ed on his return to 
Venice in 1500, con¬ 
tains the earliest ac¬ 
count of India beyond 
the Ganges. 

Balbinus, Decimus 
Caelius, a Roman Sen¬ 
ator * who, after the 
death of the two Gor- 
diani, killed by the sol¬ 
diers of Maximinus, 
was elected Emperor 
by the Senate, concur¬ 
rently with Clodius 
Pupienus Maximus, in opposition to the 
usurper Maximinus. The two Emperors 



BALBINUS. 




Balbo 


Baldachin 


reigned little more than one year, and were 
assassinated by their soldiers, a. d. 238. 

Balbo, Count Caesare, an Italian au¬ 
thor, born at Turin, in 1789. He is chiefly 
remarkable from the fact that his first im¬ 
portant work, “ Le Speranze d'ltalia,” pub¬ 
lished in 1844, may be regarded as having 
given the programme of the Moderate 
Party of Italian politics, and as having, to¬ 
gether with the writings of d'Azeglio, Du- 
rando, and others, created the Liberal Party, 
in opposition to the Republican Party as 
represented by Mazzini. Balbo was an ac¬ 
complished historian and translator. He 
died in June, 1853. 

Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, a celebrated 
Spanish discoverer, born at Xeres de los 
Caballeros, in 1475. He accompanied Rod¬ 
rigo de Bastidas in his expedition to the 
New World, and first settled in Haiti (or, 
as it was then termed, Hispaniola). 
Though an adventurer in search of fortune, 
his great ambition seems to have been to 
extend the boundaries of geographical 
knowledge, and especially to be able to an¬ 
nounce to Europe the existence of another 
great ocean. He accordingly proceeded to 
the American continent, and there founded 
a colony, made numerous expeditions into 
the auriferous regions of the interior, and 
accumulated a vast amount of treasure. He 
now turned his attention to the great ob¬ 
ject of discovery on which he had set his 
heart. On Sept. 1, 1513, he began his peril¬ 
ous enterprise. Accompanied by a small 
band of followers, he began to thread the 
almost impenetrable forests of the Isthmus 
of Darien, and, guided by an Indian chief, 
named Ponca, clambered up die rugged 
gorges of the mountains. At length, after 
a toilsome and dangerous journey, Balboa 
and his companions approached, on Sept. 
25, the summit of the mountain range, 
when Balboa, leaving his followers at a lit¬ 
tle distance behind, and advancing alone 
to the W. declivity, was the first to behold 
the vast unknown ocean, which he after¬ 
ward took solemn possession of in the name 
of his sovereign, and named it the Pacific 
Ocean, from the apparent quietude of its 
waters. Surrounded by his followers, he 
walked into it, carrying in his right hand 
a naked sword, and in his left the banner 
of Castile, and declared the sea of the 
South, and all the regions whose shores it 
bathed, to belong to the crown of Castile 
and Leon. During his absence, however, a 
new governor had been appointed to super¬ 
sede Balboa in Haiti; where, on his return, 
jealousy and dissensions springing up be¬ 
tween them, Balboa, accused of a design 
to rebel, was beheaded in 1517, in violation 
of all forms of justice. 

Palbriggan, a watering place in County 
Dublin, Ireland, 21 miles N. by E. of Dub¬ 
lin. It is a seat of linen, cotton, calico and 


stocking manufactures. The cotton stock¬ 
ings made here are remarkable for fineness 
of texture and beauty of open work. Many 
women are employed in embroidering 
muslin. 

Balcony, a gallery or projecting frame¬ 
work of wood, iron or stone, in front of a 
house, generally on a level with the lower 
part of the windows in one or more floors. 
Balconies are supported on brackets, canti¬ 
levers, rails, consoles or pillars, and are 
often surrounded by iron rails or by a balus¬ 
trade of stone. They are very common 
outside the better houses in large towns. 
When they are sufficiently strong the in¬ 
mates of the house can use them for stand¬ 
ing or sitting in the open air; when more 
feebly supported, they may be employed as 
form-stands for plants in flower-pots. 

Baldachin (baTda-kin), a structure in 
form of a canopy, supported by columns, 
and often used as a covering for insulated 
altars. The form, for the most part, is 
square, and the top covered with cloth with 
a hanging fringe. The baldachin has been 
supposed to have been derived from the 
ancient ciborium (a large cup or vase). 
An isolated building, placed by the early 
Christians over tombs and altars, was called 
a ciborium. The modern baldachin is of the 
same form as the ciborium erected by Jus¬ 
tinian in the Church of Santa Sophia, at 
Constantinople, which was made of silver, 
gold and precious stones, and supported by 
four silver-gilt columns. The baldachin is, 
however, deprived of the curtains, which in 
the ciborium were intended to inclose what¬ 
ever was deemed sacred within. The Mo¬ 
hammedans seem to have copied the cib¬ 
orium in their tombs. The baldachin car¬ 
ried over the Host in Catholic countries is 
not infrequently of an umbrella shape; a 
similar sort of umbrella may be seen on 
Etruscan vases. The baldachin in St. Pet¬ 
er’s at Rome, made by Bernini, is the most 
celebrated, and is the largest known work 
of the kind in bronze. The dais, or cov¬ 
ering, is supported on four large twisted 
columns of the composite order, placed 
upon pedestals of black marble, the dies of 
which are ornamented with bronze escutch¬ 
eons. The columns are fluted for one-third 
their height; the remaining part is orna¬ 
mented with bays and leaves of laurel, com¬ 
bined something after the manner of the 
columns of the temple designed by Raphael 
in one of his cartoons. The whole work 
is beautifully executed and highly finished. 
Above the columns are four figures of 
angels standing upright; at the top of the 
covering there is a cross, and below the en¬ 
tablature the banner-like cloth fringe of 
the portable baldachin has been imitated. 
The plan is square and the altar stands 
between the two pedestals of the foremost 
columns. The height is 12G feet 3 inches 



Balder 


Baldric 


from the floor of the church to the summit 
of the cross, of which the pedestal is 11 
feet 8 inches, the columns 50 feet 4 inches; 
the entablature 11 feet G inches, the cover¬ 
ing 40 feet, and the cross is 12 feet 9 inches. 
There were 186,392 pounds of bronze em¬ 
ployed on this work. 

Balder, or Baldur, a Scandinavian di¬ 
vinity, represented as the son of Odin and 
Frigga, beautiful, wise, amiable and be¬ 
loved by all the gods. His mother took an 
oath from every creature, and even from 
every inanimate object, that they would not 
harm Balder, but omitted the mistletoe. 
Balder was, therefore, deemed invulnerable, 
and the other gods in sport flung stones and 
shot arrows at him without harming him. 
But the evil god, Loki, fashioned an ar¬ 
row from the mistletoe and got Bakler’s 
blind brother Hoder to shoot it, himself 
guiding his aim. Balder fell dead, pierced 
to the heart, to the deep grief of all the 
gods. He is believed to be a personification 
of the brightness and beneficence of the 
sun. 

Bald Mountain, the name of several emi¬ 
nences in the United States, of which the 
following are the principal: (1) In Colo¬ 
rado, height, 11,493 feet; (2) in California, 
height, 8,295 feet; (3) in Utah, height, 
11,975 feet; (4) in Wyoming, in the Wind 
Biver Bange, height, 10,700 feet; and, (5) 
in North Carolina, height, 5,550 feet. The 
last one was the cause of much excitement 
in May, 1878, because of inexplicable rum¬ 
blings which lasted for about two weeks. 
The mountain shook as if in the throes of an 
earthquake, immense trees and rocks were 
hurled down its sides, and, for a time, 
fears were entertained lest a volcanic erup¬ 
tion should follow. A subsequent examina¬ 
tion showed that a large section of the 
mountain had been split asunder, but no 
further disturbance occurred. 

Baldness, an absence of hair on the 
head. Congenital baldness (complete ab¬ 
sence of hair at birth) is sometimes met 
with: but, in most cases, is only temporary, 
and gives place, in a few years, to a natural 
growth of hair. Occasionally, however, it 
persists through life. Senile baldness (cal- 
vities) is one of the most familiar signs of 
old age. It commences in a small area at 
the crown, where the natural hair is first 
replaced bv down before the skin becomes 
smooth and shining. From this area the 
process extends in all directions. It is 
more common in men than women. A pre¬ 
cisely similar condition occurs not unfre- 
quently at an earlier age (presenile bald¬ 
ness). It is generally due to hereditary 
tendency; but is favored bv keeping the 
head closely covered, especially with a wat¬ 
erproof cap. The best authorities agree 
that this form of baldness is incurable. 
There is a condition, however, which in its 


later stage much resembles the last, but is 
more amenable to treatment. Here the loss 
of hair begins simultaneously at two spots, 
at the crown, and about an inch behind the 
margin of the hair on the forehead. Its 
chief characteristic, however, is that loss of 
hair is preceded for some years by extreme 
scurfiness of the scalp. During this stage 
the process can be checked; sometimes, in¬ 
deed, even after loss of hair has begun. 
The most successful treatment consists in 
thorough rubbing of the scalp with an oint¬ 
ment containing 1 part of precipitated sul¬ 
phur to 10 parts of lard, at first nightly, 
then as the scurf diminishes, at gradually 
longer intervals. 

Great loss of hair frequently follows 
severe illnesses or other causes which pro¬ 
duce general debility. As health returns, 
the hair usually returns with it; its growth 
may be promoted by the use of lotions con¬ 
taining cantharides, ammonia, or some 
other stimulating agent. Baths containing 
common salt, and brisk rubbing, are also 
useful. Baldness in patches (alopecia are¬ 
ata) attacks chiefly children and young 
persons, frequently those of debilitated con¬ 
stitutions. The only change at first per¬ 
ceptible is that the hair falls out in one or 
more places, leaving smooth bare patches. 
These may gradually extend, and, with the 
progress of the disease, the aflected skin be¬ 
comes somewhat thinned. The scalp i-s the 
part most commonly attacked; but the di¬ 
sease may destroy every hair on the body. 
It is liable to be mistaken for ringworm; 
but in that disease the skin is rough and 
scaly, and the hairs, though broken of! 
short, are not completely lost. Alopecia 
areata has been attributed to the action of 
a parasite; but it is more probably due to 
some obscure nervous influence. Mild cases 
almost always recover; and even in the 
worst forms of the disease complete restora¬ 
tion of the hair may take place, sometimes 
after many years of baldness. The treat¬ 
ment consists in stimulation of the affected 
skin, blistering, salt baths, the use of elec¬ 
tricity, etc. In this, as in all other forms 
of loss of hair, attention must be paid to 
the general as well as the local treatment. 
A liberal diet and the use of iron and other 
tonics are frequently of the greatest service. 
The numerous and much advertised hair 
restorers, etc., in the market contain vari¬ 
ous stimulating substances, and are, gen¬ 
erally speaking, beneficial in their action. 

Baldovinetti, Alessio, a Florentine art¬ 
ist, born in 1422. Few of his works re¬ 
main except a “ Nativity ” in the Church of 
the Annunziato, and two altar-pieces in the 
gallery of the Uffizi and the Academy of 
Arts, Florence. He died in 1499. 

Baldric, a broad belt formerly worn over 
the right or left shoulder diagonally across 
the body, often highly decorated and en- 



Balducci 


Baldwin 


riclied with gems, and used not only to sus¬ 
tain the sword, dagger, or horn, but also 
for purposes of ornament, and as a mili¬ 
tary or heraldic symbol. The fashion ap¬ 
pears to have reached its height in the 15th 
century. In the United States it now forms 
a part of the uniform of Knights Templar 
and other fraternal organizations. 

Balducci, Francesco (biil-do'che), a lead¬ 
ing Italian Anacreontic poet, born at Pal¬ 
ermo; died at Rome in 1042. He wrote 
“ Sicilian Songs ” in the Sicilian dialect, 
etc. 

Baldung, Hans, or Hans Griin, a Ger¬ 
man painter and wood engraver, born in 
Suabia, in 1470. His work, though in¬ 
ferior to Durer’s, possessed many of the 
same characteristics, and on this account 
l e has been sometimes considered a pupil 
of the Nuremberg master. His principal 
paintings are the series of panels (of the 
date of 1510) over the altar in Freiburg 
Cathedral; others of his works are to be 
found at Berlin, Colmar and Basel. His 
numerous and often fantastic engravings 
have the monogram II. and B., with a small 
G. in the center of the H. He died in Stras- 
burg, in 1552. 

Baldwin, the name of a long line of 
sovereign Counts of Flanders, of whom the 
most celebrated was Baldwin IX., who be¬ 
came, afterward, Emperor of Constanti¬ 
nople, under the name of 

Baldwin I., the son of Baldwin VIII., 
Count of Flanders and Hainault, born at 
Valenciennes in 1170. In 1200, he joined 
the crusaders with his brother Thierry, 
and, in 1202, aided the Venetians in their 
attack upon Constantinople, of which city 
he was crowned Emperor, May 1G, 1204. 
In the next year Baldwin was taken pris¬ 
oner by the King of Bulgaria, and, it is 
said, died in captivity, in 1206. He was 
much esteemed by the Greeks for his char¬ 
ity, temperance and justice, 

Baldwin II., the last Frank Emperor of 
Constantinople, born in 1217. He was the 
son of Pierre de Courtenay, and succeeded 
his brother Robert in 1228. He was twice 
besieged in his imperial city, and being too 
weak to defend his dominions, repaired to 
Italy to seek aid from the Pope. At the 
court of France, Baldwin was favorably re¬ 
ceived by the king, St. Louis, to whom 
he presented a crown of thorns, which was 
held by all Christendom to be the genuine 
relic. Baldwin, in 1239, set out for Con¬ 
stantinople with a body of crusaders, who, 
however, soon quitted him, and took the 
route to Palestine. He succeeded, ulti¬ 
mately, in raising new forces in the West, 
and regained his capital; but, in 1261, 
Michael Paleologus invested it, and entered 
Constantinople on the 29th of July. Bald¬ 


win fled to Sicily, where he died in obscur¬ 
ity, in 1273. 

Baldwin I., King of Jerusalem, was the 
son of Eustace, Count of Bouillon, and ac¬ 
companied his brother Godfrey of Bouillon 
into Palestine, where he gained the sover¬ 
eignty of the State of Edessa. He suc¬ 
ceeded his brother on the throne of Jeru¬ 
salem in 1100, and for 18 years waged 
war against the Turks, the Arabs, the Per¬ 
sians, and the Saracens. lie took many 
towns, and secured for the Christians the 
coast of Syria, from the Gulf of Issus to the 
confines of Egypt. He died at Laris, in the 
desert, in 1118, and was buried on Mount 
Calvary. In the first canto of the “ Gerusa- 
lcmme,” of Tasso, the poet has depicted the 
character of this monarch as well as that 

of his brother Godfrev. 

«/ 

Baldwin II., King of Jerusalem, son of 
Hugh, Count of Bethel, was crowned in 
1118, after Eustace, brother of Baldwin I., 
had renounced all claim to the vacant 
throne. In 1120 he gained a great victory 
over the Saracens, but, in 1124, he was 
taken prisoner by them, and was ransomed 
only by giving up the city of Tyre. In 1131 
he abdicated in favor of his son-in-law, 
.Foulques of Anjou, and retired to a mon- 
asterv, where he died in the same year. 
The military and religious order of the 
Templars, for the defense of the Holy Land, 
was instituted in the reign of this monarch. 

Baldwin III., King of Jerusalem, son of 
Foulques of Anjou, whom he succeeded in 
1142, under the guardianship of his mother. 
He took .Ascalon and other places; but un¬ 
der his reign the Christians lost Edessa. 
Born in 1130; died at Antioch, in 1162. 
He was succeeded by his brother, Amaury I. 

Baldwin IV., son of Amaury, succeeded 
to the throne of Jerusalem on the death of 
his father, in 1174; but being leprous, Ray¬ 
mond, Count of Tripoli, governed the king¬ 
dom for him. He afterward resigned the 
throne to his nephew, Baldwin V., in 1183, 
and died in 1185. 

Baldwin V., King of Jerusalem, son of 
Sibylla, sister of Baldwin IV., was called to 
the throne when five years old, in 1183, and 
died of poison, supposed to have been ad¬ 
ministered by his mother, in order that her 
second husband, Guy de Lusignan, might 
enjoy the throne. The following year, 1187, 
the Christians lost Jerusalem, which was 
taken by Saladin. 

Baldwin, Abraham, an American states¬ 
man and politician, born in Guilford, Conn., 
Nov. 6, 1754. From 1785 to 1788 he was a 
delegate to the Continental Congress. In 
1789, he became a representative in Con¬ 
gress from Georgia, which office he held for 
10 years. Then he was sent to the Senate, 
serving as president pro tern, in 1801-1802. 
He died in Washington, March 4, 1807. 



Baldwin 


Bale 


Baldwin, Charles H., an American 

naval officer, born in New York city, Sept. 
3, 1822. He entered tlie navy as a midship¬ 
man, in 1839. Serving on tlie frigate “ Con¬ 
gress ” during the war with Mexico, he 
figured in several sharp encounters near 
Mazatlan. He commanded the steamer 
“ Clifton ” at the passage of Forts Jackson 
and St. rhilip, and at the first attack on 
Vicksburg. He became Rear-Admiral in 
1883, receiving the command of the Medi¬ 
terranean Squadron. He died in New York 
city, Nov. 17, 1888. 

Baldwin, Frank D., an American mili¬ 
tary officer; born in Michigan, June 26, 
1842; entered the volunteer army in 1861 
and the regular army in 1866; became colo¬ 
nel of the 4th United States Infantry, July 
26, 1901; and was promoted Brigadier-Gen¬ 
eral, U. S. A., June 9, 1902. He was awarded 
a Congressional medal of honor for service 
at the battle of Pine Tree Creek, Ga., July 
20, 1864, and another for gallantry in an 
action against Indians in Texas. He great¬ 
ly distinguished himself in the Philippines, 
in 1902. Retired in 1906. 

Baldwin, James Mark, an American 
psychologist, born in Columbia, S. C., Jan. 
12, 1861; educated at Princeton College, 
Leipsic, Berlin, and Tubingen Universities;' 
was Instructor of German and French at 
Princeton in 1886-1887; Professor of Phil¬ 
osophy in Lake Forest University in 1887- 
1889, and in the University of Toronto in 
1889-1893; Professor of Psychology at 
Princeton University in 1893-1903; then 
Professor of Philosophy and Psychology 
at Johns Hopkins Universitv. He was 
Honorary President of the International 
Congress of Criminal Anthropology at Ge¬ 
neva in 1896; President of the American 
Psychological Association in 1897-1898; 
Judge of Award at the World’s Columbian 
Exposition in 1893; was awarded a gold 
medal by the Royal* Academy of Arts and 
Sciences of Denmark, in 1897, for the best 
work on the general question of social 
ethics; and was elected a member of the 
Institute International de Sociologie, in 
1898. He is the author of “ Handbook of 
Psychology” (2 vols., 1889-1891) ; a trans¬ 
lation of Ribot’s “ German Psychology of 
To-day” (1886); “Elements of Psychol¬ 
ogy” (1893), etc. He was also editor-in- 
chief of the “ Dictionary of Philosophy and 
Psychology,” and a contributor of articles 
on psychology to “ Johnson’s Universal Cy¬ 
clopaedia ” (1892-1895). 

Baldwin, John Denison, an American 
journalist, politician, poet, and writer on 
archaeology, born at North Stonington,Conn., 
Sept. 28, 1809. After studying law and 
theology, he entered journalism, was long 
editor and proprietor of the Worcester 
“ Spy,” and was a member of Congress 
in 1863-1869. He wrote “ Raymond Hill 


and Other Poems” (1847); “Prehistoric 
Nations” (1869), and “Ancient America” 
(1872). He died at Worcester, Mass., July 
8, 1883. 

Baldwin, Foy Spencer, an American ed¬ 
ucator, born in Charlotte, Mich., July 6, 
1870; was graduated at the Boston Uni¬ 
versity in 1888; spent 1892-1893 studying 
economics in Germany; and became Pro¬ 
fessor of Economics in Boston University i:i 
1895. Among his publications is “ His¬ 
tory of Mining Legislation in England.” 

Baldwin, Joseph G., an American ju¬ 
rist, born in Sumter, Ala.; was a Judge of 
the Superior Court of California in 1857- 
1863; Chief Justice of the State from 1863 
till his death, Sejffi. 30, 1864; and author of 
“ Party Leaders ” and “ Flush Times in 
Alabama and Mississippi.” 

Baldwin, Maurice Scollard, a Canadian 

clergyman, born in Toronto, June 21, 1836; 
was graduated at Trinity College in that 
city, in 1862; became rector of St. Luke’s 
Church in Montreal; was Dean of Montreal 
in 1882-1883; and in the last year was made 
Bishop of Huron. He published “ Break in 
the Ocean Cable,” “ Life in a Look,” etc. 

Baldwin, Theodore A., an American 

military officer, born in New Jersey, Dec. 
21, 1839; entered the army as a private, 
May 3, 1862, and served in that grade and as 
quartermaster’s sergeant in the 19th United 
States Infantry, till May 31, 1865, when he 
became First Lieutenant. He was promoted 
Captain, July 23, 1867; Major of the 7th 
Cavalry, Oct. 5, 1887; Lieutenant-Colonel 
of the 10th Cavalry, Dec. 11, 1896; and 
Colonel of the 7th Cavalry, May 6, 1899. 
He became a Brigadier-General, U. S. A., 
and was retired in 1903. 

Baldwin University, a co-educational 
institution in Berea, O.: organized in 1846; 
under the auspices of the Methodist Epis¬ 
copal Church; has grounds and buildings 
valued at over $165,000: aggregate endow¬ 
ment funds, $100,000; income from tuition, 
etc., over $8,000; professors and instructors, 
about 26; students, about 400; volumes in 
the library, over 10,000 ; value of the same, 
about $10,000. 

Bale. See Basel. 

Bale, John, an English ecclesiastic, born 
in Suffolk in 1495. Although educated a 
Roman Catholic, he became a Protestant, 
and the intolerance of the Catholic party 
drove him to the Netherlands. On the ac¬ 
cession of Edward VI., he returned to Eng¬ 
land, was presented to the living of Bish¬ 
op’s Stoke, Southampton, and soon after 
nominated Bishop of Ossory, in Ireland. 
Here, on his preaching the reformed re¬ 
ligion, the popular fury against him reached 
such a pitch that in one tumult five of his 
domestics were murdered in his presence. 
On the accession of Mary, he lay some time 




Baleric Crane 


Balfe 


concealed in Dublin. After enduring many 
hardships he was enabled to leach Switzer¬ 
land, where he remained till the death of 
Mary. On his return to England he con¬ 
tented himself with the calm enjoyment of 
a prebendal stall at Canterbury, where he 
closed his stormy life in 15G3. He was so 
bitter a controversialist that he earned the 
title of “ bilious Bale.” The only work which 
has given him distinction among authors is 
his “ Scriptorum Illustrium Majoris Britan- 
nice Catalogus ”; or <£ An Account of the 
Lives of Eminent Writers of Britain.” This 
account, which, according to the title, com¬ 
mences with Japhet the son of Noah, reaches 
to the yeai 1557, at which time the author 
was an exile on the Continent. It is com¬ 
piled from various writers, but chiefly from 
the antiquary Leland. With considerable 
allowances for the strong bias of party zeal 
this work may be read with advantage, 
though it is not without errors in regard 
to dates, and the needless multiplication of 
the titles of books. With every abatement, 
however, the principal work of Bale must 
ever be considered valuable as the founda¬ 
tion of English biography, being derived 
from manuscripts since lost. 

Balearic Crane (balearica pavonina ), a 
handsome species of crested crane, inhabit¬ 
ing N. W. Africa. 

Balearic Islands, a group of five islands, 
S. E. of Spain, including Majorca, Minorca, 
Iviza, and Formentera. The popular deriva¬ 
tion of the ancient name Baleares (Greek 
bcillein, to throw), has reference to the re¬ 
pute of the inhabitants for their skill in 
slinging, in which they distinguished them¬ 
selves both in the army of Hannibal and 
under the Romans, by whom the islands 
were annexed in 123 n. c. After being 
taken by the Vandals, under Genseric, and 
in the 8th century by the Moors, they were 
taken by James I., King of Aragon, 1220- 
1234, and constituted a kingdom, which in 
1375 was united to Spain. The islands now 
form a Spanish province, with an area of 
1,860 square miles; pop. (1900) 311,649. 

Baleen, whale-bone, in the rough or nat¬ 
ural state. 

BaIe=Fire, in its older and strict meaning, 
any great fire kindled in the open air, or in 
a special sense, the fire of a funeral pile. 
It has frequently been used as synonymous 
with beacon-fire, or a fire kindled as a sig¬ 
nal, Sir Walter Scott having apparently 
been the first to employ it in this sense; 
and it has at various times, with even less 
reason, been confounded with bale, in the 
sense of evil, or fatal. 

Balen, Hendrik van, painter, born at 
Antwerp, in 15G0. His works, chiefly clas¬ 
sical, religious, and allegorical —-some of 
them executed in partnership with Breughel 
— are to be found in most of the European 
galleries. He was the first master of Van 


Dyck and Snyders. Three of his sons also 
followed the art, but the best of them, John 
van Balen (1611-1654), was inferior to his 
father. He died in 1632. 

Baler, a town in the N. E. part of Luzon, 
Philippine Islands, on the Pacific coast. The 
population is several thousand, mostly na¬ 
tives. The most conspicuous edifice is a 
native Catholic church. The town is noted 
for the heroic defense of a Spanish garrison 
in 1899, during a siege by the Filipinos, last¬ 
ing 11 months. The Spaniards were com¬ 
manded by Lieut. Saturnino Martin Cerezo, 
who refused to surrender the town even 
when directed to do so by his superiors in 
Manila. He entrenched himself in the 
church and heroically resisted the besiegers 
until his supplies gave out, when he sur¬ 
rendered with all the honors of war, July 
2, 1899. Baler was occupied by the Amer¬ 
ican troops and garrisoned with two com¬ 
panies of the 34th Volunteer Infantry, un¬ 
der Major Shunk, in March, 1900. 

Bales, Peter, a famous caligrapher, born 
in 1547. His skill in micrography is re¬ 
ferred to by IIolinslied and Evelyn. He 
was one of the early inventors of shorthand, 
and is said to have been employed to imitate 
signatures by Secretary Walsingham. He 
died about 1610. 

Balestier, Charles Wolcott, an Amer¬ 
ican novelist, born in Rochester, N. Y., Dec. 
13, 18G1; studied in Cornell University; and 
became connected with a New York publish¬ 
ing house. His novels, which deal largely 
with frontier life in Colorado, include “ The 
Naulahka,” written in collaboration with 
Rudyard Kipling, his brother-in-law; “ Bene¬ 
fits Forgot” (1892), and a “Life of James 
G. Blaine.” He died in Dresden, Saxony, 
Dec. G, 1891. 

Balestra, Antonio, an Italian painter, 
born in Verona, in 1666; became a pupil 
of Belucci, in Venice, and subsequently 
studied in Rome under Carlo Maratti. He 
executed the “ Defeat of the Giants,” which 
took the prize at the Academy of St. Luke, 
in 1G94. His other paintings include “Saint 
Theresa,” at Bergamo, a “ Virgin,” at Man¬ 
tua; and a portrait of himself, at Florence. 
He was among the last of the Venetian 
school of artists. He died in Verona, April 
21, 1740. 

Balfe, Michael WiEiam, composer, was 
born in Dublin, May 15, 1808. His musical 
talent received early culture, and in his 
ninth year he made his debut as a violinist, 
having begun to compose at least two years 
earlier. In 1823 he went to London, and, 
during 1825-1826, studied in Italy under 
Paer, Galli, Federici, and Rossini. In 1826 
he wrote the music for a ballet, “La Pe- 
rouse,” performed at Milan; and in 1827 
be sang in the Italian Opera at Paris with 
great applause, his voice being a pure, rich 



Balfour 


Balfour 


baritone. In 1833 lie returned to England, 
and in 1846 Avas appointed conductor of the 
London Italian Opera. He died at Rowley 
Abbey, liis estate in Hertfordshire, Oct. 20, 
1870. Of his numerous operas, operettas, 
and other compositions, produced in rapid 
succession from 1830, the most permanently 
successful have been “ The Bohemian Girl ” 

(1843) ; “ The Rose of Castile ” (1857 ), and 
“II Talismano” (1874). If Balfe Avas 
wanting in depth and dramatic force, he had 
a \ r ery thorough knowledge of effect and 
command of orchestral resources; and his 
compositions are distinguished by fluency, 
facility, and melodic power. Some of the 
defects of his operas may be justly attrib¬ 
uted to “ Poet Bunn/’ the theatrical mana¬ 
ger, who at once wrote and translated the 
libretti, and put the operas on the stage. 
Many of Balfe’s songs are admirable. 

Balfour, Alexander, a Scottish no\ r elist 
and poet, born in Monikie, March 1, 1767; 
was a frequent contributor to periodicals; 
and author of “ Campbell; or the Scottish 
Probationer” (1819); “Contemplations and 
Other Poems” (1820); “Farmer’s Three 
Daughters” (1822); “The Foundling of 
Glentliorn; or the Smuggler’s CaA T e ” (1823); 
“Highland Mary” (1827), etc. He died 
Sept. 12, 1829. 

Balfour, Sir Andrew, a Scottish botan¬ 
ist and physician, born in Fifeshire, in 
' 1630. After completing his studies at St. 
Andrews and London, and traveling on the 
continent, he settled at Edinburgh, where he 
planned, Avith Sir Robert Sibbald, the Royal 
College of Physicians, and was elected its 
first President. Shortly before his death 
he laid the foundation of a hospital in Edin¬ 
burgh, which, though at first narrow and 
confined, expanded into the Royal Infirmary. 
He died in 1694. His familiar letters A\ T ere 
published in 1700. 

Balfour, Arthur James, a British states¬ 
man; born in Scotland, July 25, 1848; edu¬ 
cated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cam¬ 
bridge; entered Parliament in 1874; Avas 
private secretary to his uncle, the Marquis 
of Salisbury, in 1878-1880, and accompanied 
him to the Berlin Congress; Avas member of 
Parliament for Hertford in 1879, and for 
the East Division of Manchester in 1885; 
president of the Local GoA 7 ernment Board 
in 1885; Secretary for Scotland in 1886; 
Avith a seat in the Cabinet; Lord Rector of 
St. Andrew’s University in 1866; Secretary 
for Ireland in 1887-1891; member of the 
Gold and Silver Commission in 1887-1888; 
Lord Rector of Glasgow University in 1890; 
Chancellor of Edinburgh University in 
1891; First Lord of the Treasury in 1891- 
1892; became the leader cf the Conserva¬ 
tive opposition in the House of Commons in 
1892. In 1895 he again became First Lord 
of the Treasury and leader of the House. 
He was an effective speaker. As Chief Sec¬ 
retary for Ireland, he Avas successful. He 


passed the Crimes Act and Law Act, se¬ 
cured a free grant for railways, made a 
tour of investigation and created the Con¬ 
gested Districts Board. In 1902-1905 he was 
the successor of Lord Salisbury as prime 
minister. His publications include: “A De¬ 
fense of Philosophic Doubt” (1879) ; “Essays 
and Addresses” (1893); “The Foundations 
of Belief, Being Notes Introductory to the 
Study of Theology” (1895); “Economic 
Notes on Insular Free Trade” (1903), etc. 

Balfour, Francis Maitland, an English 
embryologist, born in 1851; studied at Har- 
roAV and Trinity College, Cambridge. Ar¬ 
ticles on his special study gained him a 
high reputation while still an undergradu¬ 
ate, and after further work at Naples, he 
published in 1874, in conjunction Avith Dr. 
M. Foster, the “ Elements of Embryology,” 
a valuable contribution to the literature of 
biology. He Avas elected a FelloAV of his 
college, Fellow and member of Council of 
the Royal Society, and in 1881 Professor of 
Animal Morphology at Cambridge. The 
promise of his chief work, “ Comparative 
Embryology” (1880-1881), Avas unfulfilled, 
as in the latter year he AA r as killed by a 
fall on Mont Blanc. 

Balfour, James, a Canadian architect, 
born in Hamilton, Ontario, in 1852; ac¬ 
quired his professional education in Canada 
and Edinburgh; and began practicing in 
his native city. Among notable buildings 
of his designing are the Boys’ Home and 
City Hall, in Hamilton; Alma Ladies’ Col¬ 
lege, St. Thomas; and the Museum of Art, 
in Detroit, Midi. 

Balfour, Sir James, a Scottish laAAyer 
and public character of the 16th century, 
AA T as a native of Fifeshire. In youth, for 
his share in the conspiracy against Car¬ 
dinal Beaton, be Avas icondemned Avith 
Knox to the galleys; but after his escape 
with the rest in 1550 lie found it to his in¬ 
terest to change his opinions, and latterly 
he AA T as appointed, through the favor of 
Queen Mary, Lord of Session, and member 
of the Privy Council. In 1567, he Avas ap¬ 
pointed gOA'ernor of Edinburgh Castle, but 
had no scruple in surrendering it to Mur¬ 
ray. aa'Iio made him President of the Court 
of Session. In 1570 he Avas charged Avitli a 
share in the murder of Darnley, but got off 
by bribery. He AA^as latterly instrumental 
in compassing the death of Regent Morton 
by the production of a deed signed by him 
and bearing on the Darnley murder. His 
OAvn death took place shortly after, in 1583. 
The “ Praeticks of Scots LaAA r ,” attributed to 
him, continued to be used and consulted in 
manuscript for nearly a century until it 
AA r as supplanted by the “ Institutes of Lord 
Stair.” 

Balfour, John, of Kinlock, or of Burley, 
in Scott’s “ Old Mortality,” AA r as one of 
the chief actors in the assassination of 



Balfour 


Balista 


Archbishop Sharp, in 1G79, for which his 
estate was forfeited, and a price set on his 
head. He fought at Drumclog and Both- 
well Bridge, and is said afterward to have 
escaped to Holland. By one account he 
died on a homeward voyage to Scotland, by 
another he never left the country, but 
settled in the parish of Boseneath, Dum¬ 
bartonshire. Balfour of Kinloek is quite a 
different personage from Lord Balfour of 
Burleigh, who succeeded to the title in 
1G63, spent his youth in France, and died 
in 1G88. 

Balfour, John Hutton, a Scotch botan¬ 
ist, born in Edinburgh, Sept. 15, 1808; grad¬ 
uated at Edinburgh University in arts and 
in medicine; in 1841-1845 was Professor of 
Botany in Glasgow University; and in the 
latter year removed to Edinburgh to occupy 
a similar post, resigning his chair in 1879. 
He wrote valuable botanical text-books, 
including “Elements,” “Outlines,” “Man¬ 
ual,” and “ Class-book,” besides various 
other works. He died Feb. 11, 1884. 

Balfour, Nesbit, a British military offi¬ 
cer, born in Dunbog, Scotland, in 1743; 
was promoted Lieutenant-General in 1798 
and General in 1803; distinguished him¬ 
self during the American Revolution; was 
wounded in the battle of Bunker Hill; 
fought at the battles of Elizabethtown, 
Brandywine, Germantown, and Long Island; 
and was present at the capture of New 
York. He was appointed commandant at 
Charlestown, in 1779. He died in Dunbog, 
in October, 1823. 

Balfrush (or, more correctly, Barfurush, 
“mart of burdens”), a town in the Per¬ 
sian province of Mazanderan, on the river 
Bhawal, 12 miles from its mouth in the 
Caspian Sea. The river is not navigated; 
all goods being landed at the port of Me- 
shed-i-Ser, on the Caspian. Balfrush is a 
center of trade between Russia and Persia, 
exporting large quantities of silk, rice and 
cotton, while the Russians supply iron and 
naphtha. It has excellent bazaars, numer¬ 
ous caravanserais, and several Mohamme¬ 
dan colleges. The population is generally 
stated at 50,000, but some put it as low as 
10 , 000 . 

Bali, an island of the Indian Archipe¬ 
lago E. of Java, belonging to Holland; 
greatest length, 85 miles, greatest breadth, 
55 miles; area, about 2,260 square miles. It 
consists chiefly of a series of volcanic moun¬ 
tains, of which the loftiest, Agoong (11,32G 
feet), became active in 1843, after a long 
period of quiescence. Principal products, 
rice, cocoa, coffee, indigo, cotton, etc. The 
people are akin to those of Java and are 
mostly Brahmins in religion. It is divided 
into eight provinces under native rajahs, 
and forms one colony with Lombok, the 
united population being estimated, in 1897, 
at 1,044,757. 


Baliol, or Balliol, John, of Barnard 
Castle, Northumberland, father of King 
John Baliol, a great English (or Norman) 
baron in the reign of Henry III., to whoso 
cause he strongly attached himself in his 
struggles with the barons. In 12G3. he laid 
the foundation of Baliol College, Oxford, 
which was completed by his widow, Devor- 
guila or Devorgilla. She was daughter and 
co-heiress of Allan of Galloway, a great 
baron of Scotland, by Margaret, eldest 
daughter of David, Earl of Huntington, 
brother of William the Lion. It was on the 
strength of this genealogy that his son 
John Baliol became temporary King of 
Scotland. He died in 1269. 

Baliol, or Balliol, John, King of Scot¬ 
land; born about 1249. On the death of 
Margaret, the Maiden of Norway, and 
grandchild of Alexander III., Baliol claimed 
the vacant throne by virtue of his descent 
from David, Earl of Huntington, brother 
to William the Lion, King of Scotland. 
Robert Bruce (grandfather of the King) 
opposed Baliol; but Edward I.’s decision 
was in favor of Baliol, who did homage to 
him for the kingdom, Nov. 20, 1292. Ir¬ 
ritated by Edward's harsh exercise of au¬ 
thority, Baliol concluded a treaty with 
France, then at war with England; but, 
after the defeat at Dunbar he surrendered 
his crown into the hands of the English 
monarch. He was sent with his son to the 
Tower, but, by the intercession of the Pope, 
in 1297, obtained liberty to retire to his 
Norman estates, where he died in 1315. 
His son, Edward, in 1332, landed in Fife 
with an armed force, and having defeated a 
large army under the Regent Mar (who was 
killed), got himself crowned King, but was 
driven out in three months. 

Baliol College, Oxford, founded between 
12G3 and 12GS by John de Baliol, father of 
John Baliol, King of Scotland. The orig¬ 
inal foundation consisted of 1G poor schol¬ 
ars, and the revenue for their maintenance 
amounted for many years to only 8d. per 
week for each. From 1340 to 1830 the col¬ 
lege was greatly enriched by various bene¬ 
factions. The society consists of a master, 
13 fellows, and 24 scholars. The number 
of members on the books is about GOO. The 
master and fellows enjoy the privilege of 
electing their own visitor. John Wyclif 
was master of this college in 13G1; among 
its scholars have been John Evelyn and 
Bradley the astronomer. The Snell Exhi¬ 
bitions for students of Glasgow University 
attract annually to this college a few dis¬ 
tinguished Scottish students. Among these 
have been Sir William Hamilton, J. G. 
Lockhart, and Dr. Tait, Archbishop of Can¬ 
terbury. 

Balista, or Ballista, a machine used in 
military operations by the ancients for 
hurling heavy missiles, thus serving in some 





Balistes 


Balkan Peninsula 


degree the purpose of the modern cannon. 
The motive power appears to have been 
obtained by the torsion of ropes, fibers, cat¬ 
gut, or hair. They are said to have some¬ 
times had an effective range of a quarter of 
a mile, and to have thrown stones weighing 
as much as 300 lbs. The balistae differed 
from the catapult®, in that the latter were 
used for throwing darts. A balistic pen- 



A BALISTA. 


dulum is an apparatus for ascertaining the 
velocity of military projectiles, and con¬ 
sequently the force of fired gunpowder. A 
piece of ordnance is fired against bags of 
sand supported in a strong case or frame 
suspended so as to swing like a pendulum. 
The arc through which it vibrates is shown 
by an index, and the amount of vibration 
forms a measure of the force or velocity of 
the ball. 

Balistes, or File Fish, a genus of bony 
fishes, the type o' p large family, balistidce, 
the species ci which are almost all inhabit¬ 
ants of tropical and subtropical seas, fre¬ 
quenting rocky coasts and coral reefs. One 
species has been occasionally found on Brit¬ 
ish coasts. Their colors are generally bril¬ 
liant. The skeleton is in part gristly or 
cartilaginous, consisting, in some of the 
genera, of bony plates, disposed in regular 
rows, and not overlapping; in others, of 
very small rough scales, with stiff bristles. 
The snout protrudes slightly, and the teeth 
are few, but well developed. But the most 
interesting thing in connection with these 
fishes, is the provision for fixing the first 
dorsal spine in an erect position, or lower¬ 
ing it at the will of the animal. The spine 
is articulated by ring and bolt to a broad 
bony plate in connection with the backbone. 
“ When the spine is raised, a depression at 
the back part of its base receives a corre¬ 
sponding projection from the contiguous 
base of the second ray, and it cannot be let 
down until the small spine has been de¬ 
pressed; it is then received into a groove on 
the supporting plate, and offers no impedi¬ 
ment to the progress of the fish through the 
water. This trigger-like fixing of the spine 
takes place also in the dead fish; and, when 
a balistes is removed from the bottle for 
examination, it is generally necessary to re¬ 
lease the spine by pressing on the small 
trigger-ray.” The first spine is roughened 


with enamel projections, whence the name 
file-fish. The flesh is unwholesome. 

Balize. See Belize. 

Balkan Peninsula, the usual name for 
the peninsula in Southeastern Europe run¬ 
ning southward between the Adriatic and 
the Aegean. The most convenient northern 
boundary is the Save and the Lower Dan¬ 
ube; though historically and politically 
Rumania and some parts of the Austrian 
dominions are closely associated with the 
regions S. of the Danube. Greece is a pen¬ 
insula upon a peninsula, but is not usually 
accounted one of the Balkan States. 

Topography. — In a general way the 
Balkan Peninsula and Balkan States cover 
the area of Turkey in Europe and the non- 
Turkisli States either now or lately under 
Turkish suzerainty, with the exception of 
Rumania and Greece^ By its physical relief 
and general slope, the peninsula may be 
said to turn its back upon Europe. Its 
greatest elevations are found in the W. and 
1ST. W., and all its waters, flowing 1ST. E., 
and S., finally empty into the Black Sea or 
into the JEgean. The mountain chains and 
masses of the peninsula in no place form 
a regular system; spreading out from an 
apparent nucleus in the Etropol Balkans 
S. E. of Sofia, in every direction, they are 
notable for their great variety of shape and 
richness of contour. The Balkans proper 
(ancient Iloemus) form the boundary be¬ 
tween Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia. They 
are highest in the W., where the mean 
height is G.500 feet. The ridge' is crossed 
by some 30 passes, of which the Shipka, be¬ 
tween Ivezanlik and Tirnova, and 4.290 feet 
high, is the most noted in history—espe¬ 
cially as the scene of severe fighting in the 
Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878. The 
mountain chains in the W. of the peninsula 
have a trend parallel to the shores of the 
Adriatic and Ionian Seas, while, in the E., 
the chief ranges run at right angles to the 
Black Sea. The small though well defined 
chain of the Rhodope (Despoto-Dagh) has 
a mean elevation of 5,500 feet, and forms 
the water-parting between the Maritza Val¬ 
ley on the N. and the JEgean on the S. 
Muss-alla (9,500 feet), in the northern ex¬ 
tremity of this range, is the culminating 
point of the northern portion of the penin¬ 
sula, but the highest peak is Mt. Olym¬ 
pus (9,750 feet), 1ST. E. cf the plain of Thes¬ 
saly. There are several other ranges-—the 
Dinaric Alps in the N. W., Pindus, between 
Albania and Thessaly, and the Little Bal¬ 
kans in Bulgaria, running N. E. from the 
main chain; and peaks of from 5.000 to 
9.000 feet occur in nearly every part of the 
peninsula. 

The first place in the hydrographic sys¬ 
tems of the peninsula must, of course, be 
given to the Danube. The Sea of Marmora 
receives only a few mountain torrents, but 














Balkan Peninsula 


Balkan Peninsula 


the drainage area of the gEgean, or Archi¬ 
pelago, comprises the most important river 
system of Turkey. The chief rivers — the 
Maritza, the Kara Su, the Vardar, the 
Indje — flow from the southern slopes of 
the Balkans and the crystalline masses of 
the Rhodope system. Lake . Scutari and 
Lake Ochrida (the latter 2,300 feet above 
sea level) are the only ones of any size in 
the peninsula. 

Ethnography .— The great highway of 
western emigration, the Balkan Peninsula, 
still retains a great diversity of races. The 
oldest inhabitants of the peninsula — the 
Illyrians— have their representatives in 
the modern Albanians (Skipetar); the 
Greeks are there, and have kept their lan¬ 
guage; the Dacians, who adopted the Ro¬ 
man tongue, are the Rumans or Rumanians 
of to-day. The Slavonic peoples are, of 
course, a large and important section of the 
population. Of the Turanian settlers, the 
Bulgars have become a thoroughly Slavon- 
ized people; and the Ottoman Turks, who 
first gained a footing in 1355, conquered 
nearly the whole of the peninsula before the 
close of the same century, reduced Greece 
to subjection between 1455 and 1473, and 
remained masters to the present century. 

According to Reclus, the present territory 
of the peninsula may be divided into four 
ethnological zones: (1) Crete and the 

islands of the Archipelago, the seaboard of 
the iEgean, the eastern slope of Pindus and 
of Olympus, are peopled by Greeks; (2) 
the space comprised between the Adriatic 
and Pindus is the country of the Albanians 
(Skipetar); (3) on the K. W. the region 
of the Illyrian Alps is occupied by Slavs, 
known under the different names of Serbs, 
Croats, Bosnians, Herzegovinians, and Cher- 
nagorans (Montenegrins) ; and, (4) the 
two slopes of the Balkans proper, the Des- 
poto-Dagh, and the plains of Eastern 
Turkey, belong to the Bulgarians — a Sla- 
vonized Turanian people, now practically 
Slavs. The Turks themselves are scattered 
here and there in more or less considerable 
groups, chiefly round the cities and strong¬ 
holds; but the only extensive tract of coun¬ 
try of which they are, ethnologically 
speaking, the possessors, is the S. E. 
angle of the peninsula. As to the relative 
numbers of these varied elements, there is 

considerable diversitv of statement—-each 

*/ 

stock trying to prove its ethnical predomin¬ 
ance in debatable ground. In 1885 the stat¬ 
istical bureau in Belgrade reckoned that in 
European Turkey (without Rumania, Ser- 
via or Montenegro) there were 1,362,000 
Turks—-not pure Osmanli, but largely de¬ 
scended from renegade Greeks and Bulgari¬ 
ans; 1,137,000 Greeks; 1,011,000 Albanians, 
of whom 723,000 were Mohammedans; 
200,000 Wallachians; 1,388,000 Serbs; 
2,877,000 Bulgarians, of whom 860,000 were 


Mohammedans; 100,000 Armenians; 70,000 
Jews; 104,000 Gipsies; and 144,000 Cir¬ 
cassian immigrants. 

The home of so many diverse races, the 
peninsula has long been a hotbed of warring 
interests, intertribal jealousy and intrigue, 
political tyranny and disturbance, and mu¬ 
tual maltreatment. The Turk’s hand may 
summarily be said to be against every man’s 
hand, and every other against the Turk. 
Greeks and Bulgarians intrigue each 
against the other with Russia, and look on 
the inheritance of the peninsula as exclu¬ 
sively theirs by right. Bulgarian and Serb, 
though cherishing the Slavonic name, met 
in the bloody campaign of 1885-1886. Ma¬ 
cedonia in especial is demanded alike by 
Greek, Bulgar and Serb. And the case is 
further complicated by the hostile faiths — 
Latin Christianity, Greek Church, both Or¬ 
thodox and United, and Mohammedanism. 
Hence it is easy to infer the last degree 
of unstable equilibrium in the political 
sphere, and to understand why the penin¬ 
sula is a perpetual focus of the insoluble 
Eastern Question, and a cause of dis¬ 
quietude to all the powers of Europe. Rus¬ 
sia wars with Turkey; Austria and Russia 
have diametrically opposed interests as re¬ 
gards the Lower Danube, and, in Austria 
itself, Hungarian and Slav take opposite 
sides as to the Southern Slavs; France and 
England are frequently in rivalry at the 
Porte; and the mutual suspicions of Russia 
and England are constant and notorious. A 
recent feature is the determination of Bul¬ 
garia not to become the dependant of Rus¬ 
sia. The area and population of the Bal¬ 
kan States are as follows: 


Political Divisions. 

Immediate possessions of Turkey ) 

in Europe .j 

Bulgaria, with Eastern Rumelia ) 

(tributary principality).$ 

Bosnia and ( (in the occi pation ) 
Herzegovina ) of Austria-Hung’y) > 

Total, Turkey in Europe. 

Servia (kingdom). . 

Montenegro (principality). 

Total, Balkan Peninsula. 


Area in 


English 
sq. miles. 

Population. 

65,000 

4,500,000 

37,860 

3,154,375 

23,570 

1,504,001 

. 126,430 

19,050 
3,630 

9,158,376 

2,226,741 

200,000 

149,110 

11,585,117 


Greece, with the aid of the Great Pow¬ 
ers, obtained her independence in 1836, as 
also did Servia in 1830-1867. Wallachia 
and Moldavia (now united in the kingdom 
of Rumania) were made tributary princi¬ 
palities by the Peace of Paris, 1856. Ru¬ 
mania and Servia obtained their complete 
independence by the Berlin Treaty of 1878 
— the former receiving the Dobrudja in ex¬ 
change for a portion of Bessarabia, which 
was restored to Russia; the latter having 
its area enlarged. The same treaty handed 
over to Austria-Hungary the administration 
of Bosnia and Herzegovina and established 
the principality of Montenegro, the prin¬ 
cipality of Bulgaria, and the province of 












Balkh 


Ballad 


Eastern Rumelia, which was united with 
Bulgaria in 1880. 

Balkh (balG), a district of Afghan Tur¬ 
kestan, the most northerly province of Af¬ 
ghanistan. It was for some time subject to 
the Khan of Bokhara. It corresponds to 
ancient Bactria, and lies between about 35° 
and 37° X. lat., and about 04° and 09° E. 
long. It is bounded on the X. by the river 
Oxus, on the E. by Badakhshan, on the S. by 
the Hindu Kush, and on the W. by the des- 
1 ert. Offsets of the Hindu Kush traverse 
it in a X. W. direction, and slope down to 
the low steppes of Bokhara. Its length is 
250 miles; its breadth, 120. Its situation 
was once important during the overland 
commerce between India and Eastern Eu¬ 
rope before the sea route by the Cape of 
Good Hope was followed. The soil has the 
general characteristics of a desert land; 
only a few parts are made fertile by arti¬ 
ficial irrigation; and such are the vicissi¬ 
tudes of climate, that where grapes and 
apricots ripen in summer, and the mulberry- 
tree permits the cultivation of silk, in win¬ 
ter the frost is intense, and the snow lies 
deep on the ground. The natives are Uz- 
begs, whose character differs in different 
districts. 

Balkh, long the chief town, situated in 
a district intersected by canals and ditches, 
by means of which the waters of the 
Balkh-ab, or Delias, are dissipated and pre¬ 
vented from flowing toward the Amu-Daria, 
only 45 miles distant. It is surrounded by 
a mud wall; but though bearing the impos¬ 
ing title of “ Mother of Cities,” it has not 
in recent times had any of the grandeur of 
ancient Bactra, on the site of which it is 
built. It was twice destroyed by Genghis 
Khan and Timur. A terrible outbreak of 
cholera in 1877 caused the capital of Af¬ 
ghan Turkestan to be transferred to Mazar, 
W. of Balkh; since which Balkh has been 
an insignificant village. W. of Balkh are 
the petty Uzbeg States of Maimana, And- 
khoi, Akcha, and Shibarghan, all absolutely 
ruled by Kabul, except Andkhoi; E. of Balkh, 
between .it and Badakhshan proper, are 
the towns and khanates of Ivunduz and 
Kliulm. All these Uzbeg khanates are in 
the basin of the Amu-Daria, and together 
with Waklian, E. of Badakhshan, constitute 
Afghan Turkestan. 

Balkhash (balG-ash'), (Kirghiz Tengis; 
Chinese Sihai), a great inland lake, near the 
E. border of Russian Central Asia, between 
44° and 47° X. lat., and 73° and 79° E. long. 
Lying about 7S0 feet above sea level, it 
extends 323 miles W. S. W.; its breadth at 
the W. end is 50 miles; at the E. from 9 to 4 
miles; the area is 8,400 square miles. The 
water is clear, but intensely salty. Its prin¬ 
cipal feeder is the river Hi. It has no out¬ 
let. The X. edge is well defined; but the 
S. shores of the lake are labyrinths of 


islands, peninsulas, low sandhills, and strips 
of shallow water. Here grow masses of 
enormously tall reeds, in which wild swine 
shelter. To the S., stretching toward the 
base of the Ala-tau Mountains, is a vast 
steppe, almost devoid of vegetation. Balkh¬ 
ash seems to have at one time included in 
its immense area the smaller lakes Sossik- 
kul and Ala-kul, now far to the S. E. 

Balkis, the Arabian name of the Queen of 
Sheba, who visited Solomon. She is the 
central figure of innumerable Eastern le¬ 
gends and tales. 

Ball, Ephraim, an American inventor, 
born in Greentown, O., Aug. 12, 1812; was 
brought up in the carpenter’s trade; in 
1840 established a foundry for making plow 
castings; invented a plow, a turn-top stove, 
the Ohio mower, the World mower and 
reaper, the Buckeye machine, and the Xew 
American harvester; and for many years be¬ 
fore his death had an extensive manufactur¬ 
ing plant at Canton. He died in Canton, 
O., Jan. 1, 1872. 

Ball, John, a priest, who was one of the 
leaders in the rebellion of Wat Tyler, and 
was in several respects a precursor of Wy- 
clif, having been repeatedly in trouble for 
heresy from 136G. He was hanged, drawn, 
and quartered in 1381. 

Ball, Sir Robert Stawell, an English 
astronomer, born in Dublin, July 1, 1840; 
studied at Trinity College. He was ap¬ 
pointed Lord Rosse's astronomer at Par- 
sonstown in 1805; Professor of Applied 
Mathematics and Mechanics at the Royal 
Irish College of Science in 1873; and in 
1S74, Professor of Astronomy at Dublin, 
and Astronomer Royal for Ireland. He has 
published works on mechanics and astron¬ 
omy, of which the best known is “ The Story 
of the Heavens,” besides many magazine 
articles, and is well known as a lecturer. 
He was knighted Jan. 25, 188G. 

Ball,Thomas, an American sculptor, born 
in Charlestown, Mass., June 3, 1819; stud¬ 
ied in Italy; was engaged in painting in 
1840-1852; adopted sculpture exclusively in 
1851; resided in Florence, Italy, in 1865- 
1897, and afterward in Montclair, X. J. 
His best known works are the equestrian 
statue of Washington, in Boston; the 
Webster statue in Central Park, Xew 
York, and “ Emancipation,” in Washington, 
D. C. He published “ My Three Score Years 
and Ten, an Autobiography ” (1891). 

Ballad, a narrative song, from the 
French ballade, Italian ballata, an old “kind 
of song of a lyric nature. Ballata is de¬ 
rived from ballare, to dance, and that from 
Late Latin ballare , from Greek ballizein, to 
dance. Though the name came from Italy, 
the species of poetry which we understand 
under the word ballad is by no means pecul¬ 
iarly of Italian or Romance origin, poems of 



Ballad 


Ballad 


this kind being produced by many nations, 
and being apparently the natural outcome 
of a certain condition of society, a certain 
intellectual and moral stage of development 
in the history of a people. The word ballata 
passed from the Italians to the French, and 
the Normans carried it to England, where it 
was applied to short metrical narratives, 
particularly to the most popular ones, which 
were tales in verse describing the deeds of 
heroes, the adventures of lovers, etc. All the 
Scandinavian nations anciently delighted in 
songs celebrating the deeds of heroes, or de¬ 
scribing the passions and adventures of 
lovers; and the three great divisions or 
cycles of the Teutonic poetry of the Middle 
Ages — the stories of the “ Nibelungen,” 
those of Charlemagne (particularly such as 
relate to his war against the Arabians, and 
the battle of Roncesvalles), and the tales of 
King Arthur’s “ Round Table ” — were long 
made widely familiar to the people in the 
form of ballads. 

The true home of the English ballad — 
whatever the explanation of the fact may 
be — is the N. part of England (the North 
Country), and the S. part of Scotland. The 
earliest of the English ballads which have 
been preserved cannot be considered as an¬ 
tecedent to the 13tli or 14th century; and 
few of them appeared before the 15th. How 
long many of them may have been current 
in the mouths of the people before that time 
is quite unknown. Of course as regards his¬ 
torical ballads though we may know noth¬ 
ing of their author, or when they arose, we 
are sure that their date is at least not ear¬ 
lier than that of the event or events they 
deal with. As a rule the genuine popular 
ballad poetry of a people is anonymous, and 
may have been handed down for centuries 
before being committed to writing, the dif¬ 
ferent pieces being modified in various ways 
as they were transmitted to generation after 
generation. The first work to draw general 
attention to the ballad literature of En¬ 
gland and Scotland was Bishop Percy’s 
“ Reliques of Ancient English Poetry,” pub¬ 
lished in 17G5; “consisting of old heroic 
ballads, songs, and other pieces of our 
earlier poets (chiefly of the lyric kind) to¬ 
gether with some few of later date.” The 
foundation of the “ Reliques ” was a manu¬ 
script collection in a hand-writing belong¬ 
ing to the early part of the 17th century; 
and in this collection were included such old 
favorites as “ Chevy Chase ”; “ Adam Bell ”; 
“ Clvm of the Clough ” “ William of Cloud- 
eslee ”; “The Heir of Linn”; “The Child 
of Elle”; ballads of Robin Ilood, etc. The 
publication of Percy’s work formed an epoch 
in the history of English literature, and had 
an important influence on the subsequent de¬ 
velopment of our poetry. 

No less famous and perhaps even more in¬ 
fluential was Sir Walter Scott’s great col¬ 
lection—“ Minstrelsy of the Scottish Bor¬ 


der: consisting of Historical and Romantic 
ballads collected in the Southern Counties 
of Scotland” (1802-1803, 3 vols.). A few 
years later (namely in 1806) appeared Rob¬ 
ert Jamieson’s “ Popular Ballads and Songs 
. . . with Translations of Similar Pieces 

from the Ancient Danish Language ” ■— a 
valuable collection, which, to use Sir Walter 
Scott’s words, “ opened a new discovery re¬ 
specting the original source of the Scottish 
ballads. Mr. Jamieson’s extensive acquaint¬ 
ance with the Scandinavian literature en¬ 
abled him to detect not only a general 
similarity between these and the Danish 
ballads preserved in the ‘ Kiempe Viser,’ an 
early collection of heroic ballads in that lan¬ 
guage, but to demonstrate that, in many 
cases, the stories and songs were distinctly 
the same, a circumstance which no antiquary 
had hitherto so much as suspected.” Since 
that time the ballad literature of almost all 
countries possessed of such has received a 
great amount of attention, and the various 
collections that have been made have en¬ 
abled investigators to study the whole sub¬ 
ject on the comparative method; the result 
being that a surprising similarity of fea¬ 
tures has been discovered to exist in the bal¬ 
lads of countries as widely separated and 
apparently unconnected as Scotland, Sicily, 
Greece, and Russia. In this respect ballads 
quite resemble popular tales—-“folk-tales,” 
that is to say, such as those in the collection 
of the brothers Grimm, or those translated 
by Dasent from Asbjornson’s Norwegian col¬ 
lection, in which class of stories, as is now 
well known, incidents that are essentially 
the same crop up over and over again, 
though they are more or less colored by un¬ 
essential details and surroundings. 

The attention drawn to the ballads of En¬ 
gland and Scotland led not only to modern 
imitations of them in their own native 
country, but especially to such in Germany, 
where eminent writers such as Burger, 
Goethe, Schiller, Uhland, and Heine suc¬ 
cessfully practised the writing of such 
pieces. Though a ballad as now usually 
understood is a moderately short narrative 
poem in a series of short stanzas, the word 
has been applied at different times to pieces 
of the most varied character, and we find 
Shakespeare, for instance, speaking of a 
“ woeful ballad,” made by a lover “ to his 
mistress’ eyebrow.” It is said that the ma¬ 
jority of the old English ballad tunes are 
dance tunes, so that we are thus reminded 
of the Italian origin of the word, though 
ballads and dancing have certainly been 
long enough dissociated in most countries. 
“ At the present time,” says a writer in 
Grove’s “ Dictionary of Music,” “ a ballad 
in music is generally understood to be a 
sentimental or romantic composition of a 
simple and unpretentious character, having 
two or more verses of poetry, but with the 
melody or tune complete in the first, and re- 




Ballanche 


Ballast 


peated for each succeeding verse.” From 
this is to be distinguished the ballade (a 
term recently adopted from the French), a 
short poem which, in its normal form, ap¬ 
pears to consist of three stanzas of eight 
lines each, with an envoy of four lines, the 
rhymes throughout being not more than 
three. See Beast Fables; Folklore. 

Ballanche, Pierre Simon (bal-ansh'), a 
French philosopher, horn at Lyons, Aug. 4, 
1770; settled at Paris in 1814, having at¬ 
tracted some notice by his essays and a prize 
poem, “Antigone.” His great work is the 
“Palingenesie Sociale” (1828), in which he 
seeks to illustrate the workings of God in 
history. He died June 12, 1847. 

Ballantine, James, a Scottish artist and 
poet, born in Edinburgh, June 11, 1808; was 
brought up as a house painter, but after¬ 
ward learned drawing under Sir William 
Allen, and was one of the first to revive 
the art of glass painting. He was commis¬ 
sioned to execute the stained glass windows 
for the House of Lords, and in 1845 pub¬ 
lished a treatise on “Glass Staining,” which 
was translated into German. Two prose 
volumes, “The Gaberlunzie’s Wallet” (1843), 
and “Miller of Deanhaugh” (1845), con¬ 
tain some of his best known songs and Bal¬ 
lads. He was author of “Poems” (1850 
and 1S05) ; “One Hundred Songs with 
Music” (1865); “Life of David Roberts, 
R. A.” (1800). He died Dec. 18, 1877. 

Ballantine, Wilitam Gay, an Ameri¬ 
can educator, born in Washington, D. C., 
Dec. 7, 1848; was graduated at Marietta 
College in 1868, and at the Union Theolog¬ 
ical Seminary in 1872; spent a year in 
study in Leipsic; was attached to the Ameri¬ 
can Palestine Exploring Expedition of 1873; 
professor of chemistry and natural sci¬ 
ence in Ripon College in 1874-1876; pro¬ 
fessor of Greek and Hebrew in the Univer¬ 
sity of Indiana in 1878-1881; professor of 
Old Testament language and literature at 
Oberlin Theological Seminary in 1881-1891; 
and president of Oberlin College in 1891- 

1890. Dr. Ballantine was one of the edi¬ 
tors of the “Bibliotheca Sacra,” in 1884- 

1891. 

Ballantyne, Robert nichael, a Scotch 
writer, born in Edinburgh, in 1825; spent 
his youth in Canada in the service of the 
Hudson Bay Company. In 1856 he adopted 
literature as a profession. He became very 
popular in England as a writer of stories 
for boys. Among the best known are “Deep 
Down,” “Coral Island,” “The World of 
Ice,” “Ungava,” “The Dog Crusoe,” and 
others. He died in Rome, Italy, Feb. 8, 
1894. 

Ballarat, or Ballaarat, an Australian 
town, in Victoria, chief center of the gold 
mining industry of the colony, and next in 


importance to Melbourne, from which it is 
distant W. N. W. about 00 miles direct, it 
consists of two distinct municipalities, Bal¬ 
larat West and Ballarat East, separated bjr 
the Yarrowee creek, and has many hand¬ 
some buildings, and all the institutions of a 
progressive and flourishing city, including 
hospital, mechanics’ institute and library, 
free public library, Anglican and Roman 
Catholic cathedrals, etc. Gold was first dis¬ 
covered in 1851, and the extraordinary rich¬ 
ness of tlie field soon attracted hosts of 
miners. The surface diggings having been 
exhausted, the precious metal is now got 
from greater depths, and there are mines 
as deep as some coal-pits, the gold being ob¬ 
tained by crushing the auriferous quartz. 
The mines give employment to over 6,000 
men. There are also foundries, woolen 
mills, flour mills, breweries and distilleries, 
etc. Pop. (1897) 46,137; (1905) 49,648. 

Ballard, a city of Washington, situated 
on Salmon bay, a natural harbor on Puget 
Sound, about 5 miles N. by W. of Seattle, the 
municipal limits of which adjoin its own, 
and with which it is connected by two street 
car lines and the Great Northern and North¬ 
ern Pacific railroads. The land upon which 
tiie city is built slopes gradually towards 
the northern municipal limits, thus afford¬ 
ing excellent drainage. The public buildings 
include a city hall, 3 school buildings, and a 
public library built with funds donated by 
Andrew Carnegie. There are 16 churches of 
various denominations. Several of the fra¬ 
ternal orders represented have halls of their 
own, that of the Elks being considered the 
finest. The public school system includes a 
high school, whose graduates are admitted 
to the State University. A convent and 
school with accommodations for 350 pupils 
are being built by the Sisters of the Good 
Shepherd at a cost of $150,000. The manu¬ 
facturing of lumber is the leading industry, 
and there are also planing mills, iron and 
brass foundries and machine shops, boiler 
works, wood pipe works, and ship-yards 
where big ocean-going lumber schooners are 
built. Fishing is also an important in¬ 
dustry. There are two electric light com¬ 
panies and one gas company. An appropria¬ 
tion of $285,000 has been made by Congress 
for deepening and widening the harbor, so 
as to admit the largest vessels. Pop. 
(1900) 4,568; (1907, local est.) 16,000. 

Ballast, a term applied (1) to heavy mat¬ 
ter, as stone, sand, iron, or water, placed in 
the bottom of a ship or other vessel, to 
sink it in the water to such a depth as to 
enable it to carry sufficient sail without 
oversetting. (2) The sand placed in bags 
in the car of a balloon to steady it and to 
enable the aeronaut to lighten the balloon 
by throwing part of it out. (3) The mate¬ 
rial used to fill up the space between the 




Ballentyne 


Balloon 


rails on a railway to make it firm and solid. 

Ballentyne, or Bellenden, John, a 

Scottish poet, and the translator of Boece’s 
Latin “History” and of the first five books 
of Livy into the vernacular language of his 
time, was a native of Lothian, and appears 
to have been born toward the close of 'the 
fifteenth century. He was in the service of 
James V., at whose request be translated 
(1533) Boece’s “Historia Scotorum.” He 
was made Archdeacon of Moray and a canon 
of Ross, was an opponent of the Reforma¬ 
tion, and is said to have died at Rome in 
1550. 

Balleny Islands, a group of five small 
volcanic islands, discovered in the Antarctic 
Ocean, in 1839, nearly on the Antarctic 
Circle, and in longitude 164° E. One con¬ 
tains a very lofty mountain. 

Ballet (from bal; from the French 
bailer, and the Italian ballare, to dance), 
musical pieces, the object of which is to 
represent, by mimic movements and dances, 
actions, characters, sentiments, passions, 
and feelings, in which several dancers per¬ 
form together. According to the analogy of 
lyrical poetry, those which rather represent 
feelings may be called lyrical ballets; those 
which imitate actions, dramatic ballets. 
The lyrical and dramatic ballets, together, 
constitute the higher art of dancing, in op¬ 
position to the lower, the aim of which is 
only social pleasure. The ballet is an in¬ 
vention of modern times. Baltazarini, di¬ 
rector of music to Catharine de Medici, 
probably gave its form to the regular ballet, 
though pantomimic dances were not un¬ 
known to the ancients. The ballet owes 
much to the French, and particularly to 
Noverre (from 1749 onward). The dances 
introduced into operas seldom deserve the 
name. 

Ballinger, Richard Achilles, an Ameri¬ 
can lawyer; born in Boonesboro, la., July 9, 
1858; received a collegiate education; was 
admitted to the bar in 188G; practiced in 
Illinois, Alabama, and Washington (State) ; 
was judge of the Superior Court of Jeffer¬ 
son county, Wash., in 1894-1897; mayor of 
Seattle in 1904-1906; Commissioner of the 
General Land Office in 1907-1909; and in the 
latter year became Secretary of the Inferior. 
Ills controversy with Gifford Pinchot, chief 
of the Forestry Service, led to disclosures 
concerning conservation interests in Alaska, 
which became the basis of a heated Con¬ 
gressional investigation in 1910. 

Ballistics. See Gun. 

Balloon, a spherical or elongated en¬ 
velope of silk, or other suitable material, 
which, when inflated with some gas lighter 
than the air, will rise from and float above 
the surface of the earth. 

The balloon is the typical “lighter-than- 


air” flying machine, and, until very recently 
was the sole means of navigating the air at 
the disposal of man. It seems also a logical 
method, for, in point of theory, the balloon 
is strictly analogous to a ship floating on 
water, the support of each in its proper ele¬ 
ment being explained by the fact that its 
weight is less than the cubic bulk of that 
element displaced. In other words, the bal¬ 
loon's weight is less in proportion to its 
bulk than the air it displaces. 

The principle of the balloon was fore¬ 
shadowed in the seventeenth century by an 
Italian priest, Francis Lana, who proposed 
constructing a levitating apparatus, consist¬ 
ing of a boat-shaped car or basket, to be 
raised by four hollow globes of thin copper 
from which the air had been exhausted. 
Could such vacuous globes be constructed of 
a material sufficiently strong to resist the 
pressure of the outside air, which would 
tend to collapse them, such an apparatus 
might be practicable. Because, however, no 
such material is known to science, a light 
and expansive gas must be substituted for 
a vacuum, although, obviously, a vacuum 
must be lighter than any gas. The unsci¬ 
entific mind may find it difficult to grasp 
the fact that air has weight, but a simple 
! experiment may be made to prove it. Care¬ 
fully weigh a bottle containing air; ex¬ 
haust the air from it by means of an air 
pump; and on weighing it again it will be 
found to be lighter. The difference in weight 
will of course be the weight of that particu¬ 
lar volume of air. Under ordinary circum¬ 
stances (60° F.) air will be found to weigh 
.3 grain per cubic inch, or .076 pound per 
cubic foot. But other gases have different 
weights, and Cavendish, in 1766, first found 
that hydrogen weighed considerably less— 
as a matter of fact its specific gravity is .07 
(air being as 1). If we therefore took a ves¬ 
sel containing 1,000 cubic feet, the air con¬ 
tained in it, or, what is the same thing, the 
air displaced by it, would weigh 76 pounds. 
But if the vessel were filled with hydrogen, 
the latter would only weigh .07 of 76 pounds, 
that is 5.32 pounds. The vessel would there¬ 
fore be capable of raising about 70 pounds. 
This fact was well understood by Hr. Black 
of Edinburgh, who, about 1767, stated in a 
lecture that “if a sufficiently thin and light 
bladder were filled with inflammable air (hy¬ 
drogen), the bladder and air in it would 
necessarily form a mass lighter than the 
same bulk of atmospheric air, and which 
would rise in it.” He tried the experiment, 
but unfortunately was unable to get a blad¬ 
der sufficiently light. Mr. Cavallo, who wrote 
one of the earliest books on aerostation, 
tried, early in 1782, inflating soap bubbles 
with hydrogen, which successfully mounted 
to the ceiling. 

It is well known that all bodies increase 
in volume when warmed. If we again take 








Balloon 


Balloon 


our bottle of air, and, after weighing it, ap¬ 
ply heat to it, the volume of air will be in¬ 
creased, and as a consequence some of it will 
be expelled from the bottle—that which re¬ 
mains will naturally weigh less. That is to 
say, warm air is lighter than cold. Hence 
the exact weight of a given volume of air 
will depend upon its temperature. So also 
warm air will ascend, and that is why 
smoke, which denotes warm air, rises. 

It is probable that the hot-air, or fire, bal¬ 
loon was known to the Chinese many cen¬ 
turies ago. It will rise and remain in the 
air so long as the heat continues sufficient 
to keep the contained air rarefied. Princi¬ 
pally for the reason that constant heat is 
essential, the fire balloon is inferior to the 
gas balloon inliated with hydrogen or coal 
gas, either of which possesses the necessary 
lightness at normal temperature. It has 
been estimated that the weight of a passen¬ 
ger-carrying balloon may be safely as low as 
eight or ten pounds less than the atmosphere 
it displaces; although if it is intended to as¬ 
cend to a considerable height practical con¬ 
siderations demand that it shall be consid¬ 
erably lighter, in order to make possible a 
safe descent. Thus, on account of the ten¬ 
dency of gas to expand in the higher strata 
of the atmosphere, where the pressures are 
smaller than at sea level, a balloon is never 
fully inflated. Were this precaution not ob¬ 
served, the tendency to burst a mile or so 
above the earth, on account of the expan¬ 
sion of the gas under reduced atmospheric 
pressure, would be greatly increased. When 
desiring to descend, the aeronaut opens the 
valve in the top of his balloon, permitting 
some of the gas to escape. Higher ascents 
may be accomplished by heaving out bal¬ 
last, usually sand carried in bags. Too 
rapid a descent, due to escape of gas, may 
also be checked by the same means. 

A balloon will continue to ascend until 
it reaches a level at which the weight of 
the balloon with its contained gas, gas bag, 
car and passengers, equals the weight of the 
air displaced. It can then rise no higher, 
being free to move only horizontally under 
impulse from air currents. 

Until the appearance of the dirigible bal¬ 
loon, the prevailing form was spherical or 
pear-shaped, because this shape gives the 
greatest volume for its surface, or in other 
words, it requires the smallest amount of 
material to contain a given volume of gas. 
At the top is placed the valve for letting 
out gas when required; at the lower end the 
shape is usually drawn out to form a fun¬ 
nel open at the bottom for the automatic 
escape of gas when the pressure becomes 
great. The material of the best balloons 
used to be silk, varnished with a composi¬ 
tion chiefly consisting of boiled linseed oil, 
frequently containing other ingredients, 
such as india-rubber. But cambric is now 


much more often used, as being cheaper, 
and quite strong enough for ordinary pur¬ 
poses. Of late years methods have been 
discovered of sticking together numerous 
pieces of thin skin, usually the intestines 
of an ox. known as goldbeater’s skin. 
When these are attached together, and lay¬ 
ers added till five to seven or eight layers 
are formed, the resulting envelope is both 
strong, light, and very gas-tight. The ex¬ 
pense of this process, however, limits its 
use to only very special balloons, such as 
those used for military purposes. In order 
to bear the weight of the car and passen¬ 
gers, the balloon is covered with a network 
of string, cords from the lower part of which 
are connected to a hoop, and from this the 
basket car is suspended by six or eight 
ropes. As for the management 01 the bal¬ 
loon, the balloon is spread out on the 
ground, the neck being below and the valve 
on top, and the netting laid on it and 
fastened round the valve. A tube is con¬ 
nected with the neck, by which the gas is 
introduced, and bags of sand are placed all 
round, and hooked on to the netting, to 
prevent the balloon rising too soon. As the 
envelope fills out and lifts up the bags, 
these are one by one hooked to lower meshes 
of the net; finally the car is attached, and 
all ballast bags taken off the netting and 
put in the car. When all is ready, the 
aeronauts get into the car, and ballast is 
discharged till the requisite amount of 
“lift” is obtained. The valve line, leading 
down inside the balloon from the valve to 
the car, is seen to be right, the grapnel and 
its cable placed in position, the latter being 
secured to the hoop. Usually some 60-\’ 00 
pounds of sand ballast is taken in small 
sacks. On being released the balloon as¬ 
cends to a given height, depending not only 
on the volume of gas, but upon the tem¬ 
perature and pressure of the air and other 
minor considerations. When the balloon 
tends to descend ballast is discharged, which 
causes it to rise, and when it is desirable 
to effect a landing the valve line is pulled 
and gas let out. When close to the ground 
the grapnel is lowered, which should catch 
in some tree or in soft ground, and the 
balloon thus anchored. The guide rope, a 
long and heavy rope trailing over the 
ground, the invention of Green, is sometimes 
used, when the country is such that no seri¬ 
ous damage will be caused by its trailing. 
The principle of this device is that as the 
balloon tends to rise it must lift more of the 
rope off the ground, while, when the balloon 
sinks, it will be relieved of so much weight, 
and thus the balloon will tend to float at 
one level above the ground. 

The invention of the balloon in modern 
times dates from the brothers Montgolfier, 
Stephen and Joseph, sons of a wealthy paper 
manufacturer of Annonay, France, who in 



Balloon 


Balloon 


1782 began experiments in levitating paper 
spheres filled with smoke. In June, 1783, 
they made their first public demonstration 
of the new invention, sending a paper bal¬ 
loon of 700 cubic feet capacity to the height 
of 2,200 yards. In September of the same 
year they repeated their success in Paris, 
where a hot-air balloon of waterproof linen 
having a capacity of 52,000 cubic feet was 
sent up in the presence of a large crowd. 
The King, delighted with the result, con¬ 
ferred pensions and decorations on the 
brothers and ennobled their father. 

Some accounts state that the Montgolfiers 
also experimented with hydrogen gas, but 
abandoned it because they knew of no way 
to keep it from escaping through the pores 
of their paper bag. However this may be, 
the credit for the first successful gas balloon 
is generally accorded to a certain Professor 
Charles, of Paris, who availed himself of 
the newly discovered method of dissolving 
rubber to obtain an impervious varnish for 
his si lk envelope. 

With the successful solution of the prob¬ 
lem of proper construction for gas balloons, 
numerous ascents were made, both in France 
and other countries. Signor Vincent Lu- 
nardi, secretary of the Neapolitan embassy 
in London, was the first man to ascend in 
England, though it is said that one James 
Tytler had previously made a short ascent 
in Scotland. Lunardi made his first ascent 
from the Artillery Ground, Finsbury, Sept. 
15, 1784, and published a most interesting 
account of this and other subsequent as¬ 
cents. Sadler ascended about a month later 
from Oxford. In January, 1785, Blanchard 
and Dr. Jeffries ascended at Dover with the 
intention of crossing the Channel. This 
they succeeded in accomplishing, though it 
became necessary for them to discharge 
everything of weight in the car, including 
provisions and even clothes. They de¬ 
scended, however, safely in the forest of 
Guines. This feat was at the time naturally 
looked upon as one of the greatest impor¬ 
tance, and Pilatre de Rozier decided to at¬ 
tempt the passage from the French coast in 
a new kind of balloon. He came to the con¬ 
clusion that, by uniting the two principles 
of aerial ascension, that is, by having both 
hot air and hydrogen, he would possess an 
aerostat more buoyant than the ordinary 
“Montgolfi£re”; and yet retaining its ad¬ 
vantage of being more manageable. He was 
very unfortunate, however; the balloon cost 
much more than he had estimated; the 
wind continued adverse, and the ascent was 
again and again postponed; but on June 15, 
1785, he, accompanied by one Domain, 
started off. As soon as the balloon had risen 
a good height, the gas, as might have been 
anticipated, caught fire, the apparatus was 
dashed to earth, and the first two victims 
to ballooning were extricated from the 
wreckage. 


Many interesting balloon journeys were 
accomplished during the next few years. 
Blanchard, who may perhaps be considered 
the first professional aeronaut, made alto¬ 
gether some sixty ascents. Garnerin also 
made a name for himself, he being the first 
man to descend from a balloon in a para¬ 
chute. Gay-Lussac and Biot made, in 1804, 
some of the first ascents for purely scientific 
purposes, the former ascending on one occa¬ 
sion to 23,000 feet. He found no alteration 
in the magnetic force, and the air which he 
brought down for analysis was found to 
have the same composition as that at the 
surface of the earth. Sadler made a num¬ 
ber of ascents, during one of which he 
crossed from Ireland to England. Charles 
Green made a great many excursions be¬ 
tween 1821 and 1850. He was the first to 
use ordinary coal gas instead of hydrogen 
for inflation, the former gas, though consid¬ 
erably heavier, being much cheaper and 
easier to obtain. Mr. Rush accompanied 
Green on sixteen occasions for the purpose 
of making scientific observations. In 1836 
Messrs. Holland, Monk Mason, and Green 
made a journey from London to Nassau, 
spending a night in the air. MM. Barral 
and Bixio in France, and Mr. Welsh in 
England, made several scientific ascents, 
but the most numerous, systematic, and 
best appointed ascents for scientific observa¬ 
tion were those of Mr. Glaisher, in 1862- 
1866. Twenty-eight ascents were made 
with Mr. Coxwell as aeronaut, the greatest 
height attained being estimated at 37,000 
feet, or seven miles. At this great elevation 
Mr. Glaisher became insensible owing to the 
rarefaction of the air, and Mr. Coxwell tem¬ 
porarily lost the use of his hands. Many 
important results were arrived at which 
were published in Mr. Glaisher’s interesting 
book “Travels in the Air.” 

Such an apparatus enabling a man to 
rise readily to such a height as to obtain 
an extensive bird’s-eye view over the sur¬ 
rounding country, naturally soon suggested 
itself as most applicable to military pur¬ 
poses, and during the wars which were then 
being conducted it was put to the test. In 
1793 the French government instituted ex¬ 
periments, and a corps of “aerostiers” was 
formed. Balloons were made use of during 
the campaign on the Rhine, at Maubeuge, 
and at the battle of Fleurus, with much 
success. 

Balloons were employed by the Federal 
government during the Civil War in the 
United States with considerable success, 
and one was also used in the Santiago cam¬ 
paign in Cuba in 1898. During the siege of 
Paris, during the Franco-Prussian War, 
they became a regular means of communica¬ 
tion with the outside world. Sixty-four 
balloons left the city with dispatches and 
with carrier pigeons. An ascent for the 
purpose of scientific research at great 


41 





Balloon 


Balloon 


heights took place in France in 1875, but 
ended most disastrously, for out of the 
three aeronauts, MM. Croce-Spinelli, Sivel, 
and Gaston Tissandier, the two former were 
asphyxiated in the rarefied air, and the 
latter rendered temporarily insensible. In 
1878 the largest balloon ever constructed 
was used as a captive balloon at the Paris 
exhibition. This contained no less than 
882,000 cubic feet of hydrogen, and could 
take up 52 people at a time. M. Herve, in 
1886, made a journey lasting 24^ hours, 
and M. Mallet, in 1892, is said to have re¬ 
mained in the air for 36 hours. Probably 
the most remarkable balloon journey ever 
made was that of Herr Andree, who, with 
two companions, Strindberg and Frankel, 
ascended, on July 11, 1897, from Spitz- 
bergen in a balloon of 170,000 cubic feet, 
with the object of reaching the North Pole. 
Up to the present time, however, with the 
exception of a pigeon message supposed to 
have been sent two days after the start, 
nothing whatever has been heard of the bold 
adventurers. See Andree, Solomon 
Auguste. 

Until within a very few years balloons 
have been capable of no horizontal motion, 
except under impulse from the winds. By 
taking advantage of opportunities, however, 
aeronauts have been able to make extensive 
journeys. In America one of the earliest 
of these was John Wise, who in 1859 made 
an ascension at St. Louis, Mo., with the 
hope of reaching New York. He succeeded 
in sailing 1,100 miles in less than 20 hours. 
Encouraged by this and other successes, he 
built in 1873 a balloon of 300,000 cubic 
feet capacity, with the intention of crossing 
the Atlantic ocean. The balloon burst, 
however, preventing the consummation of 
his plans. 

The first successful attempt to provide a 
balloon with some means of traveling in 
any desired direction was made by Henry 
Giffard, a French engineer, in 1852. He 
built an airship 150 feet long, 40 feet in 
diameter, containing 88,000 cubic feet of 
coal gas. It was propelled through the 
air by means of a screw driven by a 3 h.p. 
steam engine weighing 300 pounds. The ex¬ 
periment caused immense enthusiasm, but 
was not continued on account of the small 
power developed by the engine, per pound 
of weight. Through this experiment the at¬ 
tention of aeronauts and inventors was 
called to the solution of the problem of for¬ 
ward motion in the air. 

In 1872 a French naval engineer, Dupuy 
de Lome, constructed a balloon of 125,000 
cubic feet capacity, propelled at a speed of 
8 feet per second by the strength of 8 men. 
Its propeller was 29 feet in diameter. This 
balloon contained within the gas bag an in¬ 
ner, smaller balloon filled with air, intended 
to preserve the shape of the outer envelope 


after loss of gas. In 1883-1884 the brothers 
Tissandier, Albert and Gaston, built an air¬ 
ship of 37,000 cubic feet capacity propelled 
by a two-bladed screw. It was driven by 
an electric-motor which was emerged from 
a battery of bichromate cells. It made sev¬ 
eral trips, one in September, 1884, of sev¬ 
eral hours at an average speed of 13 feet 
per second. It was not completely success¬ 
ful, however, owing largely to the limited 
source of its propelling power. 

On the 9th of August, 1884, for the first 
time in the history of the world, an airship 
driven by motors departed in one direction 
and returned in 23 minutes to its starting 
point after having covered 5 miles. Cap¬ 
tains Krebs and Renard, of the French 
army, were the builders and designers of 
this balloon, which was club-shaped, 152 
feet long, 26 feet in diameter and 58,000 
cubic feet capacity. The “car” was 134 
feet long, O 1 /^ feet high and hung suspended 
12 feet below the gas bag. The two-bladed 
propeller was at the front, and driven by a 
9 h.p. electric-motor, giving to the airship 
a speed of 20 feet per second. Like the 
Tissandier balloon, the only drawback to 
practical, commercial use was the small 
amount of motive power capable of being 
stored in the battery. With smaller dirigi¬ 
ble balloons of the flexible type, Santos Du¬ 
mont and Lebaudy have been most success¬ 
ful. The former, a rich Brazilian, captured, 
on October 29, 1901, the Deutsch prize of 
$100,000 by circumnavigating the Eiffel 
tower at a specified distance and height 
within half an hour. He built a number of 
models before he succeeded in fulfilling all 
expectations. His first cigar-shaped airship 
was finished in 1898. Three others followed 
in quick succession. With the fourth he 
started one day from the Aerostation Park 
in Paris, crossed the Seine, the Bois de 
Boulogne, and the race course. He then 
traversed the field of Longchamps ten 
miles, went to Puteaux, thence to the 
Trocadero, circled the Eiffel tower, returned 
to Longchamps, recrossed the Seine and 
landed at his starting place. Before he 
could repeat the experiment before the offi¬ 
cial committee, the balloon was destroyed 
by an accident. Santos Dumont at once 
built another (No. 6), with which he fulfilled 
all conditions, completing the circuit in 29 
minutes, 30 seconds. Lebaudy’s airship was 
accepted on July 7th, 1905, by the Govern¬ 
ment of France, after a number of rigid 
tests. His balloon was provided with a 
40 h.p. Daimler motor and showed a speed 
of fully 35 feet per second. On the last 
trial trip he was required to fly from Mois- 
son via Meaux and Sept-Sorts to the mili¬ 
tary camp at Chalons and there to land in 
a specified place. Lebaudy not only fulfilled 
these conditions, but made the whole trip of 
150 miles in 6 hours and 45 minutes, or at 




Balloon 


Balloon 


an average speed of 23 miles per hour, part 
of the time against a strong head wind. 

PRINCIPAL DIRIGIBLES OF FRANCE, GERMANY 
AND ITALY. 



«f . 

ft” 

0) 


bO. - ad 


Name. 


t * 

CO <x> 

<X> 

p O) 

a v 

Shape. 

•9 S'H 
5s 9 

o a> 

p t n 

o fa 


o 3 

'X. 

i-i 

a **-i 

s 


■hOo 
H- l ftp, 


Lebaudy .... 

101,170 

187 

32 

cigar 

7,790 

40 

La Pat rie.... 

111,240 

197 

34 


8,177 

70 

Parseval ... 

81,200 

157 

28 

conical 

5,720 

90 

Italia. 

42,659 

128 

20 

cylindrical 

3,300 

40 

Villede Paris 

113,000 

203 

34 

conical 

cylinder 

CD 

70 


Perhaps the most famous investigator of 
the science of ballooning in recent years 
is Count Zeppelin of Germany. In 1900 he 
constructed an elongated cylindrical airship 
420 feet long and 39 feet in diameter, on 
the entirely new principle of placing a num¬ 
ber of llexible gas envelopes inside of a self- 
supporting framework. Beneath this cylin¬ 
der, which contained seventeen gas bags and 
was pointed at both ends, were hung two al¬ 
uminum cars for the operators and passen¬ 
gers. Motion was produced through the 
agency of screw propellers driven by Daim¬ 
ler engines, each weighing 715 pounds and 
delivering 16 h.p. changes in the horizontal 
direction well effected by means of rudders 
—one at each end of the airship; changes 
in elevation by means of a sliding weight, 
which caused the bow to incline upward or 
downward, according as the weight was 
placed at the rear or front of the machine, 
while a horizontal position was maintained 
by keeping the weight in its mid-position. 

The first trip was made July 2, 1900, and 
proved remarkably successful. The airship 
rose to an altitude of 1,300 feet and sailing 
over Lake Constance traveled 3.75 miles in 
17 minutes. At all times it was under per¬ 
fect control, and were it not for a slight 
accident to the sliding weight and part of 
the steering apparatus necessitating a de¬ 
scent for repairs, the flight might have been 
of much greater duration. At a second 
trial made the 17th of October of the same 
year, the airship remained in the air for 
over an hour, during which time it tacked 
backward and forward, described a circle 
six miles in circumference and made 
good headway in the face of a wind blow¬ 
ing at the rate of seven miles per hour. 
Zeppelin then devoted his efforts toward re¬ 
ducing the weight of the various parts of 
his invention, while at the same time the 
efficiency of his motors was increased. In 
his next machine, the total weight of the 
machinery did not exceed 880 pounds, while 
the total weight to be supported was 2,200 
pounds less than in the case of the earlier 
machines. This machine was in many re¬ 
spects similar to the others, but was some¬ 
what smaller in size, and had one less in¬ 


ternal gas chamber. Liquid ballast was em¬ 
ployed as well as extra vanes or wings for 
assistance in steering. The airship known 
as the “Deutschland” (Zeppelin VII) was 
one of the most wonderful aircrafts thus 
far constructed. Its length was 490 feet 
and its capacity, 24,700 cubic yards. The 
compartment for passenger service consisted 
of an aluminum frame elegantly appointed. 
Its length was 35 feet and its breadth 7 feet, 
0 inches and with all appliances it weighed 
complete about 1,600 pounds. 

With the “Deutschland” it was proposed 
to inaugurate aerial transportation, and on 
the first regular trip 24 persons engaged 
passage at the rate of $50.00 each. Start¬ 
ing from Friedrichshafen at 3 a.m. they 
reached Dtisseldorf at 3 p.m., attaining on 
some parts of the trip a speed rivaling that 
of express trains. The departure from 
Dtisseldorf was made at 8.30 a.m. the next 
morning and the remainder of the trip com¬ 
pleted without mishap. On June 29th, with 
a passenger list of seventeen representatives 
of the press, a second voyage was attempted. 
Before the trip was completed a violent 
storm was encountered, the fuel became 
nearly exhausted and the ship ascended un¬ 
til an altitude of 5,000 feet was reached. 
In the rarefied atmosphere much of the gas 
was lost, the rain soaked the envelope, add¬ 
ing a great deal of weight and the airship 
fell rapidly to the earth. Fortunately, the 
landing occurred in a forest where the trees 
supported the wreck and broke the fall, thus 
saving the lives of all the passengers. The 
machine was almost completely wrecked, al¬ 
though considerable of the material could 
be used again. The Zeppelin VIII also met 
with an accident, while the latest attempt, 
the Zeppelin IX, is now (1911) under con¬ 
struction, being nearly completed. Com¬ 
pared with its predecessors it is consider¬ 
ably smaller, being about 330 feet in length. 

Among American aeronauts who have ex¬ 
perimented with dirigible balloons may be 
mentioned Baldwin, R. Knabenschuh and 
Stevens, each of whom have made various 
successful flights, but only where the con¬ 
ditions of the atmosphere were propitious. 

The latest exploit of a dirigible balloon 
in America which attracted world-wide at¬ 
tention was that of Walter Wellman and a 
party in an attempt to cross the Atlantic 
ocean in the airship “America.” When 
some miles from the shore, gales blew the 
ship out of its course and to the southeast, 
while the waves so agitated the fuel tanks 
which were towed over the water by the 
airship for the double purpose of fuel sup¬ 
ply and to act as an equilibrator to steady 
the craft that the airship had to be deserted. 

Considering the accidents which have in¬ 
variably attended the operation of dirigible 
balloons, it would seem a vain hope to ex¬ 
pect such a type of craft eventually to at- 























Ballot 


Ballot 


tain success. However, these disasters, par¬ 
ticularly in the case of the Zeppelins, can 
in almost every case be traced to careless¬ 
ness or an unfortunate series of unforeseen 
occurrences. Lessons have been learned 
from these misfortunes. 

One consideration of importance in the 
construction of a dirigible balloon relates 
to devices for maintaining equilibrium. 
\\ ith the old-fashioned globular, or pear- 
shaped balloon, no such need emerged, since 
the buoyancy of the gas maintained the gas¬ 
bag and car in oik vertical line. The 
elongated envelope of the dirigible, how¬ 
ever, is, as it were, suspended on a hori¬ 
zontal axis passing through a point midway 
in its length. The constant tendency, under 
the thrust of the propeller and the pressure 
of head winds, is to assume a position in 
which its longest axis is vertical to the 
earth’s surface. According to Renard, the 
perturbative forces acting on a balloon are 
in direct ratio to its diameter, its inclina¬ 
tion from the horizontal and to the speed 
of its motor, while the effect of any stabiliz¬ 
ing or equilibrating agent depends only on 
the balloon’s diameter and its inclination. 
While various devices have been adopted to 
produce a stabilizing effect, such as that of 
making the envelope cigar-shaped with the 
larger end in front, the best European 
practice favors what the French call “em¬ 
pennage,” or “feathering.” Thus on the 
great airship “Ratrie,” four rigid planes, 
arranged in form of a cross, were attached 
at the rear of the gas bag. A superior 
method of achieving the same result is by 
the use of small auxiliary “ballonnets,” 
sausage-shaped or conical, attached to the 
rear of the main gas bag. 

The Santos Dumont type of ship of ten 
years ago, owing to their small size and 
general frailty, are considered useless for 
practical purposes, but on the other hand 
the expense of constructing airships hav¬ 
ing sufficient displacement and speed to be 
at all practical is a matter of involving so 
much expense that only governments or 
persons of very extensive means have been 
able to build' them. The “Parseval” and 
i the “Zeppelin” types to-day mark the ex¬ 
tremes in airship construction, and in each 
the attempt has been made to achieve a cer¬ 
tain end. A craft of the “Parseval” type is 
comparatively small, but is easily man¬ 
euvered and can travel at a high speed, 
although its sphere of activity is confined 
to a comparatively limited radius. 

J. E. Homans. 

Ballot. Voting may be done either open¬ 
ly or secretly. Open voting is effected either 
by a show of hands or by a viva voce de¬ 
claration of the voter’s choice. Secret 
voting requires that while the collective re¬ 
sult of the election may be readily ascer¬ 


tained, it shall not be known who cast the 
individual votes. The advantage of the 
former system is certainty in the count of 
votes; that of the latter, liberty of choice 
on the voter’s part, and security against cor¬ 
ruption, because it is hardly worth while to 
intimidate or bribe a voter, if it cannot be 
known whether or not he votes as desired. 
Secret voting has obtained from early times. 
At Athens the dikasts (a body combining 
to some extent the functions of both judges 
and jury) used balls of stone or of metal 
in giving their verdict; and the citizens, 
when assembled to decide on the exile of too 
prominent citizens, or other questions, wrote 
their choice upon tablets of pottery, known 
as ostraka. In Syracuse, olive leaves were 
used for a similar purpose. At Rome wood¬ 
en writing tables ( tabellce ) were used in 
the courts of justice, and also in the comitia\ 
on the election of a magistrate or in decid¬ 
ing on the adoption of laws. The Lex Ga- 
binia, B. C. 139, regulated secret voting, but 
it had already been in use. 

The word “ballot” is an Anglicizing of the 
French word “ballot te ” (Italian, “bal- 
lotta”), the diminutive of “6c/Z/e,” and 
means literally “a little ball.” The French 
and Italian words signified the little balls 
which were used in the Middle Ages in vot¬ 
ing, as in the election of a Pope by the Col¬ 
lege of Cardinals. In Greece similar balls 
are still used at elections. While the ball 
has given place almost everywhere to the 
written or printed paper, except in the elec¬ 
tion of members of private clubs, the word 
“ballot” has been retained without regard 
to the particular means by which a voter’s 
choice is secretly expressed. Paper ballots 
were used to a certain extent on the con¬ 
tinent of Europe before the 17th century 
(e. r/., in the Venetian Senate), and the so¬ 
journ in Holland of some of the original 
settlers of New England is thought to ex¬ 
plain the use of paper ballots in the north¬ 
ern colonies of America from the first. 
Their first recorded use in Great Britain 
was in the Scottish Parliament after the 
Restoration, in effecting the banishment of 
prominent persons opposed to the party of 
the King. The use of paper ballots in the 
northern colonies led gradually to their 
adoption in nearly all of the United States, 
though Virginia, Kentucky, and some other 
Southern States long retained viva voce 
elections. Originally, each voter provided 
his own ballot, writing upon it the nftmes of 
the candidates of his choice, but ultimately 
printed ballots came into use, being sup¬ 
plied to the voters by the respective political 
organizations. These paper ballots were 
generally supposed to effect secrecy, and 
they would do so in a community composed 
exclusively of honorable men; but the sys¬ 
tem was very defective. As any number of 
ballots could be printed, the election officers 




Ballot 


Ballot 


might control the election by fraudulently 
placing ballots in the box, either in place 
of or in addition to those properly cast; and 
the ballot was not really secret, because even 
if a voter did not display the face of his 
ballot, it could be usually seen from which 
party representative he obtained it. With 
an electorate containing many persons who 
could be influenced either by corruption or 
fear, voting by ballots of this character was 
very little more secret than if done viva 
voce, while it lacked altogether the great se¬ 
curity of the latter method, viz., the fact 
that it is impossible to falsify the return 
of votes given viva voce. The bribery, in¬ 
timidation and disorder often attending 
viva voce elections were fully counterbal¬ 
anced by the frauds which the ballot made 
possible. 

In 1851 Mr. Francis S. Dutton, of South 
Australia, proposed a ballot system which 
could be really secret if properly adminis¬ 
tered, and which was adopted in that colony 
in 1857, in the other Australian colonies 
about the same time, and ultimately through¬ 
out the British dominions generally, being 
made obligatory in England in 1872. By this 
system nominations can be effected by com¬ 
pliance with very simple regulations—c. g., 
by the written request ox a few voters, accom¬ 
panied, under some laws, by a money de¬ 
posit which is refunded if the candidate 
polls a certain percentage of the votes. Bal¬ 
lots are printed exclusively by the local or 
general government, and one ballot only is 
given to each voter, and only in the voting 
room, after he has established his right to 
A r ote. As printed, all the ballots are alike, 
containing the names of all the candidates 
for each office (usually with their occupa¬ 
tions and addresses, and sometimes with the 
names of the political parties they rep¬ 
resent) grouped under the titles of the re¬ 
spective offices. The voter’s choice is indi¬ 
cated by a cross-mark against the name of 
each candidate for whom he desires to vote. 
The ballot contains blank spaces for the in¬ 
sertion of other names. Each voter is re¬ 
quired to mark his own ballot alone, at a 
screened desk, and to deposit it folded in 
the box, the display of its contents to any¬ 
one being made a penal offence. To insure 
a voter using the precise ballot which he 
receives, the number of ballots printed is 
strictly limited, and they are usually con¬ 
secutively numbered, together with the stubs 
from which they are detached, great care 
being taken to prevent the numbers from 
being used as a means of identifying the 
voter after the ballot is opened. For public 
information, sample ballots on colored paper 
can be obtained at the door of the voting 
place on election day, but cannot be used in 
voting. Candidates or their representatives 
and, under some laws, any of the public, 
may be present during the count, to insure 


that it is fairly and accurately made, such 
persons being so placed that they cannot 
touch the ballots themselves. This is the 
true Australian system, some features of 
which have been adopted in Belgium, Lux¬ 
emburg, Italy, Austria and Norway. It has 
been adopted with substantial entirety in 
Alabama, Arkansas, California (but recent¬ 
ly repealed by a statute of doubtful consti¬ 
tutionality), Florida, Idaho, Kansas, Mary¬ 
land, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Nevada, 
North Dakota, Oregon, Rhode Island, Ten¬ 
nessee and Virginia, but the so-called “Aus¬ 
tralian ballot laws” of the other States con¬ 
tain provisions which nullify many, if not 
all, of the advantages of the system. Among 
such provisions are the following: 

1. Needlessly burdensome restrictions 
( e . g., requiring a great number of signa¬ 
tures) for all nominations not made by the 
leading party organizations. The effect is 
to give them practically a monopoly of nom¬ 
inations and to discourage independent 
movements. 

2. Every candidate of the same political 
party may be voted for by a single cross¬ 
mark against the party name. This pro¬ 
vision was proposed as a convenience to 
voters, though there had never been any real 
complaint that it was inconvenient to mark 
each candidate’s name separately. The 
practical effect is to encourage voting a 
“straight ticket” by making that the easiest 
thing to do, and to deter voters from pick¬ 
ing out those whom they think the best can¬ 
didates for the respective offices, without re¬ 
gard to party, that method of voting requir¬ 
ing more trouble. Under this provision can¬ 
didates of the leading political parties, 
which usually make nominations for every 
office, can be voted for more easily than in¬ 
dependent candidates, not on any complete 
ticket. For this reason the Supreme Court 
of California held it unconstitutional in that 
State in 1892. (Eaton v. Brown, 96 Cal. 
371.) 

3. Illiterates are allowed the privilege 
(properly accorded only in cases of physical 
disability) of being helped to mark their 
ballots. This concession to illiteracy de¬ 
stroys secrecy and in some communities is 
extensively used for corrupt purposes. 

The only public offices which should be 
filled by election are those which the ma¬ 
jority of citizens take a real interest in, viz., 
the legislative and the leading executive 
offices. In the United States, however, many 
minor offices, in the filling of which the pub¬ 
lic takes no active interest, are elective, and 
hence there are a great many candidates, 
for a number of different offices, to be voted 
for at the same time. This is of itself a 
serious strain on any voting system, and 
where all the candidates are on one ballot it 
becomes inconveniently large. A separate 
ballot for Presidential electors is therefore 



Ballou 


Balmaceda 


desirable in the larger States, but the only 
real remedy is in making all minor offices 
appointive, and reserving elections for those 
of greater importance. No form of ballot 
can secure honest elections unless the votes 
are honestly counted. The counting ought 
to be done by reliable persons tn a manner 
sufficiently public to insure detection of all 
attempts at illegality. Many American 
ballot laws are very defective on this point, 
and in the slum districts of some cities the 
counting is often in the hands of men of the 
criminal class, who are left practically free 
to make such return of votes as they choose. 
During the past few years “ballot machines” 
have come somewhat into use. The candi¬ 
dates’ names appear on the face of such a 
machine, arranged as on a ballot, with a 
button next each name. In the back part 
of the machine, covered by a locked door, is 
an identical table of names, but with a reg¬ 
ister for each. The voter, screened from ob¬ 
servation, votes by pressing the buttons, and 
thereby advancing the dials by one number 
in the registers of the candidates voted for. 
All buttons pressed down remain so until 
the voter has finished, when they are all 
released by the movement of a crank. The 
pressing of a button for any name prevents 
the movement of the buttons next the names 
of other candidates for the same office. 
' When the polls close the door is unlocked, 
and the total vote for each candidate stands 
recorded. These machines have the advan¬ 
tage of allowing the result to be announced 
almost at once, and if care be taken to in¬ 
sure their not having been tampered with 
before the voting begins, and that the vote 
reported is really what they indicate, they 
give an honest count. See Election : Reg¬ 
istration of Voters. 

Charles C. Binney. 

Ballou, Hosea (ba-lo'), an American 
Universalist clergyman, journalist, and his¬ 
torian, born at Halifax, Vt., Oct. 18, 1796; 
was the first President of Tufts College 
(1854-1861), and was very successful as 
editor of the “ Universalist Magazine.” He 
wrote “ Ancient History of Universalism ” 
(1829) and a hymn book (1837). He died 
at Somerville, Mass., May 27, 1861. 

Ballou, Maturin Murray, an American 
journalist, son of Hosea Ballou, born in 
Boston, April 14, 1820. Besides editing 
“ Ballou’s Pictorial,” “ The Flag of Our 
Union,” “ Ballou’s Monthly,” etc., and mak¬ 
ing a valuable compilation of quotations, 
he wrote “History of Cuba” (1854); 
“ Biography of Hosea Ballou,” “ Life Work 
of Hosea Ballou.” Becoming in later life 
an extensive traveler, lie wrote a number of 
books of travel, including “ Due West,” 
“Due South” (1885); “Due North,” 
“ Under the Southern Cross,” “ Footprints 
of Travel,” etc. In 1872 he became one of 
the founders and the editor-in-chief of the 


Boston “ Globe.” He died in Cairo, Egypt, 
March 27, 1895. 

Ball’s Bluff, a spot on the right bank 
of the Potomac river, in Loudon county, 
Va., about 33 miles N. W. of Washington; 
where the bank rises about 150 feet above 
the level of the river. It is noted as the 
scene of a battle between a Union force 
under Col. Edward D. Baker, and a Con¬ 
federate force under the command of Gen¬ 
eral Evans, Oct. 21, 1861. The battle re¬ 
sulted in the serious defeat of the Union 
force and the instantaneous death of Colonel 
Baker. 

Ballston Spa, a village in the towns of 
Ballston and Milton; eounty-seat of Sara¬ 
toga co., N. Y., on the Delaware and Hudson 
railroad; 7 miles S. of Saratoga Springs. 
It is noted for its mineral springs, which 
rank among the best acidulous chalybeate 
springs in the country, and was formerly 
a popular summer resort, but is now most 
important for its manufactories, which 
include one of the largest tanneries in the 
world; extensive pulp and paper mills, and 
agricultural implement factories. It has 
2 National banks, several churches, public 
high school, and daily and weekly news¬ 
papers. Pop. (1900) 3,923; (1910) 4,138. 

Balm. (a) A tree, balsamodendron gi- 
leadense, the specific name being given be¬ 
cause it was once supposed to be the Scrip¬ 
tural “ Balm of Gilead ” — an opinion prob¬ 
ably erroneous, for it does not at present 
grow in Gilead, either wild or in gardens, 
nor has it been satisfactorily proved that 
it ever did. It is called also B. opobalsa- 
mum. It is a shrub or small spreading 
spineless tree, 10 to 12 feet high, with 
trifoliate leaves in fascicles of 2-6, and 
reddish flowers having four petals. It is 
found S. of 22° N. lat. on both sides of the 
Red Sea, in Arabia, Abyssinia, and Nubia. 
It does not occur in Palestine. 

(b) Its gum: This is obtained from the 
trees by incision. It is called also Balm of 
Mecca and opobalsamum. Two other kinds 
of gum are obtained from the same tree, the 
first ( xylobnlsamum) by boiling the 
branches and skimming off the resin, which 
rises to the surface of the water; and the 
second ( carpobalsamum ) by pressure upon 
the fruit. 

Balm of Gilead Fir, a tree ( abies bal- 
samca), which furnishes a turpentine-like 
gum. It is a North American fir, having 
no geographical connection with Gilead. 

Balmaceda, Jose Manuel, a Chilian 
statesman, born in 1840; early distinguished 
as a political orator; advocated in Congress 
separation of Church and State; as Premier, 
in 1884, introduced civil marriage; elected 
President in 1886. A conflict with the Con¬ 
gressional Party, provoked by his alleged 
cruelties and official dishonesty, and advo- 



Bal merino 


Baltic and North Sea Canal 


cacy of the claim of Signor Vicuna as his 
legally elected successor, resulted in Balma- 
ceda’s overthrow and suicide in 1891. 

Balmerino, Arthur Elphinstone, Lord, 

a Scottish Jacobite, born in 1088. He took 
part in the Jacobite rebellion of 1715, and 
fought at Sheriffmuir. Having joined the 
young Pretender in 1745, he was taken pris¬ 
oner at Culloden, tried at Westminster, 
found guilty, and beheaded in 1740. His 
title was from Balmerino, in Fife. 

Balmez (bal'math), or Balmes, Jaime 

Luciano, a Spanish priest and author, born 
in Catalonia, Aug. 28, 1810. His works in¬ 
clude “ Protestantism Compared with Cath¬ 
olicism in its Relation to European Civiliza¬ 
tion ” (3 vols., 1848); “ Filosofia Fundamen¬ 
tal,” etc. He died in Vich, July 9, 1848. 

Balmoral Castle, the Highland residence 
of Queen Victoria, beautifully situated on 
the S. bank of the Dee, in the county of, and 
45 miles W. of Aberdeen. It stands in the 
midst of fine and varied mountain scenery, 
is built of granite in the Scottish baronial 
style, was enlarged in 18S8, and has a mas¬ 
sive and imposing appearance. The estate, 
which is the Queen's private property, com¬ 
prises 25,000 acres, mostly deer forest. 

Balnaves, Henry, of Halhill, a Scottish 
reformer, was born in Kirkcaldy, educated 
at St. Andrews, and became a Lord of Ses¬ 
sion and a member of the Scottish Parlia¬ 
ment in 1538. He was one of the commis¬ 
sioners appointed in 1543 to treat of the 
proposed marriage between Edward VI. and 
Mary. In 1547 he was one of the prisoners 
taken in the Castle of St. Andrews and ex¬ 
iled to France. Recalled in 1554, he busily 
engaged in the establishment of the Re¬ 
formed Faith; assisted in revising the 
“ Book of Discipline,” and accompanied 
Murray to England in connection with 
Darnley’s murder. He died in 1579. 

Balolo, a large Bantu nation in the Equa¬ 
torial Province of the Kongo Free State. 
They inhabit the forests on the banks of the 
Chuapa, Bussera, and Lomami, and their 
settlements are interspersed with the vil¬ 
lages of the Batwa dwarfs. The principal 
tribes of the Balolo are the Boruki, Ban- 
gombe, Dulingo, Imballa, and Kimoma. 
Agriculture exists among them to a certain 
extent, but they follow no pastoral pursuits. 
According to V. Francois, all Balolo tribes 
are addicted to cannibalism. The territo¬ 
ries inhabited by the Balolo belong to the 
most promising of Equatorial Africa, espe¬ 
cially as the climate is more favorable to 
Europeans than it is in many other parts 
of the Kongo Free State. 

Balsa, a kind of raft or float used on the 
coasts and rivers of Peru and other parts of 
South America for fishing, for landing goods 
and passengers through a heavy surf, and 
for other purposes where buoyancy is chiefly 


wanted. It is formed generally of two in¬ 
flated sealskins, connected by a sort of 
platform on which the fisherman, passengers 
or goods are placed. 

Balsam, the common name of succulent 
plants of the genus impatiens, family balsa- 
minacece, having beautiful irregular flowers, 
cultivated in gardens and greenhouses. 
Impatiens balsamina, a native of the East 
Indies, is a common cultivated species. 
Impatiens noli-me-tangere, grows wild in 
Great Britain, but is not native. 

Balsam, an aromatic, resinous substance, 
flowing spontaneously or by incision from 
certain plants. A great variety of sub¬ 
stances pass under this name. But in chem¬ 
istry the term is confined to such vege¬ 
table juices as consist of resins mixed with 
volatile oils, and yield the volatile otil on 
distillation. The resins are produced from 
the oils by oxidation. A balsam is thus in¬ 
termediate between a volatile oil and a 
resin. It is soluble (in alcohol and ether, 
and capable of yielding benzoic acid. The 
balsams are either liquid or more or less 
solid; as, for example, the Balm of Gilead, 
and the balsams of copaiba, Peru, and Tolu. 
Benzoin, dragon’s blood, and storax are not 
true balsams, though sometimes called so. 
The balsams are used in perfumery, medi¬ 
cine, and the arts. 

Balsamodendron, a genus of trees or 
bushes, order amyridacece, species of which 
yield such balsamic or resinous substances 
as Balm of Gilead, bdellium, myrrh, etc. 

Balta, Jose, a Peruvian statesman, born 
in Lima, in 1816; retired from the army 
with the rank of Colonel in 1855; Minister 
of War in 18G5; one of the leaders in the 
insurrection which overthrew the unconsti¬ 
tutional President, Prado, in 1868; and was 
President of Peru, in 1868—1872. He was 
murdered in a military mutiny in Lima, 
July 26, 1872. 

Baltard, Louis Pierre (bal-tar'), a 
French architect and engraver, born in 
Paris, July 9, 1765; widely known by his 
skill in engraving, specimens of which are 
found in “ Paris and Its Monuments,” De- 
non’s “ Egypt,” and illustrations of Napo¬ 
leon’s wars in “ La Colonne de la Grande 
Armee.* He died Jan. 22, 1846. 

Baltard, Victor, a French architect, born 
in Paris, June 19, 1805; son of Louis Pierre 
Baltard; became government architect of ’ 
France, and a member of the Academy of 
Fine Arts. He built the Church of St. 
Augustine and other beautiful edifices, and 
was author of “ Monographic de la Villa 
Medius ” (1847), etc. He died Jan. 14, 1874. 

Baltic and North Sea Canal, a Ger¬ 
man ship canal, starting at Holtenau, on the 
Bay of Kiel, and joining the river Elbe 15 
miles from its mouth; called by the Ger¬ 
mans the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. The Em- 



Baltic 


Baltic Sea 


peror William I. commenced the works on 
June G, 1887, so far as laying the foundation 
of the Holtenau locks was concerned, while 
William II. opened the canal gates in 1895. 
The work was thus actually completed in 
the estimated time, eight years, and the esti¬ 
mate of cost, $40,000,000, had not been ex¬ 
ceeded on the day of the international cere¬ 
mony. The waterway is 98,600 meters long 
(meter = 1.093 yards), breadth on surface, 
GO meters, at bottom, 22 meters, and depth, 
9 meters. There are entrance and exit locks 
at each end, Holtenau and Brunsbiittel, each 
150 meters long, 25 broad, and 914 deep, 
while at different points the canal is crossed 
by four railway bridges and five highways. 
Two of the former are fixed bridges — the 
Grunthal and Levenson — of fine construc¬ 
tion, each being 42 meters high, with a 
span of 15G meters. The other two are 
turning bridges, while the highways are in 
the shape of ferries. The official returns for 
the first working year were as follows: 7,531 
steamers, of which G42 belonged to regular 
lines, passed through, besides 2G6 German 
and two foreign war ships; there were 9,303 
sailing vessels, of which 8,477 were German. 
Danish ships were the next highest in num¬ 
ber for steamers, and Dutch vessels for 
sailers. Receipts for steamships amounted 
to 680,825 marks, and for sailing vessels, 
216,626 marks, a total of 897,451 marks, 
against the presupposed annual revenue of 
5,000,000 marks. 

Baltic, Battle of the, a very spirited 
lyric by Thomas Campbell, celebrating the 
victory of Lord Nelson over the Danish 
fleet, April 2, 1801. In history, this battle is 
generally known as the battleof Copenhagen. 

Baltic Lake Plateau, a low plateau in 
North Germany, parallel to the S. coast of 
the Baltic Sea; 750 miles in length, extend¬ 
ing from East Prussia to Schleswig-Hol¬ 
stein and Jutland. Its E. parts form broad 
elevations, the highest points being the 
Thurmberg, near Dantzig (1,086 feet), and 
the Kernsdorf Mountain (1,027 feet) ; more 
to the W., in Mecklenburg and Schleswig- 
Holstein, the altitudes decrease and the ele¬ 
vations become less defined, but even the 
last offshoots of the plateau in Schleswig 
and Jutland are of importance, as they form 
the watershed between the basins of the Bal¬ 
tic and North Sea. A characteristic feature 
of the region is the large number of lakes 
and ponds, some with very irregular out¬ 
lines, others occupying wide basins, or nar¬ 
row, river-like channels. The largest of 
these lakes are the Miiritz-See (93 square 
miles), in Mecklenburg, and the Spirding- 
See (46 square miles), in East Prussia. 
Many of these lakes (mostly very small) in 
the E. section (Pomerania and West Prus¬ 
sia) are without visible outlet. According 
to the most recent investigations, the lake 
basins date from the glacial period, when 


a massive sheet of ice covered North Ger¬ 
many, the ridges and hollows of this plateau 
being due to the action of the ice. 

Baltic Provinces (in Russia), a term 
which, in a wider sense, comprehends the 
five Russian governments bordering on the 
Baltic, viz., Courland, Livonia, Esthonia, 
Petersburg, and Finland; in a restricted 
sense it often designates the first three. 
The Baltic provinces once belonged to Swe¬ 
den, except Courland, which was a depen¬ 
dency of Poland. They came into the pos¬ 
session of Russia partly in the beginning of 
the 18th century, through the conquests of 
Peter the Great, partly under Alexander in 
1809. No pains have been spared to Rus¬ 
sianize them, and, since 1876—1877, they 
have lost their remaining privileges, and 
been thoroughly incorporated in the Russian 
Empire. They form, however, a borderland 
between the Germanic and Slavonic areas, 
and have been a frequent cause of difficulty 
between Germany and Russia. The bulk 
of the population is composed of Esths and 
Letts; the Germans number above 200,000, 
the Russians only 65,000. The five prov¬ 
inces combined have an area of 178,624 
square miles, and a population (1908) of 
8,327,800. 

Baltic Sea, the great gulf or inland sea 
bordered by Denmark, Germany, Russia, and 
Sweden, and communicating with the Kat¬ 
tegat and North Sea by the Sound and the 
Great and Little Belts. Its length is from 
850 to 900 miles; breadth, from 100 to 200; 
and area, including the Gulfs of Bothnia 
and Finland, 184,496 square miles, of which 
12,753 are occupied by islands. Its mean 
depth is 44 fathoms, and the greatest ascer¬ 
tained depth, between Gottland and Cour¬ 
land, 140. Its shallowness and narrowness, 
its numerous islands and reefs, the shoal 
coasts of Prussia on the one side, and the 
rockv coasts of Sweden on the other, and 
above all, the numerous and sudden changes 
of wind, accompanied by violent storms, 
make the navigation of the Baltic very dan¬ 
gerous. The group of the Aland Islands di¬ 
vides the S. part of the sea from the N. 
part or Gulf of Bothnia. The Gulf of Fin¬ 
land, branching off eastward into Russia, 
separates Finland from Esthonia. A third 
gulf is that of Riga or Livonia. The Ku* 
risches Haff and other haffs are not gulfs, 
but fresh water lakes at the mouths of rivers. 

The water of the Baltic is colder and 
clearer than that of the ocean, and contains 
only a fourth of the proportion of salt found 
in the Atlantic. Ice hinders the navigation 
of the Baltic from three to five months 
yearly. Rarely, as in 1658 and 1809, the 
whole surface is frozen over. Tides, as in 
all inland seas, are little perceptible — at 
Copenhagen, about a foot; yet the water 
rises and falls at times, though from other 
causes, chiefly from the varying quantity of 



Baltimore 


Baltimore 


water in the rivers at different seasons. 
Upward of 250 rivers flow into this sea, 
which, through them and its lakes, drains 
rather less than one-fifth of all Europe, its 
drainage area being estimated by Dr. W. B. 
Carpenter as 717,000 square miles. The 
chief of these rivers are the Oder, Vistula, 
Niemen, Dwina, Narva, Neva; the waters of 
Lake Maeler, and those of Wetter and other 
lakes reach the sea through the river 
Motala. The principal islands are Zealand, 
Flinen, Bornholm, Sarnsoe, and Laaland, be¬ 
longing to Denmark; the Swedish islands, 
Gottland, Oland, and Hveen (in the Sound); 
the Aland Islands, belonging to Russia; and 
Riigen, to Prussia. Timber, hides, tallow, 
and grain are the chief exports from the 
countries bordering on the Baltic. The 
number of vessels that pass the Sound to 
or from the Baltic annually is very large. 

The Eider Canal, connecting the Baltic 
near Kiel with the North Sea at Tonningen, 
facilitates the grain trade in mild winters; 
and the two seas are also connected by the 
Gotha Canal, which joins the lakes of South 
Sweden. These are navigable for boats of 
light draft only; but a great ship canal 
from Brunsbiittel, at the mouth of the Elbe, 
to Holtenau, near Kiel, was constructed in 
1887-1895, designed for the largest ves¬ 
sels, especially German war ships. Inaugu¬ 
rated with great ceremony in 1895, it is G1 
miles long, 28 feet deep, GG yards wide at 
the surface, and 24 at the bottom; and as 
the voyage round from the Elbe to Kiel rep¬ 
resents nearly GOO miles of dangerous sail¬ 
ing, the waterway will be of great value to 
the German navy. It cost some £8,000,000, 
and the yearly maintenance is stated at 
£50,000. The most important harbors in 
the Baltic are: in Denmark, Copenhagen; 
in Germany, Kiel, Liibeck, Stralsund, Stet¬ 
tin, Danzig, Konigsberg, and Memel; in 
Russia, Riga, Narva, Cronstadt, and Svea- 
borg; and in Sweden, Stockholm and Carls- 
krona. The shores of the Baltic in Prussia 
and Courland have been long noted for the 
amber cast ashore by the waves in stormy 
weather. Another important phenomenon 
connected with the Baltic is a slow vertical 
movement of its coasts, downward in the 
S. of Sweden, but farther N. upward, being 
there supposed to be at the rate of three feet 
in a century. Its area is held to be grad¬ 
ually decreasing. The Germanic nations 
call this sea Ostsee, or East Sea; the name 
Baltic first appears in the 11th century, in 
a work by Adam of Bremen. 

Baltimore, a city of Maryland, the fore¬ 
most city in the State, and sixth in popu¬ 
lation in the United States. It is situated 
at the head of the estuary of the Patapsco 
river, 14 miles from its mouth in Chesa¬ 
peake bay, 35 miles N. E. of Washington, 
and 97 miles S. W. of Philadelphia. Its 
general outline is that of a rectangle broken 


in the S. by the Patapsco river and its 
branches, which form a forked peninsula. Its 
extreme width from N. to S. is about 5y 3 
miles, its extreme length from E. to W. 
about G miles, its area 31 y 2 square miles, 
and its population was estimated in 1907 
at 501,000. The most populous suburb out¬ 
side of the municipal limits is Canton, on 
the E., where the huge grain elevators of the 
Pennsylvania railroad are. situated. Fort 
McHenry, famous for its historical asso- 
ciations, is situated on Whetstone Point, 
forming the tip of the E. fork of the above- 
mentioned peninsula, 3 miles S. E. of the 
city hall. 

Streams, Harbor, and Tunnels .—The city 
is built on a group of low hills pierced by 
two streams. Flowing through the thinly 
settled section on the W., and bounding the 
city on the S. W., is Gwynn’s falls, a small 
stream terminating in an estuary known as 
the Middle Branch of the Patapsco river. 
The main portion of the city lies on Jones’ 
falls, a small stream traversing it in a 
general N. and S. direction, and terminating 
in another estuary known as the Northwest 
Branch of the Patapsco. Both of these 
streams are spanned by numerous stately 
bridges, and two long bridges span also the 
Middle Branch. The “Old Town,” in which 
are situated many of the factories, lies E. 
of Jones’ falls. The inundations of this 
stream were formerly the terror of a con¬ 
siderable section of the city, but its bed is 
now walled in by stone embankments. Its 
valley in the N. part of the city is largely 
occupied by railroad tracks and stations. 
The principal railroads pass through the 
city by tunnels. The Pennsylvania railroad 
crosses from E. to W. through the Union 
tunnel (% mile) and the Baltimore and 
Potomac tunnel (1% miles); the open, 
stretch (y> mile) between them contains the 
Union station. The Baltimore and Ohio 
tunnel (iy> miles) runs from Mount Royal 
station in the center of the city to Camden 
station in the S., the trains being propelled 
through it by electricity. 

The Northwest Branch of the Patapsco 
constitutes the main harbor, 3 miles long, 
and % mile at its widest. It consists of a 
narrow inner basin, and an outer harbor ac¬ 
cessible to the largest vessels. At its en¬ 
trance, which narrows to (4 mile, is Fort 
McHenry. Beyond this is the Patapsco river, 
a wide estuary, with a deep ship channel. 

Streets .—The streets are not laid out ac¬ 
cording to a uniform plan, their direction 
being determined partly by natural features 
—river, hill, and hollow—and partly by 
the original plans of the various distinct 
settlements that were later merged in the 
city. Their average width is GO feet, and 
their aggregate length about 400 miles. The 
business center lies W. of Jones’ falls and 
N. of the harbor, the principal business 



Baltimore 


Baltimore 


streets being Baltimore, Lexington, Pratt, 
and Lombard streets, running E. and W., 
and Charles, Hanover, Light, Howard, 
Eutaw, and Calvert streets, running N. and 
S. The Lexington public market is one of 
the interesting sights of the city. The vi¬ 
cinity of Hopkins place is the center of the 
wholesale dry goods trade. Baltimore is a 
city of homes, there being but few tenement 
houses. A fine residence section is in the 
N. W., in the vicinity of Eutaw place, a 
beautiful parked promenade 150 feet in 
width. North Charles and St. Paul streets 
and Mount Vernon place are the most fash¬ 
ionable residence sections. The dwellings, 
generally built in solid rows, have white 
marble facings. In the new quarters they 
present a great variety of design and mate¬ 
rial. Interesting relics of the eighteenth 
century are the old inns met with in the 
“Old Town.” 

Parks and Cemeteries. —The excellent pub¬ 
lic park system covers an area of 1,800 acres, 
and includes a number of fine public squares 
and smaller parks in various parts of the 
city, besides the more extensive ones lying 
on its outskirts. Federal Hill (8% acres) 
and Riverside (17 acres) parks are in South 
Baltimore, the former commanding a good 
view of the harbor. Carroll park (184 
acres), in the extreme S. W., contains the 
old Carroll mansion. In the N. is Druid 
Hill park (071 acres), named from its noble 
old oaks, and considered one of the most 
beautiful public parks in the country. Hav¬ 
ing been a private park for 100 years before 
its acquisition by the city in I860, its nat¬ 
ural beauties have been carefully preserved. 
It contains several lakes, the largest being 
Druid lake, an artificial basin forming a 
part of the municipal water works system. 
There are over 16 miles of fine drives, the 
main avenues having a width of 32 feet. 
Other features of interest are the old Rogers 
mansion house, a zoological collection, con¬ 
servatories and palm houses, a fish hatchery, 
and statues of Washington, Columbus, and 
Wallace (the last a replica of the one at 
Stirling, Scotland). Clifton park (255 
acres), in the N. E., contains the Clifton 
lake and the old Johns Hopkins mansion. 
1 It was acquired by the city in 1895. Pat¬ 
terson park (150 acres), on the E. side, 
contains the earthworks thrown up to defend 
the city against the British in 1814, fine con¬ 
servatories, and a small lake. 

Adjacent to Clifton park are a number 
of cemeteries, among which Baltimore ceme¬ 
tery is the largest. Other notable burial 
places are Greenmount cemetery, to the W. 
of Baltimore cemetery, containing a monu¬ 
ment to John McDonogh, the philanthropist, 
and the graves of Mme. Patterson Bonaparte 
(wife of Jerome Bonaparte, whose de¬ 
scendants still live in the city), Junius 
Brutus Booth, the actor (father of Edwin 


Booth), and Johns Hopkins; St. Peter’s 
(R. C.) cemetery, in the W. part of the 
city; and Mt. Olivet and Loudon Park 
cemeteries, in the S. W. 

Buildings and Monuments. —Most of the 
prominent public buildings are in or near 
the business district. The city hall, cover¬ 
ing over half an acre, is a white marble 
Renaissance structure, 355 feet long, four 
stories high, and surmounted by an iron 
dome 260 feet high. It was erected at a 
cost of $2,600,000. The city court house 
is a magnificent building of white marble, 
which cost over $2,000,000. The post office, 
and the new Federal building erected on the 
site of the old custom house, are also of 
white marble. The Maryland Trust, the 
Baltimore and Ohio office, the “Sun,” 
“American,” Continental Trust, Fidelity, 
Union Trust, and Board of Trade buildings 
are handsome modern business structures. 
The Savings Bank of Baltimore is one of the 
handsomest bank buildings in the country, 
being somewhat after the design of the 
Erechtheum at Athens. Among the railway 
stations, the Mount Royal station of the 
Baltimore and Ohio railroad deserves notice. 
Other notable buildings will be mentioned 
under Churches and Charities, Education, 
etc. 

Baltimore has been styled the “Monu¬ 
mental City” from the beautiful monument 
erected by the State of Maryland in the 
early part of the nineteenth century to 
George Washington. This monument, in 
Mount Vernon place, at the intersection of 
Charles and Monument streets, was begun 
in 1816 and completed in 1830, and is the 
first monument in honor of Washington. It 
consists of a white marble Doric column 
130 feet high, resting on a base 35 feet high, 
and supporting a colossal figure of Wash¬ 
ington. The summit is reached by means 
of 220 winding steps, and affords a fine view 
of the city and environs. The monument is 
surrounded by statues of George Peabody, 
by W. W. Story; of John Eager Howard, 
who donated the ground for the monument, 
by Fremiet; of Chief Justice Taney, by 
Rinehart; of Severn Teackle Wallis; a fig¬ 
ure of Military Courage, by Dubois; and a 
superb group of bronzes by the French 
sculptor Barye, representing Peace, War, 
Force, Order, and a Lion. The Battle monu¬ 
ment, fronting the post office on Monument 
square, was erected in 1815 in memory of 
the citizens who fell in defense of the city 
against the British in the preceding year. 
It is a fine piece of architecture. The 
Wells and McComas monument, on the 
east side, is a memorial to two youths 
who killed General Ross, the British com¬ 
mander, at the battle of North Point (Sept. 
12, 1814), and were themselves killed im¬ 
mediately afterwards. The Wildey monu¬ 
ment, also on the east side, facing Jackson 




Baltimore 


Baltimore 


square, is 52 feet high, and commemorates 
the founder of the Order of Odd Fellows in 
America. The Ridgely monument in Harlem 
square, in the W. part of the city, is an¬ 
other monument to a prominent member of 
this order. The heroes of the Revolution 
are commemorated by the Sons of the Rev¬ 
olution monument. There is also a monu¬ 
ment to Maryland Confederate soldiers and 
to those who fell in the Mexican War. 

Clubs, Hotels, Theaters. —The leading 
social organizations are the Maryland, the 
University, the Baltimore, and the Baltimore 
Country clubs. The Maryland Club occupies 
a magnificent Romanesque edifice of white 
marble, on Charles and Eager streets. Other 
prominent clubs with buildings of their 
own are the Phoenix, Merchants’, Catholic, 
Germania, Athenaeum, and Baltimore Ath¬ 
letic. The Masonic Temple is a hand¬ 
some building of white marble. Among the 
hotels may be mentioned the Belvedere, 
Stafford, Rennert, Altamont, and Eutaw 
House. The theaters include the Academy 
of Music, Ford’s Opera House, the New 
Maryland, and others. The Lyric is de¬ 
voted to concerts and public meetings. 

Churches and Charities. —Baltimore has 
always been a powerful center of Roman 
Catholic influence. It is the oldest Roman 
Catholic see in the United States, having 
been founded in 1789, and is the seat of an 
archbishop, who is cardinal and primate of 
the United States. The Roman Catholic 
cathedral, designed by B. H. Latrobe, is a 
massive structure of rough-hewn granite, 190 
feet long and 177 feet broad, surmounted 
by a dome 125 feet high. In its vicinity 
are several Roman Catholic colleges, con¬ 
vents, and charitable institutions. There 
are altogether over 75 Roman Catholic 
churches and chapels, the most notable 
buildings, besides the cathedral, being those 
of the St. Alphonsus and Corpus Christi 
churches. Baltimore is also the seat of a 
Protestant Episcopal bishop, Maryland being 
the third diocese of that church organized 
in the United States, and there are about 
200 churches of all the Protestant denomina¬ 
tions. The most notable Protestant church 
buildings are Grace, Christ, St. Michael 
and All Angels, and St. Peter’s (Episcopal) ; 
Westminster (with the tomb of Poe in its 
graveyard), First (with a spire 250 feet 
high), and Brown Memorial (Presby¬ 
terian) ; the Mount Vernon and First (Meth¬ 
odist Episcopal), and the First Unitarian. 
The latter is a famous piece of fine archi¬ 
tecture. The synagogues of the Baltimore 
Hebrew and Oheb Shalom congregations are 
imposing structures. 

Foremost among the charitable institu¬ 
tions is the Johns Hopkins Hospital, opened 
in 1889. It was founded by Johns Hopkins, 
who bequeathed to it property valued now 
at over $3,000,000, and by the terms of the 


bequest it serves as a great clinic for the 
medical school of Johns Hopkins University 
and as a training school for nurses. It occu¬ 
pies 13 acres on the east side, has 320 beds, 
and in the completeness of its equipment and 
excellence of its system ranks with the 
greatest hospitals in the world. The build¬ 
ings were erected from the income of the be¬ 
quest, the principal remaining in its integ¬ 
rity. Other notable hospitals are the Mary¬ 
land University, the City, and St. Joseph’s 
hospitals. The Sheppard and Enoch Pratt 
Hospital is one of the best hospitals for 
nervous disorders in the country. The 
Spring Grove Insane Asylum, with accom¬ 
modations for 300 patients, is a State in¬ 
stitution, and the Maryland School for the 
Blind, with a beautiful white marble build¬ 
ing accommodating 50 pupils, receives State 
aid. The city almshouse, known as the Bay 
View Asylum, has room for 500 inmates. 
There are also the Church Home; the Day 
Nursery; the Samuel Ready Asylum for 
female orphans; the Wilson Fund, affording 
change of air in the summer to sick children 
and their mothers at the Wilson Sanatorium, 
5 miles from the city, or on the bay; the Mc- 
Donogh School for destitute children, St. 
Mary’s Industrial School, and the House of 
Refuge for juvenile offenders. 

Educational Institutions. —Baltimore is 
one of the greatest educational centers in 
the United States. The most famous of its 
institutions of learning is Johns Hopkins 
University ( q. v.), opened in 187G, to which 
Johns Hopkins bequeathed $3,500,000. It 
consists of a school of arts, a graduate de¬ 
partment, and a school of medicine. It has 
been a leader among American universities 
in the development of graduate study and 
original research, and has exercised a pro¬ 
found influence through its numerous pub¬ 
lications and the large number of its grad¬ 
uates who have become teachers and pro¬ 
fessors. Towards the opening of the great 
medical school a “woman’s fund” of $500,- 
000 was raised, the bulk of this having been 
contributed by Miss Mary E. Garrett, on 
condition that women students be admitted 
to the school on equal terms with men. In 
1902 the citizens raised an endowment of 
$1,000,000, and also made a presentation of 
attractive grounds, consisting of a beauti¬ 
fully wooded park in the northern part of 
the city, for a new site. At present the pro¬ 
ductive funds of the university amount to 
about $5,000,000. Its library contains 130,- 
000 volumes and 100,000 pamphlets, and 
1,500 periodicals are regularly received. 
The number of students averages 750, only 
200 of whom are in the college proper. 

The University of Maryland and Balti¬ 
more University have schools of law and 
medicine, and there is also an independent 
College of Physicians and Surgeons. There 
are several schools of pharmacy and dentist- 



Baltimore 


Baltimore 


ry, the Baltimore College of Dentistry and 
Surgery, the oldest in the United States, hav¬ 
ing been chartered as early as 1839. Among 
the numerous colleges and schools are St. 
Mary’s Seminary (R. C.), opened in 1791; 
Loyola College (R. C.), opened 1852; Notre 
Dame of Maryland (R. C.), opened 1873; 
St. Joseph’s Seminary (R. C.), opened 1888; 
Morgan College (Meth. Epis.), opened 
1870; the Woman’s College of Baltimore 
(Meth. Epis.), opened 1888, with a prepara¬ 
tory school attached, a library of 12,000 
volumes, and a natural history museum; 
the Bryn Mawr School, opened 1885; Calvert 
Hall College; and the Maryland Institute 
of Art and Design, which has a large and 
well-equipped building of white marble, 
erected since the fire. There is a State 
Normal School, and another institution for 
training colored teachers. The public school 
system consists of 118 elementary schools 
(including 14 for colored pupils) with 1,500 
teachers and 80,000 pupils; 3 high schools, 
including one for colored pupils, with man¬ 
ual training and normal departments; the 
Baltimore Polytechnic Institute, the Balti¬ 
more City College, and the Teachers’ Train¬ 
ing School. There are also several night 
schools. The annual public school expendi¬ 
ture is about $2,000,000. The board of 
school commissioners consists of 9 members 
appointed by the mayor for terms of 6 
years and serving without pay. 

The Peabody institute for the diffusion 
of art, science, and general knowledge was 
founded in 1857 by George Peabody, with 
an endowment of $1,500,000. It gives lec¬ 
ture courses, maintains a school of music, 
art galleries, a reading room, and a library 
with 160,000 volumes and 18,000 pamphlets. 
The Enoch Pratt Free Library consists of 
a central library and several branches, and 
has some 240,000 volumes. The central 
library of the latter, as well as the Peabody 
Institute, is housed in a handsome marble 
edifice. The New Mercantile Library, 
founded in 1887, has 75,000 volumes. The 
Maryland Historical Society has a library of 
40,000 volumes and 10,000 pamphlets. Other 
libraries are: the Archbishop’s, the Odd Fel¬ 
lows’, the Baltimore Bar, the City, the Balti¬ 
more and Ohio Employees’ Free Circulating, 
the Maryland Diocesan (Episcopal), the 
Maryland Institute, etc. Andrew Carnegie 
has recently offered to give $500,000 for 
buildings for 20 branch 
libraries to be supported by 
the city. The Walters Col¬ 
lection, one of the finest pri¬ 
vate collections of art in 
America, and particularly 
rich in modern French mas¬ 
ters, is open to the public 
on stated days, the admis¬ 
sion fee going to the poor. 

The Oriental room contains 


a magnificent collection of Chinese and 
Japanese art works. The art gallery build¬ 
ing is of great dignity and simplicity, in 
Italian Renaissance style, of white marble, 
and 120 feet square. 

There are published 7 daily newspapers, 
including 2 in German, besides a number of 
weeklies and monthlies. 

Industries .—Among the industries of Bal¬ 
timore, the manufacture of men’s clothing is 
one of the most important. According to 
the special United States Census of Manu¬ 
factures of 1905, this industry employed 
$8,947,000 of capital and 8,555 wage-earn¬ 
ers, who received $2,769,000 in wages, used 
materials valued at $11,311,000, and 
turned out a product valued at $19,565,000. 
The canning and preserving of fruits and 
vegetables resulted in a product valued at 
$5,982,000, besides the canning of oysters, 
which is also an important industry; the 
construction and repair of cars by steam 
railroads turned out a product valued at 
$4,478,000; women’s clothing, $3,065,000; 
confectionery, $2,598,000; drugs, $3,265,000; 
fertilizers, $4,657,000; foundry and machine 
shop products, $6,573,000; furniture, $2,- 
854,000; straw hats, $2,036,000; malt 
liquors, $4,185,000; printing and publishing, 
including newspapers and periodicals, $4,- 
789,000; shirts, $5,711,000; slaughtering 
and meat packing, $5,037,000; stamped 
ware, $2,429,000; tinware, $5,706,000; tobac¬ 
co, cigars, and cigarettes, $4,360,000; bread 
and bakery products, $4,483,000. The fol¬ 
lowing industries turned out products valued 
at over $1,000,000, but under $2,000,000: 
boots and shoes, wooden packing boxes, 
chemicals, the roasting and grinding of 
coffee and spice, men’s furnishing goods, 
enameled goods, distilled liquors, lumber 
and planing mill products, marble and stone 
work, pianos, patent medicines, canes and 
umbrellas, and upholstering materials. The 
industries that turned out products of over 
$500,000, but under $1,000,000, were: baking 
and yeast powders, linen hose and belting, 
brick and tile, brooms and brushes, carriages 
and wagons, manufactured ice, lithograph¬ 
ing and engraving, mattresses and spring 
beds, paints, plumbers’ supplies, saddlery 
and harness, wooden shipbuilding, stoves and 
furnaces, and structural ironwork. The in¬ 
dustrial growth of Baltimore since 1880 is 
shown in the following: 


Year 

Number of 
Establishments 

Capital 

Wage-Earners 

Wages 

Cost of 

Materials Used 

Value of 
Products 

1880 

3,680 

$38,582,000 

56,316 

$15,113,000 

$47,966,000 

$78,397,000 

1800 

5,265 

92.724,000 

76,489 

29,806,000 

73,770,000 

141,724,000 

1000 

6,350 

117,062,000 

78,738 

29,220,000 

87,175,000 

161,249,000 






















Baltimore 


Baltimore 


The Census of Manufactures of 1905 was 
confined to factory industries, to the exclu¬ 
sion of neighborhood and hand trades. Com¬ 
paring the figures for 1905 with the corre¬ 
sponding figures for 1900, the results are 
shown in the following table: 


section 


a 

O 


1 ( .)00 

1905 

<Zj 33 

O p 
o 

c 

PH- 


Number of 
Establishments 

Capital 

Wage-Earners 

Wages 

Cost of 

Materials Used 

2,273 

$107,190,000 

66,564 

$23,490,000 

$75,221,000 

2,163 

148,764,000 

65,224 

25,634,000 

81,014,000 

4.7 1 

3S.8 

2,0i 

9.1 

7.7 


^ £ 
o o 
a> ^ 
zi 

~ o 

c3 Sh 


$185,000,000 

151,547,000 


12.2 


1 Decrease. 

In 1905 Baltimore 
56.2 per cent, of the 
State, employed 09.11 


factories constituted 
total number in the 
per cent, of all the 


wage-earners, and produced 62.3 per cent, of 
the total value of products. It should be 
borne in mind that the great fire (see 
History ) occurred shortly before the taking 
of the 1905 census, so that the figures given 
do not represent the full strength of the 
city’s normal industrial activity. The de¬ 
crease in the total number of wage-earners 
is ascribed to a decrease in the number of 
women and children employed (10,247 chil¬ 
dren under 14 in 1900), who were replaced 
by men receiving higher wages. There are 
a number of important industries in the 
vicinity of Baltimore that properly form a 
part of the city’s industrial activity. Thus 
the cotton-duck mills in its neighborhood 
are reported to run 150,000 spindles, employ 
about 3,000 hands, and produce three- 
fourths of the sail-duck made in the United 
States. The Maryland Steel Company’s 
works at Sparrow’s Point, on the N. bank 
of the Patapsco river, 9 miles S. of Balti¬ 
more, have a daily capacity of 2,000 tons. 
They were established in 1887 at a cost of 
$8,000,000. The ores used are mainly from 
Cuba, mixed with some from Mediterranean 
countries, while the coal and coke are de¬ 
rived from Maryland, Pennsylvania, and 
West Virginia. Besides the building of 
wooden vessels, mentioned above, there are 
also in Baltimore two iron and steel ship¬ 
building plants, of which no statistics have 
been published, in order not to disclose in¬ 
dividual operations. Several vessels of the 
United States navy have been built here. The 
Maryland Steel Company also engages in 
shipbuilding on a large scale, 1,500 men 
having been employed in 1906 in this branch 
of its works. Adjacent to Baltimore are 
the Copper Refining Works and the South 
Baltimore Car Works, two of the most im¬ 
portant Maryland industries. 

Commerce and Transportation .—The prox¬ 


imity of Baltimore to the Ohio valley and 
the South, its excellent harbor, and its situ¬ 
ation at the head of the magnificent Chesa¬ 
peake bay, have made it the natural com¬ 
mercial metropolis and outlet for a large 
of the country. Its commerce is 

- further facilitated by the 

Chesapeake a n d Delaware 
canal,opened in 1829, across 
the narrow strip of Dela¬ 
ware, connecting the two 
greatest bays on the Atlan¬ 
tic coast of the United 
States, and giving Balti¬ 
more a short water route to 
Wilmington, Del., and Phil¬ 
adelphia. Among the nu¬ 
merous rail w ays entering 
the city are the Baltimore 
and Ohio, the Washington, 
Baltimore,and Annapolis, the Northern Cen¬ 
tral, and the Philadelphia, Baltimore, 
and Washington of the Pennsylvania sys¬ 
tem. The total amount of grain received 
in 1906 was 39,601,000 bushels; of 
leaf tobacco, 37,055 hogsheads; of cot¬ 
ton, 28,659 bales; of live stock, 1,329,712 
head. Among Atlantic ports, Baltimore 
ranks next to New York in grain receipts, 
and leads in the receipts of leaf tobacco and 
cotton. The domestic shipments of coal by 
water amounted to 3,414,872 tons in 1906. 
In the same year the total tonnage move¬ 
ment, both eastward and westward, through 
the Delaware and Chesapeake canal, amount¬ 
ed to 683,000 tons. The foreign imports 
rose from $13,140,000 in 1890 to $19,045,000 
in 1900 and $30,085,000 in 1906. The ex¬ 
ports rose from $73,984,000 in 1890 to 
$115,530,000 in 1900, declined considerably 
during the succeeding years, but rose again 
to $109,925,000 in 1906. As a port of ex¬ 
port, Baltimore ranks after New York, Gal¬ 
veston, and New Orleans, leading Boston and 
Philadelphia. In 1906 the leading imports 
were: nitrates, valued at $2,327,000; copper 
pigs, bars, ingots, etc., $3,264,000; and iron 
ores, pigs, and bars, $7,186,000. Other im¬ 
portant imports were china and porcelain, 
mattings, rice flour and meal, toys, lumber, 
tin, zinc, manganese ore, sulphur ore, chro¬ 
mate of iron, etc. The leading exports were: 
copper ingots, bars, and plates, $27,003,000; 
cotton, $9,210,000; corn, $13,413,000; wheat 
flour, $6,877,000; lard, $7,237,000; cattle, 
$5,081,000; and leaf tobacco, $8,014,000, 
other important exports being oats, wheat, 
meat produce, illuminating oil, etc. The ton¬ 
nage entered from foreign countries amount¬ 
ed in 1906 to 1,549,000 tons, and that 
cleared, 1,612,000. Over a dozen steamship 
lines run regularly to and from the leading 
ports of Europe, including the Norddeutscher 
Lloyd, the Hamburg-American, and the Red 
Star Line of Antwerp. Baltimore follows 
New York and Boston as a point of landing 






















Baltimore 


Baltimore 


for alien immigrants, the number of arrivals 
having been 62,314 in 1905 and 54,064 in 
1906. In the coastwise traffic there are 
steamship lines to Boston, Providence, New 
York, Philadelphia, Washington, Norfolk, 
Richmond, Wilmington, N. C., Charleston, 
Georgetown, S. C., Savannah, New Orleans, 
etc. On the bay alone there are nearly a 
dozen coasting lines. The total tonnage of 
vessels registered, enrolled, or licensed in 
the Baltimore customs district, in 1906, was 
193,255. 

Besides a large number of private and 
State banks, and loan and trust companies, 
there were in 1906 18 national banks with a 
capital aggregating $12,590,000, surplus and 
profits, $8,632,000, and total resources and 
liabilities, $98,192,000. The clearing-house 
transactions increased from $888,166,000 in 
1898 to $1,432,070,000 in 1906. The secu¬ 
rity and trust companies have a capital of 
about $22,000,000, and a surplus of about 
$18,000,000. 

Administration and Public Interests .—The 
city is governed by a mayor elected for four 
years, a bicameral council, and various de¬ 
partments administered by single heads or 
by boards. The comptroller and surveyor 
are popularly elected, the register and public 
printer are appointed by the council, and all 
the other officials are appointed by 
the mayor with the consent of the 
upper branch of the council. The ex¬ 
penditures for 1906 amounted to over 
$11,465,500 ; the funded debt stood at the be¬ 
ginning of 1907 at over $44,464,000; the 
productive assets, consisting of the water 
works ($8,850,000), electrical subway ($1,- 
565,000) and sinking funds ($16,391,671), 
were valued at over $26,838,000, leaving 
a net debt of about $17,500,000; and the 
unproductive assets (school houses, parks, 
jails, police stations, etc.) were estimated 
at $20,000,000. The water works were ac¬ 
quired by the city in 1854. The supply is 
derived from the Gunpowder river, to the N. 
of the city, and Jones’ falls, and is stored in 
8 reservoirs with a daily capacity of 300,- 
000.000 gallons, the daily consumption being 
175,000,000 gallons. The water from Gun¬ 
powder river is conveyed through a tunnel 
nearly 7 miles long. 

At the present time Baltimore is engaged 
in carrying out one of the most stupendous 
schemes of municipal improvement ever un¬ 
dertaken on this continent. There has al¬ 
ready been appropriated $10,000,000 for 
sewers, and as much more may be required; 
$1,000,000 towards increasing the efficiency 
of the fire department; $1,000,000 for 
schools; $2,000,000 for park improvements, 
including a plan for a boulevard to connect 
the great parks; $6,000,000 are being spent 
on docks, which have been acquired by the 
city, and on widening the streets around 
them; and the spending of $7,000,000 on 


street paving and several millions for 
electric subways is in progress. The 
expenditure of $5,000,000 for an in¬ 
creased water supply is contemplated. 

History and Population .—In 1608 John 
Smith explored and mapped Chesapeake bay 
and its inlets. The first grant of land within 
the present limits of the city was made, on 
the S. side of the harbor, to Charles Gorsuch, 
a Quaker. The first settlement to the N. of 
the harbor was made in 1682 by David 
Jones, from whom Jones’ falls derives its 
name. In 1729 a town was laid out by or¬ 
der of the General Assembly to the W. of 
Jones’ falls, and was named Baltimore in 
honor of the Lords Baltimore, proprietors of 
Maryland; this is now known as the “New 
Town,” while a later settlement, made in 
1732 to the E. of Jones’ falls and called 
Jones Town, is now known as the “Old 
Town.” Another settlement was made in 
1729 at Fells Point by William Fells, a 
ship carpenter and Quaker. Jones Town was 
annexed to Baltimore in 1745, but even in 
1752 there were only 25 houses in the whole 
town. In 1756 a colony of the deported 
Acadians settled here, and in 1765 there 
were 50 houses and about 600 inhabitants. 
In 1/67 Baltimore became the county seat, 
and in 1773 the first newspaper was 
published, a stage line to Philadelphia and 
New York was started, and the first theater 
performances were given. By 1775 Balti¬ 
more contained 564 houses and 6,755 inhabi¬ 
tants, and had become an important port. 
During the War of the Revolution it was 
never attacked by the British, though it 
sent out a large number of privateers, and 
prospered greatly at the expense of its 
crippled rivals. During part of the winter 
of 1776-77 the Continental Congress, which 
had lied from Philadelphia on the approach 
of the British, held its sessions here. In 

1780 a custom house was established, and in 

1781 the first theater was built, which was 
opened the following year. The population 
doubled between 1775 and 1790, and in 1792 
it was augmented by the settlement of a large 
body of French refugees from Haiti. In 1796 
the Fells Point settlement was joined to Bal¬ 
timore, which received a city charter. Dur¬ 
ing the wars of the French Revolution and 
Empire, when a large part of the world’s 
carrying trade was done by Americans, the 
“Baltimore clippers” became famous. They 
maintained their reputation during the War 
of 1812, when they were largely converted 
into privateers. A British attack by land 
and sea on Sept. 12, 1814, was repulsed 
by the valor of the citizens. It was during 
this attack, while Fort McHenry was being 
bombarded bv the British fleet, that Fran¬ 
cis Scott Key, then detained on the British 
ship “Minden,” composed the “Star-Spangled 
Banner.” In 1828 work was begun on the 
Baltimore and Ohio railroad. In the same 



Baltimore Bird 


Baluchistan 


year the public school system was estab¬ 
lished. In 1860 the three presidential can¬ 
didates opposed to Lincoln were nominated 
here, and in 1864 Lincoln himself was nomi¬ 
nated here for a second term. The first blood 
of the Civil War was shed in the streets of 
Baltimore on April 19, 1861, when the 
Union troops on their way through the city 
were mobbed. On May 13 a Union force lin¬ 
ger General Butler occupied Federal Hill, 
>and the city remained under martial law to 
jthe end of the war. 

) On Feb. 7 and 8, 1904, the financial 
and wholesale quarter was devastated by 
one of the most destructive conflagrations on 
record. The fire swept away 73 blocks of 
buildings and 25 isolated sections. The 
burnt area comprised 140 acres, and the 
number of buildings burned was 1,343, in¬ 
cluding 20 banks. The court house, post 
office, and city hall just escaped, but the 
Federal building that was being erected on 
the site of the old custom house was seri¬ 
ously damaged. The total loss was estima¬ 
ted variously at from $70,000,000 to $125,- 
000,000. But the citizens were not discour¬ 
aged by the great calamity. It was an¬ 
nounced that no outside aid was needed or 
wanted. A burnt district improvement loan 
was issued, and a special commission was 
appointed to supervise the work of recon¬ 
struction. In 1907 the burnt district had 
been almost completely restored. 

The growth of population since the first 
census has been as follows: 1790, 13,503; 
1800, 26,514; 1810, 35,538; 1820, 62,738; 
1830, 80,625; 1840, 102,313; 1850, 169,054; 
1860, 212,418; 1870, 267,354; 1880, 332,313; 
1890, 434,439; 1900, 508,957; 1910 (Fed. 
census), 558,485. Among the cities of 
the United States, Baltimore ranked fifth 
in 1790, third in 1850, seventh in 1890, 
and sixth in 1900. In the last-mentioned 
year the population consisted of 243,280 
males and 265,677 females. In the ethnical 
composition of its population, Baltimore is 
typical of the South rather than of the 
North. Thus in 1900 the negroes num¬ 
bered 79,258, constituting 15.6 per cent, of 
the population, while the foreign born num¬ 
bered 68,600, constituting only 13.5 per cent, 
of the population. In the absolute number 
of its negro inhabitants, Baltimore is second 
only to Washington, New Orleans following. 
The most numerous element among the for¬ 
eign born consisted of 33,208 Germans, fol¬ 
lowed by 10,493 Russians, 9,690 Irish, 3,832 
' Austrians, and 3,527 English, Scotch, and 
Welsh. The death-rate is rather high, aver¬ 
aging about 21 per 1,000, mainly owing to 
the abnormally high death-rate of the 
negroes. Revised by T. J. C. Williams. 

Baltimore Bird, Baltimore Oriole, Bal= 
timore Hang=nest, or Baltimore, a bird 
of the family Sturnidce (starlings), and the 
sub-family Oriolince (orioles). It is the 


Oriolus baltimore of Catesby, now Icterus 
baltimorii. The name Baltimore was ap¬ 
plied or attached to this bird not merely 
because it occurs at the place so called, 
but, according to Catesby, because its colors, 
which are black and orange, were the same 
as those on the coat of arms or livery of 
the Lord Baltimore who was formerly pro¬ 
prietor of Maryland. The appellation hang- 
nest, or sometimes hanging bird, is given 
because it builds a pendulous nest—that is, 
like a cylindrical pouch, sometimes sewed 
with horse hair, the curious structure being 
suspended from the end of a branch or a 
twig. Another name given to the baltimore 
is fire bird, because when its bright hue is 
seen through the green leaves the appear¬ 
ance somewhat resembles a flame of fire. 
Yet another name is golden robin. It ex¬ 
tends from Canada to Mexico, or even to 
Brazil, migrating to the N. part of this 
area about May, and to the S. one about the 
end of August or in September. 

Baltimore, George Calvert, Lord, an 
English colonist, born in Yorkshire about 
1580; was for some time secretary of state 
to James I., but this post he resigned in 
1624 in consequence of having become a 
Roman Catholic. Notwithstanding this he 
retained the confidence of the King, who, in 
1625, raised him to the Irish peerage, his 
title being from Baltimore, a fishing village 
of Cork. He had previously obtained a 
grant of land in Newfoundland, but, as this 
colony was much exposed to the attacks of 
the French, he left it, and obtained another 
patent for Maryland. He died (1632) be¬ 
fore the charter was completed, and it was 
granted to his son, Cecil, who deputed the 
governorship to his brother, Leonard (1606- 
1647). 

Baltimore, The, a twin-screw, steel, pro¬ 
tected cruiser of the United States Navy; 
4,600 tons displacement; length, 372 feet 6 
inches; breadth, 48 feet 6 inches; mean 
draft, 19 feet 7 inches; horse power, 10,064; 
main battery, four 8-inch and six 6-inch 
breech-loading rifles; secondary battery, 
four 6-pounder and two 3-pounder rapid- 
fire guns, two 1-pounder rapid-fire cannons, 
four 37-millimeter Hotchkiss revolving can¬ 
nons and two Gatlings; speed, 20.09 knots; 
crew, 36 officers and 350 men; cost, $1,426,- 
504.93. The “Baltimore” conveyed the body 
of John Ericsson to Sweden in 1889, and 
took a prominent part in the battle of 
Manila Bay, May 1, 1898. 

Baltistan, or Little Tibet, an alpine re¬ 
gion through which the Upper Indus flows. 
It lies below the Karakorum mountains and 
the Himalayas, with a mean elevation of 
11,000 feet, and contains the nameless peak 
marked K 2 , 28,278 feet high, next to Everest, 
the highest on the globe. 

^Baluchistan, a country in Asia, the coast 
of which is continuous with the N. W. sea- 


* For Map, see Persia. 




BaUickl 


Balzac 


hoard of India, bounded on the N. by Af¬ 
ghanistan, on the W. by Persia, on the S. 
by the Arabian Sea, and on the E. by Sind. 
It has an area of about 160,000 square 
miles, and a population estimated at 500,- 
000. The general surface of the country 
is rugged and mountainous, with some ex¬ 
tensive intervals of barren, sandy deserts, 
and there is a general deficiency of water. 
The country is almost entirely occupied by 
pastoral tribes under semi-independent 
sirdars or chiefs. The inhabitants are di¬ 
vided into two great branches, the Baluchis 
and Brahuis, differing in their language, 
figure, and manners. The Baluchi language 
resembles the modern Persian, the Brahui 
presents many points of agreement with 
the Dravidian languages of India. The 
Baluchis in general have tall figures, long 
visages, and prominent features; the Bra¬ 
huis, on the contrary, have short, thick 
bones, with round faces and flat lineaments, 
with hair and beards frequently brown. 
Both races are zealous Mohammedans, hos¬ 
pitable, brave, and capable of enduring 
much fatigue. The Khan of Khelat is 
nominal ruler of the whole land, and in 
1877 concluded a treaty with Great Britain, 
in virtue of which he has become a feuda¬ 
tory of the Empress of India. The right 
had already been secured of occupying at 
pleasure the mountain passes between 
Khelat and Afghanistan; but the new treaty 
places the whole country at the disposal 
of the British Government for all military 
and strategical purposes. Quetta, a town 
in the N. E., occupying an important posi¬ 
tion, has been absolutely annexed. 

Balucki, Michael (bii-lots'ke), a Polish 
dramatist and novelist, born in Cracow, 
Sept. 20, 1837. He wrote at first under the 
pseudonym “ Elipidon,” and is most popu¬ 
lar as a story teller of satirical tendency, 
ridiculing the shortcomings and prejudices 
of Polish society. Of his novels may be 
mentioned “ The Awakened ” (1864) ; “The 
Old and the Young” (1866) ; “Life Among 
Ruins” (1870); “The Jewess” (1871); 
“For Sins not Committed” (1879) ; “250,- 
000 ” (1883). The best among his comedies 
are “The Chase After a Man” (1869); 
“The Emancipated” (1873); “Amateur 
Theater” (1879); “The Open House” 
(1883). He also wrote lyric poetry, and 
essays on Polish literature. 

Balue, Jean de la (bal-ii'), a French 
Cardinal, born in Poitiers, in 1422; in¬ 
vented an iron cage in which Louis XI. sub¬ 
sequently imprisoned him, for his misdeeds, 
in 1469-1480. By the influence of Pope 
Sixtus IV. he was liberated and went to 
Rome; was sent back to France as legate 
a latere , and, when the Pope died, returned 
to Rome, where he became Bishop of Or¬ 
leans and of Prameste. He died in Ancona, 
in October, 1491. 


Baluster, a small column or pilaster, of 
various forms and dimensions, often adorned 
with moldings, used for balustrades. 

Balustrade, a range of balusters, to¬ 
gether with the cornice or coping which 
they support, used as a parapet for bridges 



or the roofs of buildings, or as a mere ter¬ 
mination to a structure; also serving as a 
fence or inclosure for altars, balconies, ter¬ 
races, staircases, etc. 

Baluze, Etienne (bal-iiz), a French his¬ 
torian and miscellaneous writer, born in 
1630. For more than 30 years he was li¬ 
brarian to M. de Colbert, and was appointed 
Professor of Canon Law in the Royal Col¬ 
lege, but, displeasing Louis XIV. with his 
“ Histoire Generate de la Maison d’Au- 
vergne,” he was thrown into prison and his 
property confiscated. He recovered his lib¬ 
erty in 1713, but did not regain his posi¬ 
tion, and died in 1718. He left some 1,500 
manuscripts in the National Library of 
Paris, besides 45 printed works, including 
“ Regum Francorum Capitularia ” (2 vols.), 
and “ Miscellanea ” (7 vols.). 

Balzac, Honore de (biilts-ac'), a French 
author, born at Tours, May 20, 1799. He 
was educated at the College de Vendome 
and studied law at the Sorbonne. In op¬ 
position to his father’s wish that ho should 
become a notary, he left Tours in 1819 to 
seek his fortune as an author in Paris. 
From 1819 to 1830 he led a life of frequent 
privation and incessant industry, produc¬ 
ing stories which neither found nor de¬ 
served to find readers, and incurring — 
mainly through unlucky business specula¬ 
tions — a heavy burden of debt, which 
harassed him to the end of his career. He 
first tasted success in his 30th year on the 
publication of “ The Last of the Chouanc,” 
which was soon afterward followed by “ The 
Magic Skin,” a marvellous interweaving 
of the supernatural into modern life, and 
the earliest of his great works. After writ¬ 
ing several other novels, he formed the de¬ 
sign of presenting in the “ Human Comedy ” 
a complete picture of modern civilization. 
All ranks, professions, arts, trades, all 
phases of manners in town and country, 



















Balzac 


Bamberg 


were to be represented in his imaginary 1 
system of things. In attempting to carry 
out this impossible design, he produced 
what is almost in itself a literature. The 
stories composing the “ Human Comedy ” 
are classified as “ Scenes of Private Life, of 
Parisian Life, of Political Life, of Military 
Life,” etc. They are connected by a web of 
intrigue which has the Paris of the Restora¬ 
tion for its center, but which stretches its 
threads over the provinces. Each of the 
actors in the brilliant crowded drama is 
minutely described and clothed with indi¬ 
viduality, while the scenes in which they 
move are set forth with a picturesqueness 
and verisimilitude hardly to be matched in 
fiction. Among the masterpieces which form 
part of Balzac’s vast scheme may be men¬ 
tioned “ Lost Illusions,” “ The Peasants,” 

“ The Woman of Thirty,” “ Poor Relations,” 

“ The Quest of the Absolute,” and “ Eugenie 
Grandet.” The “ Droll Stories ” (1833) stand 
by themselves. They are a series of gross 
stories in the vein of Rabelais, Balzac re¬ 
producing with masterly skill the French 
of the 16th century. Balzac’s industry 
was phenomenal. He represents himself 
as working regularly for 15 and even 
18 hours a day. He wrote 85 novels 
in 20 years, and he was not a ready 
writer, being very fastidious in regard to 
style, and often expending more labor on 
his proof sheets than he had given to his 
manuscript. His work did not bring him 
wealth; his yearly income, even when he 
was at the height of his fame, is said to 
have rarely exceeded 12.000 francs. Dur¬ 
ing his later years he lived principally in 
his villa, Les Jardies, at Sevres. In 1S40, 
when his health had broken down, ho trav¬ 
eled to Poland to visit Madame Hanska, a 
rich Polish lady, with whom he had corre- 
sponded for more than 15 years. In 1850 
she became his wife, and three months after 
the marriage, in August of the same year, 
Balzac died at Paris. His influence on 
literature has been deep and many-sided, 
and novelists with so little in common as 
Feuillet and Zola alike claim him for their 
master. He stxidied character and the ma¬ 
chinery of society in a scientific spirit, but 
he was not content with the photographic 
reproduction of fact. He was a visionary 
as well as an analyst, an idealist and a 
realist in one. The materials acquired by 
study were shaped and colored by his fiery 
and teeming imagination. In the “ Human 
Comedywe see the everyday world re¬ 
flected in a magic mirror, where the lights 
are brighter, the shadows darker; where 
objects stand out in sharper relief, and are 
sometimes oddly distorted. He strenuously 
exaggerates in the delineation of character. 

“ Every one in Balzac,” says Baudelaire, 
“ down to the very scullions, has genius.” 
His work bears trace of the strain with 


which it was produced; it is often coars'x 
often extravagant, occasionally dull. But 
few writers give such an impression of in¬ 
tellectual force, and in the power of invest¬ 
ing his creations with apparently reality lie 
stands first among novelists. His sister, 
Laura Surville, whom he loved with a rare 
a flection, and to whom he opened through¬ 
out his life all the hopes and sorrows of his 
heart, wrote his biography (1858). The 
edition definitive of his works was pub¬ 
lished in 25 volumes (1869-1875) ; the last 
contains his correspondence from 1819 to 
1850 (English translation, with memoir, 2 
vols., 1S79). A supplemental volume is the 
“ History of the Works of Honore de Bal¬ 
zac,” by Lovenjoul (1879). A complete 
translation was made by Miss K. P. Worm- 
ley (1889—1894) and another edition (1899) 
has been published in Philadelphia. 

Balzac, Jean Louis Guez de, a noted 

French essayist and letter writer, born at 
AngoulOme in 1597. His influence upon 
French prose is usually compared to that 
of Malherbes upon poetry; the euphony 
and symmetry of his phraseology, the ele¬ 
gance of his metaphors, served for a long 
time as models. Under Richelieu he be¬ 
came Royal Councilor, and Historiographer 
of France, and was one of the most influ¬ 
ential members of the Academy from its 
foundation, likewise a sort of oracle of the 
Hotel Rambouillet. Besides his “ Letters ” 
(1624), which are elaborate epistles with a 
definite attempt at style, he wrote “ The 
Prince” (1631), a glorification of absolute 
monarchy; “The Dotard” (1648); “The 
Christian Socrates” (1652) ; and “Aristip¬ 
pus” (1658), the latter intended to por¬ 
tray the ideal statesman. He died on his 
estate (Balzac), Feb. 18, 1654. 

Bambarra, one of the Sudan States of 
Western Africa, lying at the point where 5° 
W. Ion. and 12° N. lat. cross one another. 
In the E. the country is flat and swampy; 
but in the W. there are low chains of gran¬ 
ite hills. The climate in some parts is 
intensely hot, but is generally healthy. The 
land is well watered and fertile. The rainy 
season is from June to November. Cotton, 
maize, and yarns are raised. The inhab¬ 
itants, a branch of the Mandigoes, num¬ 
ber about 2,000,000, and are superior to 
their neighbors in intelligence. The prin¬ 
cipal towns are Sego, Sansandin, Yamina, 
and Bammako. Many local merchants are 
very wealthy, and a quite extensive trade 
is carried on, the natives working articles 
in gold, ivory, and iron. In 1881 a treaty 
with the Sultan of Sego opened up the 
country to French traders. 

Bamberg, a Bavarian city in Upper 
Franconia, beautifully situated on the 
banks of the Regnitz, 3 miles above its 
confluence with the Main, and 33 miles N„ 


42 



Bamberger 


Bampton Lectures 


of Nuremberg by rail. Set in the midst of 
vineyards, orchards, and hop-gardens, and 
founded about 769, from 1007 to 1802 it was 
the seat of independent prince-bishops. The 
most noteworthy of its 14 churches is the 
cathedral, a magnificent edifice in the 
Romanesque style, founded by the Emperor 
Henry II. in 1004, and thoroughly restored 
in 1828-1837. It has five towers, and con¬ 
tains, among other monuments, the elabo¬ 
rately carved tomb of the founder and his 
Empress, Cunigunda. There are several 
other fine ecclesiastical structures of early 
date, and opposite the cathedral is the 
palace (1702) of the former prince-bishops, 
from one of whose windows Marshal Ber- 
thier met his death. St. Michael’s Bene¬ 
dictine Abbey (1009) was in 1803 con¬ 
verted into an almshouse. The ruins of the 
castle of Altenburg, originally the seat of 
the Counts of Babenberg, and the scene of 
many important historical events, stand 
on an eminence 1% miles from the town. 
The educational institutions of Bamberg 
are numerous. Pop. (1890) 35,815; (1905) 
45,483, chiefly engaged in the manufacture 
of beer which is famous throughout Ger¬ 
many, cotton, cloth, gloves, tobacco, mu¬ 
sical instruments, etc. A large export trade 
in liquorice and garden seeds is carried on. 
Albrecht Pfister, one of the earliest print¬ 
ers, was practicing his art at Bamberg in 


1461. 


Bamberger, Heinrich von, an Austrian 
pathologist, born in Prague in 1822; was 
graduated in medicine in 1847; became 
Professor of Special Pathology and Thera¬ 
peutics, first in the University of Wiirz- 
burg, and, in 1872, in the University of 
Vienna. Of his numerous publications 
two have been held in particularly high 
esteem, “ On the Diseases of the Chylopoitic 
System” (1855), and “ Treatise on Dis¬ 
eases of the Heart” (1857). He died in 
1888. 

Bambino, the figure of our Saviour rep¬ 
resented as an infant in swaddling clothes. 
The “ Santissimo Bambino ” in the Church 
of Ara Coeli at Rome, a richly decorated fig¬ 
ure carved in wood, is believed to have a 
miraculous virtue in curing diseases. 

Bambocciades (bam-boch-ads'), pictures, 
generally grotesque, of common, rustic, or 
low life, such as those of Peter Van Laar, 
a Dutch painter of the 17th century, who, 
on account of his deformity, was called 
bamboccio (cripple). Teniers is the great 
master of this style. 

Bamboo, any species of the botanical 
genus bambusa, and especially the best 
known one, bambusa arundinacea. It is 
a giant grass, sometimes reaching the 
height of 40 or more feet, which is found 
everywhere in the tropics of the Eastern 
Hemisphere, and has been introduced into 
the West Indies, the Southern States of 


America, and various other regions of the 
Western world. It has the usual charac¬ 
teristics of a grass — the cylindrical stem, 
of flinty hardness externally, while soft or 
even hollow within; the separation of the 
stem into nodes and internodes; and the in¬ 
florescence of a type found in many genera of 
the order, namely, in great panicles made 
up of a series of spikes of flowers. In some 
cases a substance called tabasheer, consist¬ 
ing of pure silica, is found secreted in the 
nodes. 

The uses to which the several species 
of bamboo are put in the regions where 
they grow are almost innumerable. In 
housebuilding they furnish the framework 

CD 

cf the sides and roof, with the joists and 
other parts of the flooring. Villages of such 
materials are in many cases rendered very 
difficult of attack by being surrounded by 
a thick fence of spiny species. Bows, ar¬ 
rows, quivers, the shafts of lances, and 
other warlike weapons can be made from 
the stems of bamboo, as can ladders, rustic 
bridges, the masts of vessels, walking sticks, 
water pipes, flutes, and many other objects. 
The leaves are everywhere used for weav- 
mg and for packing purposes. Finally, the 
seeds are eaten by the poorer classes in 
parts of India; and in the West Indies 
the tops of the tender shoots are pickled 
and made to supply the place of asparagus. 

Bambouk, a country of Senegambia, 
Western Africa, lying in the angle formed 
by the Senegal and Faleme rivers. The cli¬ 
mate is unhealthful, especially during the 
rainy season; but the valleys are remark¬ 
able for their fertility. Trees common to 
Western Africa here attain enormous pro¬ 
portions. Vast herds of wild oxen roam 
the hills, and most of the wild animals of 
Africa abound. Bambouk has rich iron ore 
and deposits of gold in its rivers, especially 
the Faleme. Faranaba and Mandinka are 
the chief towns. The inhabitants, the Man- 
dingoes, are professedly Mohammedans, but 
they cling to many pagan superstitions, 
and are very ferocious. 

Bamian, a valley and pass of Afghanis¬ 
tan, the latter at an elevation of 8,496 feet, 
the only known pass over the Hindu Kush 
for artillery and heavy transport. The 
valley is one of the chief centers of Bud¬ 
dhist worship, and contains two remarkable 
colossal statues and other ancient monu¬ 
ments. 

Bammako. See Bambarra. 

Bampton Lectures, a course of lectures 
established in 1751 by John Bampton, 
Canon of Salisbury, who bequeathed certain 
property to the University of Oxford for 
the endowment of eight divinity lectures to 
be annually delivered. The subjects pre¬ 
scribed are mainly connected with the evi¬ 
dences of Christianity, and the lecturer 
must have taken the degree of M. A. at 




Ban 


Banat 


Oxford or Cambridge. The first course of 
lectures was delivered in 1780, and they 
have been delivered every year since, with 
the exceptions of 1834, 1835, and 1841. 
Among the more remarkable lectures were 
those bv Dr. White in 1784, by Dr. Mant 
in 1812, by Reginald Heber in 1815, 
Whately in 1822, Milman in 1827, Dr. 
Hampden in 1832, Mr. Mansel in 1858, and 
Canon Liddon in 18G6. A similar course 
of lectures, the Hulsean, is annually de¬ 
livered at Cambridge. 

Ban, Bann, Banne, Bain, or Bane, a 

proclamation, public notice, or edict re¬ 
specting a person or thing. 

I. Military and feudal: A proclamation 
in time of war. 

II. Historical. The ban of the empire: 
A penalty occasionally put in force under 
the old German Empire against a prince 
who had given some cause of offense to 
the supreme authority. Arnulf, Duke of 
Bavaria, in the 11th century, and Otho, 
of Wittelspach, in the 12th century, were 
thus put under the ban of the empire. 

III. Law, etc. Banns (plural) : The pub¬ 
lication of intended marriages in the Church 
of England; proclamation that certain par¬ 
ties named intend to proceed to marriage, 
unless any impediment to their union be 
proved to exist. Banns of marriage have 
to be published for three Sundays before 
the event in the church or chapel where the 
ceremony is to take place, unless a license 
is obtained. Marriages may now be 
solemnized in nonconformist chapels or at 
the office of the registrar. 

Ban, in Austro-Hungary: (1) Formerly: 

A title belonging to the warden of the 
Eastern Marshes of Hungary. (2) Now: 
The Viceroy of Temesvar, generally called 
the Ban of Croatia. The territory he rules 
over is called a banat or banate. 

The name ban in this latter sense was 
brought prominently before the English 
public during the war of independence 
waged by the Magyars of Hungary against 
Austria in 1849. In that struggle the 
Sclavonians, who constituted nearly half 
the population of the Austrian Empire, 
sided with the Germans against the Mag¬ 
yars, one of the most prominent supporters 
of the Vienna government being the Ban 
Jellachich of Croatia. His name impressed 
the English public with a certain measure 
of awe, for people had but vague concep¬ 
tions as what a ban might mean, and none 
but the most audacious ventured to pro. 
nounce the word Jellachich. 

Banana, a fruit originally East Indian, 
but much cultivated in warm countries over 
the whole globe. It is now generally re¬ 
garded as a mere variety of the plantain, 
although they were formerly ranked by 
botanists as distinct species, the plantain 
under the name of musa paradisaica , and 


the banana of M. sapientum. The names 
plantain and banana are somewhat vaguely 
used in their application to different cul¬ 
tivated varieties, which are very numerous; 
those called banana have, generally, dark 
purple stripes and spots on their stems, and 
the fruit is smaller, less curved, and of a 
more delicate taste than the plantain, with 
a soft and luscious pulp. Each fruit is 
generally about four or five inches long. 
The banana is always used in a ripe state, 
and never, like the plantain, as a substitute 
for bread, unless when the pulp is squeezed 
through a fine sieve and formed into small 
loaves, which, when dried, may be kept for 
a length of time, but which are saccharine, 
and not farinaceous. 

Banana, an island in West Africa, N. of 
the mouth of the Kongo; also a seaport of 
the Kongo Free State on the island. A few 
years ago the town was an important com¬ 
mercial station, but after the building of 
the railroad from Matadi, and the establish¬ 
ment of an ocean steamship line direct to 
that place, Banana began to decline, and, 
at last lost all its trading importance when 
the extensive Dutch firms formerly estab¬ 
lished there removed their headquarters to 
Kabinda and Kisanga, in Portuguese ter¬ 
ritory. 

Banana=Bird, a bird, xanthornus icterus, 
belonging to the family sturnidee (star¬ 
lings), and the sub-family oriolince , or ori¬ 
oles. It is tawny and black, with white 
bars on the wings. It is gregarious, a mul¬ 
titude of individual nests hanging from the 
ends of contiguous twigs. It occurs in 
the West Indies and the warmer parts of 
Continental America. It has some affinity 
to the Baltimore bird. 

Banana!, or Santa Anna, an island of 
Brazil, formed by the river Araguay, in the 
province of Matto-Grosso. Its length is 
200 miles; breadth 35 miles. It is covered 
with dense forests, and has in its middle an 
extensive lake. Soil, fertile. Also the name 
of several small villages in Brazil. 

Banas, or Bunas, the name of three riv¬ 
ers of India. (1) A river of Raiputana, 
rising in the Aravulli mountains, flows N. 
E. through Mewar for 120 miles, then S. E., 
and falls into the Chambal, after a total 
course of 300 miles; (2) a river which also 
rises in the Aravulli mountains, and, after 
a southwestward course of 180 miles, is lost 
in the Runn of Cutch ; (3) a river of Chutia 
Nagpur, Bengal, has a northwestward 
course of about 70 miles, and falls into the 
!3one, near Rampur. 

Banat, a large and fertile region in Hun¬ 
gary, consisting of the counties of Temes¬ 
var, Torontal and Ivrisso; principal town, 
Temesvar. The region originally belonged 
to Hungary; was occupied by the Turks 
in 1652-1716; and was reunited to Hungary 
in 1779. The population exceeds 1,500,000. 





Banbury 


Bancroft 


Banbury, a small town of Oxfordshire, 
on the Oxford canal and the Cherwell, 23 
miles N. rrl Oxford, and 78 N. W. of London 
by rail. Its strong castle, built about 1125, 
was demolished during the Great Rebellion, 
when Banbury was noted for Puritanical 
zeal. In 14G9 the Yorkists were defeated in 
the vicinity. The town is still famous for 
its cakes and ale, as in Ben Jonson’s day; 
and it manufactures webbing and agricul¬ 
tural implements. Among the buildings are 
the parish church (1797) and the town hall 
(1854). 

Banc, legally, is a seat or bench of jus¬ 
tice, and in this sense has given rise to the 
expression of the English courts of common 
law, “ sitting in banc,” or in banco — that 
is, sitting together on the bench of their re¬ 
spective courts. Since the Judicature Act, 
1873, two or more judges sitting together 
are called a Divisional Court. 

Banca, an island belonging to the Dutch 
East Indies, between Sumatra and Borneo, 
130 miles long, with a width varying from 
10 to 30; pop., 1890, 80.921, a considerable 
proportion being Chinese. It is celebrated 
for its excellent tin, of which the annual 
yield is above 4,000 tons; but it produces 
nothing else of any importance. 

Banco, in commerce, a term employed to 
designate the money in which the banks of 
some countries keep or kept their accounts, 
in contradistinction to the current money 
of the place, which might vary in value or 
consist of light and foreign coins. The term 
was applied to the Hamburg bank accounts 
before the adoption (in 1873) of the new 
German coinage. The mark banco had a 
value of Is. 5%d.; but there was no cor¬ 
responding coin. 

Bancroft, Aaron, a Unitarian clergy¬ 
man, born in Reading, Mass., Nov. 10, 
1755; graduated at Harvard, in 1778; be¬ 
came pastor in Worcester in 1785, where he 
remained nearly 50 years. Besides a great 
number of sermons his works include a 
“Life of George Washington” (1807). He 
was the father of the historian, George 
Bancroft. He died at Worcester, Mass., 
Aug. 19, 1839. 

Bancroft, Edward, an American physi¬ 
cian, born in Westfield, Mass., Jan. 9, 1744; 
early in life ran away from home; became 
a practicing physician in Guiana; and 
passed the latter part of his life in England. 
During the Revolutionary War he is be¬ 
lieved to have been a spy for the British. 
His publications include a “ Natural His¬ 
tory of Guiana” (17G9) and “Researches 
Concerning the Philosophy of Permanent 
Colors” (2 vols., 1794-181.3). He died in 
London, Sept. 8, 1820. 

Bancroft, George, an American histo¬ 
rian, born near Worcester, Mass., Oct. 3, 
1800. He was educated at Harvard and in 


Germany, where he made the acquaintance 
of many literary men of note. In 1824 he 
published a translation of Heeren’s “ Poli¬ 
tics of Ancient Greece,” and a small volume 
of poems, and was also meditating and col¬ 
lecting materials for a history of the United 
States. Between 1834 and 1840 three 
volumes of his history were published. In 

1845 he was appointed Secretary of the 
Navy, and effected many reforms and 
improvements in that department. He 
was American Minister to England from 

1846 to 1849, when the University of Ox¬ 
ford conferred on 
him the honor¬ 
ary degree of D. 

C. L. He took 
the opportunity, 
while in Europe, 
to perfect his col¬ 
lections on Am¬ 
erican history. 

He returned to 
New York in 
1849, and began 
to prepare for 
the press the 
fourth and fifth 
volumes of his 
history, which 
appeared in 1852. The sixth appeared 
in 1854, the seventh in 1858, the eighth 
soon after, but the ninth did not ap¬ 
pear till 18GG. From 18G7 to 1874 he was 
Minister Plenipotentiary at the Court of 
Berlin. The 10th and last volume of his 
great work appeared in 1874. An addi¬ 
tional section appeared, first as a separate 
work, in 1882: “History of the Formation 
of the Constitution of the United States,” 
and the whole came out in six volumes in 
1884-1885. He settled in Washington on 
returning from Germany, in 1875, and 
died there, Jan. 17, 1891. 

Bancroft, Hubert Howe, an American 
historian, born in Granville, Ohio, May 5, 
1832. In 1852 he went to California to es¬ 
tablish a book business, and began to col¬ 
lect documents, maps, books and MSS. for 
a complete “History of the Pacific States” 
from Mexico to Alaska. In 1893 this lib¬ 
rary numbered GO.000 volumes, to which 
many additions have been made. His his¬ 
tories are still in preparation. “ Literary 
Industries” (vol. 40, San Francisco, 1890) 
describes his work. 

Bancroft, Richard, an English arch¬ 
bishop, born in Lancashire in 1544; studied 
at Cambridge, entered the Church, and rose 
rapidly during the reign of Elizabeth till 
he obtained the see of London in 1597. 
James I. made him Archbishop of Canter¬ 
bury on the death of Whitgift. He sup¬ 
pressed the Puritans mercilessly, and they, 
in return, never ceased to abuse him. He 
died in 1610. 



GEORGE BANCROFT. 





Bancroft 


Bandelfer 


Bancroft, The, a steel gunboat of tbe 
United States navy; biuit expressly for a 
practice ship for the cadets of the United 
States Naval Academy; launched in 1892. 
Her dimensions are: length, 187^ feet; 
breadth, 32 feet; mean draft, liy 2 feet; 
horse-power, 1,213; displacement, 839 tons; 
speed, 13 knots per hour; rig, barkentine; 
main battery, four 4-inch breech loading 
rifles; secondary battery, two 6-pounder, 
two 3-pounder, and one 1-pounder rapid fire 
guns, besides Gatling guns. The “Bancroft ” 
was named after George Bancroft because 
of the fact that the United States Naval 
Academy was established during his ad¬ 
ministration of the Navy Department. 

Band, in architecture, is the name given 
to any flat fascia or ornament which is 
continued horizontally along a wall, or by 
which a building is encircled. Bands often 
consist of foliage, quatrefoils or of simple 
bricks. Band of a shaft is the molding or 
suits of moldings by which the pillars and 
shafts are encircled in Gothic architecture. 
Several bands are often placed at equal dis¬ 
tances on the body of the shaft, when it is 
long, in which case they are known as shaft- 
rings. 

Band, in music, a number of trained mu¬ 
sicians in a regiment, intended to march in 
front of the soldiers and play instruments, 
so as to enable them to keep step as they 
move forward; also any similarly organized 
company of musicians, even though they 
mav in no wav be connected with the army; 
an orchestra. The word is also applied to 
the subdivisions of an orchestra, as string- 
band, wind-band, etc. 

Band, or Bands, linen pendants from the 
neck, forming part of clerical, legal, and 
academic costume. It is a moot question 
whether they are a survival of the amice, 
or immediate descendants of the wide fall¬ 
ing collar which was a part of the ordinary 
civilian dress in the reign of James I. In 
the Anglican Church they now are seldom 
worn, except by ultra-low churchmen; but 
they are in common use with Presbyterian 
ministers (ordained ministers as distin¬ 
guished from licentiates). Foreign Catholic 
ecclesiastics wear black bands with a nar¬ 
row white border. 

Banda, a town and district of the North¬ 
western Provinces of India. The town 
stands on a plain on the right bank of the 
Ken river, 95 miles S. W. from Allahabad, 
and is a considerable cotton mart. Pop. 
28,974. Area of district, 3,061 square miles; 
pop. (1891) 705,832. 

Bandage, a surgical wrapper of some 
kind applied to a limb or other portion of 
the body to keep parts in position, exert a 
pressure, or for other purpose. To be able 
to apply a bandage suitably in the case of 
an accident is a highly useful accomplish¬ 
ment, which, through the teaching of am¬ 


bulance surgery, now so common, may be 
easily acquired. 

Bandai=San (ban-dl'san), a volcano in 
Japan ; 140 miles N. of Tokio. Its summit 
consists of several peaks, the highest of 
which is 6,035 feet above the ocean and 
4,000 feet above the surrounding plain. On 
July 15, 1888, there was a terrible explo¬ 
sion of steam which blew out a side of the 
mountain, making a crater more than a 
mile in width, and having precipitous walls 
on three sides. The debris of broken rock 
and dust poured down the slope and over 
an area of 27 square miles, killing 461 per¬ 
sons and covering a number of villages. 

Banda Islands, a group belonging to 
Holland, Indian Archipelago, S. of Ceram, 
Great Banda, the largest, being 12 miles 
long by 2 broad. They are beautiful islands, 
of volcanic origin, yielding quantities of 
nutmeg. Goenong Api, or Fire Mountain, 
is a cone-shaped volcano which rises 2,320 
feet above the sea. Pop. about 7,000. 

Bandajan, a pass over a range of the 
Himalayas, Kashmir State, 14,854 feet above 
sea level. 

Bandanna, a variety of silk handkerchief 
having a uniformly dyed ground, usually 
of bright red or blue, ornamented with 
white or yellow circular, lozenge-shaped, or 
other simple figures produced by discharg¬ 
ing the ground color. 

Banda Oriental, a State of South Amer¬ 
ica, originally settled by Spaniards from 
Buenos Ayres, claimed by Brazil, but, after 
a war, made in 1825 into the independent 
State of Banda Oriental del Uruguay — i. e., 
Eastern Bank of the Uruguay, now usually 
called simply Uruguay (q. v.) 

Banda Sea, a space of ocean inclosed by 
islands of the Malay Archipelago; Buru and 
Ceram on the N.; Timor and the Serawatty 
Islands on the S. 

Banded Peak, or Mt. Hesperus, a peak 
of the San Juan Mountains, in Southern 
Colorado; altitude, 12,860 feet. 

Bandel, Ernst von, a Bavarian sculptor, 
born in 1800, at Ansbach; studied art at 
Munich, Nuremberg, and Rome; and from 
1834 lived chiefly at Hanover, engaged off 
and on, for 40 years, on his great monument 
of Arminius, near Detmold, 90 feet high, 
which was unveiled by the Emperor Wilhelm 
on Aug. 16, 1875. He died near Donau- 
worth, Sept. 25, 1876. 

Bandelier, Adolph Francis Alphonse, 

a Swiss-American archeologist, born in 
Berne, Aug. 6, 1840; settled early in the 
United States, where he has done important 
work under the direction of the Archeolog¬ 
ical Institute of America. His studies have 
been chiefly among the Indians of New Mex¬ 
ico and Arizona, Central America and Mex¬ 
ico. He has published many papers on the 




Bandello 


Bandit 


subject. He is also the author of “ Art of 
War and Mode of Warfare” (1877) ; “ So¬ 
cial Organization and Government of An¬ 
cient Mexicans ” (1878) ; “ Tenure of Lands 
and Inheritances of Ancient Mexicans ” 
(1878) ; “An Archaeological Tour Into Mex¬ 
ico” (1885) ; a novel of Pueblo Indian life, 
The Delight Makers,” etc. 

Bandello, Matteo, an Italian writer of 
novelle, or tales, born about 1480. He was, 
in his youth, a Dominican monk, and, hav¬ 
ing been banished from Italy as a partisan 
of the French, Henry II. of France gave him 
in 1550 the bishopric of Agen. He left the 
administration of his diocese to the Bishop 
of Grasse, and employed himself, at the ad¬ 
vanced age of 70, in the completion of his 
novelle. He also wrote poetry, but his fame 
rests on his novelle, which are in the style 
of Boccaccio, and have been made use of by 
Shakespeare, Massinger, and Beaumont and 
Fletcher. He died about 1562. 

Bande Noire (biind-nwar), the name 
given when the Revolution in France had 
entailed the confiscation of much ecclesias¬ 
tical property, also many castles and resi¬ 
dences of the emigrant and resident nobil¬ 
ity, to a number of speculators who bought 
up the edifices, etc., in order to demolish 
them and turn their materials to profit. 
They were so called on account of their dis¬ 
regard of sacred property, of art, antiquity, 
and historical associations. 

Banderas, Rio de (ban-da'ras), a river 
on the E. coast of Mexico; so called (river 
of flags) because, when discovered in 1518 
by Juan de Grijalva, the natives waved 
white flags at the end of their spears, in 
token of friendship. 

Bandettini, Teresa (ban-det-e'ne), an 
Italian poet, born in Lucca, Aug. 12, 1763; 
was especially gifted in improvising verse. 
Beginning life as a danseuse, she discov¬ 
ered her poetic talent as if by accident, but 
came to be known and honored in most parts 
of her country. She was called the Amar- 
illa Etrusca. Of her finished poems, there 
remain “La Morte de Adanoide,” “II Poli- 
doro,” “ La Rosmunda,” and some shorter 
pieces. She died in 1837. 

Band Fish ( cepola ), a genus in the fam¬ 
ily cepolidce, in the blenny-form division of 
acanthopterygious fishes. The body is much 
elongated and laterally compressed, and is 
covered by very small scales. The dorsal 
fin is very long, and consists like the anal 
of soft rays. The tail vertebrae are very 
numerous, and the whole structure of the 
body exhibits unusual delicacy, so that 
specimens are seldom obtained in an unin¬ 
jured state. All the species inhabit quiet 
depths, and are unable to contend with 
waves and currents. The snakelike form 
and the beauty of their colors make them 
objects of great interest. One species, the 


red band-fish (C. rubescens) , not uncom¬ 
mon in the Mediterranean, is occasionally 
cast ashore by storms on the British coasts. 
It is about 15 inches long. Its brilliant ap¬ 
pearance, when seen moving in the water, 
lias suggested the names of fire-flame and 
red ribbon, by which it is known at Nice. 
The home of the genus is in Japanese waters. 

Bandhooka, the.name of an Indian shrub, 
the ixora bandhuca, sometimes called the 
jungle geranium. It has scarlet, or crim¬ 
son, flowers, and belongs to the order cin- 
chonaccce. or cinchonads. 

Bandicoot, the mus giganteus, the larg¬ 
est known species of rat, attaining the 
weight of two or three pounds, and the 
length, including the tail, of 24 to 30 inches. 
It is a native of India, and is very abundant 
in Ceylon. Its flesh is said to be delicate 
and to resemble young pork, and is a favor¬ 
ite article of diet with the coolies. It is 
destructive to rice fields and gardens. The 
name is also given to a family of Australian 
marsupials. The most common species (pc- 
rameles nasuta) , the long-nosed bandicoot, 
measures about one foot and a half from the 
tip of the snout to the origin of the tail, 
and in general appearance bears a consider¬ 
able resemblance to a large, overgrown rat. 

Bandiera (band-ya'ra), Attilio and 
Emilio, two brothers of a Venetian family, 
lieutenants in the Austrian navy, who at¬ 
tempted a rising in favor of Italian inde¬ 
pendence in 1843. The attempt was a fail¬ 
ure, and they fled to Corfu; but, misled by 
false information, they ventured to land in 
Calabria with 20 companions, believing that 
their appearance would be the signal for a 
general insurrection. One of their accom¬ 
plices had betrayed them, and the party 
was captured at once by the Neapolitan po¬ 
lice. Attilio and Emilio Avere shot along 
with seven of their comrades in the public 
square of Cosenza, on July 25, 1844. 

Bandinelli, Baccio, son of a famous gold¬ 
smith of Florence, and one of the best sculp¬ 
tors of his time, was born at Florence in 
1493. He Avas an angry and jealous rival 
of Michael Angelo, whose grandeur of con¬ 
ception he strove to equal, and who is said 
to ha\ T e retaliated his enmity by contempt. 
His genius, however, secured him many ad¬ 
mirers and patrons among persons of dis¬ 
tinction, and Pope Clement VII. even be- 
stoAved on him an estate. Among his best 
Avorks, Avhich all exhibit poAver, vigor, and 
skilful drawing, are his colossal group of 
“ Hercules,” with Cacus at his feet, his 
“ Adam and Eve,” his copy of the “ Lao- 
coon,” and the exquisite bassi-rilievi Avhich 
adorn the choir of the Duomo in Florence, 
Avhere he died in 1560. 

Bandit, one avIio, besides having been 
banished, has been publicly proclaimed an 
outlaAV, and, having nothing further to hope 



Bandon 


Bangkok 


from society, or at least from the govern¬ 
ment which has taken these decisive steps 
against him, has become a highwayman, or 
robber of some other type. More generally, 
any robber, whatever may be the circum¬ 
stances which have led to his adopting his 
evil mode of life, i^s robbers generally find 
that they can more easily carry out their 
plans if they go in gangs, the word bandit 
often occurs in the plural, banditti; there 
is, however, no reason to believe that this 
is etymologically connected with band, in 
the sense of a company of people associ¬ 
ated together for some end. 

Bandon, or Bandonbridge, a, town of 
county Cork, Ireland, on the Bandon, 20 
miles S. W. of Cork by rail. Bandon was 
founded in 1008 as a Protestant colony by 
the first Earl of Cork; was incorporated by 
James I., and now belongs chiefly to the 
Duke of Devonshire. Brewing, distilling, 
and tanning are the chief industries. The 
river Bandon rises in the Carberry Moun¬ 
tains, and at its mouth forms the harbor of 
Kinsale. Spenser describes it as “ the pleas- 
•ant Bandon, crowned by many a wood/’ It 
has a course of 40 miles, for 15 of which it 
is navigable to Innishannon, 4 miles below 
Bandon. 

Bandong, or Bandung, a flourishing 
commercial town in the center of the west¬ 
ern end of Java, in the vicinity of the vol¬ 
cano Gunong Guntour. Since 18G4 it has 
been the capital of a province known as the 
Preanger Begencies. 

Bandtke (bant'ke), or Bandtkie, Jerzy 

Samuel, a Polish historian, born in Lublin, 
Nov. 24, 1768; author of “History of the 
Polish Nation” (1820); professor in the 
University of Cracow, in 1811-1835. He 
died in Cracow, June 11, 1835. 

Bane Berry, the English name of the ac- 
tcea spicata, a plant of the order ranun- 
culacece, or crowfoots. It is called also herb 
Christopher. The berries are poisonous; 
with alum they yield a black dye. 

Baner, Johan Gustafsson (bii-niir'), a 
Swedish general in the Thirty Years’ War, 
born in 1596; made his first campaigns in 
Poland and Russia, and accompanied Gus- 
tavua Adolphus, who held him in high es¬ 
teem, to Germany. After the death of Gus- 
tavus, in 1632, he had the chief command 
of the Swedish army, and, in 1634, invaded 
Bohemia, defeated the Saxons at Wittstock, 
Sept. 24, 1636, and took Torgau. He rav¬ 
aged Saxony again in 1639, gained another 
victory at Chemnitz, and, in 1640, defeated 
Piccolomini. In January, 1641, he very 
nearly took Ratisbon by surprise. He died 
in 1641. 

Bang, Herman, a Danish novelist, born 
in 1857. He came into notice about 1879, 
since which time he has published a number 
of novels and some poems. “Hopeless Gen¬ 
erations” (Haablose Slcegter) ; “Eccentric 


Tales” (Excentriske Noveller) ; “Under 
the Yoke” (Under Aaget) ; “Ten Years” 
(Ti Aar); -and “By the Roadside” (Ved 
Veien), are the titles of some of them. The 
last named is considered the masterpiece. 

Bangalore, a town of Hindustan, capital 
of Mysore, and giving its name to a con¬ 
siderable district in the E. of Mysore State. 
The town stands on a healthful pleateau 
3.000 feet above sea level, has a total area 
of nearly 14 square miles, and is one of the 
pleasantest British stations in India. In 
the old town stands the fort, reconstructed 
by Hyder Ali in 1761, and taken by Lord 
Cornwallis in 1791. Under English admin¬ 
istration the town has greatly prospered 
in recent times. There are manufactures of 
silks, cotton cloths, carpets, gold and silver 
lace, etc. Pop. (1901) 159.030. The Ban¬ 
galore district has an area of nearly 3,000 
square miles, of which more than half rep¬ 
resent cultivable land. Pop. over 800,000. 

Bangka, or Mang=Ka, a Chinese town on 
Formosa Island. It is on the Tamsui river, 
13 miles from its mouth, near the tea-pro¬ 
ducing districts. The river is navigable to 
this point for small steamboats, and a rail¬ 
road connects the town with Kelung. The 
British mercantile agencies, for the pur¬ 
chase of tea, have their residence at the 
neighboring town of Tao-tu-tai. 

Bangkok, the capital city of Siam, situ¬ 
ated on both banks of the Menam, about 20 
miles from its mouth, and in 14° N. lat., 
and 100° 20' E. long. The population is 
about 600.000, nearly half of whom are 
Chinese, the others, including Burmese, An- 
namese, Cambodians, Malays, Eurasians, 
and Europeans. The foreign trade of Siam 
centers in Bangkok, and is mainly in the 
hands of the Europeans and Chinese. The 
approach to Bangkok by the Menam, which 
can be navigated by ships of 350 tons bur¬ 
den (large sea-going ships anchor at Pak- 
nam, below the bar at the mouth of the 
river), is exceedingly beautiful. As the 
town is neared, numerous temples present 
themselves, and floating houses become com¬ 
mon; and, finally, the whole city, with its 
rich gardens, and shining temples and pal¬ 
aces, bursts full upon the view. Stone build¬ 
ings are used only for the royal palaces, 
some noblemien’s houses, monasteries, and 
the dwellings of Europeans. A large num¬ 
ber of the houses float on rafts, fastened 
by ropes to poles; most of the trade of the 
city is carried on upon the river. The in¬ 
ternal traffic of Bangkok is chiefly carried 
on by means of canals, there being only a 
few passable streets in the whole city. 
Horses and carriages are rarely seen, ex¬ 
cept in the neighborhood of the palaces. 
The native houses on land — of bamboo or 
other wood, like the floating nouses — are 
raised upon piles, six or eight feet from the 
ground, and are reached by ladders. The 



Bangor 


Bangs 


circumference of the walls of Bangkok, 
which are 15 to 30 feet high, and 12 broad, 
is about G miles. Bangkok is the constant 
residence of the King. The palace is sur¬ 
rounded by high walls, and is nearly a mile 
in circumference. It includes temples, pub¬ 
lic offices, accommodation for officials and 
for some thousands of soldiers, with their 
necessary equipments, a theater, apartments 
for a crowd of female attendants, and sev¬ 
eral Buddhist temples, or chapels. Several 
of the famous white elephants are kept in 
the courtyard of the palace. Throughout 
the interior are distributed the most costly 
articles in gold, silver, and precious stones. 
The temples of Bangkok are innumerable, 
and decorated in the most gorgeous style, 
the Siamese taking-a pride in lavishing their 
wealth on them. In the neighborhood of 
Bangkok are iron mines and forests of teak- 
wood. The chief exports are rice, sugar, 
pepper, cardamoms, sesame, hides, fine 
woods, ivory, feathers, and edible birds’ 
nests. The imports are tea, manufactured 
silks and piece goods, opium, hardware, ma¬ 
chinery, and glass wares. Among recent 
evidences of progress may be mentioned the 
erection of steam mills, the introduction of 
gas into the royal palaces and many noble¬ 
men’s houses, and the establishment of a 
regular mail to Bangkok in 1884. Siam 
joined the International Postal Union in 
1885, and in 1890 a parcel post service (with 
Singapore and Europe) was established. 
Bangkok is now connected with Burma and 
Cambodia by telegraph, and is the center 
of a local system of (in 1893) 1,780 miles. 
A short railway at Paknam (on the coast) 
was opened in 1893; another line of 1G5 
miles was being made; and others to the 
northern provinces have been surveyed and 
sanctioned. In 1893, a treaty was concluded 
at Bangkok, by which Siam made large ces¬ 
sions to France, two French gunboats having 
forced their way to the capital after an 
ineffective defense. 

Bangor, city, port of entry, and county- 
seat of Penobscot co., Me.; at the junction 
of the Penobscot and Kenduskeag rivers; 
on the Maine Central railroad; 140 miles 
N. E. of Portland. It is at the head of navi¬ 
gation on the Penobscot river; is divided 
into two parts by the Kenduskeag; and de¬ 
rives excellent power for manufacturing 
from the Penobscot river, by means of a 
dam near the water works. The city has di¬ 
rect connection with the Canadian Pacific 
railway, and also by steamers, with New 
York, Boston, and important points on the 
New England coast. Water for domestic, 
fire, and small manufacturing purposes is 
also obtained from the Penobscot by the 
Holly system. Bangor is one of the most 
important lumber centers in the country, 
and, besides its many saw, planing, and 
molding mills, has several wood-pulp mills, 


iron foundries, carriage factories, ship¬ 
building yards, agricultural implement 
works, boot, shoe and moccasin factories, 
pork packing establishments, etc. It is a 
trade center for five counties, and is con¬ 
nected by electric railway with their prin¬ 
cipal cities and towns. In the fiscal year 
ending June 30, 1900, the imports of mer¬ 
chandise here aggregated in value $1,26G,0G0; 
and the exports, $4,822,37G. In 1900 there 
were 5 National banks; 10 daily, weekly, 
and monthly periodicals; and an assessed 
property valuation exceeding $15,000,000. 
The total debt was less than $1,000,000. 
The principal institution of public note is 
the Bangor Theological Seminary. The 
site of the city, called by the Indians Ken¬ 
duskeag, was visited by the French, who 
erected a fort here, called Norombega, in 
1G5G. The place was permanently settled 
in 1769: was incorporated as a town in 
1791, and became a city in 1834. Pop. 
(1900) 21,850; (1910) 24,803. 

Bangorian Controversy, a controversy 
stirred up by a sermon preached before 
George I. in 1717, by Dr. Hoadly, Bishop of’ 
Bangor, from the text “ My kingdom is not 
of this world,” in which the Bishop con¬ 
tended in the most pronounced manner for 
the spiritual nature of Christ’s kingdom. 
The controversy was carried on with great 
heat for many years, and resulted in an 
enormous collection of pamphlets. 

Bangor=iscoed (Bangor below the Wood), 
a Welsh village, beautifully situated, in a 
fertile and richly wooded country, on the 
right bank of the Dee, i_i a detached portion 
of Flintshire, adjoining the counties of Ches¬ 
ter and Salop, 5 miles S. E. of Wrexham; 
was once the seat of one of the largest mon¬ 
asteries in Britain, founded before 180 a. 
d., and containing 2,400 monks, in the time 
of St. Augustine. To distinguish it from 
Bangor in Carnarvonshire, it is sometimes 
called Bangor in Maelor. 

Bangor Theological Seminary, an edu¬ 
cational institution in Bangor, Me.; char¬ 
tered by the Legislature of Massachusetts 
in 1S14; opened in Hampden in 1816; and 
removed to Bangor in 1819; under the di¬ 
rection of the Congregational Church, but 
open to all Christian young men. It has a 
three years’ course; grounds and buildings 
valued at $125,000 ; endowments aggregating 
$300,000; a library of over 27.000 volumes; 
about 16 professors and instructors; about 
40 students; and $20,000 annual income. 

Bangs, Heman, a Methodist Episcopal 
clergyman, born in Fairfield, Conn., April, 
1790; became a member of the New York 
Annual Conference in 1815 : preached in pul¬ 
pits in New York and Connecticut; was one 
of the founders of Wesleyan LTniversity, in 
Middletown, Conn., and one of the most ef¬ 
fective preachers in his Church. He died 
in New Haven, Conn., Nov. 2, 1869. 



Bangs 


Banishment 


Bangs, John Kendrick, an American 
humorist and editor, born in Yonkers, 
N. Y., May 27, 1862. He was one of the 
founders of “ Life,” and has long been 
famed for his light verse and humorous 
stories, among which may be mentioned 
“New Waggings of Old Tales,” with F. 
D. Sherman (Boston, 1887); “Coffee 
and Repartee” (New York, 1886); “Mr. 
Bonaparte of Corsica” (1895); “Water 
Ghost and Other Stories” (1896); “The 
Mantel-Piece Minstrels” (1896) ; “The Bi¬ 
cyclers and Other Farces” (1896); “A 
Houseboat on the Styx” (1896); “A Re¬ 
bellious Heroine” (1896), and “The Pur¬ 
suit of the Houseboat” (1897). lie was 
editor of “Harper’s Weekly” in 1898-1900. 

Bangs, Lemuel Bolton, an American 
physician; born in New York, Aug. 9, 1842; 
was graduated at the College of Physicians 
and Surgeons in 1872; was Professor of 
Genito-Urinary Diseases in the Post-Grad¬ 
uate Medical School and Hospital of New 
York, and later at Bellevue Hospital Medi¬ 
cal College; and was consulting surgeon to 
a number of hospitals in New York. He 
was president of the American Association 
of Genito-Urinary Surgeons (1895) and 
the editor of the “ American Text-Book of 
Genito-Urinary Diseases,” etc. 

Bangsrings ( tupaidce ), a family of ar¬ 
boreal insectivorous mammals, sometimes 
known as squirrel, or dree shrews. There 
are two genera — tupaia, with numerous 
species, of which the larger are eight or nine 
inches long; and ptilocerus, with a single 
species, the Bornean pentail. They are all 
oriental animals, and range from the Khasia 
Hills, in India, to Java and Borneo. The 
fur is soft and glistening, and a long, bushy 
tail is generally present. They are rest¬ 
lessly active during the day, searching for 
insects and fruits. Two of the largest spe¬ 
cies are the tana ( T. tana), with a feathery 
tail, in one variety of a bright, golden color; 
and the ferruginous bangsring ( T. ferru- 
ginea ), widely distributed in the Malayan 
region. The soles of the feet in the latter 
are plaited like those of geckos, and give 
the animals a sure grip of a branch. 

Bangweolo (also called Bemba), a great 
Central African lake, discovered by Living¬ 
stone in 1868, which is 150 miles long by 75 
in width, and 3,700 feet above the sea. The 
Chambese, which flows into it, and the Lua- 
pula, which issues from it, constitute the 
head-stream of the Kongo. The shores are 
flat, and parts of the lake are mere marsh. 
In the N. W. part are four large islands, 
inhabited by the Mboghwa, a race of fisher¬ 
men and herdsmen. On its S. shore Liv¬ 
ingstone died. 

Banialuka (ban-ya-lo'ka), a town of Bos¬ 
nia, picturesquely situated on the Verbas, 
in a fine forest district, 54 miles S. E. of 
Novi by rail. It is strongly fortified, and, 


besides some Roman remains, contains warm 
baths, 44 mosques, important powder-mills, 
and about 12,000 inhabitants, of whom some 
two-tliirds are Mussulmans. 

Banian, or Banyan, an Indian trader, or 
merchant, one engaged in commerce gener¬ 
ally, but more particularly one of the great 
traders of Western India, as in the seaports 
of Bombay, Kurrachee, etc., who carry on 
a large trade by means of caravans with the 
interior of Asia, and with Africa by vessels. 
They form a class of the Vaisya caste, wear 
a peculiar dress, and are strict in the ob¬ 
servance of fasts and in abstaining from the 
use of flesh. Hence—-Banian days, days in 
which sailors in the navy had no flesh meat 
served out to them. Banian days are now 
abolished, but the term is still applied to 
days of poor fare. 

Banian Tree. See Banyan. 

Banim, John, an Irish novelist, dram¬ 
atist, and poet, born in Kilkenny, April 3, 
1798; removed to Dublin in 1820, to de¬ 
vote himself to literature. Ilis best work 
is contained in the “O’Hara Tales” (2 se¬ 
ries, London, 1825-1827). His chief novels 
are “ The Nowlans,” “ Boyne Water,” and 
“ The Croppy.” His brother, Michael, was 
associated in his work, and “ The Bi’ o’ 
Writin’ and Other Tales” (1S38) is os¬ 
tensibly a joint composition. A tragedy, 
“ Damon and Pythias,” was represented in 
London in 1821. John died in Kilkenny, 
Aug. 13, 1842. 

Banim, Michael, an Irish novelist, born 
in Kilkenny, Aug. 5, 1796. He claimed to 
have written 13 out of the 24 books of fic¬ 
tion confusedly associated with the names 
of John and Michael Banim, and called him¬ 
self the author of “ Crohoore of the Bill 
Hook,” one of the most popular of the 
“O’Hara Tales;” “The Ghost Hunter” 
(1833); “Father Connell” (1842), and 
“ The Town of the Cascades ” (2 vols., 1864). 
lie died in Booterstown, Aug. 30, 1874. 

Banishment (the act of putting under 
ban, proclamation, as an outlaw), a tech¬ 
nical term in Scotch criminal law for the 
punishment of sending out of the country 
under penalties against return. This pun¬ 
ishment was formerly much used in various 
forms — e. g., banishment to the plantations 
or colonies; to England (even after the 
Union) ; from a particular county in Scot¬ 
land, etc. Sometimes capital punishment 
was commuted to banishment for service in 
a foreign war. The old Scotch doom of de¬ 
portation was gradually merged in trans¬ 
portation under various British statutes. 
At present, banishment is still the statutory 
sentence in cases of celebrating clandestine 
marriages. The idea of banishment occurs 
in the ostracism and petal ism of Greece, and 
the relegation, exile, and deportation of 



Banister 


Bank 


Rome. It was generally accompanied by for¬ 
feiture of civil rights. In England, volun¬ 
tary banishment was called abjuration. 

Banister, John, an Anglo-American scien¬ 
tist, born in England; settled in the West 
Indies, and later in Virginia, in the vicinity 
of Jamesburg, where he devoted himself to 
the study of botany. He was a contributor 
of a catalogue of Virginia plants to Ray’s 
“ History of Plants,” in 1000. The genus 
Banisteria was named in his honor. His 
publications include “ Observations on the 
Natural Productions of Jamaica,” “The In¬ 
sects of Virginia,” “Curiosities in Virginia,” 
etc. He died in 1092. His son, John, born 
in Virginia, was educated in England, and 
studied law there; became -Colonel in the 
Virginia militia; member of the Virginia 
Assembly; and prominent in the patriotic 
conventions of the Revolutionary period; 
was a Representative from Virginia in the 
Continental Congress in 1778-1779, and one 
of the signers of the Articles of Confedera¬ 
tion. He died near Hatchers Run, Va., in 
1787. 

Banjermassin, a former Sultanate in the 
S. E. of Borneo, with an area of 5,928 square 
miles, and a population of about 300,000, 
chiefly Mohammedans. Tributary to Hol¬ 
land since 1787, it was annexed on the death 
of the last Sultan in 1857, and is now gov¬ 
erned by the Dutch Resident for the S. and 
E. of Borneo, who has an assistant at Marta- 
pura, where the Sultans formerly lived. 
Banjermassin is watered by large rivers, and 
intersected by a chain of mountains, in sev¬ 
eral parts rising to 3,000 feet. Excellent 
small arms are manufactured. The prod¬ 
ucts are pepper, wax, edible nests, rattans, 
benzoin, dragons’ blood, coal, iron, diamonds, 
and gold dust. Banjermassin, the capital 
of the Residency, is built on the Island of 
Tatas, about 15 miles from the mouth of 
the Banjer, or Barito; pop. 30,000. The 
town is subject to frequent inundations, and 
the houses are raised on piles, most of the 
traffic being carried on in boats. The trade, 
which is considerable, is mostly in the hands 
of the Chinese, and the imports include 
piece goods, gunpowder, opium, rice, sugar, 
salt, Chinese porcelain, silks, and a few 
horses from Java. 

Banjo, a musical instrument with five 
strings, having a head and neck like a 
guitar, with a body or sounding-board hol¬ 
low at the back, and played with the hand 
and fingers. It is the favorite instrument 
of the plantation negroes of the Southern 
States and their imitators, and seems to 
have had its origin in the bandore, a musi¬ 
cal instrument like a lute or guitar, in¬ 
vented by John Ross or Rose, a famous 
violin-maker, about 1562. 

Bank, primarily an establishment for the 
deposit, custody and repayment on demand, 


of money; and obtaining the bulk of its 
profits from the investment of gums thus 
derived and not in immediate demand. The 
term is a derivative of the banco or bench 
of the early Italian money dealers, being 
analogous in its origin to the terms tra- 
pezitai ( trapeza , a bench or table) applied 
to the ancient Greek money-changers, and 
mensarii ( mensa , a table) applied to the 
public bankers of Rome. 

Divisions .— In respect of constitution 
there is a broad division of banks into pub¬ 
lic and private; public banks including 
such establishments as are under any special 
State or municipal control or patronage, or 
whose capital is in the form of stock or 
shares which are bought and sold in the 
open market; private banks embracing those 
which are carried on by one or more in¬ 
dividuals without special authority or 
charter and under the laws regulating ordi¬ 
nary trading companies. In respect of func¬ 
tion three kinds of banks may be discrimin¬ 
ated : (1) banks of deposit merely, receiv¬ 
ing and returning money at the convenience 
of depositors; (2) banks of discount or 
loan, borrowing money on deposit and lend¬ 
ing it in the discount of promissory notes, 
bills of exchange, and negotiable securities; 
(3) banks of circulation or issue, which 
give currency to promissory notes of their 
own, payable to bearer and serving as a 
medium of exchange within the sphere of 
their banking operations. The more highly 
organized banks discharge all three func¬ 
tions, but all modern banks unite the two 
first. For the successful working of a bank¬ 
ing establishment certain resources other 
than the deposits are, of course, necessary, 
and the subscribed capital, that is, the 
money paid up by shareholders on their 
shares and forming the substantial portion 
of their claim to public credit, is held upon 
a different footing to the sums received 
from depositors. It is usually considered 
that for sound banking this capital should 
not be traded with for the purpose of mak¬ 
ing gain in the same way as the moneys 
deposited in the bank; and it is, for the 
most part, invested in government or other 
securities subject to little fluctuation in 
value and readily convertible into money. 
But, in any case, prudence demands that 
a reserve be kept sufficient to meet all prob¬ 
able requirements of customers in event of 
commercial crises or minor panics. The 
reserve of the banking department of the 
Bank of England is always in coin, or in 
notes against which an equivalent value of 
coin and bullion is lying in the issue de¬ 
partment. In other English banks the re¬ 
serve is usually kept partly in gold and 
partly in government stocks and Bank of 
England notes; but it sometimes lies as a 
deposit in the Bank of England. The work¬ 
ing capital proper of a bank is constituted 



Bank 


Bank 


by moneys on deposit, on which the hank 
may or may not pay interest; the advan¬ 
tages of security, of ease in the transmis¬ 
sion of payments, etc., being regarded in the 
cases of banks little affected by competi¬ 
tion as a sufficient return to the depositor. 
Thus the Bank of England pays no inter¬ 
est on deposits, while the contrary practice 
has prevailed in Scotland since 1720. 

Methods .— Of the methods of making 
profit upon the money of depositors, one 
of the most common is to advance it in the 
discounting of hills of exchange not having 
long periods (seldom more than three 
months with the Bank of England) to run; 
the banker receiving the amounts of the 
bills from the acceptors when the bills ar¬ 
rive at maturity. Loans or advances are 
also often made by bankers upon exchequer 
bills or other government securities, on 
railway debentures or the stock of public 
companies of various kinds, as well as upon 
goods lying in public warehouses, the dock- 
warrant or certificate of ownership being 
transferred to the banker in security. In 
the case of a w r ell established credit they 
may be advanced upon notes of hand with¬ 
out other security. Money is less com- 
monly advanced by bankers upon mortgages 
on land, in which the money loaned is al¬ 
most invariably locked up for a number of 
years. To banks of issue a further source 

X 

of profit is open in their note circulation, 
inasmuch as the bank is enabled to lend 
these notes, or promises to pay, as if they 
were so much money and to receive interest 
on the loan accordingly, as W'ell as to make 
a profitable use of the money or property 
that may be received in exchange for its 
notes, so long as the latter remain in circu¬ 
lation. It is obvious, however, that this 
interest on its loaned notes may not run 
over a very extended period, in that the 
person to whom they are issued may at 
once return them to the bank to lie there 
as a deposit and so may actually draw in¬ 
terest on them from the bank of issue; or 
he may present them to be exchanged for 
coin, or by putting them at once into cir¬ 
culation may ensure a certain number 
speedily finding their way back through 
other hands or other banks to the estab- 
Bshment from which lie received them. A 
considerable number of the notes issued 
w r ill, however, be retained in circulation at 
the convenience of the public as a medium 
j)f exchange; and on this circulating por¬ 
tion a clear profit accrues. This rapid re¬ 
turn of notes through other banks, etc., 
in exchange for portions of the reserve of 
the issuing bank, is one of the restraints 
upon an issue of notes in excess of the abil¬ 
ity of the bank to meet them. In England 
a more obvious restraint upon an unlimited 


note issue, originating partly in a desire for 
greater security, partly in the belief that 
the note augmentation of the currency 
might lead to harmful economic results in 
its influence upon prices, is to be found in 
the bank acts of 1844 and 1845, which im¬ 
pose upon banks of issue the necessity of 
keeping an equivalent in gold for all notes 
issued bevond a certain fixed amount. The 

X 

u r isdom of these legal restrictions, which 
are not uniform throughout the kingdom, 
and the desirability of the acquisition and 
control by the State of the whole business 
of issue, are still matters of debate. 

Tn specific relation to his customer the 
banker occupies the position of debtor to 
creditor, holding money which the custo¬ 
mer may demand at any time in whole or 
in part bv means of a check payable at 
sight on presentation during banking hours. 
For the refusal to cash a check from the 
erroneous supposition that he has no funds 
of his customer’s in his hands, or for mis¬ 
leading statements respecting the position 
in which the bank stands, the banker is 
legally responsible. Moreover, the law re¬ 
gards him as bound to know his customer’s 
signature, and the loss falls upon him in 
event of his cashing a forged check. In 
their relations to the community, the chief 
services rendered by banks are the follow¬ 
ing: By receiving deposits of money, and 
massing in sums efficient for extensive en¬ 
terprises the smaller savings of individuals, 
they are the means of keeping fully and 
constantly employed a large portion of the 
capital of the community which, but for 
their agency, would be unproductive; they 
are the means by which the surplus capital 
of one part of a country is transferred to 
another, wdiere it may be advantageously 
employed in stimulating industry; they 
enable vast and numerous money transac¬ 
tions to bo carried on without the interven¬ 
tion of coin or notes at all, thus obviating 
trouble, risk and expense. The mechanism 
by which the last of these benefits is 
secured is to be found in perfection in the 
clearing-house system. 

History .— Although banking operations 
on a considerable scale appear to have been 
conducted by the ancients, modern banking 
must bo regarded as having had an inde¬ 
pendent origin in the reviving civilization 
of the Middle Ages. In the 12th century 
almost the whole trade of Europe was in 
the hands of the Italian cities, and it was in 
these that the need of bankers was first 
felt. The earliest public bank, that of Ven¬ 
ice, established in 1171, and existing down 
to the dissolution of the republic in 1797, 
w r as, for some time, a bank of deposit only, 
the government being responsible for the de¬ 
posits, and the whole capital being in effect a 



Bank 


Bank 


public loan. In the early periods of the opera¬ 
tions of this bank deposits could not be 
withdrawn, but the depositor had a credit 
at the bank to the amount deposited, this 
credit being transferable to another per¬ 
son in place of money payment. Subse¬ 
quently deposits were allowed to be with¬ 
drawn, the original system proving incon¬ 
venient outside the Venetian boundaries. It 
was, however, less from the Bank of Ven¬ 
ice than from the Florentine bankers of 
the 13th and 14th centuries that modern 
banking especially dates, the magnitude of 
their operations being indicated by the fact 
that between 1430 and 1433, 7G bankers of 
Florence issued on loan nearly 5,000,000 
gold florins. The Bank of St. George at 
Genoa also furnished a striking chapter in 
financial history. The important Bank of 
Amsterdam, taken by Adam Smith as a 
type of the older banks, was established in 
1609, and owed its origin to the fluctuation 
and uncertainty induced by the clipped and 
worn currency. The object of the institu¬ 
tion (established under guarantee of the 
city) was to give a certain and unquestion¬ 
able value to a bill on Amsterdam; and for 
this purpose the various coins were received 
in deposit at the bank at their real value 
in standard coin, less a small charge for 
recoinage and expense of management. For 
the amount deposited a credit was opened 
on the books of the bank, by the transfer of 
which payments could be maup. this so- 
called bank money being of uniform value 
as representing money at the mint standard. 
It bore, therefore, an agio or premium 
above the worn coin currency, and it was 
legally compulsory to make all payments of 
600 guilders and upwards in bank money. 
The deposits were supposed to remain in 
the coffers of the bank, but they were 
secretly traded with in the 18th century till 
the collapse of the bank in 1790. Banks of 
similar character were established at Nur¬ 
emberg and other towns, the most import¬ 
ant being the bank of Hamburg, founded in 
1619. In England there was no correspond¬ 
ing institution, the London merchants being 
in the habit of lodging their money at the 
Mint in the Tower, until Charles I. appio- 
priated the whole of it (£200,000) in 1640. 
Thenceforth they lodged it with the gold¬ 
smiths, who began to do banking business 
in a small way, encouraging deposits by 
allowing interest (4d. a day) for their use, 
lending money for short periods, discount¬ 
ing bills, etc. The bank-note was first in¬ 
vented and issued in 1690 by the Bank of 
Sweden, founded by Palmstruck in 1688, 
and one of the most successful of banking 
establishments. About the same time the 
banks of England and Scotland began to 
take shape, opening up a new era in the 
financing of commerce and industry. 


Bank of England .— The Bank of Eng¬ 
land, the most important banking establish¬ 
ment in the world, was projected by Wil¬ 
liam Paterson, who was afterward the 
promotor of the disastrous Darien scheme. 
It was the first public bank in the United 
Kingdom, and was chartered in 1694 by 
an act which, among other things, secured 
certain recompenses to such persons as 
should advance the sum of £1,500,000 to¬ 
ward carrying on the war against France. 
Subscribers to the loan became, under the 
act, stockholders, to the amount of their 
respective subscriptions, in the capital stock 
of a corporation, denominated the Governor 
and Company of the Bank of England. The 
company thus formed, advanced to the 
government £1,200,000 at an interest of 8 
per cent.— the government making an ad¬ 
ditional bonus or allowance to the bank of 
£4,000 annually for the management of this 
loan (which, in fact, constituted the capi¬ 
tal of the bank), and for settling the in¬ 
terest and making transfers, etc., among the 
various stockholders. This bank, like that 
of Venice, was thus originally an engine of 
the government, and not a mere commercial 
establishment. Its capital has been added 
to from time to time, the original capital of 
£1,200,000 having increased to £14,553,000, 
in 1816, since which no further augmenta¬ 
tion has taken place. There exists besides, 
however, a variable “ rest ” of over 
£3,000.000. The charter of the bank was 
originally granted for 11 years certain, or 
till a year's notice after Aug. 1, 1705. It 
was subsequently renewed for various 
periods in 1697, 1708, 1713, 1742, 1764, 
1781, 1800, 1833 and 1844, certain condi¬ 
tions which the bank had to fulfill being 
specified at each renewal. On this last oc¬ 
casion it was continued till 12 months’ no¬ 
tice from 1855. At the same time the is¬ 
sue department of the bank was established 
as distinct from the general banking de¬ 
partment, the sole business intrusted to the 
former being the issue of notes. By this 
arrangement the bank was authorized to 
issue notes to the value of £14,000,000 upon 
securities especially set apart, the most im¬ 
portant of the securities being the sum of 
£11,015,100 due to the bank by the govern¬ 
ment, together with so much of the coin 
and bullion then held by the bank as was 
not required by the banking department. 
The bank has since been permitted to in¬ 
crease its issue on securities to £15,750,000, 
but for every note that the issue depart¬ 
ment may issue beyond the total sum of 
£15,750,000 an equivalent amount of coin 
or bullion must be paid into the coffers of 
the bank. The Bank of England notes are, 
therefore, really equivalent to, and at any 
time convertible into, gold, as it is in the 
utmost degree improbable that any drain on 



Bank 


Bank 


the treasure in the bank will reduce the 
outstanding notes below £15,750,000. They 
are (like all English banknotes) of the 
value of £5 and upward, and are legal 
tender throughout England. Notes once is¬ 
sued by the bank and returned to it are not 
reissued but are destroyed — a system 
adopted in order to facilitate the keeping 
of an account of the numbers of the notes in 
circulation, and so prevent forgery. 

In compliance also with the act of 1844 
the bank is compelled to publish a weekly 
account. The following shows the condition 
of the bank on Dec. 31, 1808: Issue de¬ 
partment: notes issued, £44,225,000; se¬ 
curities, £10,800,000; bullion, £27,425,000. 
Banking department: capital and “rest,” 
£17.090,000; deposits and post bills, £43,- 
502,000; securities, £42,301,000; notes in 
the reserve, £10,910,000; and coin in the 
reserve, £1,913,000. 

The total of the notes given out by the 
issue department is called the issue circula¬ 
tion, the portion of it in the hands of the 
public being the active circulation, and that 
still in the banking department being the 
note reserve. This note reserve represents 
really the amount of bullion in tne issue de¬ 
partment available for the use of the bank¬ 
ing department. Of the other items in the 
account it may be noted that the proprietors’ 
“ rest ” is a varying surplus increased al¬ 
ways by accumulated profits up to April 
5 and Oct. 10, when the bank dividends 
are paid to the shareholders; and that the 
public deposits, which include sums lodged 
on account of the customs, inland revenue, 
etc., increase through revenue receipts un¬ 
til the dividend terms in January, April, 
July and October. The other or private de¬ 
posits comprise those of bankers, merchants 
and other persons. An increase in these 
private deposits indicates an increase of 
monetary ease, while a decrease informs us 
that bankers, merchants and traders have 
calls upon them for money. 

A better indication of the demand for 
money is furnished, however, by the ad¬ 
vances on commercial securities, and it is 
by this and the condition of the reserve 
that the bank rate of discount is regulated. 
When the reserve is high and the advances 
moderate the discount rate is low, and it is 
raised according as the reserve falls and 
advances are more in request, especially 
during an adverse foreign exchange and 
drain of gold. Gold is thus restrained 
from going abroad, and its influx into the 
country is encouraged. In addition to the 
profits which the bank may make by ordi¬ 
nary banking business, it receives an allow¬ 
ance for the management of the national 
debt, etc., at the rate of £300 per million on 
£6,000,000, and £150 per million on all 


debt above that sum. It also derives a 
profit from the foreign coin and bullion 
brought to it, for which it pays £3, 17s. 9d., 
or lU>d. per ounce less than the real value. 

The management of the bank is in the 
hands of a governor, deputy-governor and 
24 directors, elected by stockholders who 
have held £500 of stock for six months pre¬ 
vious to the election. A director is re¬ 
quired to hold £2,000, a deputy-governor 
£3,000, and a governor £4,000 of the stock. 
The court or board of directors meets every 
Thursday, when the weekly account is pre¬ 
sented. 

Other' English Banks .—The other English 
banks consist of numerous joint stock and 
private banks in London and the provinces, 
many of the provincial establishments of 
both kinds having the right to issue notes. 
Private banks in London with not more 
than six partners have never been pre¬ 
vented from issuing notes, but they could 
not profitably compete with the Bank of 
England. The maximum issues of the pro¬ 
vincial banks are limited to a certain 
amount, against which they are not com¬ 
pelled to hold gold in reserve, and they have 
no power to issu.3 against specie in excess 
of the fixed circulation. Their actual is¬ 
sues are considerably below this amount. 
No union can take place between a joint- 
stock bank and a private bank, or between 
two joint-stock banks of issue, without one 
of them losing Ps issue. In June, 1898, 
there were reported 90 joint-stock banks, 
making returns in England and Wales; 3 in 
the Isle of Man; 11 in Scotland; and 9 
in Ireland. There were 29 offices in London 
cf colonial joint-stock banks and 23 offices 
of foreign banks. The paid-up capital of 
the English, Scotch, Irish, colonial and 
foreign joint-stock banks aggregated £138,- 
245,000, and the assets, £1,320,899,000. 

In Scotland there are no private banks, 
the only banks in that portion of the United 
Kingdom being (1898) 11 joint stock banks 
of issue, with 1,154 branches. By the act 
of 1845 new banks of issue were prohibited, 
a monopoly being given to such establish¬ 
ments as existed in the year previous to 
May 1, 1845. At the same time the issue of 
each was limited to the amount of its aver¬ 
age circulation during that year, together 
with the specie held at the head office. 
Any bank issuing notes in excess of this 
limit is supposed to hold an equivalent 
amount of gold. The aggregate circula¬ 
tion, in 1898, was £7,486,000. The Bank of 
Scotland, established by act of Parliament, 
in 1695, had for its original capital only 
£100,000, increased to £200,000, in 1744; 
but it now has a capital of £1,250,000 paid 
up. It remained the only bank in Scotland 
till the Boyal Bank of Scotland was es¬ 
tablished in 1727, with an original capital 
of £151,000, which has grown to £2,000,000. 




Bank 


Bank 


The British Linen Company was incorpor¬ 
ated in 1746, for the purpose of promoting 
the linen manufacture, but soon be¬ 
came a general banking company; capital, 
£1,000,000. These three banks claim to be, 
by their charters, banks of limited lia¬ 
bility. The total paid-up capital of the 
Scotch banks, in 1898, was £9,311,000. A 
large number of one-pound notes circulate 
in Scotland, thus tending to keep the re¬ 
quirements for gold low. From allowing a 
moderate rate of interest on money de¬ 
posited with them, it is not uncommon for 
depositors in Scottish banks to lodge their 
money permanently as an investment; and 
the habit of keeping an account with a 
banker is much more general in Scotland 
than in England, branch offices of the banks 
being very numerous. Several of the Scotch 
banks have branch offices in London, but, 
of course, they cannot issue their own notes 
from these offices. The Scotch banks have 
enjoyed a high reputation for stability, and 
though public confidence was somewhat 
shaken by the failure of the Western Bank, 
in 1857, and even more rudely by that of 
the City of Glasgow Bank, in 1878, their 
shares are generally looked upon as a safe 
and remunerative investment. Their total 
deposits amounted to over £96,000,000, in 
1898. 

The banks in Ireland consist of one pub¬ 
lic or National bank, the Bank of Ireland, 
91 joint-stock and several private banks. 
The authorized note circulation is arranged 
on the same footing as that of the Scotch 
banks. If any bank discontinues its issue 
and issues notes of the Bank of Ireland, the 
circulation of the latter may be, to an equal 
amount, increased. The circulation, in 
1898, was £5,657,000. The Bank of Ire¬ 
land, which was established by charter, in 
1783, with similar privileges to those 
granted to the Bank of England, has lent 
the greater portion of its capital to givern- 
ment. Its capital is £2,769,230 (or 
£3,000,000, Irish) ; it has also a “rest” or 
reserve of over £1,000,000. The bank allows 
interest on money deposited for a stated 
period. 

With regard to the banks in British 
colonies little need be said. All the more 
important are joint-stock concerns, and they 
are carried on subject to acts passed by the 
respective colonial legislatures. Some of 
them have their headquarters in London, 
and have been established by English capi¬ 
tal. In Canada the banks are not allowed 
to issue notes of lower denominations than 
$5, notes for small amounts up to $4 being 
issued by the Dominion government; and 
the banking laws are such that there is no 
possibility of holders of bank-notes being 
losers by them. The total paid-up capital 
of the Canadian chartered banks, in 1898, 
was $62,303,137; assets, $365,634,052; and 
liabilities, $277,407,521. 


Bank of France. — Of all other banks, the 
Bank of France is second in importance only 
to the Bank of England. It was established 
in the beginning of the 19th century, at 
first with a capital of 45,000,000 francs, and 
with the exclusive privilege in Paris of is¬ 
suing notes payable to bearer, a privilege 
which was extended in 1848 to cover the 
whole of France. It has numerous branches 
in the larger towns, a number cf these hav¬ 
ing been 'acquired in 1848, when certain 
joint-stock banks of issue were by govern¬ 
ment decree incorporated with the Bank of 
France, the capital of which was then in¬ 
creased to 91,250,000 francs,in 91,250 shares 
of 1,000 francs each. In 1857, the capital 
was doubled, and, besides this, it has a 
large surplus capital or rest. Like the Bank 
of England, it is a bank of deposit, dis¬ 
count, and circulation, and is a large cred¬ 
itor of the State. The government appoints 
the governor and two deputy governors, who 
ars all required to be stockholders. There 
is also a body of 15 directors and 3 cen¬ 
sors, nominated by the shareholders. The 
value of its note circulation in 1898 was 
3,799.233.000 francs. See Banks in the 
United States. 

Banks for Barings .— Savings banks are 
banks established for the reception of small 
sums so as to be taken advantage of by the 
poorer classes, and they are carried on en¬ 
tirely for behoof of the depositors. They 
are of comparatively recent origin, one of 
the earliest having been an institution in 
which small sums were received and interest 
allowed on them, established by Mrs. Pris¬ 
cilla Wakefield, at Tottenham, near London, 
in 1803. The first savings bank in Scotland 
was formed in 1810 by the Rev. Henry 
Duncan, of Ruth well, Dumfriesshire. In 1814 
the Edinburgh Savings Bank was estab¬ 
lished on the same principles, and the sys¬ 
tem soon spread over the kingdom. The 
first act relating to savings banks was 
passed in 1817. By it all deposits in sav¬ 
ings banks, as soon as they reached £50, 
were placed in the hands of the National 
Debt Commissioners, who allowed interest 
on them. In 1824 it was enacted that the 
deposits for the first year should not exceed 
£50, nor those in subsequent years £30, the 
total deposits being limited to £150; also, 
that no more interest should be paid when 
the deposits, with compound interest accru¬ 
ing on them, -standing in the name of one 
individual should amount to £200. This 
enactment is still in force. The interest 
was fixed in 1880 at £3, depositors to re¬ 
ceive £2, 15s. An act of 1833 nad provided 
for the purchase of government annuities 
by depositors, either for life, or for a term 
of years; and by the act of 1844, the maxi¬ 
mum limit of these was fixed at £30, allow¬ 
ing, however, a husband and a wife to hold 
separate annuities, each of that amount. 




Bankes 


Bank Note 


The minimum .is £4. These banks are man¬ 
aged by local trustees, unpaid, and having 
no personal interest in the business. A new 
class of savings banks, namely, post-oflice 
savings banks, was established in Great 
Britain in connection with the money order 
department of the post-office, by an act of 
Parliament, passed in 1861. Any sum not 
less than a shilling is received, so as not 
to exceed £30 in one year, or more than 
£150 in all; and when the principal amounts 
to £200, the payment of interest is to cease. 
Interest is paid on every complete pound at 
the rate of 2% per cent. For the deposits 
the government is responsible, and they may 
be drawn from any post-office savings bank 
in the kingdom. Being exceedingly numer¬ 
ous, and very convenient in every way, these 
savings banks have been a great success, and 
have caused the transference to them of 
much of the funds formerly in the trustees’ 
savings banks. The total amount deposited 
in the latter class of banks in the United 
Kingdom during the year 1897 was £12,015,- 
55G, and in the former, £38,423,140. By an 
act that came into operation in 1880, any 
person desiring to invest in government 
stock anv sum of from £10 to £100, can do 
so through the post-office banks at a trilling 
cost, and obtain the dividend free of charge. 
Savings banks are now well known in all 
civilized countries, and the good they have 
done is incalculable. In the United States 
there is an enormous amount of money de¬ 
posited in them. In Canada there were 814 
post-office savings banks in 1898, with 142,- 
289 depositors, and aggregate deposits of 
$34,480,938. School savings hanks are the 
most recent institutions of this kind, and 
have had a marked effect for good. 

Bankes, Henry, an English statesman 
and historian; born in London in 1757; 
member of Parliament, 1780-1826; wrote 
“ Civil and Constitutional History of Pome 
from the Foundation to the Age of Augus¬ 
tus.” He died Dec. 17, 1834. 

Bank Holidays, days during which banks 
are legally closed. In the United States 
they are: Jan. 1, or New Year’s Day, a 
legal, or bank holiday in all the States, ex¬ 
cept Arkansas, Delaware, Georgia, Ken¬ 
tucky, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hamp¬ 
shire, Rhode Island, and North and South 
Carolina. July 4, Independence Day, and 
Dec. 25, Christmas Day, are bank holidays 
in all the States and Territories of the 
Union. Thanksgiving Day and public fast 
days appointed by the President of the 
United States are also legal, or bank, holi¬ 
days. Feb. 12, the anniversary of the birth 
of Abraham Lincoln, is a legal holiday in 
9 States. Feb. 22, the anniversary of the 
birth of Washington, is a legal holiday in 
all the States save Arkansas, Iowa, and Mis¬ 
sissippi. The first Monday in September, 
Labor Day, is a holiday in nearly all the 


States. Jan. 8, anniversary of the Battle 
of New Orleans, and Firemen’s Day, March 
4, are legal holidays in Louisiana. Good 
Friday is a legal holiday in Florida, Louis¬ 
iana, Minnesota, and Pennsylvania; and 
Shrove Tuesday in Louisiana and Alabama. 
Decoration Day (North) and Memorial Day 
(South) is observed in the several States. 
In England and Ireland: (1) Easter Mon¬ 
day. (2) The Monday in Whitsun week, 
generally called Whit Monday. (3) The 
first Monday in August. (4) Dec. 26, popu¬ 
larly called Boxing Day. In Scotland: (1) 
New Year’s Day. (2) The first Monday in 
May. (3) The first Monday in August. 
(4) Christmas Day. 

When one of these holidays falls on Sun¬ 
day, it ‘is observed on the followin * day, 
and a note or check becoming due on a 
holiday, or a Sunday, is payable on the first 
business day following. 

Bankiva Fowl, a fowl living wild in 
Northern India, Java, Sumatra, etc., be¬ 
lieved to be the original of our common do¬ 
mestic fowls. 

Bank Note, an engraved certificate rep¬ 
resenting its face value in specie. In dhe 
production of bank notes, the principal pur¬ 
pose is to render their forgery impossible, 
or at least easy of detection. This is sought 
to be effected by peculiarity of paper, design, 
and printing. Bank of England notes are 
printed in one of the blackest and most in¬ 
delible of inks, on paper expressly made for 
the purpose by one firm only. It is a hand¬ 
made paper, remarkable for its strength, 
lightness, and difficulty of imitation. Its 
peculiar water mark constitutes one of the 
chief safeguards of the notes against for¬ 
gery. No Bank of England notes are issued 
twice, so that this mark is rarely indistinct, 
and the paper does not lose its peculiar 
crispness. Some years ago a self-registering 
machine was invented for impressing on 
each note a distinctive mark, known only 
to the bank authorities. Owing to some of 
the notes of the Scotch banks printed simply 
in black ink, having been successfully forged 
by photography, those issued by them have 
since 1858 been printed in colored inks, at 
least two colors being used for each note. 
In order still further to lessen the risk of 
forgery, a new kind of note was ;in 1885 is¬ 
sued by the Bank of Scotland, printed in 
brown, yellow, and blue. The paper is of 
a similar kind to that used for the Bank of 
England notes, with an elaborate and easily 
recognized water mark. In 1887 the Com- 
mercial Bank of Scotland also issued a note 
of new design, printed in yellow and blue 
on the face, and with a dark brown device 
on the back. Foreign bank notes are also 
printed in colored inks. The actual cost of 
£1 notes is as nearly as may be one penny 
each, and of larger notes, only a fraction 
more. 




Bankruptcy Laws 


Bankruptcy Laws 


Between 1837 and 1855 the plan of Per¬ 
kins and Heath for reproducing an engraved 
steel plate by the use of the mill and die 
continued n use in the Bank of England. 
The pattern is engraved on a soft steel 
plate, which is then hardened, to transfer 
the pattern by pressure to a soft steel roller, 
on which, of course, the pattern is produced 
in relief; the roller, or mill is then har¬ 
dened, to reproduce the pattern in the plate 
from which the printing is to be done; and 
thus almost any number of plates for all 
common purposes can easily be produced. 
In 1855, electrotype printing was introduced 
by Mr. Smee, with the assistance of the me¬ 
chanical officials, and since that time, the 
notes of the Bank of England have been all 
produced by surface printing from the elec¬ 
trotype. The number of notes produced and 
issued by this bank sometimes amounts to 
300,000 per week. There are 70 or 80 kinds 
of Bank of England notes, differing in their 
denominations or values, but similar in the 
mode of printing. Zincography .and lith¬ 
ography are employed by some banks for 
the printing of their notes; and also acier- 
age, a mode of hardening copper electrotypes 
with a thin surface of steel. 

In the United States, the bank notes at 
present in circulation are manufactured by 
the Government Bureau of Engraving and 
Printing, the paper being made by a private 
concern, under a patented process, the chief 
ingredients being a mixture of linen and 
cotton fiber, into which are introduced 
threads of silk, so arranged as to be per¬ 
ceptible after the notes are printed. This 
style of paper is furnished only to the gov¬ 
ernment. Superior skill is exercised in en¬ 
graving the plates, nearly .all parts of them 
being executed by the geometrical lathe and 
the ruling machine the work of which it is 
impossible to imitate successfully by hand. 
The printing of the notes is done in colored 
inks of the best quality, sometimes as many 
as four shades being used. The great ex¬ 
pense of the machines used in the engrav¬ 
ing, and the superior quality of the work 
generally, renders successful counterfeiting 
almost impossible. The notes, when badly 
worn, are returned to the United States 
Treasury, other notes being issued in their 
stead. 

Bankruptcy Laws, regulations passed by 
a competent authority with a view to dis¬ 
tributing the property of an insolvent equi¬ 
tably among his creditors and free the 
debtor from further obligation. In Eng¬ 
land, before 1841, only a tradesman could be 
a bankrupt. This distinction was then abol¬ 
ished. It was abolished in the United States 
in 1869. The act “ to establish a uniform 
system of bankruptcy throughout the United 
States,” was passed by both Houses of the 
55th Congress, and by the approval of Presi¬ 


dent McKinley, became a law on July 1, 
1898. The question had been brought be¬ 
fore Congress for a number of years, the 
issue not being between the political par¬ 
ties, but on the method of legislation, one 
side favoring the creditor and the other the 
debtor class. The Nelson bankruptcy bill, 
which at the first, or special, session of the 
55th Congress, passed the Senate, failed 
to receive the consent of the House. The 
new law was a compromise between the Nel¬ 
son bill, calculated chiefly to benefit debtors, 
and the Torrey bill, which was designed to 
guard the interests of both creditors and 
debtors. The adoption of the bill which has 
become a law was mainly through the long 
continued efforts of Senator Hoar (Rep., 
Mass.), aided especially by Senator Nelson 
(Rep., Minn.), and Representative George 
W. Ray (Rep., N. Y.). A conference be¬ 
tween the two Houses was held, which 
reached an agreement on June 15, the report 
being adopted by the House, June 28, by a 
vote of 133 to 53, present and not voting, 24. 
All the votes against the bill came from 
the South and the far West. 

The provisions under which a man can 
be thrown into bankruptcy against his will 
are r,s follows: (1) Where a man has dis¬ 
posed of his property with intent to de¬ 
fraud. (2) Where he has disposed of his 
property to one or more creditors to give a 
preference to them. (3) Where he has given 
a preference through legal proceedings. (4) 
Where a man has made a voluntary as¬ 
signment for the benefit of his creditors 
generally. (5) Where a man admits in 
writing that he is bankrupt. The last two 
provisions are practically voluntary pro¬ 
ceedings. Under the common law, a man is 
considered insolvent when he cannot pay his 
debts when they are due; under the new 
law, he«is deemed insolvent only when his 
property, fairly valued, is insufficient to 
pay his debts. Only two offenses are cited 
under the new law: one when property is 
hidden away after proceedings in bank¬ 
ruptcy have been begun, and the other when 
perjury is discovered. Discharges are to be 
denied in only two cases; one, in which 
either of the offenses detailed has been com¬ 
mitted, and the other, when it is shown 
that fraudulent books have been kept. The 
term of imprisonment for either of these 
offenses is not to exceed two years. 

The law provides a complete system 
throughout the United States, and for its 
administration by the United States courts 
in place of the different systems formerly 
in existence in the various States adminis¬ 
tered by State courts. In bankruptcy pro¬ 
ceedings, a bankrupt debtor may turn over 
all his property to the court, to be admin¬ 
istered for the benefit of his creditors, and 
then get a complete discharge from his 
debts. A bankrupt may of his own motion 



Bankruptcy Laws 


Banks 


offer to surrender his property to the ad¬ 
ministration of the United States court and 
ask for his discharge in voluntary bank¬ 
ruptcy, or creditors may apply to the court 
to compel a bankrupt to turn over his prop¬ 
erty to be administered under the act for 
the benefit of the creditors in voluntary 
bankruptcy. The bankrupt who has turned 
over all his property and conformed to the 
provisions of the act, is entitled to a judg¬ 
ment of court discharging him from any 
future liability to his creditors. 

Extended powers are given by the law 
for the taking possession and the adminis¬ 
tration of the assets, among others, to al¬ 
low and disallow all claims against bank¬ 
rupt estates; appoint receivers and take 
the necessary measures for the preservation 
and charge of the property of a bankrupt; 
to arraign, try, and punish bankrupts, offi¬ 
cers, and other persons, and the agents, 
officers, and members of the board of di- 
reotors or trustees, or other similar bodies 
of corporations for violation of the act; to 
authorize the business of the bankrupt to 
be conducted for limited periods; to cause 
the assets to be collected and reduced to 
money and distributed, and substantially 
determine all controversies in relation 
thereto; to enforce obedience to lawful or¬ 
ders by fine or imprisonment; and to ex¬ 
tradite bankrupts from one district to an¬ 
other. As all questions, both of law and 
faot, in relation to the property or the 
rights of the various parties, must be de¬ 
cided in the bankruptcy proceeding, it is 
provided that referees be appointed, who 
are charged with the duty of hearing the 
allegations and testimony of all parties, and 
deciding all such questions that may arise. 
Each case, as it comes up, is assigned to 
some referee, whose duty it is to adjudicate 
and pass upon all such questions arising 
therein in the first instance, the right be¬ 
ing reserved to any parties to appeal from 
the decision of the referee to the United 
States District Court. The duties of the 
referee are substantially of a judicial char¬ 
acter, and he occupies much the position of 
a judge of primary resort, subject to an ap¬ 
peal to the court, and is required to take 
the same oath of office as that prescribed 
for judges of the United States courts. 

Provision is made in the act for allow¬ 
ing bankrupts to compromise or settle with 
their creditors by a proceeding known as 
composition proceedings, whereby, if a 
bankrupt and a majority of his creditors 
agree upon some basis of settlement, the 
same, if approved by the cou v t, shall be¬ 
come binding upon all creditors. The de¬ 
cision of the question as to the approval of 
compositions and granting discharges to a 
bankrupt from his debts, is specifically re¬ 
served by the act to the judges of the United 
States courts; but the court, by virtue of its 


general powers, may refer such matters to 
the referee to take testimony and report to 
the court his opinion thereon. The aim of 
the act has been to make the expense of the 
proceedings depend largely upon the amount 
of the property involved, and the compensa¬ 
tion of the referee is fixed substantially at 
1 per cent, on the amount distributed to 
the creditors in ordinary cases, where the 
assets are distributed by the court, and one- 
half of 1 per cent, in composition cases, and 
the trustees who have charge of the actual 
management of the bankrupt’s property re¬ 
ceive as compensation such commissions on 
accounts paid out by them as dividends as 
the court may allow, not to exceed, however, 
3 per cent, on the first $5,000, 2 per cent, 
on the second $5,000, and 1 per cent, on all 
sums in excess of $10,000. 

Banks, in navigation, are shelving eleva¬ 
tions in the sea, or the bed of a river, rising 
to or near the surface, composed of sand, 
mud, or gravel. When tolerably smooth at 
the top, they constitute shallows, shoals, 
and flats; but when rocky, they become 
reefs, ridges, keys, etc. A good chart al¬ 
ways defines them, indicating whether they 
are sands or rocky. Some sandbanks shift 
their position by reason of currents, etc., 
and are especially troublesome. 

Banks, Sir Joseph, an English natural¬ 
ist, born in London in 1743. After study¬ 
ing at Harrow and Eton, he went to Oxford 
in 1700, and formed there among his fellow 
undergraduates a voluntary class in botany, 
etc. He was chosen a member of the Royal 
Society in 176G, and soon after went to 
Newfoundland and Hudson Bay to collect 
plants. In 17G8, with Dr. Solander, a Swed¬ 
ish gentleman, pupil of Linnaeus, and then 
Assistant Librarian at the British Museum, 
he accompanied Cook’s expedition as nat¬ 
uralist. In 1772 he visited Iceland along 
with Dr. Solander, and, during this voyage, 
the Hebrides were examined, and the col¬ 
umnar formation of the rocks of Staffa first 
made known to naturalists. In 1777 Banks 
was chosen President of the Royal Society, 
in 1781 was made a Baronet, and in 1795 
received the Order of the Bath. He wrote 
only essays, papers for learned societies, and 
short treatises. He died in 1820, and be¬ 
queathed his collections to the British Mu¬ 
seum. 

Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss, an Amer¬ 
ican legislator and soldier, born in Waltham, 
Mass., Jan. 30, 181G. At first a factory 
worker, he studied law, and became succes¬ 
sively a member of the State and National 
Legislatures. He was Speaker of Congress 
in 185G, and in 1857, 1859, and 1861 was 
elected Governor of his native State. On 
the outbreak of the Civil War, he took a 
command in the army, at first on the Po¬ 
tomac, then at New Orleans, and finally on 
the Red river. Relieved of his command in 


43 



Banks 


Banks and Banking in the United States 


1864, he re-entered Congress, voting mainly 
with the Republican party. He died in 
Waltham, Sept. 1, 1894. 

Banks, Thomas, an English sculptor, 
born in 1735. He studied sculpture in the 
Royal Academy, and in Italy, where he 
executed several excellent pieces, particu¬ 
larly a bas-relief representing Caractacus 
brought prisoner to Rome, and a Cupid 
catching a butterfly, the latter work being 
afterward purchased by the Empress Cath¬ 
arine. On leaving Italy, he spent two un¬ 
satisfactory years in Russia, and then re¬ 
turned to England, where he was soon after 
made an Academician. Among his other 
works was a colossal statue of “ Achilles 
Mourning the Loss of Briseis,” in the hall 
of the British Institution, and the monu¬ 
ment of Sir Eyre Coote, in Westminster 
Abbey. He died in 1805. 

Banks and Banking in the United States. 

A bank is an institution for dealing in money 
and credit. The description given by Prof. 
Charles F. Dunbar is that “A bank may be 
described in general terms as an establish¬ 
ment which makes to individuals such ad¬ 
vances of money or other means of payment 
as may be required and safely made, and 
to which individuals entrust money or the 
means of payment when not required by 
them for use.” Under this general defini¬ 
tion fall many different classes of banks: 

Commercial banks, which receive deposits 
to be repaid on demand and lend on the 
promissory notes of business men, maturing 
at intervals of four months or less. 

Banks of issue, which issue notes to cir¬ 
culate as money. 

Savings banks, which receive deposits, 
usually to a lower customary minimum than 
commercial banks, and repayable only on 
notice, and which invest such deposits in 
securities which afford the means of paying 
interest on deposits. 

These distinctions represent in a broad 
way the leading types of business done by 
banks, but the extension of credit in mod¬ 
ern times has been so great, and the methods 
of employing it have become so varied, that 
there is a specialization of banking func¬ 
tions which has resulted in many other 
types of banks dealing in corporate securi¬ 
ties, and in other directions. See Trust 
Companies. 

The theory and history of banking are 
usually discussed from the standpoint of 
note-issue and commercial banking. Banks 
which, issue notes are usually commercial 
banks also, but there are many commercial 
banks which do not issue notes. This is 
especially the case in Europe, where the 
note-issuing function is practically limited 
in England, France, Germany, Austria-Hun¬ 
gary, Russia, Spain and other countries to 
a single large institution, more or less con¬ 


trolled by the government. In the Amer¬ 
ican Colonies prior to the Revolution, 
various experiments were made in banking, 
but without notable success. What is usual¬ 
ly characterized as the first commercial 
bank, organized upon modern principles, is 
the Bank of North America, which was 
given a charter by the Continental Congress, 
May 26, 1781. Robert Morris (q. v.), the 
financier of the Revolution, was the chief 
founder, and the capital of the bank was 
$400,000. The charter was confirmed by the 
State of Pennsylvania, April 1, 1782, and 
under this charter the bank continued to 
operate until absorbed into the national 
banking system in 1863. 

The Bank of the United States. —One of 
the first needs which suggested itself to 
Alexander Hamilton in organizing the finan¬ 
cial system of the new Federal Government 
was a National Bank. In accordance with 
his recommendation, the first “Bank of the 
United States” was incorporated in 1791, 
with a capital of $10,000,000. This bank 
issued circulating notes, discounted com¬ 
mercial paper, made loans to the Govern¬ 
ment in anticipation of the revenues, and 
otherwise aided the Government in its finan¬ 
cial operations. When the charter of the 
bank expired in 1811, party opposition pre¬ 
vented its renewal, although the coming war 
with Great Britain made Its services highly 
desirable. The financial condition of the 
Government became so bad during the war 
that the second “Bank of the United States” 
was chartered in 1815. The capital was 
$35,000,000. The Government subscribed 
one-fifth and had the privilege of naming 
five of the twenty-five directors. The bank 
was not well managed during its early ca¬ 
reer, but in 1835 had attained a circulation 
of $23,075,422; loans of $59,232,445; and 
deposits of $5,061,456. The bank was driven 
to the wall by the resolute hostility of Pres¬ 
ident Jackson, who, in 1833, suspended the 
deposit of public money in its custody. This 
measure, known as the “removal of the de¬ 
posits,” was the subject of a bitter political 
controversy, in which Clay, Webster, and 
others opposed Jackson, but he was sup¬ 
ported by the people. The Federal charter 
of the bank expired in 1837. A charter was 
obtained by President Nicholas Biddle from 
the State of Pennsylvania, under which the 
bank continued to do business, but it was 
not successful, and in 1841 went into liqui¬ 
dation. 

The State Banks. —After the expiration 
of the charter of the Bank of the United 
States, the country was served by banks 
chartered under State laws. These State 
banks had been from the beginning serious 
competitors of the Bank of the United 
States, but the laws of the States differed 
greatly among themselves. Some of the 
States authorized the issue of notes upon 




Banks and Banking in the United States Banks and Banking in the United States 


State bonds, many of which proved worth¬ 
less. The New England banks, however, 
were organized upon a system which re¬ 
quired the prompt redemption of their notes 
at par, and adopted in 1824 what was known 
as “the • Suffolk System” of redemption. 
This system provided for the deposit in the 
Suffolk Bank in Boston of a redemption fund 
by each bank, from which the notes were 
redeemed and afterwards sent home by the 
Suffolk Bank for collection. This system, 
with slight modifications, continued in suc¬ 
cessful operation until 1858. The circula¬ 
tion of the New England banks in 1858 was 
less than $40,000,000, and the redemptions 
in the course of the year through the Suffolk 
Bank were $400,000,000. It was the essen¬ 
tial merit claimed for the system that this 
frequency of redemption not only applied 
a constant test of solvency to the issues of 
the banks, but kept the volume of the cir¬ 
culation constantly adjusted to business 
conditions. The State Bank of Indiana was 
among the most successful of the State 
banks. This bank had an exclusive charter 
for issuing bank-notes, and had branches at 
important points throughout the State. Un¬ 
der the management of Hugh McCulloch, 
afterwards Secretary of the Treasury, it 
weathered the crisis of 1857 without sus¬ 
pending specie payments, and retired its cir¬ 
culation when gold went to a premium in 
1862. Another system, which attracted at¬ 
tention because it became the basis of the 
national banking system, was the free bank¬ 
ing system of New York. This system au¬ 
thorized the issue of circulating notes upon 
the deposit of certain bonds with State of¬ 
ficials. Differing systems of note-issue in 
different States were not adapted to the 
closer bonds of trade and communication 
which followed the extension of railways. 
The circulation of the State banks was 
largely local. Notes issued outside a State 
could not safely be received by banks within 
the State without careful scrutiny as to the 
responsibility of their issuers. The systems 
prevailing in New England, in Louisiana, in 
Ohio, and in Indiana, were eminently suc¬ 
cessful, and proved the soundness of the 
issue of bank notes upon the general assets 
of a well-conducted commercial bank. The 
speculation which was fostered by loose 
banking laws in some other States, and the 
need for uniformity, cast a certain degree 
of discredit upon the State banks, however, 
and prepared the way for the acceptance of 
the national banking system in 1804. The 
growth of the capital and business of the 
State banks is indicated by the increase of 
their note issues from $98,008,711 in 1845, to 
$180,952,223 in 1855, and $193,300,818 in 
1859. The increase in number of banks, 
capital stock and loans and deposits for 
representative years appears in the table be¬ 
low: 


No. of 
Year. Banks. 

1835 704 

1845 707 

1850 824 

1855 1,307 

I860 1,562 

1863 1,466 


Capital 

Stock. 

$231,250,337 

206,045,069 

217,317,211 

332,177,288 

421,880,095 

405,045,829 


Loans and 
Discounts. 

$365,163,834 

288,617,131 

364,204,078 

576.144,758 

691,915,580 

648,601,863 


Deposits. 

$83,081,365 

88,020,646 

109,586,595 

190,400,342 

253,802,129 

393,686,226 


The National Hanking System, although 
often attributed entirely to the unsatisfac¬ 
tory character of the circulation under the 
State systems, was due in a large measure 
to the necessities of the Federal Govern¬ 
ment during the Civil War. When it was 
found difficult to float Government bonds at 
favorable rates, Secretary Chase conceived 
the plan of creating a compulsory market 
for the bonds by giving special privileges to 
banks to be organized under Federal char¬ 
ters, upon the condition that they could 
issue circulating notes only when secured 
by the deposit of Government bonds. Even 
this tempting offer, however, made by the 
Act of February 25, 1863 (supplemented 
by the Act of June 3, 1804), did not give 
predominance to the national banks. The 
hold of the State banking systems was so 
strong upon the commercial community that 
it became necessary to provide for impos¬ 
ing a tax of 10 per cent, upon the face value 
of the notes of State banks paid out by 
them after July 1, 1806. This inevitably 
drove the State banks out of the note-issu¬ 
ing business. Some of them were converted 
into national banks, while others 7-enounced 
the privilege of note-issue in order to con¬ 
tinue their commercial business under State 
laws. The result was a phenomenal growth 
in the national banking system, which is il¬ 
lustrated by the organization in 1864 of 453 
national banks, with an aggregate capital 
of $79,300,950, and in 1805 of 1,014, with an 
aggregate capital of $242,542,982. The dis¬ 
tinctive feature of the national banking sys¬ 
tem was the provision in regard to the issue 
of circulating notes upon United States 
bonds. The law provided that any national 
bank desiring to issue notes should deposit 
with the United States Treasurer bonds of 
the United States to an amount not exceed¬ 
ing its capital stock, and that upon such 
bonds it might receive circulation equal to 
90 per cent, of their par value. Such notes 
were to he taxed at the rate of 1 per cent, 
per annpm. In a technical sense* the banks 
derived from the provision for circulation 
the benefit of what their critics described as 
“double interest.” They were credited with 
the interest on bonds which were in the 
custody of the Treasury Department, and 
they were also able to lend their notes at in¬ 
terest. From this apparent profit, however, 
there were several deductions to be made: 
First, was the fact that notes could not be 
issued to the full par value of the bonds; 
second, was the tax of 1 per cent, upon cir¬ 
culation, reducing by that amount the profit 



Banks and Banking in the United States Banks and Banking in the United States 


which would be earned, other things being 
equal; and third, were the amounts in gold 
or other lawful money required to be set 
aside for redemption purposes and for re¬ 
serves. The element of the price of the 
bonds in the market proved to be an im¬ 
portant factor in affecting the volume of 
circulation. The limit originally imposed 
upon the circulation of the national banks 
was $300,000,000. This was increased in 
1870 by a sum of $54,000,000, and in 1875 
the limit was removed. The circulation 
reached $362,651,169 on January 1, 1883, 
but afterwards declined materially as the 
price of bonds rose. The fact that circula¬ 
tion could be issued to only 90 per cent, of 
the par value of the bonds greatly reduced 
the net profits on circulation when the price 
of 4 per cent, bonds rose in 1889 above 129, 
and other classes of bonds correspondingly. 
The circulation of bank notes fell as low as 
$173,078,585 on January 1, 1892, but after¬ 
wards increased somewhat as the result of 
new issues of bonds in 1894, 1895, 1896 and 
1898. The most vigorous stimulus to bank 
circulation was applied by the gold standard 
law of March 14, 1900. This law permitted 
national banks to issue circulation to the 
full par value of the bonds deposited, and 
reduced the tax upon circulation from 1 per 
cent, to one-half of 1 per cent, in the case 
of circulation which was secured by the new 
2 per cent, refunding bonds, which were au¬ 
thorized by this law. Under this stimulus 
the volume of notes outstanding, secured by 
bonds, which stood on October 31, 1899, at 
$207,920,774, reached, October 31, 1900, 

$298,829,004; October 31, 1901, $328,- 

198,613; October 31, 1902, $335,783,189; Oc¬ 
tober 31, 1903, $380,650,821; October 31, 
1904, $424,530,581; July 31, 1905, $471,- 
615,771. An important provision of the 
Act of March 14, 1900, was the authority 
then first given to incorporate national 
banks with a capital of $25,000. The 
previous minimum limit had been $50,000. 
Under this provision there were incorpo¬ 
rated 'to October 31, 1904, 1,437 national 
banks with capitals of less than $50,000, 
with aggregate capital of $37,459,500, of 
which 159 banks were conversions of State 
and private institutions, 464 were reorgani¬ 
zations, and 814 were new institutions. One 
influence contributing to stimulate bank 
note circulation was the fact that after the 
suspension of the purchase of silver for 
coinage purposes in 1893, there remained 
substantially only two methods of increas¬ 
ing the volume of money in the country to 
meet the growth of business. One of these 
was the increase of the gold currency by 
the importation and production of gold, 
which carried the volume of gold money in 
the country from $597,697,685 on July 1, 
1893, to $1*326,722,701 on July 1, 1904. ‘The 
other was the increase in bank notes in cir¬ 


culation, which carried the amount during 
the corresponding dates from $178,713,872 
to $433,595,888. The increase of about 
$985,000,000 in these two elements of the 
circulation more than represented the in¬ 
crease in the net circulation of all kinds of 
money in the hands of the people, after the 
deduction of the amounts in the Treasury, 
which had also increased. 

The subject of banking has thus far been 
discussed chiefly with reference to the func¬ 
tion of note-issue, but this has become of 
less importance in commercial countries, as 
other methods of transferring credit have 
attained a wide development. This has not 
only been true of the national banks them¬ 
selves, but has accounted for the develop¬ 
ment alongside the national banking system 
of State banks, private banks, and trust 
companies, which have not had the privilege 
of note-issue. The aggregate resources of 
all the banks in the United States have 
enormously increased in recent years with¬ 
out reference to the increase in the issue of 
notes. The following table shows the in¬ 
crease in the chief items of the accounts of 
national banks for representative years at 
the dates of the reports nearest to the be¬ 
ginning of the year: 



No. of 

Year. 

Banks. 

1865 

638 

1870 

1.615 

1875 

2.027 

1880 

2.052 

1885 

2,664 

1890 

3,326 

1895 

3,737 

1897 

3,661 

1899 

3,590 

1900 

3,602 

1901 

3,942 

1902 

4,291 

1903 

4,666 

1904 

5,180 

1905 

5,477 


Loans and 
Discounts. 
$166,448,718 
'688,875,203 
955,862,580 
933,543,661 
1,234,202,226 
1,811,686.981 
1,974,623,974 
1,901,160,110 
2,211,394,838 
2,479,819,494 
2,706,534,643 
3,038,255,447 
3,303,148,091 
3,469,195,044 
3.772,638,941 


Individual 

Deposits. 

$183,479,636 

546,236.881 

682,846.607 

755,459,966 

987,649.055 

1,436.402,685 

1,695,489,346 

1,639,688,393 

2,225,269,813 

2,380,610,361 

2,623,997,521 

2,964,417,965 

3,527,872,796 

3,300,619,898 


3,707,706,530 
The consolidated returns of State and pri¬ 
vate banks, savings banks, and loan and 
trust companies in the United States show 
a growth within a few years, which is il¬ 


lustrated by the following table of the prin¬ 
cipal items of their accounts: 


Items. 1897. 1904. 

Lapital stock. $380,090,778 $625,116,824 

Surplus and Profits 382,436,990 779,241,781 

Loans. 2,231,013,262 4,360.209,382 

Deposits. 3,324,254.807 6.688,107.157 

Total Resources.. . 4,258,677,065 8,542,839,386 

The total banking power of the United 
States, as computed by the Comptroller of 
the Currency, increased between 1890 and 
1904 from $5,150,000,000 to $13,826,600,000, 
and the banking power of foreign countries 
from $10,835,000,000 to $19,781,100,000, 
representing an increase for the entire world 
from $15,985,000,000 to $33,607,700,000—or 
an increase for the world of 110 per cent, 
during the short interval of fourteen years. 
Recent general works on banking in th<P; 






Banks Land 


Banns of Matrimony 


United States are: Dunbar, “Chapters on 
the Theory and History of Banking” 
(1892) ; White, “Money and Banking” (2nd 
ed., 1902) ; “Report of the Monetary Com¬ 
mission of the Indianapolis Convention” 
(1898) ; Noyes, “Thirty Years of American 
Finance” (i898) ; Dewey, “Financial His¬ 
tory of the United States (1902) ; Conant, “A 
History of Modern Banks of Issue” (1890). 
See also Bank; Bank Note; Credit; Cur¬ 
rency; Interest; Money. 

Charles A. Conant. 

Banks Land, an island in the W. of Arc¬ 
tic America, discovered by Parry in 1819, 
explored by Maclure in 1850, and named by 
him Baring Island. It is separated by 
Banks Strait from Melville Island, lying to 
the N. W., and by Prince of Wales Strait 
from Prince Albert Island, lying eastward. 

Bann, two rivers in the N. E. of Ireland 
—the Upper Bann, flowing into, and the 
Lower Bann, out of, Lough Neagh. The 
Upper Lann rises in the Mourne Mountains, 
and runs 25 miles N. N. W. through the 
counties of Down and Armagh. The Lower 
Bann, strictly the continuation of the Up¬ 
per, issues from the N. W. corner of Lough 
Neagh, and flows 40 miles N. N. W., 
through Lough Beg, dividing the counties 
of Antrim and Londonderry. It runs past 
Coleraine, into the Atlantic Ocean, 4 miles 
S. W. of Portrush. It has important sal¬ 
mon and eel flsneries. Vessels of 200 tons 
can reach Coleraine by the river, 4 miles 
from the ocean. 

Bannatyne Club, a literary society in¬ 
stituted in Edinburgh (1823) by Sir Walter 
Scott (its first president), David Laing 
(secretary till its dissolution in 1805), Ar¬ 
chibald Constable, and Thomas Thomson. 
It started with 31 members, subsequently 
extended to 100, having as its object the 
printing of rare works on Scotch history, 
literature, geography, etc. It derived its 
name from George Bannatyne (1545-1609), 
the collector of the famous MSS. of early 
Scottish poetry. 

Banneker, Benjamin, an American negro 
mathematician, born in 1731. At the age 
of 50 he began the study of mathematics 
for astronomical purposes. He published 
annually after 1792 an almanac devised by 
himself. He aided in determining the 
boundaries of the District of Columbia. He 
died in 1806. 

Banner, in heraldry, a flag, generally 
square, painted or embroidered with the 
arms of the person in whose honor it is 
borne, and of such a size as to be propor¬ 
tionate to his dignity. Theoretically, the 
banner of an emperor should be six feet 
square, that of a king five feet, that of a 
duke four feet, and that of a nobleman from 


a marquis to a knight banneret inclusive 
three feet. No one under the rank of a 
knight banneret is entitled to a banner. A 
feudal banner is a square flag in which the 
arms of a deceased person are paneled, but 
with the helmet, mantle and supporters ab¬ 
sent. When all the quarterings of the per¬ 
son who is dead are present, and the edge 
fringed, it is called a great banner. See 
Ensign ; Flag ; Standard. 

Banneret, an abbreviation for knight 
banneret; a member of an ancient order of 
knighthood which had the privilege of lead¬ 
ing their retainers to battle under their 
own flag. They ranked as the next order 
below the Knights of the Garter, only a few 
official dignitaries intervening. This was 
not, however, unless they were created by 
the King on the field of battle, c .3e they 
ranked after baronets. The order is now 
extinct, the last banneret created having 
been at the battle of Edgehill, in 1642, for 
his gallantry in rescuing the standard of 
Charles I. 

Bannock, a tribe of North American In¬ 
dians belonging to the Shoshoni stock. They 
are divided into two sections, one inhabiting 
part of Nevada, and the other part of 
Montana. Their language is entirely dis¬ 
tinct from that of the other Shoshoni, and 
they are probably of a different race, affili¬ 
ated by intermarriage. In 1839 the South¬ 
ern Bannock were about 8,400 in number. 
Assigned, in 1869, to the Wind River res¬ 
ervation, all those who remained with the 
Shoshoni in Idaho were placed at Fort Hall, 
in 1874. Of the Northern Bannocks only 
350 remained in 1869. In 1893 the whole 
tribe numbered about 600. 

Bannockburn, a village of Stirlingshire, 
Scotland, 3 miles S. S. E. of Stirling, on 
the Bannock Burn, a little affluent of the 
Forth. It is an important seat of the 
woollen manufacturers, especially of carpets 
and tartans. Tanning is carried on to some 
extent, and the neighboring villages are 
noted for the manufacture of nails; while 
coal abounds in the vicinity. In the great 
battle of Bannockburn, fought on June 24, 
1314, Robert Bruce, with 30,000 Scotch, 
gained a signal victory over Edward II., 
with 100,000 English, and secured his throne 
and the independence of Scotland. The Eng¬ 
lish are ' ".id to have lost 30,000, and the 
Scotch 8,000 men. The “Bore Stone,” on 
which Bruce is said to have fixed his stand¬ 
ard on that eventful day, is still to be seen 
on an eminence; and near it is a flagstaff, 
120 feet high, erected in 1870. Not far off 
was fought the battle of Sauchieburn. 

Banns of Matrimony, public notice of 
the intended celebration of a marriage given 
either by proclamation, viva voce, by a 
clergyman, session clerk, or precentor in 





Banquette 


Banvard 


some religious assembly, or by posting up 
written notice in some public place. 

Banquette (bang-ket'), in fortification, 
the elevation of earth behind a parapet, on 
which the garrison or defenders may stand. 
The height of the parapet above the ban¬ 
quette is usually about 4 feet G inches; the 
breadth of the banquette from 2V 2 or 3 
feet to 4 or 0 feet, according to the num¬ 
ber of ranks to occupy it. It is frequently 
made double, that is, a second is made still 
lower. 

Banquo, a famous Scottish thane of the 
11th century. In conjunction with Mac¬ 
beth, cousin of Duncan, the King, he ob¬ 
tained a victory over the Danes, who had 
landed on the Scottish coast. Macbeth, 
shortly afterward, violently dethroned Dun¬ 
can, and caused him to be secretly assassin¬ 
ated. Banquo, though not an accomplice, 
was a witness of the crime; and being sub¬ 
sequently regarded by Macbeth with fear 
and suspicion, the latter invited him and 
his son to supper, and hired assassins to at¬ 
tack them on their return home during the 
darkness of night. Banquo was slain, but 
the youth made his escape. Shakespeare 
has interwoven this occurrence with the 
theme of his tragedy of “ Macbeth.” 

Banshee, a fay, elf, or other supernatural 
being, supposed by some of the peasantry 
in Ireland and the Scottish Highlands to 
sing a mournful ditty under the windows 
of the house when one of the inmates is 
about to die. 

Bantam, an old and decayed town of the 
Island of Java, and, until of late years, one 
of the most famous trading marts in the 
Farther East, belonging to the Dutch. Its 
bay, formerly a great rendezvous of Euro¬ 
pean shipping, is now choked up by coral 
reefs. The Dutch abandoned it in 1817 for 
the more elevated station of Serang, or 
Ceram, 7 miles inland. 

Bantam, a variety of the common domes¬ 
tic fowl, originally brought from the East 
Indies, and supposed to derive its name from 
the above town. It is remarkable for its 
small.size, being only about one pound in 
weight, and for a disposition more courage¬ 
ous and pugnacious than even that of a 
game-cock. 

Banteng, Bos Banteng, or Sondaicus, a 

wild species of ox, native of Java and Bor¬ 
neo, having a black body, slender, white legs, 
short, sleek hair, sharp muzzle, and the back 
humped behind the neck. 

Banting, William, an Englishman of not¬ 
able corpulence, born in 1797, who, by 
adopting a simple diet was able to relieve 
himself of his superflous flesh. He wrote a 
pamphlet called “ A Letter on Corpulence ” 
(1863), describing his system, which at¬ 
tracted so much attention that the word 
“ to baijt ” has been incorporated in the 


English language to express the reduction 
of obesity by diet. The dietary recom¬ 
mended was the use of butcher’s meat prin¬ 
cipally, and abstinence from beer, farina¬ 
ceous food, and vegetables. He died in 
1878. 

Bantry Bay, a deep inlet in the S. W. 
extremity of Ireland, in County Cork. It 
is 25 miles long, running E. N. E. with a 
breadth of 4 to G miles. It is one of the 
finest harbors in Europe, affording safe 
and commodious anchorage for ships of all 
sizes. Here a French force attempted to 
land in 179G. The coast around is rocky 
and high. 

Bantu, the ethnological name of a group 
of African races dwelling below about 6° N. 
lat., and including the Kaffirs, Zulus, Bechu- 
anas, the tribes of the Loango, Kongo, etc., 
but not the Hottentots. The term Bantu is 
also used to denote the homogeneous family 
of languages spoken in Africa throughout 
the vast region lying between Ivamerun, 
Zanzibar, and the Cape of Good Hope, with 
the exception of the Hottentot, Bushmen, 
and Pigmy enclaves. Ba-ntu, in almost all 
of these languages, signifies “ the people,” 
and hence is applied to the whole linguis¬ 
tic family. The Bantu family, although di¬ 
vided into hundreds of dialects, is evidently 
derived from one mother tongue. 

Banu, or Bannu, a district in the Pun¬ 
jab, British India, division of Darajot; 
about lat. 33° N., long. 71° E.; area, 1,680 
square miles; population (1901) 231,485. 
The district is watered by the Indus, which 
here, during inundations, becomes a vast 
body of water, many miles in width. Nearly 
all the inhabitants are Mohammedans. Ag¬ 
riculture thrives, especially in the cultiva¬ 
tion of the ordinary cereals, sugar cane, cot¬ 
ton, and various oil seeds. The chief towns 
are Edwardesabad, Trakhel and Kalabagh, 
each with less than 10,000 population. 

Banvard, John, an American artist, 
poet, and dramatist, born in New York 
about 1820; was best known by his pano¬ 
rama of the Mississippi river, covering 3 
miles of canvas, which was exhibited in the 
chief cities of Europe and America. He 
wrote a great number of poems; several 
plays: “Banvard, or the Adventures of an 
Artist” (1849); “ Pilgrimage to the Holy 
Land” (1852), etc. He died in 1891. 

Banvard, Joseph, an American Baptist 
clergyman and historical writer, brother of 
the preceding, born in New York in 1810. 
Among his writings were “ Plymouth and 
the Pilgrims ” (1851) ; “ Romance of Ameri¬ 
can History” (1852); “Memoir of Web¬ 
ster” (1853); a historical novel, “Pris¬ 
cilla” (1854); “Soldiers and Patriots of 
the Revolution” (1876), etc. He died in 
1887. 



Banville 


Baobab 


Banville, Theodore Faullain de (bSn- 

vel'), a French poet and novelist, born at 
Moulins, March 14, 1823; was the son of a 
naval officer, and went early in life to Paris, 
where he devoted himself exclusively to lite¬ 
rature, contributed to many journals and 
reviews, and lived in close friendship with 
some of the foremost artists and men of 
letters of the day. First known as a poet 
through two volumes entitled “ The Carya¬ 
tides ” (1842) and “The Stalactites” 

(184G), he established his reputation with 
the “ Odes Funambulesqucs ” (1857), a sort 
of great lyrical parody, published under the 
pseudonym “ Bracquemond,” which imme¬ 
diately found great favor, and was followed 
by “ New* Odes Funambulesqucs ” (18G8, 

afterward reprinted as “ Occidcntales ”) ; 
“Russian Idyls” (1872); “Thirty-six 
Merry Ballads” ( 1873) ; etc. His dramatic 
efforts did not meet with equal success, only 
“ Gringoire ” (18GG) holding the stage for 
some time. As a prose writer he is favor¬ 
ably known by a number of humorous and 
highly finished tales and sketches, like “ The 
Poor Mountebanks” (1853); “The Pari¬ 
sians of Paris” (18G6) ; “Tales for Wom¬ 
en” (1881); “The Soul of Paris” (1890), 
etc. Of considerable literary interest is 
“My Recollections” (1882). He died in 
Paris, March 13, 1891. 

Banxring (genus tupaia) , a quadruped 
belonging to the insectivora, inhabiting the 
Indian Archipelago, bearing some resem¬ 
blance externally to a squirrel, but having 
a long pointed snout. They live among 
trees, which they ascend with great agility. 

Banyan Tree, the ficus indica, a species 
of the genus ficus. It is regarded as a 
sacred tree by the Hindus. Its branches 



BANYAN TREE. 


produce long shoots, or aerial roots, which 
descend to the ground and penetrate the 
soil; so that, in course of time, a single 
tree becomes a vast umbrageous tent, sup¬ 


ported by numerous columns. No fewer 
than 350 stems, each equaling in bulk the 
trunk of a large oak, and more than 3,000 
smaller ones, have been counted in one ex¬ 
ample, covering a space sufficient to contain 
7,000 persons. 

The fruit of the banyan is of a rich scar¬ 
let color, and about the size of a cherry; it 
is eaten by the monkeys, which live with 
birds and enormous bats in the thick forest 
of branches. The bark is a powerful tonic, 
and is much used by the Hindu physicians. 
The white glutinous juice of the tree is 
used to relieve toothache, as an application 
to the soles of the feet when inflamed, and 
for making birdlime. Ficus elastica, also 
a native of India, yields an inferior kind of 
caoutchouc. Ficus sycamorus , the syca¬ 
more fig, is said to have yielded the wood 
from which mummy cases were made. 

Banyuwangy, the extreme E. district 
of the island of Java; noted for its exten¬ 
sive coffee gardens, and for the remarkably 
pure sulphur obtained from the Goonong- 
Marapi volcanic mountain; also the name of 
the capital town, which is an important 
seaport and Dutch military post, on the 
Strait of Bali, about 550 English miles E. 
S. E. from Batavia. Goonong-Marapi ' 
mountain is of great height, and its sul¬ 
phur can be used without refining. The 
immediate neighborhood of the mountain 
is uninhabited. 

Banz, once one of the richest and most 
famous of the Benedictine monasteries, 
on the right bank of the Maine, 3 miles 
below Lichtenfels, Bavaria. Founded in 
1071, and destroyed in the Peasants’ War 
in 1525, it was rebuilt, and, although plun¬ 
dered again in the Thirty Years’ War, it 
gradually became famed for the scientific 
attainments of its monks. In 1803 it was 
broken up, and its library and collections 
divided between the Munich museum and 
other institutions. 

Baobab, a tree also styled the monkey- 
bread, African calabash, or Ethiopian sour- 
gourd tree. It has a fantastic look, its 
stem being of little height, but of great 
thickness; one specimen was fount! 30 feet 
in diameter. The fruit is aoout 10 inches 
long. Externally it is downy; within this 
down is a hard, woody rind, which requires 
a saw to cut it across; and inside the rind 
is an eatable pulp, of slightly acid taste. 
The juice mixed with sugar is serviceable 
in putrid and pestilential fevers. The Afri¬ 
cans mix the dried and powdered leaves 
with their food to promote perspiration, and 
they have been found useful in diarrhoea and 
dysentery. The adansonia is properly a 
native of Africa, but it has been introduced, 
probably by the Mussulmans, into India, 
where its large white flowers appear in May 
and June, to be in due time followed by 













Baour=Lormian 


Baptistery 


fruit. It is known as Adansonia digitata, 
being so named after Adanson, a celebrated 
French traveler, who lived from 1749 to 
1754 in Senegal, investigating its natural 
history. The tr-ee is liable to be attacked 
by a fungus which, vegetating in the woody 
part, renders it soft ami pithlike. By the 
negroes of the W. coast these trunks are 
hollowed into chambers, and dead bodies 
are suspended in them. There they become 
perfectly dry and well preserved, without 
further preparation or embalming. 

Baour=Lormian, Louis Pierre Marie 
Frangois (ba-orTor-myon'), a French poet 
and dramatist (1772-1854), who first at¬ 
tracted wide notice through his “ Poems of 
Ossian ” (1801), an extremely clever imita¬ 
tion of Caledonian verse; and afterward won 
success with a tragedy, “ Omasis, or Joseph 
in Egypt ” (1807). Of his other works may 
be mentioned “ Political and Moral Vigils ” 
(1811), in the manner of Young; “ Duranti, 
or The League in the Province” (1828), a 
historical novel; and “ Legends, Ballads, 
and Fabliaux” (1829). But his best work 
is probably a poetical translation of the 
Book of Job, completed after he had lost 
his eyesight. 

Bapaume (ba-pom'), a French town in 
the Department of Pas-de-Calais, 12 miles 
S. of Arras. Here, on Jan. 2 and 3, 1871, 
took place two bloody struggles between the 
French Army of the North and the Prussian 
“ army of observation; ” the French were 
defeated, with a loss of over 2,000. 

Baphometus, the name of the image 
which the Knights Templars were charged 
with worshipping, when the order was sup¬ 
pressed by Philip IV. of France. It is prob¬ 
ably a corruption of Mahomet, and the 
charge may have arisen from the circum¬ 
stance that some of the Templars had gone 
over to the Moslem faith. 

Baptism (from the Greek baptizo, from 
bapto, to immerse or dip), a rite which is 
generally thought to have been usual with 
the Jews even before Christ, being admin¬ 
istered to proselytes. From this baptism, 
however, that of St. John the Baptist dif¬ 
fered, because he baptized Jews also as a 
symbol of the necessity of perfect purifica¬ 
tion from sin. Christ himself never bap¬ 
tized, but directed his disciples to admin¬ 
ister this rite to converts (Matt, xxviii: 
19) ; and baptism, therefore, became a re¬ 
ligious ceremony among Christians, taking 
rank as a sacrament with all sects which 
acknowledge sacraments. In the primitive 
Church the person to be baptized was dipped 
in a river or in a vessel, with the words 
which Christ had ordered, generally adopt¬ 
ing a new name to further express the 
change. Sprinkling, or, as it was termed, 
clinic baptism, was used only in the case 
of the sick who could not leave their beds. 
The Greek Church and Eastern schismatics 


retained the custom of immersion; but the 
Western Church adopted or allowed the 
mode of baptism by pouring or sprinkling, 
since continued by most Protestants. This 
practice can be traced back certainly to the 
3d century, before which its existence is 
disputed. Since the Beformation there have 
been various Protestant sects called Bap¬ 
tists, holding that baptism should be admin¬ 
istered only by immersion, and to those who 
can make a personal profession of faith. 
The Montanists in Africa baptized even the 
dead, and in Homan Catholic countries the 
practice of baptizing church bells•—-a cus¬ 
tom of 10th century origin — continues to 
this day. Being an initiatory rite, baptism 
is only administered once to the same per¬ 
son. The Roman and Greek Catholics con¬ 
secrate the water of baptism, but Protest¬ 
ants do not. The act of baptism is accom¬ 
panied only with the formula that the per¬ 
son is baptized in the name of the Father, 
Son, and Holy Ghost; but, among most 
Christians, it is preceded by a confession of 
faith made by the person to be baptized, if 
an adult, and by his parents or sponsors if 
he be a child. The Roman Catholic form 
of baptism is far more elaborate than the 
Protestant. This church teaches that all 
persons not baptized are damned, even un¬ 
baptized infants are not admitted into 
heaven; but for those with whom the ab¬ 
sence of baptism was the chief 'fault, even 
St. Augustine himself believed in a species 
of mitigated damnation. Protestants hold 
that though the neglect of the sacrament is 
a sin, yet the saving new birth may be 
found without the performance of the rite 
which symbolizes it. Naming the person 
baptized forms no essential part of the cere¬ 
mony, but has become almost universal, 
probably from the ancient custom of renam¬ 
ing the catechumen. 

Baptistery, a place designed for the ad¬ 
ministration of baptism. In early ages, 
baptism was performed by immersion, and 
the place used for the purpose was a pond 
or stream; but in the middle of the 3d cen¬ 
tury, distinct or insulated houses were 
erected for the ceremony. The baptistery 
was an octagon or circular building, covered 
with a cupola roof, and adjacent to the 
church, but not forming a part of it. The 
most ancient baptistery is that of 'S. Gio^ 
vanni in Fonte, at Rome, said to have been 
erected by Constantine the Great. The 
most celebrated are those of Florence and 
Pisa. This last is circular; its diameter is 
116 feet; the walls are 8 feet high, and 
the building is raised on three steps, and 
surmounted by a dome in the shape of a 
pear. This dome, which is covered with lead, 
is intersected by long lines of very promi¬ 
nent fretwork, terminating in another dome, 
above which is the statue of St. John. The 
, proportions of the interior are admirable; 



Baptists 


Baptists 


eight granite columns, placed between four 
piers, decorated with pilasters, are arranged 
round the basement story; these support a 
second order of piers, similarly arranged, on 
which rests the dome. In the middle of the 
baptistery is a large octagonal basin of mar¬ 
ble, raised on three steps. The most re¬ 
markable features of the baptistery of Flor¬ 
ence are the bas-reliefs of its three magnifi¬ 
cent bronze doors, executed by Andrea of 
Fisa, and Lorenzo Ghiberti. 

Baptists, >a Protestant denomination 
based on the belief that immersion is the 
only Scriptural mode of baptism, and that 
those only are proper subjects for this cere¬ 
mony who are converted and profess per¬ 
sonal faith in Christ. They thus reject both 
infant baptism and baptism by sprinkling 
or pouring of water as invalid. There are, 
however, other sects, including the Mennon- 
ites, the Christians, the Disciples of Christ, 
etc., who accept the prominent principles of 
the Baptists in whole or in part, and'yet are 
not classified with them, owing to some 
minor differences. The Baptists reject the 
name of Anabaptists as a term of reproach, 
holding that it is incorrect, because their 
members generally receive the rite on their 
admission to the church, and because they 
were not identified with the Baptists of 
Munster. The Baptists first appeared in 
Switzerland, in 1523, and soon spread to 
Germany, Holland, and other continental 
countries, whence they were driven to Eng¬ 
land by persecution on account of their re¬ 
jection of infant baptism. The history of 
the Baptists in England prior to the 16th 
century is rstill a matter of controversy. 
The first regularly organized church was 
Arminian, and was established in 1610 or 
1611. A. Calvinistic Baptist Church was 
founded about 1633. Those holding Ar¬ 
minian views received the name of General 
Baptists, and those holding Calvinistic 
views, the name of Particular Baptists. In 
1640 there were seven Baptist congregations 
in London. 

The Baptists in the United States spring 
historically from the English and Welsh 
Baptists; but the first Baptist Church was 
organized by Roger Williams, who was a 
minister in the Massachusetts Colony pre¬ 
vious to his immersion. lie was persecuted 
for holding principles which inclined to Ana- 
baptism, and for antagonizing the authori¬ 
ties of the colony in ecclesiastical matters. 
After being immersed, in 1630, by Ezekiel 
Holliman, whom he in turn immersed with 
10 others, he organized a Baptist Church 
in Providence, R. I. In 1644 he obtained a 
charter which granted to the people of 
Rhode Island entire freedom of conscience. 
There were other Baptists, however, who 
emigrated from England in the 17tli cen¬ 
tury, and, before the end of the 18th cen¬ 
tury, became numerous in New England, 


New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Georgia, 
and other States. In all the British colo¬ 
nies, excepting Rhode Island, the Baptists 
were persecuted for a long time. In Massa¬ 
chusetts laws were issued against them in 
1644; several of them were imprisoned in 
1651; others exiled in 1669; and a Baptist 
meeting-house was closed in 1680. New 
York issued laws against them in 1662, and 
Virginia in 1664. This persecution had 
greatly abated at the beginning of the 18th 
century. In Massachusetts they were freed 
from tithes in 1727; in Connecticut and 
New Hampshire in 172 /; and in Virginia in 
1785. After the Revolutionary War the 
Baptists increased with great rapidity, es¬ 
pecially in the South and Southwestern 
States, and have steadily increased ever 
since. 

There are at present three bodies of Regu¬ 
lar Baptists, the Northern, the Southern, 
and the Colored, all of whom agree in doc¬ 
trinal and ecclesiastical principles, but 
each has its own associations, State Conven¬ 
tions, and general missionary and other as¬ 
sociations. In 1845 a controversy concern¬ 
ing slavery, which had been going on for 
some time, caused a division between the 
Baptists in the Northern and those in the 
Southern States, after which the Northern 
Baptists continued to support the Home 
Mission Society and the American Baptist 
Missionary Union, on an anti-slavery basis. 
In 1879 the question of reuniting the di¬ 
visions was agitated, but nothing was ac¬ 
complished. The Southern Division is the 
largest branch of white Baptists. After 
the division of 1845 the Southern churches 
established the Southern Baptist Conven¬ 
tion, which holds annual meetings, where 
the promotion and direction of the denomi¬ 
national interests are considered, such as 
Sunday-schools, and home and foreign mis¬ 
sions. It is composed of representatives 
from associations, other organizations, and 
from the churches. The Colored Baptists 
compose the largest body of Regular Bap¬ 
tists, although many Colored Baptists are 
not members of this division; those only 
being included who have separate churches, 
State Conventions, and associations. The 
Colored Baptists of the North are generally 
members of churches belonging to white as¬ 
sociations. In 1866 the first State Conven¬ 
tion of Colored Baptists was organized in 
North Carolina, the second in Alabama, and 
the third in Virginia, both in 1867, and the 
fourth in Arkansas in 1868. There are 
(1900) Colored conventions in 15 States and 
the District of Columbia. Besides these as¬ 
sociations there are the American National 
Convention,which deliberates upon questions 
of general concern; the Consolidated Ameri¬ 
can Missionary Convention, the General As¬ 
sociation of the Western States and Terri¬ 
tories, the New England Missionary Conven- 




Baptists 


Bar 


tion, and the Foreign Missionary Convention 
of the United States. 

Besides the three large divisions of Bap¬ 
tists, there are 10 smaller ones. (1) Six 
Principle Baptists date back to Roger Wil¬ 
liams and the year 1039 for their origin. 
They differ from the Regular Baptists in 
holding the Arminian instead of the Calvin- 
istic creed, and in the practice of the laying 
on of hands in the reception of members. 
(2) Seventh Day Baptists, in the United 
States, date their origin back to 1671, when 
Stephen Mumford, from England, organized 
the first church in Newport, R. I. Their 
only difference from other Baptists is found 
in their keeping the seventh day as “ the 
Sabbath of the Lord.” (3) Freewill Bap¬ 
tists. The first church of this sect was 
founded by Benjamin Randall in New Dur¬ 
ham, N. Id., in 1780. At first their organi¬ 
zations were called simply Baptist churches, 
but later the word “ Freewill ” was applied 
to them, in allusion to their doctrine con¬ 
cerning the freedom of the will. (4) Orig¬ 
inal Freewill Baptists date back to 1729, 
when a number of General Baptist churches 
were founded in North Carolina. In 1759 
many of these general churches became Cal- 
vinistic. Those which did not join the Cal- 
vinistic association were called “ Freewill- 
ers,” because.they held the doctrine of the 
freedom of the will. (5) General Baptists 
are thus named, because they originally dif¬ 
fered from the Regular Baptists in holding 
that the atonement was for the whole race 
and not merely for those effectually ealled. 
They date back to the beginning of the 18th 
century. (0) Separate Baptists originated 
in the great Whitefield revival. In doctrine 
they generally agree with the Freewill Bap¬ 
tists. (7) United Baptists. A sect which 
sprang from the opposition to the great re¬ 
vival of George Whitefield. They hold mod¬ 
erate Calvinistic views. (8) Baptist Church 
of Christ. A sect organized in 1808 in 
Tennessee, where half their number is found. 
They have a mild form of Calvinism Avith 
a general atonement. (9) Primitive Bap¬ 
tists are A\ariously known as Primitive, 
Old School, Regular, and Antimission 
Baptists. Their organization occurred 
about 1835. They do not belie\ T e in the 
establishment of Sunday-schools, mission, 
Bible, and other societies, which they hold 
are unscriptural because they are hu¬ 
man institutions. (10) Old Two-Seed-in- 
the-Spirit-Predestinajian Baptists. A con¬ 
servative body of Baptists a\ t 1io are strongly 
Calvinistic, believing firmly in predestina¬ 
tion. The phrase “ Two-Seed ” is under¬ 
stood to mean their belief that there are 
two seeds, one of the good and one of the 
evil. The doctrine is supposed to have been 
originated by Elder Daniel Parker, who 
preached in Tennessee in 1806-1817, in Illi¬ 
nois till 1836, and later in Texas, Avhere he 
died. 


All Baptist denominations are congrega¬ 
tional in polity, with the possible exception 
of the Original Freewill Baptists. Each 
church, under its officers of pastor and dea¬ 
cons, manages its own affairs. There are 
Associations and State Con\ T entions, com¬ 
posed of pastors and delegates from the 
churches, but none of these bodies have any 
ecclesiastical authority. Councils, consist¬ 
ing of ministers and laymen, may be called 
to advise churches, to ordain ministers, or to 
recognize new churches at the invitation of 
individual churches. 

Statistics of the Churches .— The follow¬ 
ing table gives a summary of the A'arious 
Baptist Churches in the United States, as 
compiled for “ The Christian Advocate ” of 
New York (Jan. 27, 1910) : 


No. 

Denominations. 

Minis¬ 

ters. 

Churches. 

Commu¬ 

nicants. 

1.. 

Regular (North).. 

8.095 

9,239 

1.176,380 

2 

Regular (South).. 

13,055 

21,887 

2,139,080 

3.. 

Regular (Colored). 

12,602 

17,429 

1,874.261 

4.. 

Six Principle. 

10 

16 

731 

5.. 

Seventh Day . 

90 

82 

8,239 

0.. 

Free. 

1,294 

1,303 

73,530 

r* 

( . . 

Freewill. 

004 

623 

40,578 

8.. 

General. 

. 550 

538 

32,500 

9.. 

Separate . 

100 

76 

5,180 

10.. 

United. 

200 

190 

13,698 

11.. 

Baptist Church of 
Christ. 

99 

93 

6,416 

12.. 

Primitive. 

1,500 

9 099 

102,311 

13.. 

Primitive (Colored) 

1,480 

797 

35,076 

14.. 

Old- two- Seed- in- 
the-Spirit Pre- 
destinarian.. 

35 

55 

781 

15.. 

Church of God.... 

75 

48 

1,823 


Total Baptists.. 

40,455 

55,304 

5,510,590 


According to the census of 1901, the Bap¬ 
tist Church in Canada had a membership 
of 316,477, and reports for 1906 ga\ T e a total 
of 424,741 members of Baptist churches in 
Great Britain. Henry C. Vedder. 

Baptist Young People’s Union of Am= 

erica, an association representing numerous 
young people's societies connected Avith the 
Baptist Churches in all the States and in 
Canada, organized in June, 1891, in Chicago, 
Ill., which place has since been its head¬ 
quarters. Prior to the formation of the 
Union, the withdrawal of the Baptist soci¬ 
eties was feared by the Christian EndeaA’or 
Societies, and a plan of federation Avas sug¬ 
gested in Nebraska, for the establishment 
of young people’s societies over which no 
constitution should be required. This plan, 
with slight modifications,Avas accepted when 
the Union Avas organized. Conventions are 
held yearly. 

Bar, in hydrography, a bank of sand, silt, 
etc., opposite the mouth of a river, Avhich ob¬ 
structs or bars the entrance of vessels. The 
bar is formed where the rush of the stream 

































Bar 


Baranoff Island 


is arrested by the water of the sea, as the 
mud and sand suspended in the river water 
are thus allowed to be deposited. It is in 
this wav that deltas are formed at the 
mouths of rivers. The navigation of many 
streams is kept open only by constant dredg¬ 
ing or other artificial means. 

Bar, in law, a word having several mean¬ 
ings; thus, it is the term used to signify 
an inclosure or fixed place in a court of 
justice where lawyers may plead. In Eng¬ 
lish superior courts, Queen’s counsel are ad¬ 
mitted within the bar ; other members of the 
bar sit or stand outside. A railed-off space 
within the Houses of Lords and Commons 
is similarly called the bar. The dock, or 
inclosed space where persons accused of fel¬ 
onies and other ofTenses stand or sit during 
their trial, is also called the bar; hence the 
expression, “ prisoner at the bar.” It has 
also a general meaning in legal procedure, 
signifying something by way of stoppage or 
prevention. There is also a trial at bar — 
that is, a trial before the judges of a par¬ 
ticular court, who sit together for that pur¬ 
pose in banc. 

Baraba, a steppe of Siberia, in the gov¬ 
ernment of Tomsk, extending between the 
rivers Obi and Irtish, and occupying more 
than 100,000 square miles. Covered with 
salt lakes and marshes, it was colonized in 
17G7 by the Russians, who have since culti¬ 
vated parts of it. 

Barabbas, a noted robber in Christ’s 
time, who was imprisoned and awaiting 
death for the crimes of sedition and mur¬ 
der. It was a custom of the Roman govern¬ 
ment, for the sake of conciliating the Jews, 
to release one Jewish prisoner, whom they 
might choose, at the yearly Passover. Pi¬ 
late desired thus to release Jesus, but the 
Jews demanded Barabbas (Matt, xxvii: 16— 
26). 

Baraboo, city and county-seat of Sauk 
co., Wis.; on the Baraboo river and the 
Chicago and* Northwestern railroad; 40 
miles N. W. of Madison. It is in an agri¬ 
cultural region; has important manufactur¬ 
ing interests, which are promoted by an ex¬ 
cellent water power; is a noted fruit center; 
and has a National bank, daily, weekly, and 
monthly periodicals, an assessed property 
valuation of about $2,500,000, and a total 
debt of about $60,000. Pop. (1890) 4,605; 
(1900) 5,751; (1910) 6,324. 

Barabra, a Nubian people living on both 
sides of the Nile, from Wady Haifa to As¬ 
suan (Egyptian Sudan). They arc about 
40,000 in number, and are believed to belong 
to the same stock as the ancient Egyptians. 
They are an agricultural people, and zealous 
Mohammedans. Their language has affini¬ 
ties with Coptic. 

Baracoa, a decayed seaport of Cuba, near 
the eastern end of the island, and for some 


years its capital. The town was founded in 
1512. Near it is the mountain noted as the 
“ Anvil of Baracoa.” Since the occupation 
of the island of Cuba by the forces of the 
United States, Baracoa has revived in im¬ 
portance. Pop. about 3,000. 

Baraguay d’Hilliers (bilr-a-ga' del-ya), 
Achille, Comte, a marshal of France, \». 
born in Paris, in 1795. In 1830 he took 
part in the expedition to Algeria, in which 
his success against the Arabs gained him 
the confidence of Louis Philippe’s govern¬ 
ment, who created him a lieutenant-gen¬ 
eral. He was, in 1836, appointed to the 
command of tl<e military school of St. Cyr. 
In 1841, he was made governor-general of 
Algeria. On the fall of Louis Philippe in 
the revolution of 1848, the Provisional Gov¬ 
ernment appointed him to the command of 
the military division of Besancon. He re¬ 
placed Changarnier in the command of the 
Army of Paris, and concurred in the accom¬ 
plishment of the coup d’etat on Dec. 2, 1851. 
In the war with Russia in 1854, Baraguay 
d’Hilliers was commander-in-chief of the 
Baltic expedition, and for his services re¬ 
ceived the dignity of marshal of France, and 
later was nominated a senator. ITe took 
an active part in the campaign of 1859, 
when France leagued with Sardinia to free 
Italv from Austrian domination. He died 
in 1878. 

Baraguay d’Hilliers, Louis, a French 
general, was born in Paris in 1764, and, re¬ 
ceiving an appointment in the Army of Italy 
from Napoleon, shared all the success of the 
campaign of 1796—1797. Made a general of 
division and commandant of Venice, in 1798 
he accompanied the expedition to Egypt; 
and afterward successively held appoint¬ 
ments on the Rhine, in the Tyrol, and in 
Catalonia. He commanded a division in the 
Russian campaign of 1812, but during the 
retreat incurred the displeasure of Napo¬ 
leon; and on Jan. 6, 1813, he died at Berlin 
of grief and exhaustion. 

Baralt, Rafael Maria, a Venezuelan poet 
and historian, born in Maracaibo, Venezuela, 
July 2, 1814; was educated in Bogota and 
at Caracas; served in the Venezuelan army, 
and went to Spain in 1843, where he held 
posts of honor and attained literary fame. 
He wrote “ Ancient and Modern History of 
Venezuela” (1841); and “Odes to Colum¬ 
bus and to Spain.” He died in Madrid, Jan. 
2, 1860. 

Baranoff, Alexander Andrevich, a Rus¬ 
sian trader, born in 1746. He founded a 
trading colony on Bering Strait (1796), and 
established commercial relations with the 
United States, China and Hawaii. He died 
in 1819. 

Baranoff Island, one of the Alexander 
Islands, Alaska. It is about 75 miles long. 
On its coast is the town of Sitka. The 




Barante 


Barbadoes 


island derives its name from the Russian 
trader Baranoff, who, in 1799, took pos¬ 
session of it. 

Barante (bar-ant'), Aimable Guillaume 
Prosper Brugiere, Baron de, a French 
historian and statesman, born at Riom in 
Auvergne, June 10, 1782. After filling some 
subordinate offices, he was appointed in 1809 
prefect of La Vendee. In this year was 
published his “ Tableau de la Literature 
Frangaise au XVIII© Siecle,” of which 
Goethe has said that it contains neither a 
word too little nor a word too much. In 
1815 Louis XVIII. made Barante secretary 
of the Ministry of the Interior, and about 
the same time he took his seat in the Cham¬ 
ber of Deputies, where lie voted with the 
Moderate Liberals. In 1819 he was raised 
to the Chamber of Peers. His principal 
work, a “ Histoire des Dues de Bourgogne 
de la Maison de Valois, 1364-1477,” pub¬ 
lished in 12 volumes, 1824-1828, has run 
through several editions. It secured his 
election to the Academy in 1828. Between 
1830 and 1840 he represented France at 
Turin and St. Petersburg, but after the rev¬ 
olution of 1848 he devoted himself entirely 
to literary pursuits. He died Nov. 23, 1866, 
in Auvergne. 

Barataria Bay, in the S. E. part of 
Louisiana, extending N. from the Gulf of 
Mexico, between the parishes of Jefferson 
and Plaquemine. This bay is about 15 
miles long by 6 wide. It, and the lagoons 
branching out of it, were rendered notorious 
about the years 1810-1812 as being both the 
headquarters and rendezvous of the cele¬ 
brated Lafitte and his buccaneers. 

Baratier, Johann Philipp (bar-at-ya'), 
a German litterateur, remarkable for the 
precocity of his intellect, was born in 1721. 
At the age of 7 he understood Greek and 
Hebrew, and two years later he compiled a 
Hebrew dictionary. He was 13 when he 
translated the “ Itinerary of Benjamin of 
Tudela.” Excess of work and, perhaps, a 
too rapid development of his intellectual 
faculties brought about a languid malady, 
and, at the age of 19 years he died. 

Barattani, Felipe (bar-at-a'ne), an Ital¬ 
ian poet and dramatist, born at Filottrano, 
Ancone, March 1, 1825. He has won most 
applause for “Lyric Tragedies” (1858), in 
which his poetical capacities are most hap¬ 
pily exploited; “Stella” (1866), a drama 
in verse; and “ The Sons of Alexander VI.,” 
a powerful metrical play. 

Baratynski, Jevgeni Abramovich (bar- 
a-tin'ske), a Russian poet, born within 
the government of Tambov, in 1800, became 
one of the pages at St. Petersburg, but was 
dismissed at 15 for some boyish freaks. He 
enlisted as a private soldier three years 
later, and by seven years’ service in Finland, 
fought his way to the rank of an officer, 


which, however, he soon resigned to devote 
himself to a literary life. His first poem, 
“ Eda,” is a mirror of Finnish life and feel¬ 
ing ; his greatest, “ The Gypsy.” He died 
in 1844 at Naples. 

Barbacan, a projecting watch tower, or 
other advanced work, before the gate of a 
castle or fortified town. The term barbacan 



BARBACAN. 


was more especially applied to the outwork 
intended to defend the drawbridge, which 
in modern fortifications is called the tete du 
pout. 

Barbacena, a flourishing town of Brazil, 
in the State of Minas Geraes, 125 miles N. 
W. of Rio de Janeiro. It is situated in the 
Mantiqueira Mountains, about 3,500 feet 
above the sea. Pop. 5,000. 

Barbadoes, or Barbados, the most east¬ 
ern of the West India Islands, first men¬ 
tioned in 1518, and occupied by the British 
in 1625; length 21 miles, breadth, 13; 
area, 106,470 acres, or 166 square miles; 
mostly under cultivation. It is divided into 
11 Church of England parishes; capital, 
Bridgetown. It is more densely peopled 
than almost any spot in the world, the pop¬ 
ulation in 1905 being 199,542, or about 
1,174 to the square mile. The climate is 
very hot, though moderated by the constant 
trade winds; and the island is subject to 
dreadful hurricanes. The surface is broken, 
now without forests, and with few streams; 
the highest point is 1,145 feet above the 
sea level. There are few indigenous mam¬ 
mals or birds. The black lowland soil gives 
great returns of sugar in favorable seasons. 
The chief exports, besides sugar, are molas¬ 
ses and rum; imports: rice, salt meat, corn, 
butter, flour, etc. The exports are usually 
over £1,000,000 in value. Barbadoes has a 
considerable transit trade, being in some 






















































Barbadoes Cedar 


Barbarossa 


measure the central mart for all the Wind¬ 
ward Islands. It is the see of a bishop and 
the headquarters of the British forces in the 
West Indies. There is a railway across the 
island, also tramways, telephones, etc. The 
island forms a distinct government under a 
governor, an executive and a legislative 
council, and a house of assembly. Liberal 
provision is made for education both by old 
foundations and by annual vote. 

Barbadoes Cedar, the English name of 
a cedar or juniper ( juniperus barbadensis ). 
It comes from Florida and the other warm 
parts of America. 

Barbadoes Cherry, the English name of 
malpighia, a genus of plants constituting 
the typical one of the order malpighiacece 
(malpighiads). The term is especially ap¬ 
plied to malpighia urens and its fruit, the 
latter, which sometimes resembles a cherry, 
but is far inferior to it, being eaten in the 
West Indies; so also is that of M . glabra, 
cultivated for the purpose. 

Barbadoes Flower Fence, or Barbadoes 
Pride, a name given to the beautiful plant 
poinciana pulcherrima. It belongs to the 
leguminous order, and the sub-order ccesal- 
piniccB. It is a low, spiny tree with an 
odor like savin. It is a native of the trop¬ 
ics of both hemispheres, and has Barbadoes 
prefixed to it because there especially it is 
used for fences. 

Barbadoes Gooseberry, a name given to 
a species of cactus, the C. pereskia of Lin¬ 
naeus, which grows in the West Indies. 

Barbadoes Leg, a disease common in 
Barbadoes, the prominent symptom of which 
is the swelling to a large size of some por¬ 
tion of the body, generally the leg. It is 
called also elephant leg, or yam, or galle, 
or cochin leg, and is the elephantiasis 
arabum of medical writers. 

Barbadoes Lily, the English name of the 
amaryllis equcstris, now called hippcas- 
trum equestre, an ornamental plant from 
the West Indies. 

Barbadoes Tar, an old name for a kind 
of mineral pitch or petroleum, often of a 

greenish 
hue, sent 
forth by bi- 
t u m inous 
springs in 
Barbadoes. 

Barbara, 
Saint, a 

Christian 
convert 
who suf¬ 
fered mar¬ 
tyrdom at 
Nicomedia, 
in Bitliy- 
nia, in 240 
or30G. Her 


father, Dioscorus, a fanatical heathen, de« 
livered her up to the governor, Martianus, 
who, struck with her intelligence and 
beauty, attempted first by arguments to 
make her relinquish Christianity, and, when 
that failed, had recourse to the most ex¬ 
quisite tortures. At last, her father offered 
himself to behead her; scarce had he done 
so than he was struck with lightning. 
Hence St. Barbara is to this day prayed to 
in storms, and is the patron saint of artil¬ 
lery, being represented in art with cannons, 
a tower, and a monstrance. Her festival 
is Dec. 4. 

Barbarian, among the Greeks, a for¬ 
eigner; one who could not speak Greek. 
At first the Romans were included by the 
Greeks under the term barbarian; but as 
the inhabitants of the great Italian city 
gradually gained imperial power, and, more¬ 
over, began to consider the Greek language 
as a desirable, if not even an indispensable, 
part, of a liberal education, they were no 
longer placed in the category of barbar¬ 
ians, nor was their speech deemed bar¬ 
barous. - When the Greeks became the most 
civilized people in the world, the term bar¬ 
barian came to be used with some reproach, 
but less so than among ourselves now. 

Barbaro, Francesco, one of the most dis¬ 
tinguished Italian authors of the 15tli cen¬ 
tury, born at Venice, in 1398. He became 
successively senator, governor of Vicenza, 
Ambassador to Pope Martin V., general-in¬ 
chief at Brescia, and headed many embas¬ 
sies to Florence, to the Emperor Sigismund, 
and to many other sovereigns; which prove 
that he was as skilful in diplomacy as he 
was versed in literature. His eloquence was 
something marvelous, and many times he 
harangued the Senate, and the troops at 
Brescia; thus inducing the State and the 
army to defend for three years the walls 
of that besieged city against the superior 
forces of the Duke of Milan. His best work 
is “ On the Choice of a Wife, and the Duties 
of Women,” printed in Paris, in 1515. He 
died in 1454. 

Barbarossa, Arooj, or Horush, styled 
Barbarossa from his red beard, was the son 
of a Greek, at Mitylene, and by profession 
a corsair chief. In 1516 he assisted Selim, 
King of Algiers, in driving the Spaniards 
out of that country, and, having taken pos¬ 
session of the capital, put Selim to death, 
and mounted the throne himself. He died 
in 1518. 

Barbarossa, Khaireddin,also styled Bar¬ 
barossa, brother and successor of the pre¬ 
ceding, surrendered the sovereignty of Al¬ 
giers to Selim I., Sultan of Turkey, in ex¬ 
change for a force of 2,000 janissaries and 
the title of Dey. He was afterward ap¬ 
pointed “ capitan pasha ” or high admiral of 
the Turkish fleet, and conquered Tunis, 
which was retaken, in 1535, by the Emperor 


















Barbarossa 


Barbauld 


Charles V. In 1538 he gained a victory 
over the imperial fleet under the command 
of Andreas Doria, in the Bay of Ambracia. 
He died in 1546. 

Barbarossa. See Frederick I., Emperor 
of Germany. 

Barbaroux, Charles Jean Marie (biir- 
bro'), one of the greatest of the Giron¬ 
dists, was born at Marseilles, March 6, 
1767. At first an advocate and journalist 
at Marseilles, he was sent by that city to 
the Constituent Assembly at Paris. There 
he opposed the Court party, and took part 
with the Minister, Roland, then out of 
favor. After the events of the 10th of Au¬ 
gust, 1792, he returned to his native town, 
where he was received v T ith enthusiasm, and 
was soon after chosen delegate to the Con¬ 
vention. In the Convention he adhered to 
the Girondists, and belonged to the party 
who, at the trial of the King, voted for an 
appeal to the people. He boldly opposed 



barbaroux. 


the party of Marat and Robespierre, and 
even directly accused the latter of aiming 
at the dictatorship; consequently, he was, 
in May, 1793, proscribed as a royalist and 
an enemy of the Republic. He fled to Cal¬ 
vados, and thence with a few friends to the 
Gironde, where lie wandered about the coun¬ 
try, hiding himself as he best could for 
about 13 months. At last, on the point of 
being taken, he tried to shoot himself; but 
the shot miscarried, and he was guillotined 
at Bordeaux, June 25, 1794. This “brave 
and beautiful young Spartan ” was one of 
the great spirits of the Revolution. There 
was no loftier-minded dreamer in the Giron¬ 
dist ranks; hardly a nobler head than his 
fell in that reign of terror. He was “ripe 
in energy, not ripe in wisdom,” says Carlyle, 
or the history of France might have been 
different. 


Barbary, a general name for the most 
northerly portion of Africa, extending about 
2,600 miles from Egypt to the Atlantic, 
with a breadth varying from about 140 to 
1,550 miles; comprising Morocco, Fez, Al¬ 
geria, Tunis and Tripoli (including Barca 
and Fezzan). The principal races are the 
Berbers, the original inhabitants, from 
whom the country takes its name; the 
Arabs, who conquered an extensive portion 
of it during the times of the caliphs; the 
Bedouins, Jews, Turks, and the French col¬ 
onists of Algeria, etc. The country, which 
was prosperous under the Carthaginians, 
was, next to Egypt, the richest of the Ro¬ 
man provinces, and the Italian States en¬ 
riched themselves by their intercourse with 
it. In the 15tli century, however, it be¬ 
came infested with adventurers who made 
the name of Barbary corsair a terror to 
commerce, a condition of things finally 
removed by the French occupation of 
Algeria. 

Barbary Ape, or Magot, a monkey—• 

the macacus inuus, found in the N. of Af¬ 
rica, and of which a colony exists on the 
Rock of Gibraltar. It is the only recent 
European quadrumanous animal. It is 
sometimes called the magot, and is the spe¬ 
cies occasionally exhibited, -when young, by 
showmen in the streets. When adult, it be¬ 
comes much less controllable. It has a full 
and moderately long muzzle, hair of a green¬ 
ish-gray color, and a small tubercle in place 
of a tail. 

Barbary Gum, the gum of the acacia 
gummifera. The tree grows in Mogador, in 
Morocco. 

Barbastel, or Barbastelle, a bat with 

hairy lips (barbastellus communis), a na¬ 
tive of England. 

Barbauld, Anna Lsetitia, an English 
poet nd essayist, born in Kibworth-Har- 
court, Leicester¬ 
shire, in 1743; 
was the daughter 
of the Rev. John 
Aikin, and, in 
1774, married the 
Rev. Rocliemont 
Barbauld. She 
was well edu¬ 
cated, and num¬ 
bered among her 
friends many fa¬ 
mous authors, in¬ 
cluding Sir Wal¬ 
ter Scott and 
Wordsworth. Her 
first poems (1773) 
went through 
four editions in anna l. barbauld. 
one year. She 

wrote “ Early Lessons for Children ” (about 
1774) ; “Devotional Pieces” (1775) ; “Hymns 
in Prose for Children” (1776), translated 








Barbazan 


Barberry 


in many languages; “ Eighteen Hundred and 
Eleven,” her longest effort (1811) ; and pre¬ 
pared an edition of the best English novels 
in 50 volumes. She died in Stoke Newing¬ 
ton, March 9, 1825. 

Barbazan, Arnauld Guilhem, Sire de, 

a French captain, who was distinguished 
by Charles VI. with the title of “ Chevalier 
Sans Reprocbe,” and by Charles VIII. with 
that of “ Restaurateur du Royaume et de la 
Couronne de France,” born about the end 
of the 14tli century. He earned the former 
of his titles while yet young, by his success¬ 
ful defense of the National honor in a com¬ 
bat fought in 1404, between six French and 
six English knights, before the Castle of 
Montendre; and the latter designation he 
acquired by his extraordinary exertions on 
the side of the Dauphin, at a time when the 
cause of native royalty, powerless in pres¬ 
ence of the Anglo-Burgundian league, 
boasted few adherents. lie was killed at 
Bullegneville, in 1432. 

Barbecue, 1. A beef dressed whole, as is 
done in an election campaign. To do this, 
the carcass of the animal, split to the back¬ 
bone, is laid upon a large gridiron, under 
and around which is placed a charcoal fire. 

2. A large gathering of people, generally 
in the open air, for a social entertainment 
or a political rally, one leading feature of 
which is the roasting of animals whole to 
furnish the numerous members of the party 
with needful food. 

Barbel. 1. A small fleshy thread or cord, 
of which several hang from the mouth of 
certain fishes. 

2. A knot of superflous flesh growing in 
the channels of a horse’s mouth. 

3. A fish — the barbus vulgaris of Flem¬ 
ing, the cyprinus barbus of Linnaeus, be¬ 
longing to the order malacopterygii abdomi- 
nales and the family cyprinidce. It is found 
abundantly in English rivers, spawning in 
May or June. It has been known to weigh 
15Vo pounds, but is not prized as food. 

Barber, one who shaves beards and 
dresses hair. The occupation of barber is 
an institution of civilized life, and is only 
known among those nations that have made 
a certain progress in civilization. It is re¬ 
ferred to by the Prophet Ezekiel: “ And 

thou, son of man, take thee a barber’s razor, 
and cause it to pass upon thine head and 
upon thy beard.” (Ezek. v: 1.) We do 
not read of a barber at Rome till about the 
year 454 of the city; but there, as elsewhere, 
when once introduced, they became men of 
great notoriety, and their shops were the 
resort of all the loungers and newsmongers 
in the city. Hence they are alluded to by 
Horace a 3 most accurately informed in all 
the minute history, both of families and 
of the State. But in early times, the opera¬ 
tions of the barber were not confined, as 


now, to shaving, hair-dressing, and the mak¬ 
ing of wigs; but included the dressing of 
wounds, blood-letting, and other surgical 
operations. It seems that in all countries 
the art of surgery and the art of shaving 
went hand in hand. The title of barber-chi- 
rurgeon, or barber-surgeon, was generally 
applied to barbers. The barbers of London 
were first incorporated by Edward IV. in 
14G1, and at that time were the only per¬ 
sons who practiced surgery. The barbers 
and the surgeons were separated, and made 
two distinct corporations ; in France, in the 
time of Louis XIV., and in England in 
1745. The sign of the barber-cliirurgeon 
consisted of a striped pole from which was 
suspended a basin; the till et round the pole 
indicating the riband or bandage twisted 
round the arm previous to blood-letting, and 
the basin the vessel for receiving the blood. 
This sign has been generally retained by the 
modern barber. In our country, neverthe¬ 
less, it is only occasionally that the basin 
may be seen hanging at the door of an old 
barber’s shop. The character of the barber 
is amusingly illustrated in one of the tales 
of the “ Arabian Nights Entertainments,” 
and has been immortalized by Beaumarchais, 
Mozart, and Rossini, under the name of 
“ Figaro.” 

Barber, Edward Atlee, an American 
archaeologist, born in Baltimore, Md., Aug. 
13, 1851; was graduated at Williston Semi¬ 
nary in 1869, and was assistant naturalist 
in the United States Geological Survey in 
1874-1875. Subsequently he was engaged 
in gold dredging. His writings include a 
history of the ancient Pueblos: a large num¬ 
ber of magazine articles on ceramics; “Pot¬ 
tery and Porcelain of the United States,” 
“ Manual for Collectors of Blue China,” 
“Genealogies of the Barber and Atlee Fam¬ 
ilies,” etc. 

Barber, John Warner, an American au¬ 
thor, bora in Windsor, Conn., in 1798; wrote 
a “ History of New Haven ” (1831) ; “ Inci¬ 
dents of American History ” (1847) ; “ Ele¬ 
ments of General History” (1844); and 
“Our Whole Country” (1861), etc. He 
died in 1885. 

Barberini, a celebrated Florentine fam¬ 
ily, which, since the pontificate of Maffeo 
Barberini (Urban VIII., 1623 to 1644), has 
occupied a distinguished place among the 
nobility of Rome. During his reign he 
seemed chiefly intent on the aggrandizement 
of his three nephews, of whom two were ap¬ 
pointed cardinals, and the third Prince of 
Palestrina. 

Barber Poet, a name given to Jacques 
Jasmin (1798-1864), the last of the Trouba¬ 
dours. He was a barber of Gascony. 

Barberry, or Berberry, the English name 
of the berberis, a genus of plants constitut- 



Barberry Blight 


Barbiano 


ing the typical one of the order berberida- 
cece (berberids). The common barberry 
(barberis vulgaris) is planted in gardens 
or in hedges, being an^ornamental shrub, es¬ 
pecially when covered with a profusion of 
flowers or loaded with fruit. It has yellow 
flowers with an unpleasant smell, which, 
however, are much frequented by bees. The 
berries are oblong in form, red in color, ex¬ 
cept at the top, where the stigma, which is 
black, remains. Their juice is acid, hence 
they are used for preserves and confection¬ 
ery. The root, boiled in lye, and the inner 
bark of the stem, dye a fine yellow. 

Barberry Blight, the English name of 
a minute fungal, the cecidium berber'idis of 
Persoon. It occurs on the leaves of the bar¬ 
berry, forming roundish, bright red spots, 
consisting of the fruits of the cecidium, 
which form little cups full of spores when 
they burst. These spores germinate on the 
leaves or stems of wheat, send out mycelium 
into the plant, and produce the disease 
called rust, which was thought to be a dis¬ 
tinct fungus. Several generations of this 
form grow in the summer, but in the cider 
specimens a darker two-celled spore is pro¬ 
duced, which remains on the straw during 
the winter, and, germinating in the spring, 
produces spores that cause the barberry 
blight. 

Barberton, a mining town of the former 
South African, or Transvaal Republic, at 
the De Kaap gold fields. It is situated at 
the base of a high range of hills 2,500 feet 
above sea level. 180 miles E. of Pretoria, and 
100 N. W. of Delagoa Cay, with both of 
which it is connected by railway. In 188G- 
1887, owing to the discovery of rich gold 
reefs, there was a rush to the place, and the 
population soon rose to 8,000 or more; but 
the superior attraction of the Witwaters- 
rand reefs and the growth of Johannes¬ 
burg reduced Barberton to a subordinate 
place. 

Barbes, Armand (bar-baz'), a French 
politician and revolutionist, born in the 
Island of Guadaloupe, in 1810. At an early 
age he was taken to France, and, in 1830, 
went to Paris to attend the law classes, where 
he had an opportunity of manifesting his 
political opinions at that period of public 
excitement. He had inherited some fortune 
from his father, and he thus had ample lei¬ 
sure to devote his attention to the formation 
of secret societies. During the whole reign 
of Louis Philippe he was constantly en¬ 
gaged in conspiracies. In consequence of 
an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the 
government, lie was condemned to death, a 
sentence which was commuted to perpetual 
confinement. The revolution of 1848 re¬ 
stored Barbes to liberty. He then founded 
a club, which took his name, in which the 
doctrines of socialism were superadded to 


republicanism. The name of Barbes sounded 
in the ears of the people like the toc¬ 
sin against monarchy and the bourgoisie. 
After the insurrection of May, 1849, Bar- 
lies was sentenced to deportation. In 1854 
he was against set at liberty, and left 
France, a voluntary exile. He died in 
1870. 

Barbet. (1) Any bird of the family piei- 
dee and the sub-family capitotiince. The bar* 
bets have short, conical bills, with stiff bris¬ 
tles at the base, short wings, and broad and 
rounded tails. It is from the bristles, 
which have an analogy to a beard, that the 
name is derived. These birds are found in 
the warmer parts of both hemispheres, the 
most typical coming from South America. 
(2) A dog, called also the poodle. It is the 
canis familiaris, variety aquaticus. It has 
a large, round head, with a more consider¬ 
able cerebral cavity than any other variety 
of dog, pendant ears, long curly hair, white 
with black patches, or vice versa. There is 
a large and a (Small barbet. (3) A name 
given to a small worm that feeds on the 
aphis. 

Barbette, a mound of earth on which 
guns are mounted to be fired over the para¬ 
pet. 

In fortification. En barbette: Placed so 
as to be fired over the top of a parapet, and 
not through embrasures. 

The Moncrieffe barbette is a special form 
of the barbette system invented by Colonel 
Moncrieffe, by which a gun is elevated at the 
moment of firing, the recoil causing it to 
disappear, by a movement like that of a 
child's rocking horse, into a circular pit suf¬ 
ficiently large to accommodate it and the 
gunners, thus protecting both from danger 
except for the brief period when the piece 
is being fired. The gun is raised to its 
proper elevation for firing by the depression 
of certain weights which are attached to the 
rockers upon which it is supported. 

Barbey d’Aurevilly, Jules (bar-ba' do¬ 
le-ve-ye), a French critic and novelist,born at 
Saint-Sauveur-le-vVicomte, Manclie, Nov. 2, 
1808. As a contributor to the “Pays” in 
Paris, where he settled in 1851, he created 
a sensation by the unreserved tone and pecu¬ 
liar style of his literary criticisms; in 1858 
he founded the “Reveil” with Granier de 
Cassagnac and Escudier. Works: “ On 

Dandyism and G. Brummel ” (1845) ; “The 
Prophets of the Past ” (1851) ; “ Goethe and 
Diderot ” (1880) ; “ Polemics of Yesterday ” 
(1S89); “Nineteenth Century: The Works 
and the Men” (1861-1892). Of his novels 
the best are “The Bewitched” (1854) ; and 
“The Chevalier des Touches” (1864). He 
died in Paris, April 24, 1889. 

Barbiano, Abrecht da (barb-ya'no), an 
Italian military officer; formed the first 



Barbie du Bocage 


Barbou 


regular company of Italian troops organized 
to resist foreign mercenaries, about 1379. 
Ibis organization, named the “ Company of 


St. George,” 
proved to be an 
a d m i r a b 1 e 
school, as from 
its ranks sprang 
many future 
officers of re¬ 
nown. He be¬ 
came Gran d 
Constable of 
Naples in 1384, 
and died in 
1409. 

Barbi^du Bo= 
cage, Jean 
Denis (barb-ya 
dii bo - kazli), a 
French geogra¬ 
pher, born in 
Paris in 17GO; 
laid the foundation of his fame in 1788 
by his “Atlas” to Barthtdemy’s “Voy¬ 
age du Jeune Anacharsis.” His maps and 
plans to the works of Thucydides, Xeno¬ 
phon, etc., exhibit much erudition, .and 
materially advanced the science of ancient 
geography. He also prepared many modern 
maps, and published various excellent dis¬ 
sertations. He held many honorable posts, 
and died in 1825. 



Barbier, Henri Auguste (barb-ya'), a 
French poet, born in Paris, April 29, 1805; 
studied law, but followed his inclination for 
literature; and, having first written a his¬ 
torical novel (1830, with Boyer), depicting 
French medieval society, was led, through 
the July revolution, to enter his proper 
sphere, that of the poetical satire; in which 
he obtained a brilliant success with “ The 
Iambes ” (1831; 31st ed., 1882), a series 
of poignant satires, political and social, 
lashing the moral depravity of the higher 
classes,— notably the ignoble scramble for 
office under the new government, the subject 
of “ The Quarry,” the most famous among 
these satires. His next works, “ Lamenta¬ 
tion ” (1833), bewailing the misfortunes of 
Italy, and “Lazarus” (1837), in which he 
describes the misery of the English and 
Irish laborer, show a considerable falling 
off; and in those that followed, the poet of 
“ The Iambes ” is scarcely to be recognized. 
He was elected to the Academy in 1869, and 
died in Nice, Feb. 13, 1882. 

Barbier, Jules, a French dramatist, born 
in Paris, March 8, 1825. Having won suc¬ 
cess with his first effort, “ A Poet ” (1847), 
a drama in verse, he produced “ The Shades 
of Moliere ” (1847); “Andre Chenier” 

(1849) ; “Willy Nilly,” a comedy (1849) : 
and thereafter in collaboration, mostly with 
Michel Carre, a number of dramas and vau- 
44 


devilles, also many librettos for comic 
operas. After the war of 1870-1871 he pub¬ 
lished “ The Sharpshooter, War Songs ” 
(1871), a collection of patriotic poems; and 
later two other volumes of lyrics, “ The 
Sheaf” (1882) and “Faded Flowers” 
(1890) ; besides “Plays in Verse” (2 vols., 
1879). He died Jan. 17, 1901. 

Barbiera, Raphael (barb-yaVii), an Ital¬ 
ian poet and journalist, born in Venice, 
1851. His contributions to periodical lit¬ 
erature are particularly valuable, and a vol¬ 
ume of “ Poems ” has been received with 
pleasure, while works on Italian literature 
and numerous anthologies indicate good 
taste, “ The Calendar of the Muses ” (1888) 
being an instance. 

Barbieri, Giovanni Francesco (bar-be- 

a're), otherwise known as Guercino (the 
squinter) da Cento, an eminent and prolific 
historical painter, born near Bologna in 
1590. His style showed the influence of 
Caravaggio and of the Caracci, his best work 
being of the latter school. Chief work, a 
St. Petronilla in the Capitol at Rome; but 
most of the large galleries have pictures by 
him. He died in 1G6G. Paolo Antonio 
Barbieri, a celebrated still-life and animal 
painter, was a brother of Guercino; born 
159G, died 1G40. 

Barbieri, Giuseppe, an Italian poet and 
pulpit orator, born in Bassano, 1783; was 
distinguished for the tasteful eloquence of 
his sermons. In “ Little Poems,” “ Sermons 
on Feast Days,” and “ The Euganean Hills,” 
he displays the resources of his well-stored 
mind with the utmost elegance. He died 
at Padua in 1852. 

Barbizon (bilr-be-zon'), a village on the 
skirts of the forest of Fontainebleau, a 
great artists’ resort, the home of Millet; 
Corot, Diaz, Daubigny, and Rousseau were 
also of the “ Barbizon school ” of painters. 

Barbosa, Duarte, a Portuguese traveler, 
born at Lisbon, in 1480. He traveled all 
through India, visited the Molucca Islands, 
and was Magellan’s companion and histori¬ 
ographer in his circumnavigation of the 
globe. He was murdered by the natives of 
the Island of Cebu in 1521. 

Barbou (bar-bo'), the name of a cele¬ 
brated French family of printers, the de¬ 
scendants of John Barbou, of Lyons, who 
lived in the 16th century. From his press 
issued the beautiful edition of the works of 
Clement Marot in 1539 Ilis son, Hugh 
Barbou, removed from Lyons to Limoges, 
where, among other works, his celebrated 
edition of “ Cicero’s Letters to Atticus ” 
appeared in 1580. Joseph Gerard Barbou, 
a descendant of the same family, settled in 
Paris, and continued in 1755 the series of 
Latin classics in duodecimo — rivals to the 
Elzevirs of an earlier date—-which had been 
begun in 1743 by Coustelier. This series of 



Barbour 


Barca 


classics is much prized for its elegance and 
correctness. 

Barbour, Erwin Hinckley, an American 
geologist, born near Oxford, 0.; was gradu¬ 
ated at Yale College in 1882; was assistant 
paleontologist in the United States Geologi¬ 
cal Survey in 1882-1888; Stone Professor 
of Natural History and Geology in Iowa 
College in 1889-1891; became Professor of 
Geology in the University of Nebraska, and 
acting State Geologist in 1891; and curator 
of the Nebraska State Museum in 1892. 
In 1893 he took charge of the annual Mor¬ 
rill geological expeditions, and since then he 
has also been engaged in the United States 
Geological and Hydrographic Surveys. 

Barbour, James, an American states¬ 
man, born in Orange county, Va., June 10, 
1775. He was admitted to the bar when 19 
years old. He served in the Virginia Legisla¬ 
ture from 1796 to 1812, becoming governor 
of the State in the latter year. Three years 
later he was elected to the United States 
Senate and in 1825 became Secretary of 
War. He was minister to England in 
1828-1829. In politics he was strongly 
anti-Democratic. He was chairman of the 
convention which nominated Harrison and 
Tyler for the presidency and vice-presi¬ 
dency. He died in Orange county, Va., June 
8, 1842. 

Barbour, John, a Scottish poet, born 
about 1316; was educated, it is thought, at 
Oxford and Paris; and was a clerk in the 
King’s household. Barbour is one of the 
most ancient poets of Scotland; and his 
great epic, “ The Bruce,” tells the story of 
Robert Bruce and the battle of Bannock¬ 
burn. It was written in 1375 and brought 
him favor from the King. First printed in 
Edinburgh in 1571; best modern edition by 
Skeat (“ Early English Text Society ”). He 
also wrote “ Legends of the Saints,” of 
33,533 verses; and a fragment on the Tro¬ 
ian War. He died in Aberdeen, March 13, 
1395. 

Barbour, John Humphrey, an American 
educator, born in Torrington, Conn., May 
29, 1854. He was graduated from Trinity 
College in 1873, and ordained in the Pro¬ 
testant Episcopal Church in 1878. He was 
rector of Grace Church, Hartford, till 1889, 
and then became Professor of New Testa¬ 
ment Literature and Interpretation at the 
Berkeley Divinity School. He died in Mid¬ 
dletown, Conn., April 29, 1900. 

Barbour, Oliver Lorenzo, an American 
lawyer, born in Cambridge, N. Y., July 12, 
1811; received an academical education, and 
was admitted to the bar in 1832. During 
1847-1876 he was reporter of the New York 
Court of Chancery and the New York Su¬ 
preme Court. He compiled a large number 
of legal digests, treatises on several branches 
of practice; and annotated editions of 


Collyer’s, Chitty’s, and Cowen’s works. He 
died in Saratoga, N. Y., Dec. 17, 1889. 

Barbour, Philip Pendleton, an Ameri¬ 
can jurist, born in Orange county, Va., May 
25, 1783. He studied law at William and 
Mary College and began to practice in 1802. 
He led the war party in the Virginia Legis¬ 
lature from 1812 to 1814, when he was 
elected to Congress, becoming Speaker of the 
House in 1821. Four years later he was 
appointed a judge in his native State, re¬ 
turning to Congress in 1827; resigning 
through ill-health. He was subsequently 
appointed a Federal judge, and in 1836 pro¬ 
moted to the Supreme Court of the United 
States. In politics he was a Democrat. He 
died in Washington, Feb. 24, 1841. 

Barbour, William McLeod, a Congre¬ 
gational clergyman, born in Fochabers, 
Scotland. May 29, 1827; graduated from 
Oberlin College in 1859, and from Andover 
Theological Seminary in 1861; pastor in 
South Danvers (now Peabody), Mass., 1861- 
1868; professor in Bangor Theological Semi¬ 
nary in 1868-1877; Professor of Divinity 
and college pastor in Yale, 1877-1887; be¬ 
came principal and Professor of Theology 
in the Congregational College in Montreal, 
Canada, in 1887. 

Barbuda (bar-bo'da), one of the West 
Indies, annexed by Great Britain in 1628; 
about 15 miles long and 8 wide; lying N. 
of Antigua; pop. 800. It is flat, fertile, 
and healthy. Corn, cotton, pepper, and to¬ 
bacco are the principal produce, but the 
island is only partially cleared for cultiva¬ 
tion. There is no harbor, but a well shel¬ 
tered roadstead on the W. side. It is a 
dependency of Antigua. 

Barca, a country extending along the N. 
coast of Africa, between the Great Syrtis 
(now called the Gulf of Sidra) and Egypt. 
Bounded on the W. by Tripoli, and on the 
S. by the Libyan Desert, it is separated from 
Egypt on the E. by no definite line. It 
nearly corresponds with the ancient Cyre- 
naica; and a great part of it is a high 
plateau. The climate is healthful and agree¬ 
able in the more elevated parts, which 
reach a height of almost 2,000 feet, and in 
those exposed to the sea breeze. There are 
none but small streams, but the narrow, 
terrace-like tracts of country are extremely 
fertile, realizing all that is said of the 
ancient Cyrenaica. Rice, dates, olives, saf¬ 
fron, etc., are produced in plenty. The 
pastures are excellent; the horses still cele¬ 
brated, as in ancient times. But the good 
soil extends over only about a fourth of 
Barca; the E. exhibits only naked rocks 
and loose sand. Many ruins in the N. W. 
parts attest its high state of cultivation in 
ancient times, when its five prosperous 
cities bore the title of the Libyan Penta- 
polis. As early as the time of Cyrus, Barca 
became a State, which proved dangerous 



Barcelona 


Barclay 


to the neighboring State of Cyrene; but 
within a single century it sank, and became 
subject to Egypt. In the Roman period, its 
inhabitants were noted for their predatory 
incursions. It was afterward a province 
of the Greek empire, and had declared itself 
independent when the Arabs invaded and 
conquered it in 641. The present inhabi¬ 
tants consist of Arabs and Berbers. Barca 
is sometimes regarded as a department of 
Tripoli, sometimes as an independent prov¬ 
ince, governed directly from Constantinople. 
Its area is about 70,000 square miles; and 
the population is estimated at 500,000. The 
capital is Bengazi. 

Barcelona, the most important manu¬ 
facturing city in Spain, in province of same 
name; pop. (1900) 533,000. The province 
of Barcelona has an area of 2,985 square 
miles, and pop. 1,054,541. The streets 
of the old town, forming the N. W. division, 
are crooked, narrow, and ill paved. Those 
of the new are much more spacious and 
regular. There is a large suburb E. of the 
town where the sea-faring portion of the 
population chiefly reside. Barcelona is the 
see of a bishop. It has a university, and 
colleges and schools for general and special 
educational purposes; public libraries, in 
one of which is a splendid collection of 
manuscripts; several hospitals and other 
charitable institutions; the finest theater 
in Spain, and numerous ancient and ele¬ 
gant churches, with a cathedral, which, be¬ 
gun in 1298, is not yet completed. Barce¬ 
lona manufactures silk, woolens, cottons, 
lace, hats, firearms, etc., which form its 
principal exports. It imports raw cotton, 
coffee, cocoa, sugar, and other colonial 
produce; also Baltic timber, salt fish, hides, 
iron, wax, etc. Next to Cadiz it is the most 
important port in Spain. The harbor was 
extended and its entrance improved in 1875. 
Barcelona is a place of great antiquity, and 
associated with many historical events. 
Local tradition fixes the date of its founda¬ 
tion 400 years before the Romans; and it 
is said to have been refounded by Hamilcar 
Barca, the father of Hannibal, from whom 
its ancient name, Barcino, was derived. An 
important city under the Romans, Goths, 
and Moors, Barcelona in 878 became an in¬ 
dependent sovereignty, under a Christian 
chief of its own, whose descendants con¬ 
tinued to govern it, and to hold the title of 
Count of Barcelona, until the 12th century, 
when its ruler adopted the title of King of 
Aragon, to which kingdom it was annexed. 
During the Middle Ages, Barcelona became 
a flourishing seaport, rivaled in the Medi¬ 
terranean by Genoa only. 

Barcelona, formerly called New Barce¬ 
lona, capital of a district and of the State 
of Bermudez, Venezuela, near the mouth of 
the Neveri, 160 miles E. of Caracas. The 
surrounding country is fertile, but Barce¬ 


lona is very unhealthy. Cattle, jerked beef, 
hides, indigo, cotton, and cacao are the chief 
exports. Pop. 12,785. The district, for¬ 
merly a separate State, has since 1881 
formed one of the divisions of the State of 
Bermudez. 

Barclay, James, a Canadian educator, 
born in Paisley, Scotland, June 19, 1844; 
was educated there, in Edinburgh, and at the 
University of Glasgow; was licensed by the 
Paisley Presbytery in 1870; and was called 
to St. Paul’s Church, in Montreal, in 1883. 
While in Scotland he was frequently sum¬ 
moned to Balmoral to preach before Queen 
Victoria. Dr. Barclay is actively interested 
in the athletic life of Montreal; served 
through the Riel Rebellion in the Northwest 
Territories, in 1885, and, besides being con¬ 
nected with various local institutions, has 
been president of Trafalgar Institute since 
its opening. 

Barclay, John, a Scotch poet, born in 
Pont-h-Mousson, France, Jan. 28, 1582; edu¬ 
cated in the Jesuit college of his native 
town; went to England in 1603, and at¬ 
tained the favor of James I. He wrote im¬ 
portant books in Latin. “ Argenis,” a rom¬ 
ance (Paris, 1621), unites classical with 
modern fiction. Fenelon was indebted to it 
for “ Telemachus.” It has always won the 
admiration of literary men, especially Riche¬ 
lieu and Coleridge. Another romance, 
“ Satyricon ” (London, 1603), partly auto¬ 
biographical, attacks the Jesuits and Puri¬ 
tans. Other works include “ Sylvse,” Latin 
poems (1606); “Apologia” (1611), and 
“Icon Animorum ” (1614). He died in 
Rome, Aug. 12, 1621. 

Barclay, Robert, the apologist of the 
Quakers, born in 1648, at Gordonstown, 
Moray, and educated at Paris, where he 
became a Roman Catholic. Recalled home 
by his father, he followed the example of 
the latter and became a Quaker. His first 
treatise in support of his adopted principles, 
published at Aberdeen in the year 1670, un¬ 
der the title of “ Truth Cleared of Calum¬ 
nies,” together with his subsequent writ¬ 
ings, did much to rectify public sentiment 
in regard to the Quakers. His chief work, 
in Latin, “ An Apology for the True Chris¬ 
tian Divinity, as the Same is Preached and 
Held Forth by the People Called, in Scorn, 
Quakers,” was soon reprinted at Amster¬ 
dam, and quickly translated into German, 
Dutch, French, and Spanish, and, by the 
author himself, into English. His fame was 
now widely diffused; and, in his travels 
with William Penn and George Fox, through 
England, Holland and Germany, to spread 
the opinions of the Quakers, he was re¬ 
ceived everywhere with the highest respect. 
The last of his productions, “ On the Pos¬ 
sibility and Necessity of an Inward and Im¬ 
mediate Revelation,” was not published in 
England until 1686; from which time Bar- 






Barclay de ToJly 


Bard 


clay lived quietly with his family. He died 
in 1690. He was a friend of and had in¬ 
fluence with James II. 

Barclay de Tolly, Michael, Prince, a 

Russian military commander, of Scottish de¬ 
scent, born in Livonia in 1755. He began 
his military career in the campaigns against 
the Turks, the Swedes, and the Poles. He 
was wounded at Eylau, when he was made 
lieutenant-general. In March, 1808, he sur¬ 
prised the Swedes at Umea, by a march of 
two davs over the ice which covered the 
Gulf of Bothnia. He was made governor- 
general of Finland, and, in 1809, appointed 
Minister of War. He was author of the 
plan of operations which was followed with 
signal advantage by the Russian army in 
the campaign of 1812. After the battle of 
Bautzen, May 26, 1813, he was appointed 
commander-in-chief of the Prusso-Russian 
army; and under him Wittgenstein com¬ 
manded the Russians; Bliicher the Prus¬ 
sians; and the Grand Duke Constantine the 
Imperial Guard. On the day the allies en¬ 
tered Paris he was created General Field- 
Marshal. He died in 1818. 

BarcIay=AIIardice, Robert, known as 

Captain Barclay, the pedestrian, was born 
in 1779, and succeeded to the estate of Urie, 
near Stonehaven, in 1797. He entered the 
army (1805), and served in the Waleheren 
expedition (1809), but afterward devoted 
himself to agriculture, cattle-breeding, and 
the claiming of earldoms (Airth, Stratliearn 
and Menteith). He died May 8. 1854. His 
feat of walking 1,000 miles in 1.000 consecu¬ 
tive hours took place at Newmarket, in 
June to July, 1809. 

Barcochba, or Barcokecas (“son of a 
star ”), a famous Jewish impostor, whose 
real name was Simeon, and who lived in the 
2d century a. d. After the destruction of 
Jerusalem by Titus, the Jews, at different 
periods, sought to regain their independ¬ 
ence; and Barcochba, seeing his countrymen 
still impatient of the Roman yoke, resolved 
to attempt their emancipation. With this 
view he sought to sound the dispositions of 
his co-religionists of Egypt, Mesopotamia, 
Greece, Italy and Gaul, and sent forth emis¬ 
saries, who traveled over all the provinces 
of the Roman Empire. When all was ready 
Barcochba solemnly announced himself as 
King and Messiah, and seized by surprise on 
many fortified places. All who refused to 
submit to him, particularly the Christians, 
were put to death. When the great success 
Avhich at first attended his enterprise be¬ 
came known, great numbers of Jews, from 
all parts of the world, hastened to join his 
standard; and so formidable did this revolt 
become, that Julius Severus, general of the 
armies of the Emperor Adrian, and one of 
the greatest captains of the age, was com¬ 
pelled to act with extreme caution, and to 


content himself with surprising such de¬ 
tached bodies of the enemy as happened to 
be off their guard. Soon, however, the su¬ 
perior discipline of the Romans prevailed. 
The Jewish army, shut up in the fortress of 
Bethar, succumbed under fatigue and 
famine; Barcochba perished miserably, and 
all his followers were massacred or reduced 
to slavery. From this period may be dated 
the entire dispersion of the race of Israel 
over the face of the earth. This war cost 
the conquerors much blood. It lasted for 
five years, and did not terminate till the 
year 136. 

Bard. 1. Originally: A poet by profes¬ 
sion, especially one whose calling it was to 
celebrate in verse, song, and play the ex¬ 
ploits of the chiefs or others who patronized 
him, or those of contemporary heroes in gen¬ 
eral. Bards of this character flourished 
from the earliest period among the Greeks, 
and to a lesser extent among the Romans. 
Diodorus and Strabo, in the first century 
b. c., allude to them under the name of 
Greek barcloi, and Lucan, in the first century 
a. d., under that of bardi. Tacitus seems 
to hint at their existence among the Ger¬ 
manic tribes. It was, however, above all, 
among the Gauls and other Celtic nations 
that they flourished most. 

According to Warton, they were originally 
a constitutional appendage of the Druid 
hierarchy. At Llanidan, in Anglesea, 
Wales, formerly inhabited by Druidical con¬ 
ventual societies, vestiges exist of Tre’r 
Bryn — the Arch-Druid’s mansion; Bodru- 
dau =■ the abode of the inferior Druids; and 
near them Bod-owyr = the abode of the 
Ovades, i. e., of those passing through their 
novitiate; and Tre’v Beirdd — the hamlet of 
the bards. 

They may be even considered as essential 
constituents of the hierarchy, if the division 
of it into priests, philosophers and poets 
be accurate. The bards did not pass away 
with the Druids, but flourished, especially 
in Wales, honored at the courts of princes, 
and figuring up to the present day at the 
eisteddfods or gatherings of bards and min¬ 
strels. They were similarly honored 
throughout Ireland, and indeed among the 
Celts everywhere. 

2. Later: A vagrant beggar, who could 
not or would not work, and who, moreover, 
pretended to be wanting in understanding, 
if indeed, he were not so in reality. 

3. Now: A synonym for a poet. 

Bard, a fortress and village in the Italian 
province of Turin, on the left bank of the 
Dora Baltea, about 23 miles S. E. of Aosta. 
When the French crossed the St. Bernard, 
in 1800, the fortress of Bard, manned by 400 
Austrians, maintained for 10 days a resist¬ 
ance to their further advance into Italy. 
Ultimately Napoleon contrived to elude the 
vigilance of the garrison, and passed by & 



Bard 


Barentz 


mountain-track during the night. Bard was 
taken a short time after by the French, and 
razed, but, in 1825, it was restored. 

Bard, Samuel,, an American physician, 
born in Philadelphia, April 1, 1742; prac¬ 
ticed in Philadelphia and New York; was 
the principal mover in the establishment of 
the medical school of Kings (Columbia) 
College; president of the New York College 
of Physicians and Surgeons that succeeded 
the medical school. He died in Hyde Park, 
N. Y., May 24, 1821. 

Bardesanists, a Christian sect which 
flourished in Mesopotamia, from -a. d. 1G1 
to 180. They were the followers of Barde- 
sanes, of Edessa, who at one time advocated 
the tenets of Valentinus, the Egyptian, 
though he afterward abjured them. Mo- 
sheim contends against this view, declaring 
that Bardesanes admitted two principles, 
like the Manichseans. His followers denied 
the Incarnation and the Resurrection, and 
continued to exist as late as the 5th cen¬ 
tury. 

Bardili, Christoph Gottfried (bar- 
dil'e), a German metaphysician, born in 
Blaubeuren, Wiirtemberg, May 28, 1701; 
distinguished as a critic and opponent of 
Kant; Professor of Philosophy at Stuttgart; 
philosophically a forerunner of Schelling 
and Hegel through his exposition and de¬ 
fense of the reality of pure abstract 
thought as a ground of concrete thinking 
and being. He died in Stuttgart, June 5, 
1808. 

Bardsley, Charles Wareing, an English 
author, born in Keighley, Yorkshire, in 
1834; graduated at Oxford in 1808; and or¬ 
dained deacon in 1870. His publications in¬ 
clude “ English Surnames, their Sources and 
Significations” (1875); “ John Leeley’s 

Troubles” (3 vols., 1870); “Memorials of 
St. Anne’s, Manchester” (1870) ; “Curiosi¬ 
ties of Puritan Nomenclature” (1880); 
“ Her Grandfather’s Bible, a Tale of Furn- 
er’s Fells” (1880), etc. 

Bardsley, John Wareing, an English 
clergyman, born in Keighley, Yorkshire, 
March 29, 1835; educated in Trinity College, 
Dublin; ordained in 1800; Bishop of Sodor 
and Man in 1887; transferred to Carlisle 
in 1892. His works include “Counsels to 
Candidates for Confirmation” (1882); 
“The Origin of Man” (1883), etc. 

Barebone, or Barbone, Praise=God, a 

member of the legislative body assembled by 
Cromwell in 1053, after the dissolution of 
the Long Parliament. The royalists face¬ 
tiously distinguished him by calling the con¬ 
vention “ Barebone’s Parliament.” At the 
time when General Monk was in London, 
Barebone headed the mob which presented 
a petition to Parliament against the recall 
of Charles II. It is said that there were 
three brothers of this family, each of whom 


had a sentence to his name, viz.: “ Praise- 

God Barebone, ” “ Christ-came-into-the- 

world-to-save Barebone ” and “ If-Christ- 
had-not-died-thou-hadst-been-damned Bare¬ 
bone.” 

Barebone’s Parliament, the “ Little 
Parliament ” summoned by Oliver Cromwell, 
met July 4, 1053, and was so nicknamed 
from the name of one of its members. It 
consisted of 139 persons, “ faithful, fearing 
God, and hating covetousness,” but mostly 
of very destructive social principles. These 
began by abolishing the Court of Chancery, 
and were proceeding to abolish tithes, to the 
alarm of the more moderate members, and 
of Cromwell himself, who dissolved the 
Parliament on Dec. 12, of the same year. 

Barefooted Friars, monks who use san¬ 
dals, or go barefoot. They are not a dis¬ 
tinct body, but may be found in several 
orders of mendicant friars — for example, 
among the Carmelites, Franciscans, Augus¬ 
tins. There were also barefooted nuns. 

Barege (bar-azh'), a light, open tissue 
of silk and worsted or cotton and worsted 
for women's dresses, originally manufac¬ 
tured near Bareges. 

Bareges, a watering-place, S. of France, 
department of Hautes-Pyrenees, about 4,000 
feet above the sea, celebrated for its ther¬ 
mal springs, which are frequented for 
rheumatism, scrofula, etc. The place is 
hardly inhabited except in the bathing 
season, June till September. 

Baregine, a slimy or gelatinous deposit 
in the hot sulphurous springs at Bareges, 
Aix-la-Chapelle, and elsewhere, which is 
found on microscopic examination to con¬ 
sist of masses of rods and filaments of 
heggiatoa mixed with grains of reduced sul¬ 
phur. The thermal waters apparently act 
as culture fluids for the atmospheric germs, 
and it is to the vital activities of these fungi 
that Cohn ascribes the evolution of sulphur¬ 
etted hydrogen from the spring. 

Bareilly (ba-ral'e), a town of Hindustan 
in the new United Provinces; capital of a 
district of the same name, on a pleasant 
and elevated site. It has a fort and canton¬ 
ments, a government college, and manufac¬ 
tures sword-cutlery, gold and silver lace, 
perfumery, furniture and upholstery. On 
the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny the na¬ 
tive garrison took possession of the place, 
but it was retaken by Lord Clyde in May, 
1858. Pop. (1901) '117,433. The district 
has an area of 1,014 square miles; pop. 
1,030,930. 

Barentz, Willem, a Dutch navigator. He 
was one of the early Arctic explorers; his 
attempt being to find a northeast passage 
to China. In his first voyage he reached 
lat. 77°-78°, and in his last, 80° IP. 
He commanded several exploring expedi¬ 
tions around Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen, 



Barentz Sea 


Bar Harbor 


on one of which he had seven vessels loaded 
with rich goods for E&stern trade. In the 
summer of 1596, he set out with two ships, 
which were frozen in at Ice Haven in Sep¬ 
tember. For over 80 days the sun was be¬ 
low the horizon, and the explorers passed 
the winter in the direst misery. The fol¬ 
lowing June they attempted to reach the 
mainland in boats, but most of them were 
lost. Barentz, among others, perished. 

Barentz Sea, that part of the Arctic 
Ocean between Nova Zem'bla and Spitzber- 
gen; so called from its explorer, Willem 
Barentz. 

Barkre de Vieuzac, Bertrand (bar-ar' 
de vye-zak'), a French Revolutionist and agi¬ 
tator, born at Tarbes, Sept. 10, 1755. First 
an advocate at Toulouse, he acted as a 
Deputy in the National Assembly, and was 
sent by the Department of the Hautes-Pyre- 
nees to the National Convention in 1792. 
He soon became active as a journalist, and at¬ 
tached himself to the “ Mountain,” support¬ 
ing it with eloquence of such a flowery and 
poetical style as afterward earned him the 
name of the “ Anacreon of the guillotine.” 
He was president of the Convention when 
the sentence was passed upon Louis XVI. He 
rejected the appeal to the people, and gave 
his vote with these words: “ The law is for 
death, and I am here only as the organ of 
the law.” Though a supporter of Robes¬ 
pierre, he concurred in his downfall, yet 
this did not save him from being impeached 
and sentenced to transportation. His sen¬ 
tence was not carried into effect, and he 
shared in the general amnesty of the 18tli 
Brumaire. Elected a Deputy during the 
Hundred Days, he was banished after the 
second restoration. He went to Brussels, 
where he devoted himself to literary work 
till the revolution of July permitted his re¬ 
turn. In 1832 he was once more elected as 
a Deputy by the Department of the Hautes- 
Pyrenees; his election, however, was an¬ 
nulled, on account of errors of form, where¬ 
upon the government called him to be a 
member of the administration of that De¬ 
partment, which office he held till 1840. 
BarSre was one of the most graceful and 
consummate liars in history. His master¬ 
piece in this kind is his famous account of 
the sinking of the ship “ Vengeur,” in 1794, 
which is still dear as a heroic story to the 
French people, and was described in glow¬ 
ing words, as a real historical exploit, by 
Carlyle, in the first edition of his “ French 
Revolution.” He died Jan. 14, 1841. 

Baretti, Giuseppe Marcantonio (bar- 
et'e), an Italian critic and poet (1719-1789), 
who, after a roaming life in Italy, settled 
in London in 1751, whither he returned 
again about 1766, having left England in 
1760, and founded in Venice the critical 
periodical “ Frusta Letteraria ” (“ Literary 
Scourge”), which contained his most import¬ 


ant work, and is considered as epoch-making 
in Italian literature. Of his writings in 
English, the “ Account of the Manners and 
Customs of Italy” (1768-1769), attracted 
much attention. His “ Dictionary of the 
English and Italian Languages ” (1760, 

lately 1873) is still highly esteemed. 

Barfleur, a seaport town of France, in 
the Department of La Manche, about 15 
miles E. of Cherbourg. It is now a place 
of little importance, but it is noteworthy in 
history as the port whence, in 1066, William 
the Conqueror set out on his invasion of 
England. Close by, on the ill-famed “ Pointe 
de Barfleur,” stands the highest lighthouse 
in France, 271 feet above the sea. 

Barham, Richard Harris, an English 

humorous writer; born in Canterbury, 
where his family had resided for several 
generations, Dec. 6, 1788. He was educated 
at St. Paul’s School, London, on leaving 
which he entered himself at Brasenose Col¬ 
lege, Oxford, and afterward studied for the 
Church, though his original destination was 
the legal profession. Having been ordained 
a clergyman, he was appointed to the curacy 
of Ashford, and from thence to that of 
Westwell, both in Kent. In 1814 he mar¬ 
ried, and was shortly afterward presented 
to the rectory of Snargate, in .Romney 
Marsh, in the same county. Shortly after¬ 
ward he was elected one of the minor 
canons of St. Paul’s Cathedral, and having 
now a considerable amount of leisure time 
on his hands, employed it in writing for 
Groton’s “ Biographical Dictionary ” and 
Blackwood’s “ Magazine,” to the former of 
which he contributed nearly one-third of 
the articles, and to the latter “ My Cousin 
Nicholas,” a tale of college life, which ob¬ 
tained a large share of popularity. In 1824 
he was appointed one of the priests in or¬ 
dinary of the cliapel-royal, and was shortly 
afterward presented to the rectory of the 
united parishes of St. Mary Magdalene and 
St. Gregory-by-St. Paul, London. In 1837 
on the starting of Bentley’s “ Miscellany,” 
under the editorship of Charles Dickens, 
Mr. Barham laid the main foundation of 
his literary fame by the publication in that 
periodical of the “ Ingoldsby Legends,” a 
series of humorous tales in irregular and 
very original verse which achieved an im¬ 
mense success. He died in London, June 
17, 1845. 

Bar Harbor, a popular summer resort in 
Hancock county, Me.; on the E. shore of 
Mt. Desert Island, and opposite Porcupine 
Islands. It derives its name from a sandy 
bar which connects Mt. Desert with the 
largest of the Porcupine group. The vil¬ 
lage is known locally as East Eden. The 
surrounding scenery is very pleasing, and 
within a short distance are many points of 
interest readily accessible to the tourist. 
Among these are the summit of Green Moun- 



Bari 


Baring 


tain, Eagle Lake, Mt. Newport, Ivebo, The 
Ovens, Great and Schooner Heads, Spouting 
Horn, Thunder Cave, and Eagle Cliff. 

Bari, ancient Barium, a seaport of South¬ 
ern Italy, on a small promontory of the 
Adriatic, capital of the province Terra di 
Bari. It was a place of importance as early 
as the 3d century B. c., and has been thrice 
destroyed and rebuilt. The present town, 
though poorly built for the most part, has 
a large Norman castle, a fine cathedral, and 
priory, etc. It manufactures cotton and 
linen goods, hats, soap, glass, and liquors; 
has a trade in wine, grain, almonds, oil, 
etc., and is row an important seaport. Pop. 
(1901) 77,478. The province has an area 
of 2,065 square miles, and is fertile in fruit, 
wine, oil, etc.; pop. (1901) 827,698. 

Bari, a negro people of Africa, dwelling 
on both sides of the White Nile, and having 
Gondokoro as their chief town. They prac¬ 
tice agriculture and cattle-rearing. Their 
country was conquered by Baker for Egypt. 

Bariatinski, Alexander Ivanovich, 
Prince, a Russian field-marshal, bo"n in 
1814, and educated with the future Czar, 
Alexander II. While a young officer in the 
hussars, some love passages with a Grand 
Duchess caused his transfer to the Cau¬ 
casus, where his successes against the fa¬ 
mous Shamyl secured him, in 1852, the 
rank of lieutenant-general. On the ac¬ 
cession of Alexander II. he returned to St. 
Petersburg, and in 1856 was appointed to 
the command of the Army of the Caucasus. 
Three successful campaigns were closed by 
the storming of Ghunib, and the capture 

of Shamvl. For these services he was made 
*/ 

a field-marshal. His health, however, had 
broken down, and the remainder of his life 
was passed chiefly abroad. He died in Ge¬ 
neva, March 9, 1879. 

Barilla, the ash of sea weeds and plants, 
as salsola soda, which grow on the sea side. 
It is prepared on the coast of Spain, and 
was formerly the chief source of sodium car¬ 
bonate. 

Barilla de Cobre (bar-il'a de ko'bre),the 
commercial name for native copper brought 
from Bolivia. 

Baring, family name of the founders of 
one of the greatest financial and commercial 
houses in the world; now known as Baring 
Brothers & Co. The father of the founders 
was John Baring, a German cloth manu¬ 
facturer, who started a small business at 
Larkbear, near Exeter, England, in the first 
half of the 18th century. Two of his sons, 
Francis and John (1730-1816), established 
in London in 1770 the now existing house. 

Baring, Sir Francis- (1740-1810), born 
at Larkbear, was deaf from his youth; but, 
receiving a commercial training in the house 
of Boehm, he overcame all obstacles, and 


founded a large and successful business. 
He became a director of the East India Com¬ 
pany, and, being a staunch supporter of 
Pitt, was created a baronet by that min¬ 
ister in 1793. He represented Grampound, 
Chipping Wycombe, and Caine in Parlia¬ 
ment from 1784 to 1806. He took an active 
part in the discussions relative to the bank 
restriction act of 1797, and wrote on this 
and other financial subjects. At the time 
of his death, he was reckoned the first mer¬ 
chant in Europe, and had amassed a fortune 
of nearly £7,000,000. 

Baring, Sir Thomas (1772-1848), eldest 
son of the above, succeeded his father in 
the baronetcy. He appears to have taken 
no active part in the business of the firm, 
being chiefly remarkable as an admirer and 
encourager of art. His magnificent collec¬ 
tion of paintings was dispersed by public 
sale after his death in April, 1848. His 
fourth son, Charles Thomas (1807-1879), 
Bishop of Durham, was a strong Evangel¬ 
ical. noted for his piety. For Alexander 
Baring, see Ashburton (Lord). 

Baring, Sir Francis Thornhill (1796- 
1866), son of Sir Thomas, whom he suc- 
cieded, was educated at Oxford, where, in 
1817, he took a double first class. He rep¬ 
resented Portsmouth from 1826 till 1865. 
Under successive Whig governments, he was 
a Lord of the Treasury, Secretary to the 
Treasury, Chancellor of the Exchequer, and 
First Lord of the Admiralty. He was cre¬ 
ated Baron Northbrook in 1866, and died 
Sept. 6, the same year. His son, Thomas 
George, second Lord Northbrook, was born 
in 1826, and was successively a Lord of the 
Admiralty, Under Secretary of State for 
India, Under Secretary of War, Governor- 
General of India (1872-1876), and First 
Lord of the Admiralty (1880-1885), and 
was created an Earl in 1876. 

Baring, Evelyn, Earl Cromer, was born 
in 1841, in 1877-79 was British commis¬ 
sioner of the Egyptian public debt office, 
and in 1879 became British controller-gen¬ 
eral in Egypt. In 1880 he was appointed 
financial member of council in India. From 
1883 until his resignation in 1907 he was 
British agent and consul-general in Egypt, 
and a minister plenipotentiary in the dip¬ 
lomatic service. His able administration 
transformed the country. He wrote “Mod¬ 
ern Egypt” (1908). 

Baring, Thomas (1799-1873), brother of 
the first Lord Northbrook, devoted himself 
early to commercial pursuits, and also to 
politics, in which he was a Conservative, 
thus taking the opposite side to his brother. 
He entered Parliament in 1835, represent¬ 
ing Huntingdon from 1844 till his death. 

In 1885, the then head of the firm, Ed¬ 
ward Charles Baring, was raised to the 
peerage, as Baron Revelstoke. The firm is 
engaged to a large extent in the negotiation 



Baring=GouId 


Bark 


of national loans, in exchange and money 
broking, in the produce trade, home and 
colonial, and in importation and exporta¬ 
tion from, and to, foreign countries. 

Baring=Gould, Sabine, an English an¬ 
tiquary and novelist, born in Exeter, Jan. 
28, 1834. Pie graduated from Cambridge 
in 185G, and has been since 1881 rector of 
Lew-Trenchard in Devon. He is author of 
“Iceland: Its Scenes and Sagas” (18G4); 
“The Book of Werewolves” (1865); “Cu¬ 
rious Myths of the Middle Ages ” (series 
1 and 2, 1866-1867) ; “ Lives of the Saints” 
(1872-1879); “Yorkshire Oddities” (2 
vols., 1874) ; and “ Germany, Past and Pres¬ 
ent ” (2 vols., 1S79). He has written re¬ 
ligious books, and of late years novels which 
have become popular. They include “ Me- 
halah: a Story of the Salt Marshes” (2 
vols., London, 1880); “John Herring” (2 
vols., 1883) ; “Red Spider” (1887) ; “ Gret- 
tis the Outlaw” (1890); “The Broom 
Squire” (1896); “Guavas the Tinner” 
(1897); “ Bladys ” (1897); “ Domitia ” 

(1898); “ Pabo* the Priest” (1899); “A 
Book of the West ” (1899) ; “ Furze-Bloom ” 
(1899); “Family Names,” etc. (1910). 

Baring Island, an island, also a strait 
and bay of the same name, in the Arctic 
Archipelago. They were named for Sir 
Francis Baring, who was First Lord of the 
Admiralty at the time of their discovery. 

Baringo, an African lake, N. E. of the 
Victoria Nyanza, and just N. of the equator. 
It is about 20 miles long, lies 6,000 feet 
above the sea, and has no known outlet, 
though its water is fresh. 

Barita, a genus of birds, placed by Cu¬ 
vier among the laniadce (shrikes), but trans¬ 
ferred by Vigors to that of corvidce (crows). 
The birds belonging to it are called by 
ButTon cassicans. They are found in Aus¬ 
tralia and New Guinea. Barita tibicen is 
the piping crow of New South Wales. 

Barite, or Baryte, a mineral, called also 
baroselenite, sulphate of baryta, heavy spar, 
and by the Derbyshire miners, cauk, calk, 
or cawk. It is placed by Dana in his celes- 
tite group. It is orthorhombic, and has 
usually tabular crystals, or is globular, 
fibrous, lamellar, or granular. Its hard¬ 
ness is 2.5-3.5; sp. gr., as much as 4.3-4.72, 
whence the name heavy spar; its luster, vit¬ 
reous, or slightly resinous; its color white, 
yellowish, grayish, black, reddish, or dark 
brown. It is sometimes transparent, some¬ 
times almost opaque. When rubbed, it is 
occasionally fetid. Its composition is: 
Sulphuric acid, 34.3; baryta (monoxide of 
barium), (15.7 = 100, whence the name sul¬ 
phate of baryta. It is found as part of the 
gangue of metallic ores in veins in secondary 
limestones, etc. It is found in the United 
States and on the continent of Europe. 
Dana thus subdivides barite: Variety 1. 


(a) Ordinary, (b) created, (c) columnar, 
(d) concretionary, (e) lamellar, (f) gran¬ 
ular, (g) compact or cryptocrystalline, (h) 
earthy, (i) stalactitic and stalagmitic. Bo¬ 
logna stone is included under (d). 2. Fetid. 
3. Allomorphite. 4. Calcareobarite. 5. Ce- 
lestobarite. 6. Calstronbarite. It is found 
altered into c-alcite, spathic iron, and a 
variety of other minerals. 

Baritone, or Barytone, a male voice, the 

compass of which partakes of those of the 
common bass and the tenor, but does not 
extend so far downward as the one, nor to 
an equal height with the other. Its best 
tones are from the lower A of the bass clef 
to the lower F in the treble. 

Barium, a dyad metallic element; symbol 
Ba; atomic weight, 137. Barium is pre¬ 
pared by the decomposition of barium chlor¬ 
ide, BaCL, by the electric current, or by the 
vapor of potassium. It is a white, malleable 
metal, which melts at red heat, decomposes 
water, and oxidizes in the air. Barium oc¬ 
curs in nature as barium carbonate and sul¬ 
phate. Its salts are prepared by dissolv¬ 
ing the carbonate in acids, or by roasting 
the native sulphate of barium with one- 
third its weight of coal, which converts it 
into barium sulphide, BaS; this is decom¬ 
posed by hydrochloric or nitric acid, accord¬ 
ing as a chloride or nitrate of barium is re¬ 
quired. All soluble salts of barium are very 
poisonous; the best antidotes are alkaline 
sulphates. The salts of barium are em¬ 
ployed as re-agents in the laboratory, and 
in the manufacture of fireworks, to produce 
a green light. Barium is precipitated as a 
carbonate, BaC0 3 , along with carbonates of 
strontium and calcium, by ammonia carbon¬ 
ate. Barium can be separated by dissolv¬ 
ing the carbonates in acetic acid, and add¬ 
ing potassium chromate, which gives a yel¬ 
low precipitate of the insoluble barium 
chromate. Barium salts give an immediate 
white precipitate on the addition of calcium 
sulphate, an insoluble precipitate with 
4HF.SiF 4 (hydrofluosilicic acid), and a white 
precipitate insoluble in acids with sulphuric 
acid or with soluble sulphates; this pre¬ 
cipitate is not blackened by H 2 S. Barium 
chloride gives a green color to the flame 
of alcohol, and the spectrum of barium salts 
contains a number of characteristic green 
lines. 

Bark, the exterior covering of the stems 
of exogenous plants. It is composed of cel¬ 
lular and vascular tissue, is separable from 
the wood, and is often regarded as consist¬ 
ing of four layers: (1) The epidermis, or 
cuticle, which, however, is scarcely regarded 
as a part of the true bark; (2) the epi- 
phlccum, or outer cellular layer of the true 
bark or cortex; (3) the mesophlceum, or 
middle layer, also cellular; (4) an inner 
vascular layer, the liber , or endophloeum, 
commonly called bast. Endogenous plants 



Bark 


Barker’s Mill 


have no true bark. Bark contains many 
valuable products, as gum, tannin, etc.; cork 
is a highly useful substance obtained from 
the epiphlceum; and the strength and flexi¬ 
bility of bast make it of considerable value. 
Bark used for tanning is obtained from oak, 
hemlock-spruce, species of acacia, growing in 
Australia, etc. Angostura bark, Peruvian, 
or cinchona bark, cinnamon, cascarilla, etc., 
are useful barks. 

Bark, or Barque, a three-masted vessel 
of which the foremast and mainmast are 



BARK. 


square-rigged, but the mizzenmast has fore- 
and-aft sails only. 

Bark, Peruvian, is the bark of various 
species of trees of the genus cinchona, found 
in many parts of South America, but more 
particularly in Peru, and having medicinal 
properties. It was formerly called Jesuit 
bark, from its having been introduced into 
Europe by Jesuits. Its medicinal properties 
depend upon the presence of quinine, which 
is now extracted from the bark, imported, 
and prescribed in place of nauseous mouth¬ 
fuls of bark. 

Barka, or Benghazi. See Barca. 

Bark Beetle, or Bark Chafer, a name 
common to many of the large family of 
coleopterous insects, called by entomologists 
scolytides. They are all small, and generally 
of uniform color; they have hard bodies, and 
short, often club-shaped, antennae. Most of 
the family live in wood or vegetable sub¬ 
stances, as mushrooms, dried plants in her¬ 
bariums, etc., and some of them are ex¬ 
tremely injurious to living trees. 

Barker, Albert S., an American naval of¬ 
ficer, born in Massachusetts, March 31, 1843; 
was graduated at the United States Naval 
Academy in 1859; served on the frigate 
“ Mississippi ” in the operations to open the 
Mississippi river in 1861-1863, taking part 
in the bombardment and passage of Forts 
Jackson and St. Philip and the Chalmette 
batteries, the capture of New Orleans, and 
the attempted passage of Port Hudson, 
where his vessel was destroyed. He became 
Captain May 5, 1892; commanded the 


cruiser “ Newark ” during the war with 
Spain; subsequently succeeded to the com¬ 
mand of the battleship “ Oregon,” which he 
took to Manila; became a Rear-Admiral, and 
was placed in command of the Norfolk Navy 
Yard in 1899; and in July, 1900, succeeded 
the late Rear-Admiral Philip as command¬ 
ant of the Brooklyn Navy Yard. 

Barker, Fordyce, an American physician, 
born in Wilton, Franklin co., Me., May 2, 
1819. Completing courses at Bowdoin, Har¬ 
vard, and in Europe, he entered upon the 
practice of his profession in Norwich in 
1845. He made a specialty of obstetrics and 
diseases of women. After serving as Pro¬ 
fessor of Midwifery at Bowdoin, he removed 
to New York city in 1850. He was an in¬ 
corporator of the New York Medical College 
and obstetrical surgeon to Bellevue Hos¬ 
pital, besides acting as consulting physician 
in leading hospitals. He wrote “ Puerperal 
Diseases ” and “ On Seasickness.” He died 
in New York city. May 30, 1891. 

Barker, James Nelson, an American 
author, born in Philadelphia, June 17, 1784. 
He served with distinction in the war of 
IS 12, but subsequently entered civil life, be¬ 
coming mayor of his native city in 1820. 
Later he was collector of customs at Phila¬ 
delphia (1829 to 1838), and, during the 
ensuing 20 years was comptroller of the 
United States Treasury. He wrote notable 
poems, including “The Sisters,” and “Lit-* 
tie Red Riding Hood.” His dramatic works, 
especially “ Marmion,” “ The Indian Prin¬ 
cess,” and “ Smiles and Tears,” were popu¬ 
lar. He died in Washington, March 9, 
1858. 

Barker, Matthew Henry, an English 
novelist, born at Deptford in 1790; followed 
the sea; and, under the name of “ The Old 
Sailor,” wrote spirited sea tales, very popu¬ 
lar in their day. They include “ Land and 
Sea Tales” (London, 1836) ; “Life of Nel¬ 
son” (1836); “ Topsailsheet Blocks” (3 
vols., 1838; new ed., 1881) ; and “The Vic¬ 
tory, or the Wardroom Mess” (1844). He 
died in London, June 29, 184G. 

Barker, Mount, a range of hills S. E. of 
Adelaide, South Australia; altitude, 1,300 
feet. 

Barker’s Mill, also called Scottish tur¬ 
bine, a hydraulic machine on the principle 
of what is known as the hydraulic tourni¬ 
quet. This consists of an upright vessel free 
to rotate about a vertical axis, and having 
at its lower end two discharging pipes pro¬ 
jecting horizontally on either side and bent 
in opposite directions at the ends, through 
which the water is discharged horizontally, 
the direction of discharge being mainly at 
right angles to a line joining the discharg¬ 
ing orifice to the axis. The backward pres¬ 
sures at the bends of the tubes, arising from 










Bark Louse 


Barley Break 


the two issuing jets of water, cause the ap¬ 
paratus to revolve in an opposite direction 
to the issuing fluid. 

Bark Louse, or Scale Insect, an insect 
of the family coccidw, order hemiptera. 
The bark lice are very small insects, whose 
females are wingless, their bodies resembling 
scales. They sting the bark of trees with 
their long, slender beak, drawing in the sap, 
and, when very numerous, injure or kill 
the tree. On the other hand, the males have 
two wings, but no beak, and take no food. 
The apple bark louse ( mytalipsis pomorum) 
is destructive to young apple trees, while in 
Florida, M. gloverii is a pest of the orange 
tree. The mealy bug, or coccus, of hot¬ 
houses, also belongs to this group. 

Barksdale, William, an American states¬ 
man and military officer, born in Ruther¬ 
ford county, Tenn., Aug. 21, 1821. He was 
admitted to the bar when under 21, and 
rapidly achieved eminence in law and poli¬ 
tics, editing the Columbus “ Democrat,” 
and serving in the Mexican War. He en¬ 
tered Congress in 1853, but gave up his seat 
when his State seceded, and took command 
of a regiment of Mississippi volunteers. He 
was made a Brigadier-General after a com- 
paign in Virginia, and was killed at Get¬ 
tysburg, July 2, 1803. 

Barlaam and Josaphat, a famous medi¬ 
eval spiritual romance, which is in its main 
details a Christianized version of the Hindu 
legends of Buddha. The story first appeared 
in Greek in the works of Joannes Damas- 
eenus in the 8th century The compilers of 
the “ Gesta Romanorum,” Boccaccio, Gower, 
and Shakespeare have all drawn materials 
from it. 

Barlaeus, or Baerle, Kaspar van (bar- 
li'us), a Dutch historian and learned writer, 
born in Antwerp, Feb. 12, 1584. His 

“ Poems,” mostly Latin, are not fiery, but 
his “ History of Brazil under Maurice of 
Nassau” is decidedly so; and he composed 
also numerous fine orations, the influence 
he exercised upon thought being very con¬ 
siderable. He died in Amsterdam, Jan. 14, 
1648. 

Barletta, Gabriello, an Italian monk, 
born perhaps at Barletta, in the kingdom of 
Naples, in the 15th century. He became 
celebrated at Naples on account of his ser¬ 
mons, in which he mixed sarcasm and the 
ludicrous with the sacred; quoting, now Ver¬ 
gil, now Moses; placing David at the side 
of Hercules; and commencing a sentence in 
Italian to continue it in Latin, and end it 
in Greek. Sometimes he forgot himself so 
far as to use expressions of which he had 
not considered the signification, as when he 
asked by what signs the Samaritan knew 
Jesus was a Jew. Very serious authors, 
Niceron and others, have given the response 
of the preacher; but it cannot be reproduced 


here. There is under his name a collection 
of Latin sermons, which have gone through 
more than 20 editions. 

Barley, seeds or grains of various spe¬ 
cies and varieties of the genus hordeum. 
That most commonly in cultivation is hor¬ 
deum vulgare, spring, or two-rowed barley, 
especially the rath-ripe and thanet sorts. 
H. hexastichon ( i . e., with the seeds growing 
in six rows) is the bear, or bigg barley. E. 
disticlion , two-rowed, or common barley, is 
preferred for malting, which is one of the 
chief purposes for which barley is cultivated. 
H. zeocriton, or sprat-barley, is more 
rare. Perhaps the four so-called species 
now enumerated may be only varieties of 
one plant. Barley is the hardiest of all 
the cereals, and was originally a native of 
Asia, but it is now cultivated all over the 
world, even as far N. as Lapland. In an¬ 
cient times, it was largely used as an ar¬ 
ticle of food, but the greater proportion 
of the barley now grown is used in the prep¬ 
aration of malt and spirits. For culinary 
purposes, it is sold in two forms, Scotch 
or pot barley, and pearl barley, the former 
being the grain partially deprived of its 
husk; the latter, by longer and closer grind¬ 
ing, being rounded and having the entire 
husk removed. 

Bread made from barley meal is darker in 
color and less nutritious than that made 
from wheat flour; but it is cheaper and more 
easily digested. One pound of barley meal 
contains one ounce of flesh formers and 14 
ounces of heat givers. Barley meal is some¬ 
times adulterated with oat husks, and is it¬ 
self used to adulterate oatmeal, and oc¬ 
casionally wheat flour; but these admixtures 
are readily detected by the microscope. 

Barley Break, or Barley Brake, a game 
once common, as shown by the frequency 
with which it was alluded to by the old 
poets. It was played by six young people, 
three of either sex, formed into couples, a 
young man and a young woman in each, it 
being decided by lot which individuals were 
to be paired together. A piece of ground 
was then divided into three spaces, of which 
the central one was profanely termed hell. 
This was assigned to a couple as their ap¬ 
propriate place. The couples who occupied 
the other spaces then advanced as near as 
they dared to the central one to tempt the 
doomed pair, who, with one of their hands 
locked in that of their partner, endeavored 
with the other to grasp them and draw them 
into the central space. If they succeeded, 
then they were allowed themselves to emerge 
from it, the couple caught taking their 
places. That the game might not be too 
speedily finished, leave was given to the 
couple in danger of being taken to break 
hands and individually try to escape, while 



Barleycorn 


Barmecides 


no such liberty was accorded to those at¬ 
tempting to seize them. 

Barleycorn, John, a personification of 
the spirit of barley, or malt liquor, often 
used jocularly, and in humorous verse. This 
usage is comparatively ancient. Dr. Mur¬ 
ray’s “ Dictionary ” quotes a title in the 
Pepysian Library, about 1620, “A pleasant 
new ballad * * * of the bloody murther 

of Sir John Barleycorn.” Burns’ ballad on 
John Barleycorn, “ There was Three Kings 
into the East,” is well known, and more 
popular than the verse deserves. 

Barlow, Francis Charming, an Ameri¬ 
can military officer, born in Brooklyn, N. 
Y., Oct. 9, 1834; was graduated at Harvard 
College in 1855; studied law in New York, 
and practiced there. In 1861 he enlisted as 
a private in the 12tli Itegiment, New York 
State National Guard, which was among 
the first troops at the front. He was pro¬ 
moted Lieutenant after three months’ of ser¬ 
vice ; Colonel during the siege of Yorktown; 
distinguished himself in the battle of Fair 
Oaks, or Seven Pines, for which he was pro¬ 
moted Brigadier-General; fought in almost 
every subsequent battle of the Army of the 
Potomac. He was severely wounded at Chan- 
cellorsville, May 2, 1863, and at Gettysburg, 
July 1, 1863. He was mustered out of the 
service with the rank of Major-General of 
volunteers. In 1866-1868, he was Secretary 
of State of New Y 7 ork; in 1871 became At¬ 
torney-General; and in 1873 resumed law 
practice in New Y T ork. He died in New 
Y r ork city, Jan. 11, 1896. 

Barlow, Joel, an American poet and 
diplomatist; born in Beading, Conn., March 
24, 1754. In 1774 he was placed at Dart¬ 
mouth College, and after a very short resi¬ 
dence entered Yale College, where he dis¬ 
played a talent for versification, which 
gained him the friendship of Dr. Dwight, 
then a tutor there. Barlow, more than 
once during the vacations of the college, 
served as a volunteer in the army of the 
Revolution. In 1778 he received the degree 
of B. A., and at first applied himself to the 
study of the law, but soon after accepted 
the position of chaplain in the army, which 
he held till the close of the war. During 
this period his songs and addresses were 
said to have animated and encouraged the 
soldiers; at this time, too, he planned and 
partly composed his “ Vision of Columbus.” 
He went to Hartford, where, not being suc¬ 
cessful as a lawyer, be started a weekly 
newspaper, continuing at the same time the 
preparation of his poem for the press. It 
was published in 1787, and some months 
after in London. To promote the sale of 
his poem, and that of a new edition of the 
“ Psalms ” adapted by him, Barlow gave 
up the newspaper and became a bookseller. 
In 1788 he went to France as agent for the 


Ohio Company. The Revolution was then 
in progress, and Barlow went about lectur¬ 
ing and organizing societies in its favor. 
He went to England in 1791, and was deput¬ 
ed in the following year by the London Con¬ 
stitutional Society to present an address to 
the French Convention. In 1795 he was 
appointed American consul at Algiers, a 
post he only held for two years. Returning 
to Paris he made some successful commer¬ 
cial speculations, and acquired a consider¬ 
able fortune. He returned to his native 
country in 1805. In 1811 he was appointed 
minister plenipotentiary to France. In the 
following year, he was invited by Napoleon, 
who was then in Russia, to meet him for 
conference at Wilna, Poland. He fell in 
with the French army and was a sharer 
in its memorable retreat. Being overcome 
by cold and privation, he died near Cra¬ 
cow, Dec. 22, 1812. His principal poem is 
a long epic, entitled “ The Columbiad ” 
(Philadelphia, 1807). His prose writings 
bear the stamp of an active and .energetic 
intellect, but want that ripeness of judg¬ 
ment required by the complex nature of the 
subjects he examines. 

Barlow, Peter, an English physicist and 
mathematician; born in Norwich, in 1776. 
He was Professor of Mathematics in the 
Royal Military Academy at Woolwich for 
a period of 40 years. His greatest work is 
the “ Mathematical and Philosophical Dic¬ 
tionary.” He was also the author of art 
elaborate work on the “ Machinery and 
Manufactures of Great Britain” ( 1837); 
of a treatise on the “ Force and Rapidity 
of Locomotives ” (1S38) ; and of an “ Essay 
on Magnetic Attraction,” one of the first 
works in which the phenomena of magnet¬ 
ism were distinctly enunciated. He died in 
1862. 

Barmecides, an illustrious family of 
Kliorassan, the romance of whose history is 
equally familiar to Europeans and Ameri¬ 
cans in the “ Thousand and One Nights ” 
(Arabian Nights’ Entertainments), and to 
Orientals in the pages of their historians 
and poets; and who flourished at the Court 
of the early Abbasside Caliphs. Bannec, or 
Barmek, the founder of the family, trans¬ 
mitted the honors conferred on him by the 
Caliph Abd-al-Malik to his son, Khalid, and 
from him they passed to his son, Yahia,who, 
becoming tutor to the famous Haroun-al- 
Raschid, acquired an influence over that 
Prince; which, with Haroun’s personal af¬ 
fection for the family, carried his sons, Fadl, 
or Fazl, Giaffar, Mohammed, and Mousa, to 
the highest dignities of the Court. The vir¬ 
tues and munificence of the Barmecides were, 
for a long period, displayed under favor of 
Haroun, as well as to the admiration of 
his subjects; but one of the brothers, Giaf¬ 
far, having at last become an object of sus¬ 
picion to the cruel and treacherous caliph, 



Barmen 


Barnacle 


Sahia and liis sons were suddenly seized, 
Giaffar beheaded, and the others condemned 
to perpetual imprisonment. The year 802 
is assigned as the date of this tragedy. 

Barmen, a German city on the Wuppcr, 
in the Prussian Rhine Province, government 
of Diisseldorf, and formed by the union of 
seven villages contained in the fine valley 
of Barmen. It has extensive ribbon and 
other textile manufactures; also dye works, 
manufactures of chemicals, metal wares, 
buttons, yarns, iron, machines, pianos, or¬ 
gans, soap, etc. Pop. (1905) 150,080. 

Barnabas, the surname of the apostle 
Joses, or Joseph, a fellow-laborer of Paul. 
He was a Levite, and a native of the Isle 
of Cyprus, and is said to have sold all his 
property, and laid the price of it at the 
feet of the apostles (Acts iv: 36, 37). When 
Paul came to Jerusalem, three years after 
his conversion, about a. d. 38, Barnabas in¬ 
troduced him to the other apostles (Acts 
ix: 20, 27). Five years afterward, the 
Church at Jerusalem being informed of the 
progress of the Gospel at Antioch, sent Bar¬ 
nabas thither, who beheld with great joy 
the wonders of the grace of God (Acts xi: 
20, 24). He afterward went to Tarsus, to 
seek Paul and bring him to Antioch, where 
they dwelt together two years, and great 
numbers were converted. They left Antioch 
a. d. 45, to convey alms from this Church 
to that of Jerusalem, and soon returned, 
bringing with them John and Mark (Acts 
xi: 28, 30; xii: 25). While they were at 
Antioch, the Holy Ghost directed that they 
should be set apart for those labors to which 
he had appointed them; viz., the planting 
of new churches among the Gentiles. They 
then visited Cyprus, and some cities of Asia 
Minor (Acts xv: 2-14), and after three 
years’ absence returned to Antioch. In a. 
d. 50, he and Paul were appointed delegates 
from the Syrian churches to consult the 
apostles and elders at Jerusalem, respecting 
certain questions raised by Jewish zealots; 
and they returned after having obtained the 
judgment of the brethren of Jerusalem. At 
Antioch, Barnabas was led to dissimulation 
by Peter, and was, in consequence, reproved 
by Paul. While preparing for a second mis¬ 
sionary tour, Paul and Barnabas, having a 
dispute relative to Mark, Barnabas’ 
nephew, they separated, Paul going to Asia, 
and Barnabas with Mark to Cyprus. (Acts 
xiii: 15: Gal. ii: 13.) Nothing is known 
of his subsequent history. When he gave all 
his estates to Christ, he gave himself also, 
as his life of generous self devotion and mis¬ 
sionary toil clearly shows. He was a be¬ 
loved fellow laborer with Paul, somewhat as 
Melanchthon was with Luther. The festival 
of St. Barnabas is celebrated in the Roman 
Catholic Church on the 11th of June. 

Barnabas, Epistle of, an anonymous 
writing that makes greater claim to canoni¬ 


cal authority than most of the other uncred¬ 
ited writings. It is cited by Clemens Alexan- 
drinus, Origen, Eusebius, and Jerome, who 
admit it to be the work of Barnabas, but de¬ 
clare that it ought not to be esteemed of the 

same authority as the canonical works. It is 
«/ 

published by Archbishop Wake among his 
translations of the works of the Apostolical 
Fathers, in the preliminary dissertation to 
which he gives the arguments adduced to 
prove it to be the work of St. Barnabas. It 
is, however, generally believed to have been 
written by some converted Jew in the 2d 
century, and seems to have been addressed 
to the unconverted Jews. It is divided into 
two parts. In the first part the writer 
shows the unprofitableness of the old law, 
and the necessity of the Incarnation and 
Death of Christ. He cites and explains alle¬ 
gorically certain passages relating to the 
ceremonies and precepts of the law of Moses, 
applying them to Christ and His law. The 
second part is a moral instruction, under 
the notion of two ways,— the way of light, 
under which is given a summary of what 
a Christian is to do that he may be happy 
forever; and the way of darkness, with the 
different kinds of persons who shall be for¬ 
ever cast out of the kingdom of God. 

Barnabas, Gospel of, an apocryphal work 
ascribed to the apostle Barnabas. It relates 
the history of Christ very differently from 
the Evangelists, and is believed to be a for¬ 
gery of some nominal Christians, and after¬ 
ward altered and interpolated by the Mo¬ 
hammedans, the better to serve their pur¬ 
pose. It corresponds with those traditions 
which Mohammed followed in the Koran. 

Barnabite (named after the Church of 
St. Barnabas at Milan, given over to the 
Barnabite Order in 1535), any member of a 
certain religious order, properly called the 
Regular Clerks of the Congregation of St. 
Paul. Its founders were the three clerics 
Ferrari, Morigia, and Zaccaria, of Milan. 
It arose in the 10th century, was approved 
by Clement VII., in 1532, and confirmed by 
Paul III. in 1535. The principal occupation 
of the Barnabites was preaching to sinners. 
The order has its headquarters in Rome, 
and several monasteries in Italy and Austria. 

Barnaby, Sir Nathaniel, an English 

naval architect, born in Chatham, in 1829. 
From 1855 to 1885 he was engaged in the 
designing office of the Admiralty in the con¬ 
struction of nearly all the British naval ves¬ 
sels. He brought about the substitution of 
steel for iron in ship-building, and the sub¬ 
sidizing of merchant vessels for use in war. 
He was made a Iv. C. B. in 1885. 

Barnacle, in zoology, (1) A general name 
for both pedunculated and sessile cirripeds. 
(2) Special: The English name of the pe¬ 
dunculated cirripeds ( lepadidce ), as con- 
| tradistinguished from those which are ses- 



Barnard 


Barnard 


sile, yet more especially applied to the lepas, 
the typical genus of the family and order. 

In ornithology the name for the bernicle 
goose. Formerly the absurd belief was en¬ 
tertained that these geese sprang from the 
barnacles described above. Max Muller be¬ 
lieves that the bird was originally called 
hibernicula, which was converted into ber- 
nicula by the dropping of the first syllable, 
after which the similarity of the name to 
the cirriped led to the two being confounded 
together and generated the myth. Two 
species of the genus lepas were called, by 
Linnaeus, lepas anserifera and L. anatifera 
— goose-bearing, of course with no belief in 
the fable suggested by the name. 

Barnard, Lady Anne, author of “Auld 
Robin Gray,” was born in 1750, eldest 
daughter of James Lindsay, fifth Earl of 
Balcarres. In 1793 she married Andrew 
Barnard, a son of the Bishop of Limerick, 
and colonial secretary to Lord Macartney 
at the Cape of Good Hope. There Lady 
Anne lived till 1S07, when, losing her hus¬ 
band, she returned to London, her residence 
till her death, May 6, 1825. Her matchless 
lyric, named after the old Balcarres bard, 
was written as early as 1772 to sing to an 
ancient melody; but she first acknowledged 
its authorship in 1823 to Sir Walter Scott, 
who two years later edited it for the Banna- 
tyne Club, with two continuations. 

Barnard, Charles, an American drama¬ 
tist, born in Boston, Mass., Feb. 13,1838. He 
is a journalist and dramatist. His most 
popular play is “ The County Fair ” (1888). 
Author of “ The Tone-Masters ” (Hew York, 
1871) ; “ Knights of To-day ” (1881) ; “ The 
Whistling Buoy” (18S7); dramas, and 
books on gardening and electricity. 

Barnard, Edward Emerson, an Ameri¬ 
can astronomer, born in Nashville, Tenn., 
Dec. 16, 1857; graduated at Vanderbilt Uni¬ 
versity in 1887; was astronomer in Lick Ob¬ 
servatory, California, in 1887—1895, and 
then became Professor of Astronomy in 
Chicago University and Director of the 
Yerkes Observatory. His principal discover¬ 
ies are the fifth satellite of Jupiter in 1892, 
and 16 comets. He has made photographs 
of the Milky Way, the comets, nebulae, etc. 
The French Academy of Sciences awarded 
him the Lelande gold medal in 1892, and the 
Arago gold medal in 1893, and the Royal 
Astronomical Society of Great Britain gave 
him a gold medal in 1897. He is a member 
of many American and foreign societies, and 
a contributor to astronomical journals. 

Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter, 

an American educator, born in Sheffield, 
Mass., May 5, 1809; was graduated at Yale 
College in 1828; instructor there in 1830; 
Professor of Mathematics and Natural 
Philosophy in the University of Alabama in 


1837-1848, and afterward of Chemistry 
and Natural History till 1854; Professor of 
Mathematics and Astronomy in the Univer¬ 
sity of Mississippi, 1854-1861; its president 
in 1856-1858; and its Chancellor in 1858- 
1861. He was president of Columbia Col¬ 
lege, New York city, in 1864-1888. In 
1860 he was appointed a member of the ex¬ 
pedition to observe the eclipse of the sun in 
Labrador; was engaged in 1862 in reducing 
observations of the stars in the Southern 
Hemisphere; had charge of the publication 
of charts and maps of the United States 
Coast Survey in 1863; was named one of 
the original incorporators of the National 
Academy of Sciences in 1863; was one of 
the United States commissioners to the 
Paris Exposition in 1867; member of the 
American Philosophical Society, correspond¬ 
ing member of the Royal Society of Liege, 
and member of many other scientific and 
literary associations. Among his publica¬ 
tions are “Letters on College Government” 
(1854) ; “Report on Collegiate Education” 
(1854); “Art Culture” (1854); “History 
of the American Coast Survey” (1857); 
“ University Education ” (1858 j ; “ Undula- 
tory Theory of Light” (1862) ; “Machinery 
and Processes of the Industrial Arts, and 
Apparatus of Exact Science” (1868); 
“ Metric System of Weights and Measures ” 
(1871) ; etc. He died in New York city, 
April 27, 1889. 

Barnard, Henry, an American educator, 
born in Hartford, Conn., Jan. 24, 1811. He 
was president of the University of Wiscon¬ 
sin (1856-1859), and St. John’s College, 
Annapolis, Md. (1865-1866); founded the 
“American Journal of Education” (1855) ; 
was United States Commissioner of Educa¬ 
tion (1867-1S70). Among his numerous 
writings are “ Hints and Methods for Teach¬ 
ers ” (1857) ; “ Pestalozzi and Pestalozzian- 
ism ” (1861), “German Educational Re¬ 
formers” (1862); etc. He died in Hart¬ 
ford, July 5, 1900. 

Barnard, John, an American Congrega¬ 
tional clergyman, born in Boston, Nov. 6, 
1681. He was one of the earliest New Eng¬ 
land dissenters from Calvinism. Ordained 
colleague minister of Marblehead (1716); 
he took great interest in the local fisheries 
and commerce. He wrote “ History of the 
Strange Adventures of Philip Ashton ” 
(1725), etc. He died at Marblehead, Mass., 
Jan. 24, 1770. 

Barnard, John Gross, an American 
military engineer, born in Sheffield, Mass., 
May 19, 1815; brother of F. A. P. Barnard. 
He was graduated at the United States Mili¬ 
tary Academy in 1833; served from 1835 to 
1852 on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico; 
and was brevetted Major in the Mexican 
War. He subsequently had charge of the 
fortifications of San Francisco and New 
York harbors. For his services as Chief 




Barnard=CastIe 


Barnes 


Engineer of the Army of the Potomac in 
the Civil War he was brevetted Major- 
General, United States Army and United 
States Volunteers. He produced many scien¬ 
tific and military publications. He died in 
Detroit, Mich., May 14, 1882. 

Barnard=Cast!e, a town of England, 
county of Durham, giving name to a parlia¬ 
mentary division of the county. There is 
a large thread mill and carpet manufacto¬ 
ries, the Bowes Museum and Art Gallery, 
endowed by private munificence, and costing 
over $400,000; and the Northern Counties 
School, richly endowed. The castle was 
originally built about 1178 by Bernard 
Baliol, grandfather of John Baliol. 

Barnard College, an educational (non¬ 
sectarian) institution for women only, in 
New York city; organized in 1889, and 
named in honor of Frederick A. P. Barnard, 
through whose efforts its foundation was 
largely due. It was made essentially a 
part of Columbia University, certain courses 
of study in the University and the use of 
its library being open to the students of 
Barnard. The site of the college is on Morn- 
ingside Heights, directly opposite the exten¬ 
sive grounds of the Columbia University. 
In January, 1900, the college was formally 
incorporated into the general system of 
Columbia University. The trustees of the 
latter authorized Seth Low, president of the 
university, to charge himself with the wel¬ 
fare of Barnard on precisely the same terms 
as he was charged with that of the univer¬ 
sity. It has grounds and buildings valued 
at over $2,000,000; endowment, over $1,050,- 
000; scientific apparatus, $70,000; total re¬ 
ceipts, over $200,000; faculty, about 75; 
students, over 650 ; and graduates, over 700. 

Barnardo, Thomas J., an English phil¬ 
anthropist; founder of the Barnardo Homes 
for homeless children; had his attention first 
turned in this direction by the condition 
in which he found a boy in a ragged school 
in East London in 1866. Following up the 
subject, he began to rescue children who 
had found their only shelter at night under 
archways, or in courts and alleys. These 
were introduced to his homes, where they 
received an industrial training, were saved 
from a possible career of crime, and enabled 
to achieve an honorable position in life. 
In 1899 over 36,000 boys and girls had 
passed through the homes; at the same time 
Dr. Barnardo had under his direction in 
the United Kingdom and the colonies 24 
mission branches and 86 distinct homes deal¬ 
ing with every age and class of needy and 
destitute childhood, including an immi¬ 
gration depot in Ontario, an industrial farm 
in Manitoba, a home for babies, and a hos¬ 
pital for sick children. Up to 1899 the 
number of trained and tested boys and girls 
who had been placed in colonial situations 
exceeded 10,000. He died Sept. 19, 1905. 


Barnato, Barney, a South African specu¬ 
lator. His real name is believed to have 
been Bernard Isaac. He was born in Lon¬ 
don, England, about 1845, of Hebrew 
parents. He began business there as a dealer 
in diamonds, and in five years earned 
enough to buy shares in the Kimberly dia¬ 
mond mines. He established a partnership 
with Cecil Khodes, and, when, in 1886, gold 
was discovered, secured possession of the 
greater part of the region. He committed 
suicide by jumping from the deck of the 
steamer “ Scot,” bound from Cape Town to 
Southampton, June 14, 1897. 

Barnave, Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie 

(bar nav'), a French orator, was born at 
Grenoble in 1761. He was the son of a 
rich procureur. He was chosen a Deputy of 
the tiers 6tat to the assembly of the States- 
General, and showed himself an open enemy 
to the court. The Constituent Assembly 
appointed him their President in January, 
1791. After the flight of the King, he 
defended Lafayette against the charge of 
being privy to this step, and, upon the ar¬ 
rest of the royal family, was sent, with 
Petion and Latour-Maubourg, to meet them, 
and to conduct them to Paris. When the 
correspondence of the court fell into the 
hands of the victorious party, Aug. 10, 1792, 
they pretended to have found documents 
which showed him to have been secretly con¬ 
nected with it, and he was guillotined Nov. 
29, 1793. 

Barn Burners, the nickname given to 
the radical element of the Democratic Party 
in New York State, which supported Van 
Buren in the campaign of 1848. 

Barnby, Sir Joseph, an English com¬ 
poser and organist, born in York, Aug. 12, 
1838; was chorister in York Minster; or¬ 
ganist, St. Andrew’s, Wells Street, London, 
1863-1871; precentor and choir-master, St. 
Ann’s, Soho, 1871; precentor and director 
of musical instruction in Eton College, 1875. 
His “ Rebekah,” a sacred idyll, “ The Lord 
Is King,” both with orchestra; numerous 
highly interesting services and anthems 
(such as “ King All Glorious,”) for the 
Church, as well as several secular choruses 
and songs, rendered him famous both in 
England and the United States. He is, 
perhaps, most widely and affectio ately 
known by his “ Original Tunes to Popular 
Hymns,” (2 vols.), numbering 146. He is 
rated one of the ablest of living vocal con¬ 
ductors, and the Barnby Choir has wide 
renown. He died Jan. 28, 1896. 

Barnegat Bay, a bay on the E. coast of 
New Jersey, about 25 miles in length. 
Barnegat Inlet connects the bay with the 
Atlantic. 

Barnes, Albert, an American Presbyte¬ 
rian minister, born in Rome, N. Y., Dec. 



Barnes 


Barni 


1, 1708. For 37 years pastor of the First 
Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia; he 
was best known by his “ Notes ” on the New 
Testament (of which over 1,000,000 volumes 
are said to have circulated), Isaiah, Job, 
Psalms, etc. He wrote also “ The Church 
and Slavery” (1857) ; “ Life at Threescore 
and Ten” (1869), etc. His heterodox 
views caused the formation of the New 
School of Presbyterian theology (1837). He 
died at Philadelphia, Dec. 24, 1870. 

Barnes, Barnabe, an English poet, born 
in Yorkshire about 1569. He was the son of 
the Bishop of Durham; was educated at 
Oxford; and went to Normandy in 1591 with 
the Earl of Essex. His fame rests on a 
collection of sonnets, madrigals, and odes, 
called “ Parthenophil and Parthenope ” 
(London, about 1593). Other books, “A 
Divine Century of Spiritual Sonnets ” 
(1595); and “ The Devil’s Charter,” a 
tragedy (1607). He died in St. Mary-le- 
Bow, Durham, in December, 1609. 

Barnes, Joseph K., an American medi¬ 
cal officer, born in Philadelphia, July 21, 
1817 ; was educated in the medical depart¬ 
ment of the University of Pennsylvania; 
became Assistant Surgeon in the army in 
1840, and served at various posts through 
the Mexican War. At the beginning of the 
Civil War he was summoned from Oregon, 
and assigned to duty in the office of the 
Surgeon-General. In 1863, he was ap¬ 
pointed a Medical Inspector, with the rank 
of Colonel, and in September of the same 
year was promoted to Brigadier-General. 
In 1865 he was brevetted Major-General, 
United States Army. He was Surgeon- 
General of the army from 1864 till 1882, 
when he was retired. He died in Washing¬ 
ton, D. C., April 5, 1883. 

Barnes, Dame Juliana, Abbess of the 
Benedictine Monastery of Sopewell, near 
St. Alban’s, England. She flourished in the 
15th century, and was the author of a cele¬ 
brated work entitled “ The Boke of St. Al¬ 
ban’s ” from its having been printed in that 
monastery in 1486. it is a learned treatise 
on hawking, hunting, and coat-armor, and 
is now of extreme rarity and value. 

Barnes, William, an English poet and 
philologist, born in Dorsetshire, Feb. 22, 
1800; wrote many books on philology; and 
three series of “ Poems of Rural Life in the 
Dorsetshire Dialect” (London, 1844, 1846 
and 1863), and “Poems of Rural Life” 
(1866). His fad was the disuse of all but 
the Anglo-Saxon elements of the English 
language. He died in Winterbourne Came, 
in October, 1886. 

Barnet, a town of England, in Herts, 11 
miles from London, where was fought in 
1471 a battle between the Yorkists and 
Lancastrians, resulting in the defeat of the 


latter and the death of Warwick; Edward 
IV. being thus established on the throne. 

Barneveldt, Jan Van Olden (biir'ne- 
velt), Grand Pensionary of Holland, born 
in 1549. He had scarcely reached his 20th 
year when he was called to the office of 
Councilor and Pensionary of Rotterdam; 
and such was the opinion even then enter¬ 
tained of his eminent abilities and integ¬ 
rity that he was allowed an important 
share in the management of those transac¬ 
tions with France and England by which 
the United Provinces sought to maintain 
themselves against Spain, whose yoke they 
had just thrown off. His conduct in the 
high office of Grand Pensionary of Holland 
and West Friesland, which he afterward 
filled, not only secured the independence, 
but restored the trade and improved the 
finances of the United Provinces. After the 
election of Maurice of Nassau to the dignity 
of Stadtholder, Barneveldt became the cham¬ 
pion of popular liberties, and opposed with 
determination the ambitious designs of the 
new prince. He was so far successful as 
to have a truce of 12 years concluded with 
Spain, in opposition to the views of the 
Stadtholder; and such was the popularity 
of that measure that he must have had the 
advantage over his rivals if their respective 
claims had come to be submitted to any as¬ 
sembly of the States; but about this time, 
the fanaticism of two sects, the Arminians 
and Gomarists, raged throughout Holland, 
and the Grand Pensionary was involved in 
the ruin of the former. After the condemna¬ 
tion of the Arminians by the Synod of Dort, 
Barneveldt was adjudged to death as a 
traitor and heretic, by 26 deputies named 
by Maurice. The sentence was carried into 
effect in 1619. 

Barney, Joshua, an American naval offi¬ 
cer, born in Baltimore, Md., July 6, 1759. 
He was captured by the British in March, 
1778, but was exchanged in August of the 
same year; was captured again and held a 
prisoner till he escaped in 1781. In April, 
1782, he took the British ship “General 
Monk,” off Cape May; in November, 1782, 
he carried dispatches to Dr. Franklin in 
France, and brought back a sum of money 
lent by the French government. In 1794 
he went with Monroe to France, and for 
six years served in the French navy. In 
1814, he commanded the fleet stationed in 
Chesapeake Bay. He died in Pittsburg, 
Pa., Dec. 1, 1818. 

Barni, Jules Romain, a French scholar 
and critic, born in Lille, June 1, 1818. His 
efforts to propagate the Kantian philosophy 
through the medium of “ Observations on 
the Sense of the Sublime and Beautiful ” 
(1836); “Foundations of Ethical Meta¬ 
physic” (1848), and “Kantian Philoso¬ 
phy” (1850), earned him distinction; aa 



Barn Owl 


Baroda 


did also, in another, but contiguous field, a 
“ History of Moral and Political Ideas in 
France in the Eighteenth Century” (1806). 
He died in Mers, Department of Somme, 
July 4, 1878. 

Barn Owl, a bird of prey belonging to 
the family strigidce. It is called also the 
white owl, the church owl, the screech owl, 
the European screech owl (Macgillivray), 
the hissing owl, the yellow owl, the gilli- 
howther, the liowlet, and the lioolet. Above 
it is light, reddish yellow, mottled with 
ash-gray and black and white spots; be¬ 
neath, it is white with small dusky spots. 
The male is 14 inches long, and the female 
15. It preys on the smaller mammalia and 
birds, with beetles and other insects. It is 
permanently resident, builds its nest in a 
steeple, a dovecote, or a hollow tree, and lays 
from two to five pure white eggs. It is 
found in the United States and in Europe. 

Barnum, Frances Courtenay (Baylor), 

an American novelist, born in Arkansas, 
1848. She has written “ On Both Sides,” 
an international novel; “ Behind the Blue 
Bidge,” “Juan and Juanita,” a story for 
boys and girls; “ Claudia Hyde.” She has 
also been a frequent contributor to maga¬ 
zines, and a writer of short stories. 

Barnum, Phineas Taylor, an American 
showman, born at Bethel, Conn., July 5, 
1810; after various unsuccessful business 
ventures, finally established Barnum’s Mu¬ 
seum in New York (1841), which was twice 
burned. He introduced Tom Thumb, Jenm 
Lind, Commodore Nutt, Admiral Dot, the 
woolly horse, Jumbo, etc., to the American 
public. Tn 1871 he established his great 
circus. He was mayor of Bridgeport, and 
four times member of the Connecticut Legis¬ 
lature. His benefactions were large and fre¬ 
quent. He wrote “ Humbugs of the World ” 
(1805) ; “ Struggles and Triumphs* (1869); 
“Lion Jack, a Story” (1876); “Autobi¬ 
ography” (1855; new editions 1869 and 
later). He was a lecturer on temperance 
and other popular subjects. He died at 
Bridgeport, Conn., April 7, 1891. 

Barnum, William H., an American 
statesman, born in Boston Corners, N. Y., 
Sept. 17, 1818; received a public school 
education and amassed large wealth in 
manufacturing; was a member of Congress 
from Connecticut in 1866-1876, when he 
was elected United States Senator to com¬ 
plete the term of Orris S. Ferry (deceased). 
In 1880 and 1884 he was chairman of the 
Democratic National Committee. He died 
in Lime Rock, Conn., April 30, 1889. 

Barnwell, Robert Woodward, an Amer¬ 
ican statesman, born in Beaufort, S. C., 
Aug. 10. 1801; was graduated at Harvard 
University in 1821; became a lawyer; was 
a member of Congress from South Carolina 
in 1829-1833; a United States Senator from 


that State, 1850-1851; Commissioner from 
South Carolina to confer with the Federal 
Government regarding the proposed secession 
of the State, in 1860; member of the Pro¬ 
visional Confederate Congress, 1861-1862; 
a Confederate Senator in 1862-1866; and 
then president of the University of South 
Carolina (an office he had held in 1835- 
1841) till 1873. He died in Columbia, S. C., 
Nov. 25, 1882. 

Baroche, Pierre Jules (bilr-dsh'), a 
French statesman, born at Paris, 1802. In 
1847, he was elected member of the Cham¬ 
ber of Deputies for the Department of 
Charente-Inferieure, where he steadily op¬ 
posed the ministry of Guizot. He signed the 
Acte cl ’ Accusation, drawn up by Odillon 
Barrot, on Feb. 23, 1848, in which they 
were accused of violating the rights of citi¬ 
zens, and of systematic corruption. On Dec. 
2, 1851, Baroche was nominated President 
of the Council of State; an office in which 
he exhibited much ability and tact, and, sub¬ 
sequently, filled the offices of Minister of 
Foreign Affairs (1860), and Minister of 
Justice (1863). He was made a Senator in 
1864, and died in 1870. 

Baroda, the second city of Guzerat, and 
third in the Presidency of Bombay, India; 
capital of the territory of the Guicowar 
(Gaekwar), in the State of the same name. 
It is 248 miles N. of Bombay, with which 
it is connected by railway. It stands to 
the E. of the Viswamitri, which is here 
crossed by four stone bridges, one of which 
is of singular construction — an upper 
range of arches resting on a lower one. It 
has several palaces, Hindu and other tem¬ 
ples, contains the chief court of the State, 
a high class school, and two vernacular 
schools. The majority of the houses are 
mean and overcrowded. Baroda occupies 
an important situation between the coast 
and the interior, and its trade in native 
produce is considerable. The Mahratta 
State of Baroda, the political control of 
which in 1875 was transferred from Bom¬ 
bay to the government of India, includes the 
territories of the Guicowar in various parts 
of the province of Guzerat. Area of these 
territories, 8,570 square miles. The N. dis¬ 
tricts, which form a wide plain, are drained 
by the Nerbudda, Tapti, Malii, and other 
rivers. The soil is fertile here; ruined 
temples, deserted towns, and tanks half 
filled with mud, are a witness of former 
prosperity. A military force of about 3,000 
is maintained and performs police duty. In 
the N. division there is a famous breed of 
large white cattle; grain, cotton, opium, 
tobacco, sugar cane, flax, indigo, and oil 
seeds are the chief agricultural products, 
and grow luxuriantly. Baroda came under 
British suzerainty in 1802. In 1874 a Gui¬ 
cowar was deposed for an alleged attempt to 
poison the British resident. 



BAROMETER. 

FIG. 

1~2. Torricelli's Experiment with l ube Full of Mercury. 

3. Barometer In Its Simplest Form. 

4. Barometer with Bent Tube and Scale. 

5~6. Fortin's Portable Barometer—Structural Details. 

7. Common Wheel-barometer or Weather-glass. 

8. Internal Structure of Same. 

9. Aneroid Barometer. 

10. Internal Mechanism of Aneroid. 






























































































































































































































Barograph 


Barometer 


Barograph, a self-registering barometer 
(see Barometer). One of the most common 
forms employs an arm attachment carrying 
a pencil moved uniformly by clockwork. 
This registers the variations of pressure. 

Barometer, an instrument for measuring 
the weight of the air and the variations of 
its pressure in order to determine changes 
in the weather, the height of mountains, 
and other phenomena. This most useful 
instrument had its origin in an experiment 
of Torricelli, an Italian, who flourished 
about the middle of the 17th century. Tor¬ 
ricelli took a glass tuba about three feet in 
length, being open at one end only, and 
having filled it with mercury, he placed the 
open end in a cup containing the same fluid 
metal, taking care the while that none of 
the mercury flowed out of the tube, or that 
any air was admitted. When the tube was 
placed in a vertical direction, with the open 
end in the cup, he found that a portion of 
the mercury descended into the cup, the 
height of the column of the metal in the 
tube being only about 30 inches. It was 
inferred by the experimenter that the at¬ 
mosphere, by reason of its weight, pressed 
on the surface of the mercury in the cup, 
and forced it up the tube to the height of 
30 inches; because a column of air from the 
cup to the top of the atmosphere was only 
equal to the pressure arising from the 
weight of a column of mercury of the same 
base, and 30 inches high. Pascal repeated 
and varied this experiment, and confirmed 
Torricelli’s conclusion. These experiments 
were made in 1645, and six years afterward 
it was found by Perrier that the height of 
the mercury in the Torricellian tube varied 
with the weather; and the instrument was 
proposed to be employed for the measure¬ 
ment of the height of mountains by Boyle 
in 1665. 

The common barometer consists of a 
glass tube 33 inches in length, the diameter 
of the bore being about one-tliird of an inch. 
This tube is hermetically sealed at the top, 
and the bottom is curved up, and open to 
the atmosphere. It is filled with purified 
mercury, and there is affixed to it a scale 
which marks the height of the mercurial 
column. In Great Britain the height of 
the mercury seldom passes without the lim¬ 
its of 28 and 31 inches; and this will, 
therefore, be a sufficient length for the 
scale of the instrument when it is only to 
be used as a weather glass. The weather 
points are marked thus: At 28 inches, 
stormy weather; 28%, much rain or snow; 
29, rain or snow; 29%, changeable; 30, fair 
or frost; 30%, settled fair or frost; 31, 
very dry weather or hard frost. To use the 
barometer as a weather glass several par¬ 
ticulars must be attended to which have 
been given by different authors in the form 
of rules, as those of Halley, Walker, Pat¬ 
rick, etc. Patrick’s rules, probably the best, 
46 


are as follows: (1) The rising of the mer* 
cury presages, in general, fair weather, and 
its falling the contrary. (2) In very hot 
weather a fall indicates thunder. (3) In 
winter the rising presages frost, and in 
frosty weather, if the mercury falls three or 
four divisions (tenths of an inch), a thaw 
is certain; but in a continual frost, if the 
mercury rises, there will be snow. (4 ) When 
foul weather happens soon after a fall, ex¬ 
pect but little of it; and, on the other hand, 
fair weather coming quickly after a rise 
will probably not last. (5) In foul weather, 
when the mercury rises much and high, and 
so continues for two or three days before 
the foul weather has gone away, then a 
continuance of fair weather may be ex¬ 
pected to follow. (6) In fair weather, when 
the mercury falls much and low, and thus 
continues for two or three days before the 
rain comes, then a great deal of wet and 
high winds may be expected. (7) The unset¬ 
tled motion or frequent rising and falling of 
the mercury denotes • changeable weather. 
(8) The divisions on the scale are not so 
strictly to be observed as the rising and 
falling of the mercury; for if it stands at 
much rain and then rises to changeable it 
presages fair weather, though not to con¬ 
tinue so long as though the mercury had 
risen higher; and so, on the contrary, if 
the mercury stand at fair and then fall to 
changeable it presages foul weather, though 
not so much as if it had sunk lower. 

The ordinary objection to the common 
weather glass is that the scale divisions are 
too small to enable one to determine cor¬ 
rectly the amount of the variation in the 
height of the mercury, and various means 
have been adopted to remedy this defect. 
One of the simplest is to bend the upper 
part of the tube so that the part within the 
range of variation should slant; the mer¬ 
cury will thus move farther for a given 
change in pressure. This arrangement 
gives an awkward form to the instrument, 
and hence the wheel-barometer was intro¬ 
duced. It presents more symmetry in form, 
and possesses the same advantage as the 
bent barometer in enlarging the divisions 
of the scale. This instrument is bent up at 
the lower or open end, where a piece of glass 
floats on the surface of the mercury. The 
float is attached to a small balance weight 
by a thread or small ribbon, which passes 
over a pulley, on the axis of which there is 
fixed an index hand, which traverses the 
circular index plate. The rising or falling 
of the quicksilver in the tube causes a simi¬ 
lar rise or fall of the float, which by the 
action of the thread turns the pulley, and 
thus the index hand attached to its axis 
will also move, and indicate the change in 
the altitude of the mercurial column. The 
friction of the additional apparatus con¬ 
nected with the pulley detracts from the 
sensibility of the instrument, and it is, 



Barometer 


Baron 


therefore, unfit for purposes where great 
nicety is required. Formerly a rack and 
pinion were employed instead of the pulley 
and ribbon. 

For very delicate operations, such as the 
measurement of altitudes, the scale of the 
barometer having a straight tube is fur¬ 
nished with a vernier, which greatly in¬ 
creases the accuracy of the reading. But 
several other additions must be made to the 
barometer intended for the measurement of 
heights, the instrument being then called 
the portable barometer. Of these there are 
various kinds. In that of Fortin, the 
cistern is formed of a tube of boxwood, sur¬ 
mounted by a tube of glass, and is closed 
below by a piece of leather, which can be 
raised or lowered by means of a screw. The 
screw works in the bottom of a brass case 
which incloses the cistern, except at the 
middle, where it is cut away in front and 
behind so as to expose to view the surface 
of the mercury. The barometer tube is in¬ 
closed in a brass tube with two slits on op¬ 
posite sides, and on this inclosing tube the 
scale divisions are engraved, the zero point 
whence they are reckoned being the lower 
extremity of an ivory point fixed in the 
covering of the cistern. In order to deter¬ 
mine the height of the mercurial column 
with precision a cylindrical sliding piece 
furnished with a vernier moves in the tube 
at the top of the mercury. To adjust the 
instrument for observation, the surface of 
the mercury must be made by means of the 
screw to touch the ivory point, a condition 
fulfilled when the extremity of the point 
touches its image in the mercury, and the 
sliding piece must be adjusted till it is 
tangential to the top of the column. When 
the instrument is to be carried about from 
place to place the screw at the bottom 
should be turned till the mercury reaches 
the top of the tube, and the instrument held 
in an inverted position. 

In taking the measurement of mountains 
the general rule given is to subtract the 
ten-thousandth part of the observed altitude 
for every degree F. above 32°. The aneroid 
barometer depends not on the variation in 
the height of a column of liquid, but on the 
change in form of a thin metallic vessel, 
partially exhausted of air. It consists es¬ 
sentially of a cylindrical box with a corru¬ 
gated top, partially exhausted of air. At 
the center of the upper surface is a small 
pillar M, connected with a powerful steel 
spring r. The rise or fall in the top of the 
box due to changing atmospheric pressure 
is transmitted by means of the levers l and 
m to a metallic axis r; and this axis carries 
a lever t, whose end is attached to a chain s, 
which turns a drum on whose axis the index 
needle is fixed. The chain is kept constantly 
stretched by means of a spiral spring. 
Aneroid barometers are graduated by com¬ 
parison with the mercurial barometer. 


Barometz, a fraudulently constructed 
natural history specimen, called also the 
Scythian lamb, and represented as being 
half animal and half plant. In reality it is 
a wooly-skinned fern ( Cibotius barometz), 
stripped of everything but its root stock 
and the stipes or stalks of four of its fronds, 
and then turned upside down. This fern 
grows in salt plains in the region of the 
Caspian Sea, and is sometimes known to 
botanists as Aspidium barometz , and is also 
called baranetz. 

Baron, in the feudal system of the Mid¬ 
dle Ages, the title baron, derived from the 
Latin varo, which signifies a man, and, 
sometimes, a servant, was given, at first, 
to the immediate tenant of any superior. 
In old records, the citizens of London are 
so styled. The family of Montmorency, in 
France, called themselves, premiers barons 
de la Chretiente. This title was introduced 
by William the Conqueror into England, 
from Normandy, and used to signify an 
immediate vassal of the crown, who had a 
seat and vote in the royal court and tribu¬ 
nals, and, subsequently, in the House of 
Peers. It was the second rank of nobility, 
until dukes and marquises were introduced, 
and placed above the earls, and viscounts 
also set above the barons. In Germany, the 
ancient barons of the empire were the im¬ 
mediate vassals of the crown. They ap¬ 
peared in the imperial court and diet, and 
belonged to the high nobility. But these 
ancient feudatories were early elevated to 
the rank of counts or princes. The modern 
barons only form a rank of lower nobility 
after the counts. In England, baron is the 
lowest grade of rank in the House of Lords. 
The coronation robes of a baron differ from 
those of the other peers in having but two 
rows of spots on the mantle; and the parlia¬ 
mentary robes, in having but two guards 
of white fur, with rows of gold lace. The 
right of wearing a coronet was first con¬ 
ferred on barons by Charles II. It is 
adorned with six pearls, set at equal dis¬ 
tances, of which four are usually shown. 
A baron is styled right honorable, and his 
children enjoy the prefix of honorable. In 
England, too, the four puisne judges of the 
Court of Exchequer bear the title of baron, 
and the chief judge that of Lord Chief 
Baron of the Exchequer. They are addressed 
as My Lord, but have no seat in the House 
of Lords, unless by being previously made a 
member of the peerage. Barons of the 
Cinque Ports: formerly members of the 
House of Commons, elected, two for each, 
by the seven Cinque Ports. , Baron and 
femme: a term used in the old English law 
books for husband and wife. Baron of beef: 
two sirloins of beef joined together by a 
part of the backbone. 

Baron, Michel, a French comedian, born 
in 1053, and long attached to Molidre’s com- 



Baronet 


Barquisimeto 


pany. For nearly 30 years he played with 
the greatest success, and retired from the 
stage, in 1G91, without any apparent rea¬ 
son. In 1720, however, he again returned, 
and was received with immense enthusiasm, 
playing, with great success, even the most 
youthful parts. In 1729 he was taken ill, 
while on the boards, and died shortly after. 
Although his merit in his profession was 
very great, yet his vanity was equal. He 
wrote also some plays, printed in three vol¬ 
umes after his death. 

Baronet, originally a term apparently in 
use as early as the time of Edward III." for 
certain landed gentlemen not of the dignity 
of lords, summoned to Parliament to coun¬ 
terbalance the power of the clergy. Subse¬ 
quently it became the name given to three 
titled orders. 

1. Baronets of Great Britain: A titled 
order, the lowest that is hereditary. Speak¬ 
ing broadly, they rank in precedence next 
after the nobility, or, more specifically, 
next after the younger sons of viscounts 
and barons ; but in reality they are inferior 
to the Knights of the Order of St. George 
or of the Garter, certain official dignitaries, 
and knights-banneret created on the actual 
field of battle. The order was instituted 
by James I., on May 22, 1611, to raise 
money by fees paid for the dignity, and 
thus obtain resources for the settlement of 
Ulster. The number was to be limited to 
200: but a device for increasing an honor so 
profitable to the treasury was soon found, 
so that before the death of Charles I. 458 
patents for the creation of baronets had been 
issued; and by the end of 1878 there were 
698 baronets in existence. The dignity is 
generally confined to the heirs male of the 
grantee. The badge of a baronet is sinister, 
a hand gules (= a bloody hand) in a field 
of argent. Etiquette requires that he be 
addressed as “ Sir A. B., Bart/’ 

2. Baronets of Ireland: A titled order 
instituted by James I. in 1619. It is be¬ 
lieved that this dignity has not been con¬ 
ferred on any one since the union of Great 
Britain and Ireland in 1801, but many of 
the titles granted before the union still re¬ 
main in the British baronetage. 

3. Baronets of Scotland: A titled order 
planned by James I., but actually instituted, 
not by him, but by Charles I. in 1625, just 
after the accession of the latter monarch to 
the throne. The object aimed at in the cre¬ 
ation of the order was the planting of Nova 
Scotia (New Scotland). Each baronet by 
his patent received 18 square miles of terri¬ 
tory in that colony, with a sea coast bound¬ 
ing it on one side; or a tract of land extend¬ 
ing for 3 miles along a navigable river, 
and stretching for 6 miles inland. Since 
the union between England and Scotland in 
1707, no baronets have been created holding 
rank in the latter country alone, but some 


titles existing previously still figure in the 
British baronetage. 

Baronius, or Baronio, Caesar, an Ital¬ 
ian ecclesiastical historian, born in 1538; 
educated at Naples; in 1557 went to Rome; 
was one of the first pupils of St. Philip of 
Neri, and member of the oratory founded 
by him; afterward cardinal and librarian 
of the Vatican Library. He owed these 
dignities to the services which he rendered 
the Church by his “ Ecclesiastical Annals,” 
comprising valuable documents from the 
papal archives, on which he labored from 
the year 1580 until his death, June 30, 1607. 
They were continued, though with less 
power, by other writers, of whom Raynaldi 
takes the first rank. 

Barons’ War, the war carried on for 
several years by Simon de Montfort and 
other barons of Henry III. against the King, 
beginning in 1263. 

Barony, the lordship or fee of a baron, 
either temporal or spiritual. Originally 
every peer of superior rank had also a 
barony annexed to his other titles. But 
now the rule is not universal. Baronies in 
their first creation emanated from the King. 
Baronies appertain also to bishops, as they 
formerly did to abbots, William the Con¬ 
queror having changed the spiritual tenure 
of frank-almoyn, or free alms, by which 
they held their lands under the Saxon 
government, to the Norman or feudal tenure 
by barony. It was in virtue of this that 
they obtained seats in the House of Lords. 
The word is common in Ireland for a sub¬ 
division of a county. 

Barotse, or Marotse, an important 
Bantu tribe inhabiting the banks and the 
regions E. of the Upper Zambezi, from about 
14° to 18° S. lat. In* Livingstone’s time 
the Makololo were the dominant tribe in 
these parts of South Africa, but since then 
they have been almost entirely annihilated 
by the Bantus, who now occupy the vast 
territory from the Kabompo river to the 
Victoria Falls. Formerly they were inhabi¬ 
tants of Mashonaland, where many of them 
were destroyed by the Matabili, while the 
others retired into the LTpper Zambezi val¬ 
ley. Selous, who has carefully studied 
them, is of opinion that they are not of pure 
Bantu origin, but that they commingled in 
ancient times with the Arabian colonists 
who built the fortress and temple of Zim- 
babye. 

Barouche, a four-wheeled carriage with a 
falling top and two inside seats in which 
four persons can sit, two fronting two. 

Barquisimeto (bar-kis-e-ma'to), the 
fourth in size of the towns of Venezuela, is 
situated on an affluent of the Tocuyo river, 
in a fertile and healthy plain, about 1,700 
feet above sea level. Founded in 1522, it 



Barr 


Barranquilla 


became a flourishing town, but 'was de¬ 
stroyed in 1812 by a dreadful earthquake. 
The city, which is approached by the Ger¬ 
man-made railway from the coast to Valen¬ 
cia (1893), has sometimes been the capital 
of a province; pop. 31,476. 

Barr, Amelia Edith, an Anglo-American 
novelist, born in Ulverton, Lancashire, Eng¬ 
land, March 29, 1831. She was the daugh¬ 
ter of the Rev. William Huddleston, and in 
1850 married Robert Barr. She came to the 
United States in 1854, and lived for some 
years in Texas; but after her husband’s 
death (1867) removed to New York, where 
her first book, “ Romance and Reality,” was 
published in 1872. She is a prolific writer, 
and her novels are very popular. They in¬ 
clude “Jan Vedder’s Wife” (New York, 
1885) ; “A Daughter of Fife” (1885) ; “A 
Bow of Orange Ribbon” (1886); “A Border 
Shepherdess ” (1887) ; “ Friend Olivia ” 

(1890) ; “A Sister to Esau” (1891) ; “Re¬ 
member the Alamo ” and “ Prisoners of Con¬ 
science ” (1897); “I, Thou, and the Other 
One ” (1899), etc. 

Barr, James, a Canadian author, born in 
Wallacetown, Ontario, in 1862; was en¬ 
gaged in journalism in that province, the 
United States, and in London; and under 
the pen name of Angus Evan Abbott has 
contributed much to magazine literature. 
Among his separate publications are 
“ American Humorous Verse ” in the “ Can¬ 
terbury Series of Poets” (1891), and the 
American volume in the “ International 
Humorous Series” (1893), the last con¬ 
taining a biographical index of nearly 200 
American and Canadian humorists. 

Barr, Robert, a Scottish author, born in 
Glasgow, Sept. 16, 1850; he spent his child¬ 
hood in Canada, drifted into journalism, 
joined the staff of Detroit “ Free Press,” and 
wrote under the name of “ Luke Sharp.” He 
went to London in 1881 and founded “The 
Idler” with Jerome K. Jerome, but retired 
to devote himself to fiction. He is author of 
a number of novels, “ In the Midst of 
Alarms” (1894); “The Face and the Mask” 

(1895) ; “ One Day’s Courtship ” (1896); “ A 
Woman Intervenes” (1896), and others. 

Barra, a petty Mandingo kingdom of 
Western Africa, near the mouth of the 
Gambia, with an estimated pop. of 200,000, 
the men being remarkable for their fine 
proportions. The surface, which is fertile, 
but rather marshy, is well cultivated. The 
territory about the mouth of the river be¬ 
longs to the British, who have built the 
port of Albreda on the S. bank, from which 
considerable trade is carried on. The chief 
town is Barrinding, where the so-called king 
resides. 

Barra, an island of the Outer Hebrides, 
W. coast of Scotland, belonging to Inver¬ 
ness-shire; 8 miles long and from 2 to 


5 broad, of irregular outline, with rocky 
coasts, surface hilly, but furnishing excel¬ 
lent pasture. On the W. coast the Atlantic, 
beating with all its force, has hollowed out 
vast caves and fissures. Large herds of 
cattle and flocks of sheep are reared on the 
island. The coasts of this and adjacent 
islands abound with fish, and fishing is an 
important industry. 

Barracan, strictly, a thick, strong stuff 
made in Persia and Armenia of camel’s 
hair, but the name has been applied to 
various wool, flax, and cotton fabrics. 

Barracand, Leon Henri (bar-ii-kan), a 
French poet and novelist, born at Romans, 
Drome, May 2, 1844. He gave up the law 
when a very young man in order to write 
verses; but he was not much known as a 
poet until “ Dananiel ” (1886) appeared, 
under the pseudonym of Leon Grandet, 
followed by a sequel, “ Doctor Gal ” (1870). 
He had already, however, attracted atten¬ 
tion by some fictions, and nas steadily risen 
in importance as a novelist;—“ Yolande ” 
(1867); “Hilaire Gervais ” (1885); “The 
Second Lieutenant’s Manuscript” (1887); 
and “The Cousin” (1888), being perhaps 
best known. His “ Lamartine and the 
Muse ” (1383) was crowned by the French 
Academy. 

Barrack, a hut or small lodge. Formerly 
it "was especially used for a humble tempo¬ 
rary building of this character, one of many 
erected to shelter horsemen, as contradis¬ 
tinguished from similar structures, called 
huts, for foot soldiers. Then it was ex¬ 
tended to embrace any temporary erection 
for a soldier, to whatever arm of the service 
belonging. The plural, barracks, is now 
generally applied to a large structure, 
either erected expressly for the housing of 
troops or improvised for that purpose. 

Barrackpur, a native town and military 
cantonment of Bengal, India; on the E. 
bank of the Hooghly, and 15 miles up the 
stream from Calcutta. It is a favorite re¬ 
treat for Europeans from Calcutta; and to 
the S. is its park, containing the suburban 
residence of the Viceroy of India. Two 
Sepoy mutinies have occurred here, the first 
in 1824, when a regiment of Bengal infantry 
refused to go for service in the Burmese 
War, again in the famous mutiny of 1857. 
Pop., with Nawabganj (1901) 31,907. 

Barracoon, a negro barrack or slave de¬ 
pot, formerly plentiful on the coast of 
Africa, in Cuba, and Brazil. 

Barracuda, a fish — the sphyrcena bar¬ 
racuda, found in the vicinity of the Bahamas 
and other West Indian islands. 

Barranquilla (bar-an-ke'la), the princi¬ 
pal port of the Republic of Colombia, in the 
Department of Bolivar, lies near the left 
bank of the main channel of the Magdalena, 






Barrantes 


Barre 


15 miles distant from the sea. A railway 
runs to the coast; and the bar at the mouth 
of the river has been improved so as to en¬ 
able sea-going vessels to pass up to Barran- 
quilla, which possesses excellent wharfage 
accommodation. The inland traffic by river 
steamers is important. The trade is mainly 
in the hands of Germans. Pop. about 
40,000. 

Barrantes, Vicente (bar-ran'tes), a 
Spanish writer, born at Badajoz, March 24, 
1829. He first studied theology, but in 1848 
settled in Madrid to pursue literature; held 
responsible government offices; became mem¬ 
ber of the Academy in 1872. Among his 
works are the stories “ Always Late ” 
(1851); “Juan de Padilla,” “The Widow 
of Padilla,” and a series of historical stud¬ 
ies, dealing with strictly local Philippine 
Island and Estremaduran topics. His 
“ Tales and Legends ” are well chosen and 
well written; but a work on “ The Defects 
and Dangers of Universal Suffrage” is 
weak. He died in 1898. 

Barras (bar-a'), Paul Francois Jean 
Nicolas, Comte de, a French Jacobin, born 
in Provence, in 1755, of an ancient family; 
served as second lieutenant in the regiment 
of Languedoc until 1775. He made, about 
this time, a voyage to the Isle-de-France, 
the governor of which was one of his rela¬ 
tions, and entered into the garrison of Pon¬ 
dicherry. On his return, he gave himself 
up to gambling and women, and dissipated 
his fortune. The Revolution broke out. He 
immediately showed himself an opponent of 
the Court, and had a seat in the tiers-etat, 
while his brother was sitting in that of the 
nobility. July 14, 1789, he took part in the 
attack upon the Bastille, and Aug. 10, 1792, 
upon the Tuileries. In 1792 he was elected 
a member of the National Convention, and 
voted for the unconditional death of Louis 
XVI. He was sent, in 1793, to the South 
of France, and commanded the left wing of 
the besieging army under Dugommier, and 
it was here that he first met Napoleon Bona¬ 
parte, then captain of artillery. The pa¬ 
triotic reputation of Barras was so well es¬ 
tablished that he and Freron were the only 
representatives not denounced by the popu¬ 
lar societies. Robespierre, however, was no 
friend of his, and often wished to arrest 
him. Barras, knowing this, became one of 
the principal actors of the 9th Thermidor, 
and put himself at the head of the troops 
which surrounded Robespierre at the Hotel 
de Ville. In 1794 he was named one of the 
Committee of Public Safety, and became 
a great eremv to the. members of the “Moun¬ 
tain.” In February, 1795, he was elected 
President of the Convention, and, in that 
capacity, declared Paris in a state of siege, 
when the Assembly was attacked by the pop¬ 
ulace. Afterward, when the Convention was 
assailed, Bonaparte, by Barras’ advice, was 


appointed to command the artillery; and 
that general, on the 13th Vendemaire (Oct. 
5, 1795), decisively repressed the royalist 
movement. For his services, Barras was 
now named one of the Directory, and took 
a prominent part in the changes which that 
body underwent until Napoleon’s coup d'etat 



on the 18th Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799), which 
effectually overthrew the power of Barras 
and his colleagues. His life, from this date, 
was, generally speaking, one of retirement. 
He died in Paris, Jan. 29, 1829. His 

“ Memoirs ” appeared in 1895. 

Barrass, Edward, a Canadian clergy¬ 
man, born in Durham, England, July 22, 
1821; entered the ministry in 1840 ; removed 
to Toronto in 1853. He became the assist¬ 
ant editor of the “ Christian Guardian,” 
and published, among other works, “ A Gal¬ 
lery of Deceased Ministers ” (1853) ; “ Class 
Meetings: Their Origin and Advantages” 
(18G5) ; “A Gallery of Distinguished Men” 
(1870); and “Smiles and Tears: or, 
Sketches from Real Life ” (1879). 

Barratry, a law term applied to (1) the 
offense-committed by the master of a vessel 
of embezzling or injuring goods committed 
to his charge for a voyage; (2) the offense 
of frequently exciting and stirring up law¬ 
suits or quarrels among one’s neighbors or 
in society generally. 

Barre, Isaac (ba-ra'), a British soldier, 
born at Dublin in 1726. Gazetted as an en¬ 
sign in 1746, he became friendly with Gen¬ 
eral Wolfe, under whom he rose to the rank 
of Lieutenant-Colonel. He was wounded in 
the cheek at Quebec, was beside Wolfe when 
he fell, and figures in West’s picture of 
“ The Death of Wolfe.” He entered Parlia¬ 
ment in 1761, and held office successive!v 
under Lord Bute, Pitt, Rockingham, and 
Lord Shelburne. In Pitt’s second adminis¬ 
tration he exposed the corruptions of the 







Barre 


Barrett 


ministry, was a strong opponent of Lord 
North’s ministry, and opposed the taxation 
of America. He died in London, July 20, 
1802. 

Barre, a city in Washington county., Vt., 
on the Central Vermont, the Barre, and the 
Montpelier and Wells River railroads; 6 
miles S. E. of Montpelier. Barre received a 
city charter in 1894; and has a wide reputa¬ 
tion as one of the most important seats of the 
granite industry in the United States. The 
city contains, besides granite quarries, sev¬ 
eral industrial plants connected therewith; 
a National and two savings banks; a li¬ 
brary; opera house; Goddard Seminary, a 
home school for young men and women, with 
four courses of study; Spaulding Graded 
School; daily and weekly newspapers; an 
assessed property valuation exceeding 
$2,500,000, and a total debt of about 
$150,000. Pop. (1900) 8,448; (1910) 10,734. 

Barreiro, Juan Baptista Hernandez, a 

Cuban lawyer, born in Havana, about 1842; 
acquired a liberal education; amassed large 
wealth in the practice of his profession. He 
was Professor of Roman Law in the Univer¬ 
sity of Havana for 30 years; and more re¬ 
cently was Dean of the law faculty in the 
university. In February, 1900, while acting 
as First Assistant Mayor of Havana, he was 
appointed a member of the new Cuban Civil 
Cabinet, and given the portfolio of Public 
Education. 

Barrel, a word having many applications, 
including: I. Anything shaped like a 
cask. (1) A cask; a vessel bulging in the 
middle, formed of staves, surrounded by 
hoops, and with a bunghole to afford egress 
to the generally liquid contents. (2) The 
capacity of such a cask, supposing it to be 
of the normal magnitude. In one for hold¬ 
ing liquids the capacity is usually from 30 
to 45 gallons. 

II. Anything hollow and cylindrical. 
The metallic tube which receives the charge 
in a musket or rifle. With the stock and 
the lock, it comprises the whole instrument. 

III. Anything cylindrical, whether hol¬ 
low or not. A cylinder, and especially one 
about which anything is wound. 

Technically.— I. Measures. As much as 
an ordinary barrel will hold. Specially: 

(1) Liquid measure. In this sense the sev¬ 
eral liquids have each a different capacity 
of barrel. A barrel of wine is 31*4 gallons; 
a barrel of oil averages from 50 to 53 gal¬ 
lons. (2) Dry measure. A barrel of flour 
contains 196 pounds. 

II. Mechanics: The cylindrical part of 
a pulley. 

III. Horology: (1) The barrel of a 

watch. The hollow cylinder or case in which 
the mainspring works. It is connected with 
a chain by the fusee, by the winding of 
which the chain is unrolled from the cylin¬ 


der, with the effect of winding the main* 
spring. (2) The chamber of a spring bal¬ 
ance. 

IV. Campanology: The sonorous portion 
of a bell. 

V. Anatomy: Barrel of the ear: A cav¬ 
ity behind the tympanum, covered with a 
fine membrane. The belly and loins of a 
horse or cow are technically spoken of as 
the barrel. 

VI. Nautical: (1) The main piece of a 

capstan. (2) The cylinder around which 
the tiller-ropes are wound. 

VII. Music: The cylinder studded with 
pins by which the keys of a musical instru¬ 
ment are moved. 

Barrel Organ, an organ consisting of a 
cylindrical barrel with pins, the revolution 
of which opens the key valves and plays the 
instrument. The street organ is of this 
type. 

Barren Grounds, a large tract in the 

Northwest Territories of Canada, extending 
N. from Churchill river to the Arctic Ocean, 
between Great Bear and Great Slave Lake 
and Hudson Bay. It largely consists of 
swamps, lakes, and bare rock. 

Barren Island, a volcano in the Anda¬ 
man Sea, about 12° 15' N. lat.; 93° 54' 
E. long. Its diameter is about 2 miles, 
with submarine slopes plunging rapidly to 
a depth of more than 800 fathoms. There 
is an ancient crater over a mile in diameter, 
from the center of which a newer cone rises 
to a height of 1,015 feet. The volcano was 
active in 1789 and 1803, but is now dor¬ 
mant. 

Barrett, John, an American diplomatist, 
born in Grafton, Vt., Nov. 28, 1866; was 
graduated at Dartmouth College in 1889, 
and the same year went to the Pacific coast 
and was engaged in journalism till 1894. 
During 1894-1898 he was United States Min¬ 
ister Resident and Consul-General at Bang¬ 
kok, Siam, and, after the expiration of his 
term of office, represented several American 
newspapers in Manila, Philippine Islands. 
After the American victory in Manila Bay 
he made a special study of conditions in the 
Philippine Islands, and, returning by way of 
London, addressed a joint assembly of mem¬ 
bers of the House of Commons and the Lon¬ 
don Chamber of Commerce, on the condition 
of trade in the P’ar East. After holding several 
diplomatic appointments to foreign coun¬ 
tries, he became Director of the International 
Bureau of American Republics in 1906. His 
chief works relate to commercial affairs. 

Barrett, John Kelly, a Canadian official, 
born in Hamilton, Ontario, June 5, 1860; 
received a public school education, and was 
graduated at Holy Cross College, Worcester, 
Mass., in 1872. After serving as principal 
of St. Mary’s Model School in Hamilton, he 
entered the public service principally in the 



Barrett 


Barricade 


line of education. Dr. Barrett became con¬ 
spicuous in 1890, when the authorities of 
Manitoba abolished the Catholic schools, and 
the official use of French in that province, 
by defending the claims of the Catholic 
minority and by bringing suit against the 
city of Winnipeg to test the constitutional 
power of the Provincial Government in pass¬ 
ing the School Act of 1890. 

Barrett, Lawrence, an American actor, 
born in Paterson, N. J., April 4, 1838. His 
first appearance on the stage was in 1853. 
In 185G he appeared as Sir Thomas Clifford 
in “ The Hunchback ” at Chambers Street 
Theater, New York city, and in 1857 he sup¬ 
ported Mr. Burton, Charlotte Cushman, Ed¬ 
win Booth, and other eminent actors. He 
served as a captain in the 28th Massachu¬ 
setts Infantry in the early part of the Civil 
War. Later he acted at Philadelphia, Wash¬ 
ington, and at Winter Garden, in New York, 
where he was engaged by Mr. Booth to play 
Othello to his Iago. After this he became 
an associate manager of the Varieties Thea¬ 
ter, in New Orleans, where for the first time 
he played the parts of Richelieu, Hamlet, 
and Shylock. In 1864 he secured “Rosedale” 
from Lester Wallack, and after appearing 
in its leading character at New Orleans, 
began his first tour as a star actor. In 
1867 he played at Maguire’s opera house 
in San Francisco, and was then manager of 
the California Theater till 1870. Late in 
1870 he went with Mr. Booth, playing in 
alternate characters in Booth’s Theater. In 
1871-1872 he was manager of the New Va¬ 
rieties Theater in New Orleans, and in De¬ 
cember, 1872, acted Cassius to Booth’s 
Brutus in New York. During 1873-1874 he 
made tours through the United States. In 
1875 he appeared as Cassius in “Julius 
Caesar,” in Booth’s Theater, and later as 
King Lear. He was the first actor to ap¬ 
pear as Daniel Druce in the United States 
in Mr. Gilbert’s play. In 1882 he brought 
out “ Francesca di Rimini,” at the Chestnut 
Street Theater in Philadelphia. In 1883 
this play ran for nine weeks at the Star 
Theater, in New York. In 1887 he began 
his first joint engagement with Edwin Booth 
in Buffalo. Mr. Barrett’s last production 
of a new play was “ Guido Ferranti ” by 
Oscar Wilde, which was brought out in 1890, 
at the Broadway Theater, New York. His 
last appearance was on March 18, 1891, in 
the same theater, in the character of Adrian 
du Mauprat to the Richelieu of Mr. Booth. 
He died in New York city, March 21, 1891. 

Barrett, Wilson, an English dramatist, 
born in Essex, Feb. 18, 1846; son of a far¬ 
mer ; educated at a private school; and en¬ 
tered the dramatic profession in 1863. In 
1874he became manager of the Amphitheater 
in Leeds, and later lessee of the Grand Thea¬ 
ter in Leeds; in 1879 manager of the Court 
Theater, London ; and in 1881, of Princess’ 


Theater, London. He visited the United 
States in 1886, and, returning to England 
in 1887, became manager of the Globe 
Theater; revisited the United States 
in 1888, and again in 1889; in 1896 
became manager of the Lyric Theater, Lon¬ 
don; and in 1899, of the Lyceum. His pub¬ 
lications include “ Pharaoh,” “ Now-a-Da vs ” 
” The Daughters of Babylon,”. “ In Old New 
York,” etc. He died duly 22, 1904. 

Barrias, Felix Joseph (bar-ya'), a 
French painter, born in Paris, Sept. 13, 
1822; pupil of Leon Cogniet. His most suc¬ 
cessful works are “ Cincinnatus ” (1844); 
“ Sappho ” (1847) ; and “ Death of Chopin ” 
(1885). He was awarded the Grand Prix 
de Rome, 1844; Legion of Honor, 1859; first 
medal at the Paris Exposition, 1889. 

Barricade, anything which bars out, 
blocks up, obstructs, or defends ; in military 
language, a hastily constructed fortification, 
made of chevaux-de-frise. trees, earth, stones, 
etc., in order to obstruct the progress of an 
enemy; in marine language, a strong wooden 
railing, fixed on stanchions, extending across 
the front of the quarter-deck of a ship of 
war, during a naval engagement. A barri¬ 
cade is sometimes strengthened with a lining 
of hammocks, etc., confined in a close rope¬ 
netting, to serve as a screen against mus¬ 
ketry. Barricades, constructed of the first 
materials that came to hand, were used in 
popular insurrections during the Middle 
Ages. Paris has obtained notoriety as the 
city in which they have been most frequently 
employed. In 1358, its streets were barri¬ 
caded against the Dauphin. The first “ Bat* 
tie of the Barricades ” took place on the 
entry of the Duke of Guise into Paris, May 
12, 1588. It was followed, during the War 
of the Fronde, by another contest of a some¬ 
what similar character, Aug. 26, 1648, when 
Anne of Austria ordered the arrest of three 
popular members of the Parliament. In 
July, 1830, the elder branch of the Bourbons, 
and in February, 1848, the Orleans branch of 
the same family were driven from the French 
throne, after a struggle at the barricades. 
General Cavaignac, in defense of the Provi¬ 
sional Government, waged a fearful contest 
with the insurgents, who had erected barri¬ 
cades, June 23-26, 1848, in which he was 
at length victorious. The killed and 
wounded amounted to 15,000, and about 
8,000 of the rebels were taken prisoners. 

Napoleon III. widened and macadamized 
many of the principal streets of Paris, 
partly with the express purpose of rendering 
the successful erection of barricades next to 
impossible; but in the second siege of Paris 
(1871), the Communists threw up numbers 
of strong barricades. There was a remark¬ 
able barricade erection in London in 1821. 
The ministry desired that the body of Queen 
Caroline should be conveyed out.of the coun- 



Barrie 


Barrington 


try to Germany, for interment without the 
populace having the opportunity of making 
any demonstration. On the matter becom¬ 
ing known, a vast barricade was erected at 
the point where the Hampstead Road joins 
the New Road; and as nothing but the use 
of artillery could have forced the way, the 
officer in charge of the funeral changed his 
course. In 1848 and 1849, barricades were 
successfully carried in Paris, Berlin, Vi¬ 
enna, and Dresden, by taking the defenders 
in the rear. 

Barrie, a town and county-seat of Simcoe 
Co., North Ontario, Canada; on Kernpen- 
feldt bay and the Grand Trunk railroad; 64 
miles N. N. W. of Toronto. It is a shipping 
point for grain; is lighted by gas and elec¬ 
tricity; has foundries, machine shops, stove, 
pump, and woolen factories, tanneries, flour 
mills, weekly newspapers, and several 
churches and schools, and a collegiate insti¬ 
tute. The town was founded in 1832 and 
incorporated in 1871. Pop. (1891) 5,550; 
(1901) 6,549. 

Barrie, James Matthew, a Scottish 
author; born in Kurriemuir, Forfarshire, 
May 9, 1860. He graduated from Edinburgh 
University in 1882, and went to London in 
1885, to engage in journalism. His pecu¬ 
liar talent for depicting Scottish village life 
and rustic characters with fidelity, pathos, 
humor, and poetic charm, has brought him 
fame. “Better Dead” (1887) and “When 
a Man’s Single” (1888) were followed by 
“ Auld Licht Idylls” (1888), and “A Win¬ 
dow in Thrums” (1889), which first made 
him widely known; “ An Edinburgh Elev¬ 
en ” (1890) ; “My Lady Nicotine,” humor¬ 
ous essays on smoking (1890) ; “The Little 
Minister” (1891); “Sentimental Tommy” 
(1896); “Margaret Ogilvy ” (1896), a bi¬ 
ography of his mother; “ Tommy and Griz- 
el” (1900); “The Little White Bird” 
(1902), etc. He has also written numerous 
short sketches and the following dramatic 
works: “Walker, London” (1892); “Jane 
Annie” (1893) ; and “The Professor’s Love 
Story” (1895). “The Little Minister” 
was dramatized in 1897, and was played 
with success in the United States. 

Barriere, Jean Frangois (bar-yar'), a 
French historical writer, born in Paris, May 
12, 1786. His energies were first directed 
to periodical literature; but he subsequently 
produced “ The Court and the City under 
Louis XIV.. Louis XV., and Louis XVI.,” 
besides editing a numerous series of me¬ 
moirs of personages connected with the 
Grand Monarch. He died in Paris, Aug. 22, 
1868. 

Barriere, Theodore, a French dramatist, 
born in Paris, in 1823. In collaboration 
with others he supplied the French stage 
with a great number of dramas and com¬ 
edies, some of which met with much favor, 


especially “Bohemian Life” (1848, with 
Murger) ; “The Maids of Marble” (1853, 
with Thiboust), a counterpart to Dumas’ 
“ The Camelia Lady,” and “ The Spurious 
Men of Honor” (i856, with Capendu), a 
scathing satire and his masterpiece. He 
died in Paris Oct. 16, 1877. 

Barrier Reef, a coral reef which extends 
for 1,260 miles off the N. E. coast of Aus¬ 
tralia, at a distance from land ranging from 
10 to 100 miles. In sailing from Sydney 
through Torres Straits vessels have the 
choice of the inner and outer routes; the 
former, though narrow, gives a channel of 
about 12 fathoms deep throughout, and pro¬ 
tected from the sea by the reefs themselves; 
the outer channel is less accurately surveyed 
and still dangerous. 

Barrier Treaty, the treaty (1718) by 
which, when the Spanish Netherlands were 
ceded to Austria, the Dutch secured the 
right to garrison several border fortresses of 
the country at the expense of Austria, to 
serve as a barrier against France. It was 
declared void in 1781 by Joseph II. 

Barrili, Antonio Giulio, an Italian 

novelist, born in Savona, in 1836. Engaging 
in journalism when only 18, he assumed the 
management of “II Movimento ” in 1860, 
and became proprietor and editor of “ II 
Caffaro ” in Genoa in 1872. He had taken 
part in the campaigns of 1859 and 1866 
(with Garibaldi in Tyrol) and in the Roman 
expedition of 1867, and sat in the Chamber 
of Deputies in 1876-1879. One of the most 
prolific writers of modern Italy. Among his 
numerous stories are “ Elm Tree and Ivy ” 
(1868); “The Vale of Olives” (1871); 
“ As in a Dream,” “ The Devil’s Portrait ” 
(1882); “The Eleventh Commandment,” 
“ A Whimsical Wooing.” 

Barrington, George, an Irishman, noted 
both as an author and as a pickpocket, born 
in 1755. His most notable act of thieving 
was the robbing of a Russian prince in Co¬ 
vent Garden Theater. He took from him a 
gold snuff-box said to be worth $150,000; 
but, as the prince refused to prosecute, he 
was dismissed from trial. In 1790, how¬ 
ever, he was transported to Botany Bay 
under sentence for seven years. At the end 
of two years his sentence was commuted, and 
in 1792 he obtained the first warrant of 
emancipation ever issued. Among his works 
are “A Voyage to Botany Bay” (1801); 

“ The History of New South Wales” (1802), 
and “ The History of New Holland” (1808). 
He died about 1840. 

Barrington, John Shute, an English 
lawyer and Christian apologist, born in 
Hertfordshire, in 1678; created first Vis¬ 
count Barrington in 1720. He was a disci¬ 
ple and friend of Locke, a friendship which 
is thought to have been brought about by the 
publication of his (Barrington’s) work. 




Barrington 


Barron 


“ The Interest of England,” etc. He was de¬ 
voted to theology and wrote extensively in 
that science. His chief works have been col¬ 
lected under the title “ The Theological 
Works of the Viscount Barrington.” He 
died in Becket, Berkshire, Dec. 14, 1734. 

Barrington, Sir Jonah, an Irish jurist, 
born in County Queens, in 1760; became 
Judge in the Court of Admiralty, and was a 
steady opponent of the Act of Union in 1800. 
As the result of several peculations, upon 
petition of both Parliamentary houses, he 
was deprived of his office, and in 1830 he 
left England. He was the author of “ Per¬ 
sonal Sketches” (1827); “Historic Mem¬ 
oirs of Ireland” (1832); “The Rise and 
Fall of the Irish Nation” (1833), etc. He 
died in Versailles, France, April 8, 1834. 

Barrington, William Wildman, second 

Viscount Barrington, born Jan. 15, 1717; 

was sworn a member of the Privy Council 

in 1755, and in the same year accepted the 

office of Secretarv of War. In 1761 he was 
%/ 

appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer, but 
in 1765, at the King’s express wish, he re¬ 
assumed the post of Secretary of War, which 
he held till. 1778, when, in consideration of 
long public and personal services, he was re¬ 
tired. He died Feb. 1, 1793. 

Barrios, Gerardo, a Central American 
statesman, born about 1810; became Presi¬ 
dent of Salvador in 1860. During his ad¬ 
ministration education, commerce, and pub¬ 
lic works progressed remarkably, his presi¬ 
dential management being unusually liberal. 
He was deposed by Duenas as the outcome 
of the war with Guatemala, and, while en¬ 
deavoring to bring about a revolution in 
order to become president again, he was 
captured and executed, in 1865. 

Barrios, Justo Rufino, a Guatemalan 
statesman, born in San Marcos, about 1834; 
opposed President Cerna in the revolution¬ 
ary movements of 1867, and was active in 
overthrowing the regime established by that 
president (1871). Two years later, when 
Granados took command of the army, Bar¬ 
rios became President and, by successive 
elections, he held the office till his death. 
His administration was marked by pros¬ 
perity and freedom. A war with Salvador 
resulted from a proclamation intended to 
bring about the union of all the Central 
American nations in one republic. In an 
assault upon Chalchuapa, Barrios, putting 
himself at the head of a deserted regiment, 
was killed April 2, 1885. 

Barrister, Barraster, or Barreter, in 

England, a member of the legal profession 
who has been admitted to practice at the 
bar; a counselor at law. In old law books 
barristers were styled apprentices, appren- 
ticii ad legem, being regarded as mere 
learners, and not qualified to execute the 
full office of an advocate till they were of 


16 years’ standing; now a barrister of 10 
years is held competent to fill almost any 
kind of office. No one who has not been 
called to the bar can plead in the Superior 
Courts at Westminster, or, as a rule, in any 
court presided over by a superior judge. 
Formerly a distinction was drawn between 
utter (= outer) barristers, who, on public 
occasions in the Inns of Court, were called 
from the body of the hall to the first place 
outside the bar, while the benchers and 
readers were called inner. In the Inns of 
Court a distinction was formerly drawn 
between inner barristers, who on public 
occasions occupied a place on a raised dais 
separated from the rest of the hall by a 
bar, and utter ( i . e., outer) barristers, who 
were called from among the students to the 
first place outside the bar. The distinction 
has long been abolished, the term barrister 
being now used for what were formerly 
termed inner barristers, while the outer 
barristers have sunk again into the rank 
of students, from which they were taken. 
In Queen Elizabeth's reign the outer bar j 
risters were allowed to practice in law 
courts, but under most other English sov¬ 
ereigns they simply took part in readings 
and moots at the Inns of Court. A now 
obsolete regulation, made in 1603, required 
that no one should be allowed to study foi 
the bar unless he were a gentleman by 
descent; but, at least since 1762, study for 
the bar has been open, on certain conditions, 
to any member of the community. A bar¬ 
rister can be disbarred, appeal, however, 
being allowed him to the judges. The Irish 
bar is regulated almost exactly like that of 
England. The term corresponding to bar¬ 
rister is in Scotland advocate, in the United 
States counselor at law; but the position of 
the latter is not quite the same. 

Barron, James, an American naval offi¬ 
cer, born in Virginia in 1769; became Lieu¬ 
tenant in the navy in 1798, and was soon 
promoted to Captain. He commanded the 
“ Chesapeake ” in 1807, and was attacked 
by the British ship “ Leopard ” as a result 
of his refusal to allow the “ Chesapeake ” 
to be searched for deserters. The “ Chesa¬ 
peake,” which was quite unprepared, dis¬ 
charged one gun previous to striking her 
colors. She was captured and three alleged 
deserters were found. Barron was court- 
martialed and suspended for five years. 
Upon his restoration, as the outcome of a 
long correspondence with his personal en¬ 
emy, Commodore Decatur, a duel was fought 
and Decatur was killed. Barron became 
senior officer in the navy in 1839, and died 
in Norfolk, Va., April 21, 1851. 

Barron, Samuel, an American naval offi 
cer, born in Hampton, Va., about 1763; in 
1805 commanded a squadron of 10 vessels 
in the expedition against Tripoli. On his 



Barros 


Barrow 


return to the United States was appointed 
Commandant of the Gosport Navy Yard, but 
died immediately afterward, Oct. 29, 1810. 

Barros, Joao de, a Portuguese historian, 
born in 1490. He was attached to the court 
of King Emmanuel, and after the publica¬ 
tion in 1520 of Barros’ “ Bomance,” the Em¬ 
peror Clarimond, urged him to undertake a 
history of the Portuguese in India, which 
appeared 32 years later. King John 
III. appointed Barros governor of the 
Portuguese settlements in Guinea, and gen¬ 
eral agent for these colonies, further pre¬ 
senting him, in 1530, with the province of 
Maranham in Brazil, for the purpose of col¬ 
onization. For his losses by the last enter¬ 
prise the King indemnified him, and he 
died in retirement, in 1570. Besides his 
standard work, “ Asia Portuguesa,” he 
wrote a moral dialogue on compromise, and 
the first “ Portuguese Grammar.” 

o 

Barrosa, a village of Spain, 16 miles S. 
S. E. of Cadiz, celebrated in history as the 
place where General Graham (afterward 
Lord Lynedoch), on March 5, 1811, with a 
handful of English troops, gained a decisive 
victory over the French. 

Barrot, Camille Hyacinthe Odilon 

(ba-ro), a French statesman, born at Ville- 
fort, Lozere, July 19, 1791. At 19 he 
pleaded before the ordinary tribunals, and 
at 23, by a special dispensation, before the 
Court of Cassation, Paris, and early ac¬ 
quired a high reputation for eloquence. In 
the political arena also, his oratory soon 
made him one of the most influential lead¬ 
ers of the liberal opposition. He became 
president of the “Aide-toi” Society in 1830, 
and, at the July revolution in that year, was 
one of three commissioners appointed to con¬ 
duct the dethroned Charles X. to Cherbourg, 
on his way to England. On his return he 
was appointed prefect of the Department of 
the Seine, and member of the Council of 
State, but in a few months resigned his 
offices to lead the opposition to Casimir 
Perier and the reactionary ministers who 
followed him. He supported Thiers from 
his accession to office in March, 1840, to his 
fall in October, when he resumed his oppo¬ 
sition to the ministry of Guizot. He took 
a conspicuous part in the reform movement 
of 1847, and spoke eloquently at several of 
the provincial reform banquets which led 
to the revolution of February, 1848. Made 
President by Thiers in his short lived min¬ 
istry, he advised the King to withdraw his 
troops and thus remove the last obstacle to 
the downfall of his throne. In the last sit¬ 
ting of the Chamber of Deputies, he sup¬ 
ported the claim of the Count de Paris to 
the throne, and the regency of the Duchess 
of Orleans. The February revolution con¬ 
siderably abated his ardor for public liberty. 
He held office for some time under the presi¬ 


dency of Louis Napoleon, but retired from 
active political life after the coup d'etat , 
Dec. 2, 1851. In July, 1872, he was made a 
Councilor of State and Vice-President of the 
Council. He died at Bougival, near Paris, 
Aug. 6, 1873. His “ Memoires Posthumes ” 
appeared at Paris (4 vols., 1875-1876). 

Barrow, an artificial mound or tumulus, 
of stones or earth, piled up over the remains 
of the dead. Such erections were frequently 
made in ancient times in our own land, and 
they are met with also in many other coun¬ 
tries both in the Old and New Worlds. In 
Scotland they are called cairns. When 
opened they are often found to contain stone 
cysts, calcined bones, etc. Burial in bar- 
rows, commencing amid the mists of remote 
antiquity, seems to have been practiced as 
late as' the 8th century a. d. One of the 
finest barrows in the world is Silbury Hill, 
Wiltshire, near Marlborough. It is 170 feet 
in perpendicular height, 316 along the slope, 
and covers about five acres of ground. 

Barrow, a term applied to three promi¬ 
nent localities of the Arctic Ocean, in honor 
of Sir John Barrow. (1) Point Barrow, 
on the N. coast of Alaska, in '71° 23' N. 
lat. and 156° 31' W. long., long consid¬ 
ered as the most northerly spot on the 
American mainland. (2) Cape Barrow, on the 
coast of Canada, or Coronation Gulf, is at 
68° N. lat., Ill 0 W. long. (3) Barrow 
Strait, the earliest of Parry’s discoveries, 
leading to the W. out of Lancaster Sound, 
which Parry’s immediate predecessor, Cap¬ 
tain, afterward Sir John Ross, had pro¬ 
nounced to be landlocked in that direction. 
Besides its main course to Melville Sound, 
Barrow Strait throws off Prince Regent’s In¬ 
let to the S. and Wellington Channel to the 
N. The passage averages about 50 miles in 
breadth, extending pretty nearly along the 
parallel of 74° N., from 85° to 100° W. 

Barrow, a river in the S. E. of Ireland, 
province Leinster, rising on the borders of 
the King’s and Queen’s counties, and after 
a southerly course joining the Suir in form¬ 
ing Waterford harbor. It is next in im¬ 
portance to the Shannon, and is navigable 
for vessels of 200 tons for 25 miles above 
the sea. 

Barrow, Frances Elizabeth, an Amer¬ 
ican author, born in Charleston, S. C., Feb. 
22, 1822, was educated in New York, where 
she was married to James Barrow. She 
wrote, under the name of Aunt Fanny, 
numerous books for children; among them 
“ Six Nightcaps,” which has been trans¬ 
lated into French, German, and Swedish. 
Another, “The Letter G” (1864), was 
widely known and very popular. She also 
wrote a novel, “ The Wife’s Stratagem.” 
She died in New York city, May 7, 1894. 

Barrow, Isaac, an English mathemati¬ 
cian and clergyman, born in London,in 1630; 



Barrow 


Barry 


studied at the Charterhouse and at Trinity 
College, Cambridge, of which he became a 
fellow in 1649. After a course of medical 
studies he turned to divinity, mathematics, 
and astronomy, graduated anew at Oxford, 
in 1652, and, failing to obtain the Cam¬ 
bridge Greek professorship, went abroad. In 
1659 he was ordained; in 1660 elected Greek 
professor at Cambridge; in 1662 Professor 
of Geometry in Gresham College; and, in 
1663, Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at 
Cambridge, a post which he resigned to New¬ 
ton in 1669. In 1670 he was created D. D., 
in 1672 Muster of Trinity College, and in 
1675 Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge Univer¬ 
sity. He died in 1677. His principal math¬ 
ematical works (written in Latin) were 
(an edition of which was edited by 
Whewell) : “Elements of Euclid” (1655) ; 
“Data of Euclid,” (1657); “Mathemati¬ 
cal Lessons” (1664-1666); “Optical Les¬ 
sons” (1669); “Lessons in Geometry” 
(1670); “Works of Archimedes,” “Conics 
of Apollonius,” “ Spherics of Theodosius ” 
(1675). All his English works which 

are theological were left in MSS., and 
published by Dr. Tillotson in 1685. 
As a mathematician Barrow was deemed 
inferior only to Newton. He produced 
in a geometrical form that prelude, to 
the differential calculus which goes by the 
name of the method of tangents. According 
to Newton, it asserted the ultimate equality 
of the ratio of the differences of two or¬ 
dinates and abscissae to that of the ordinate 
and subtangent. Barrow’g prelude was in 
fact what was afterward the fundamental 
idea of the differentials of Leibnitz, and was 
so like the previous method of Fermat that 
Montucla called it Fermat’s method simpli¬ 
fied. 

Barrow, Sir John, a notable English 
writer on travels, born at Dragleybeck, Lan¬ 
cashire, June 19, 1764. His numerous and 
extended journeys are recounted in “ Travels 
to China,” “ Voyage to Cochin-China,” 
“ Travels in the Interior of Southern Af¬ 
rica,” and various diaries, with an accuracy 
beyond question, and a conscientious devo¬ 
tion to science equaled only by the modesty 
of his own disparagement of the results of 
his investigations. He died in London, 
Nov. 23, 1848. 

Barrow=in=Furness, an English seaport 
and Parliamentary borough in Lancashire; 
opposite the island of Walney. Its pros¬ 
perity is due to the mines of red hematite 
iron ore which abounds in the district, and 
to the railway rendering its excellent nat¬ 
ural harbor available. It has several large 
docks; besides graving docks, a floating 
dock capable of receiving vessels of 3,000 
tons, a large timber pond, etc. There is an 
extensive trade in timber, cattle, grain and 
flour; and iron ore and pig iron are largely 


shipped. It has numerous blast furnaces, 
and one of the largest Bessemer steel works 
in the world. Besides iron works a large 
business is done in ship building, the 
making of railway cars and rolling stock, 
etc. Pop. (1901) 57,584. 

Barrows, John Henry, an American edu¬ 
cator, born in Medina, Mich., July 11, 1847; 
was graduated at Olivet College in 1867; 
subsequently studied in Yale College, Union 
and Andover Theological Seminaries, and at 
Gottingen; was pastor of the First Presby¬ 
terian Church, in Chicago, for 14 years; or¬ 
ganized and was president of the World’s 
Parliament of Beligions, at the World’s Co¬ 
lumbian Exposition in Chicago, in 1893. He 
delivered a course of lectures on Christian¬ 
ity in the principal universities in India, un¬ 
der the patronage of the University of Chi¬ 
cago, in 1896-1897, and became President 
of Oberlin College in 1898. He published 
“The Gospels are True Histories” (1891) ; 
“Henry Ward Beecher, the Pulpit Jupiter ” 
(1893); “Life of Henry Ward Beecher;” 
“ Christianity the World Religion; ” “ The 
World Pilgrimage; ” “History of the Par¬ 
liament of Religions,” etc. He died in Ober¬ 
lin, O., June 3, 1902. 

Barrundia, Jos£ Francisco, a Central 
American statesman, born in Guatemala, in 
1779; was sentenced to death for treason in 
1813, but escaped; and became leader of the 
Revolutionary Party, in 1819. In 1823— 
1824, as a member of the Constitutional 
Convention of Central America, he brought 
forward the decree for the abolition of slav¬ 
ery. He became President of the Central 
American Republic in 1829; retaining office 
for something over a year. In 1852 he was 
again elected President. He came to the 
United States in 1854, as Minister from 
Honduras, to propose the annexation of that 
territory to the United States, but died sud¬ 
denly before anything was accomplished, in 
New York city, Aug. 4. 

Barry, Ann Spranger, an English ac¬ 
tress, born in Bath, 1734. She was several 
times married. Her first great success was 
in the character of Cordelia, at Drury Lane, 
London (1767). Her farewell was as Lady 
Randolph, at Covent Garden (1797). Equal 
to Mrs. Woffington and Mrs. Cibber in 
tragedy, she surpassed them both in comedy. 
As Desdemona she had, during her whole 
career, no competitor. She died in London, 
in 1801, and is buried in Westminster Ab¬ 
bey. See Barry, Spranger. 

Barry, Sir Charles, an English archi¬ 
tect, born in London, in 1795. After exe¬ 
cuting numerous important buildings, such 
as the Reform Club-house, London, St. Ed¬ 
ward’s School, Birmingham, etc., he was 
appointed architect of the new Houses of 
Parliament, at Westminster, a noble pile, 
with the execution of which he was occu- 




Barry 


Bar=sur=Aube 


pied for more than 24 years. He was 
knighted in 1852, and died suddenly in 18G0. 

Barry, Comtesse du. See Du Barry. 

Barry, Elizabeth, an English actress, 
born in 1G58; was said to be the daughter 
of Colonel Barry, a prominent royalist in 
the Civil War. She made her debut on the 
stage under the patronage of the Earl of 
Rochester; and her first performance is said 
to have been witnessed by Charles II. and 
the Duke and Duchess of York. Her repu¬ 
tation was won chiefly in the line of tragedy, 
in the roles of Monimia and Belvidera. She 
was known as “ the great Mrs. Barry; ” and 
is said to have created over 100 roles. She 
died in London, Nov. 7, 1713. 

Barry, James, an Irish painter and 
writer on art, born in Cork, in 1741; studied 
abroad with the aid of Burke; was elected 
Royal Academician on his return; and 
worked seven years on the paintings for 
the hall of the Society for the Encourage¬ 
ment of the Arts. In 1773 he published his 
“ Inquiry into the Real and Imaginary Ob¬ 
structions to the Increase of the Arts in 
England;” and, in 1782, was elected Pro¬ 
fessor of Painting to the Academy. He 
was expelled in 1797 on the ground of his 
authorship of the “Letter to the Society of 
Dilettanti.” His chief painting was his 
“Victors at Olympia.” He died in 1806. 

Barry, John, an American naval officer, 
born in Tacumshane, Ireland, in 1745. He 
settled in Philadelphia, in 1760. When the 
Revolutionary War broke out he was ap¬ 
pointed commander of the “ Lexington,” 
with which he captured the British tender 
“Edward,” in 1776. He afterward took 
command of the “ Raleigh,” which was cap¬ 
tured by the British “ Experiment; ” but in 
his next command, the “ Alliance,” he cap¬ 
tured the British ships “ Atlanta ” and 
“ Trepassy.” He was chosen to convey La¬ 
fayette and Noailles back to France; and, in 
1794 was appointed commodore. He died 
in Philadelphia, Sept. 13, 1803. 

Barry, John Daniel, an American novel¬ 
ist, born in Boston, Mass., Dec. 31, 1866. 
He has written “ A Daughter of Thespis; ” 
“ The Intriguers;” “ Mademoiselle Blanche;” 
“ The Princess Margarethe, a Fairy Tale,” 
etc. 

Barry, Martin, an English physiologist, 
born at Fratton, Hampshire, in 1802. He 
studied at the medical schools of London, 
and at several on the Continent, and took 
his degree of M. D. in Edinburgh, in 1833. 
He wrote much on physiological subjects, 
and especially on animal development and 
embryology. He was elected a member of 
the Royal Society in 1840. In 1844 he was 
appointed house-surgeon to the Royal Ma¬ 
ternity Hospital, Edinburgh. His means be¬ 
ing ample, he gave his professional services 
largely to the poor. In 1853 he settled at 


Beccles, in Suffolk, where he died in April, 
1855. 

Barry, Spranger, an Irish actor, the great 
rival of Garrick, born in Dublin, in 1719. 
He was brought up as a silversmith; but 
his matchless form and voice led him to try 
the stage. He first appeared (1744) at 
the Theater Royal, Smock Alley, Dublin; 
and in 1746 was engaged at Drury Lane, 
London, as alternate to Garrick, in “ Ham¬ 
let ” and “ Macbeth.” Having aroused Gar¬ 
rick’s jealousy by his success as Romeo, he 
was engaged (1749) at Covent Garden, 
where his supremacy in “ Romeo and Ju¬ 
liet ” was generally conceded. He spent 
1754-1766 trying to found a theater at 
Dublin. In 1767 he reappeared at London 
in the part of Othello. From 1774 till his 
death he acted at Covent Garden. He died 
in London, in 1777, and is buried in West¬ 
minster Abbey. 

Barry, William Farquhar, an Ameri¬ 
can military officer, born in New York city, 
Aug. 18, 1818; graduated at the United 
States Military Academy in 1838; and first 
saw active service in the Florida war (1852- 
1853). In the Mexican War he acted as 
aide-de-camp to General Worth. At the 
outbreak of the Civil War he was made 
chief of artillery, and organized the artil¬ 
lery of the Army of the Potomac. He sub¬ 
sequently became chief of artillery to Sher¬ 
man, and took part in the march to the 
sea. In 1865 he was brevetted Major-Gen¬ 
eral. In 1867 he had charge of the Artillery 
School at Fort Monroe. He was part au¬ 
thor of “ Engineer and Artillery Operations 
of the Army of the Potomac, 1861-1862,” 
and of “ Tactics for the Field Artillerv of 
the United States.” He died near Balti¬ 
more, Md., July 18, 1879. 

Barry, William Taylor, an American 
statesman, born in Lunenburg, Va., Feb. 5, 
1784; graduated at William and Mary Col¬ 
lege (1803), and soon after was admitted 
to the bar. In IS 10 he became a member of 
Congress from Kentucky. He served in the 
War of 1812; and from 1814—1816 was 
United States Senator from Kentucky. In 
1828 he was appointed Postmaster-General 
under Jackson; and was on his way as Min¬ 
ister to Spain when he died in Liverpool, 
Aug. 30, 1835. He was the first Postmaster- 
General who had a seat in the Cabinet. 

Barry Cornwall, the assumed name of 
Bryan Waller Proctor (q. v.). 

Barsabas, Joseph, surnamed “the Just,” 
one of Christ’s early disciples, and probably 
one of the 70. He was one of the two can¬ 
didates nominated to fill the vacancy left 
by Judas Iscariot in the apostleship (Acts i). 

Bar=sur=Aube (bar-sur-ob'), a town of 
France; 30 miles E. of Troyes; notable as 
the scene of a victory of the allied forces 
commanded by Schwarzenberg, over the 



Bar=sur=Seine 


Barth 6Iemy 


French, commanded by Macdonald and Ou- 
dinot, Feb. 27, 1814. The council which de¬ 
cided the plan of campaign of the allies was 
held here before the battle, Feb. 25. 

Bar=sur=Seine, an ancient town of France 
in the Department of Aube, notable as the 
scene of a victory of the allied forces over 
the French, in March, 1814. 

Bart, Barth, or Baert (bart), Jean, a 
French sailor, born at Dunkirk, 1050, the 
son of a poor fisherman. He became cap¬ 
tain of a privateer, and, after some brilliant 
exploits, was appointed captain in the Royal 
Navy. In recognition of his further ser¬ 
vices, he was made commodore, subsequently 
receiving letters of nobility. Brusque, if 
not vulgar in manner, and ridiculed by the 
court for his indifference to ceremony, he 
made the navy of the nation everywhere re¬ 
spected, and furnished some of the most 
striking chapters in the romance of naval 
warfare. After the peace of Ryswick, he 
lieved quietly at Dunkirk, and died there 
while equipping a fleet to take part in the 
war of the Spanish succession, in 1702. 

Bartas, GuilJaume de Salluste du 

(bar-ta"), a French soldier, diplomatist, and 
man of letters, born at Mcntfort, in Armag- 
nac, in 1544, and died in 1590 of wounds re¬ 
ceived at the battle of Ivry. His chief poem, 
“ The Divine Week,” gives an account of the 
creation, and is said to have had a consid¬ 
erable influence on Milton’s “ Paradise 
Lost.” Thirty editions of the work passed 
through the press in six years. Joshua Syl¬ 
vester (1563-1618) translated into English 
“ Du Bartas, His Divine Weeks and Works ” 
(1598). 

Bartenstein, Treaty of , a treaty between 
Prussia and Russia against France, con¬ 
cluded at Bartenstein, Prussia, April 25, 
1807, soon after the battle of Evlau. The 
objects of the alliance were to re-establish 
Prussia within the limits of 1805; to dis¬ 
solve the Rhine Confederation; to restore 
Tyrol and Venice to Austria; to secure the 
co-operation of England and Sweden; to 
aggrandize Hanover at the expense of 
France; to restore the House of Orange; and 
to obtain from France indemnities to the 
Kings of Sardinia and Naples. The terms 
of this alliance are chiefly important for 
their similarity to the terms offered Na¬ 
poleon at Prague (1813). 

Barter, in commerce and political econ¬ 
omy, a term used to express the exchange 
of one commodity for another, as contrasted 
with the sale of commodities for money. It 
is simply a primitive form of exchange car¬ 
ried on in countries in which the use of 
money has not yet been introduced, or is 
not prevalent. It was an economic stage 
through which all communities must have 
passed. Even yet in many rude countries 
barter is very common; and European trav¬ 


elers find it convenient to take with them 
weapons, tools, and ornaments to exchange 
with the natives for their commodities. In 
civilized communities barter is a very ex¬ 
ceptional thing, having been superseded by 
the use of money in various forms. 

In law, barter, or exchange, as it is now 
more generally called in law books, is a con¬ 
tract for transferring property, the consid¬ 
eration being some other commodity; or it 
may be described as a contract for the ex¬ 
change of two subjects or commodities. It 
thus differs from sale, which is a contract 
for the transference of property in consid¬ 
eration of a price in money. 

Barth, Heinrich (bart), a German Af¬ 
rican traveler, born in Hamburg in 1821. 
He graduated at the University of Berlin as 
Ph. D., in 1844; and set out in 1845 to ex¬ 
plore all the countries bordering on the 
Mediterranean. The first volume of his 
“ Wanderungen durch die Iviistenlander des 
Mittelmeeres,” was published in 1849, in 
which year he was invited by the English 
Government to join Dr. Ovenveg in accom¬ 
panying Richardson’s expedition to Central 
Africa. The expedition set out from Tripoli 
in February, 1850, and, in spite of the death 
both of Richardson and Overweg, Barth did 
not return to Tripoli till the autumn of 1855. 
His explorations, which extended over an 
area of about 2,000,000 square miles, deter¬ 
mined the course of the Niger and the true 
nature of the Sahara. The English account 
of it was entitled “ Travels and Discoveries 
in North and Central Africa ” (5 vols., 1857- 
1858). He died in 1865, leaving unfinished 
an important work on the African lan¬ 
guages. 

Barthelemy, Auguste=Marseille, (bar- 
tal'me), a French poet and politician, 
born in Marseilles in 1796. Educated at 
the Jesuit College of Juilly, he went to 
Paris in 1822, and soon made himself fa¬ 
mous by a series of vigorous and pointed po¬ 
litical satires in verse, directed against the 
Bourbons, and full of suggestive regrets for 
the glories of the empire. In “ Napoleon in 
Egypt” (1828), and still more in his elegy 
for Napoleon’s son, “ The Son of the Man ” 
(1829), he spoke out his imperialism more 
boldly, and the latter occasioned his impris¬ 
onment on the eve of the revolution of July. 
His liberation, of course, was immediate; 
and along with his friend Mery, he cele¬ 
brated the victory of the people in a poem 
dedicated to the Parisians, and entitled 
“ The Insurrection.” During all the changes 
which followed, Barthelemy was indefatig. 
able as a brilliant versifier on the political 
events of the day; though, in his later years, 
his popularity somewhat declined. He was, 
from the first, a warm supporter of the 
second Napoleonic regime. Some of his say. 
ings are memorable, as the oft-quoted 
“ L’homme absurde est celui qui ne change 



Barthelemy 


Bartholin 


jamais.” He died Aug. 23, 18G7, in Mar¬ 
seilles, of which city he was librarian. 

Barthelemy, Jean Jacques, a French 
antiquarian; born near Marseilles, Jan. 20, 
1716; was educated at the oratory at Mar¬ 
seilles, and was about to prepare himself 
for holy orders, but becoming disgusted 
with his teachers, he declined all offers of 
clerical promotion, and only accepted the 
title of abbe, in order to show that he be¬ 
longed to this class. From his youth he 
loved the study of the ancient languages, 
including the ancient Oriental tongues, and 
antiquities more particularly. His inde¬ 
fatigable industry and acuteness soon ena¬ 
bled him to communicate to the learned 
new discoveries in this branch of study, 
among which the “ Alphabet of Palmyra,” 
published by him in 1754, holds a principal 
place. In 1747 he was chosen member of 
the Academy of Inscriptions at Paris, after 
having been associated, on his arrival in 
Paris (1744), with the inspector of the 
Poyal Cabinet of Medals. About this time 
he became acquainted with Count Stainville 
(afterward the Minister Choiseul), who 
was on the point of departing as ambassa¬ 
dor for Pome, and invited Barthelemy to 
accompany him thither. Having been ap¬ 
pointed director of the Cabinet of Medals 
in 1753, he accepted the offer, and went in 
1754 to Rome. Among his works none is 
so distinguished for learning and beauty 
of description as the “ Travels of the Young¬ 
er Anacharsis in Greece,” on which he had 
labored 30 years, and which was translated 
into English, German, and other languages. 
He himself was modest enough to call this 
an unwieldy compilation, while all the 
learned men of France and foreign countries 
received it with the greatest applause. 
Barthelemy, in his advanced age, resolved 
to compose a complete catalogue of the 
Royal Cabinet of Medals, but was inter¬ 
rupted in 1788 by the storms of the Revo¬ 
lution. In 1789 he received a place in the 
Academie Francaise. When the chief libra¬ 
rian of the national library, the notorious 
Carra, was executed, Oct. 31, 1793, Barthel¬ 
emy received the offer of his place; but he 
refused it, with the hope of passing his re¬ 
maining days in tranquillity. He died 
Jan. 30, 1795. 

Barthelemy =Saint=HiIaire, Jules, a 

French politician and philosopher; born in 
Paris, Aug. 19, 1805. On completing his 
studies he received an appointment in the 
ministry of finance, being at that time also 
on the staff of the “ Globe ” newspaper. 
After the revolution of 1830 he founded a 
journal called “ Bon Sens,” and continued 
to support the Liberal party in the press. 
In 1834 he became examiner in French lit¬ 
erature at the 6cole Polytechnique, and four 
years later he was appointed to the chair 
of Greek and Latin Philosophy in the Col¬ 


lege de France. He played a part on the 
side of the Moderate party in the revolution 
of 1848, and was elected to the constituent 
assembly for Seine-et-Oise. The coup d’etat 
of December, 1852, caused him to forsake 
political life for a considerable time and to 
resign his professorship. From this retire¬ 
ment he emerged in 1869. He was shortly 
afterward sent to the National Assembly 
as the representative of that department, 
and during the troublous times of 1870- 
1871 he was closely associated with M. 
Thiers. In 1875 he became a life senator, 
and in the cabinet of M. Jules Ferry, con¬ 
stituted 1880, he was appointed minister of 
foreign affairs. The chief event of his tenure 
of this office was the occupation of Tunis. 
In 1881 he again abandoned public life for 
study and literary work. He died in Paris, 
Nov. 25, 1895. His greatest work is his 
complete French version of “ Aristotle ” 
(1837-1893) ; and among his other writings 
are “ De la Logique d’Aristote ” (1838); 
“ Des Vedas” (1854); “Du Bouddhisme ” 
(1855) ; “Letters on Egypt” (1856) ; “ Le 
Bouddha et sa Religion” (1862); “Maho¬ 
met et le Coran” (1865); “ De la Meta¬ 
physique” (1879); “ LTnde Anglaise ” 

(1887); “Victor Cousin” (1895, 3 vols.) ; 
and other works on Hindu religions, philos¬ 
ophy, etc. 

Barthet, Armand (bar-ta'), a French 
poet and novelist (1820-1874), best remem¬ 
bered as the author of “ The Sparrow of 
Lesbia” (1849) , a comedy in verse, written 
for the famous Rachel. 

Barthez, Pan! Joseph (bar-ta), a French 
physician, born at Montpelier, in 1734. At 
Montpelier he founded a medical school, 
which acquired a reputation throughout all 
Europe. Having settled in Paris, he was 
appointed by the King consulting physician, 
and by the Duke of Orleans his first phy¬ 
sician. The Revolution deprived him of the 
greatest part of his fortune, and drove him 
from Paris, but Napoleon brought him forth 
again, and loaded him in his advanced age 
with dignities. Among his numerous writ¬ 
ings may be mentioned “ New Mechanism of 
the Motions of Man and Animals,” “ Treat¬ 
ment of Gout,” and “ Medical Consultor,” 
etc. He died in 1806. 

Bartholdi, Frederic Auguste (bar- 

t5l-de'), a French sculptor, born in Colmar, 
Alsace, April 2, 1834; received the cross of 
the Legion of Honor in 1865; principal 
works: the “Lion of Belfort;” statue of 
Cafayette, in Union Square, New York; 
bronze group of Lafayette and Washington, 
in Paris (1895) ; and the colossal figure in 
Hew lork harbor, “ Liberty Enlightenin' 3, 
the World.” He died Oct. 4, 1904. 

Bartholin, Kaspar (biir-to-lin'), a 
Swedish writer, born in 1585. He studied 
medicine, philosophy, and theology; was 





Bartholomew 


Bartholomew 


made Doctor of Medicine at Basel in 1G10, 
rector of tlie University of Copenhagen, in 
1618, and Professor of Theology in 1624. 
His “ Institutions Anatomicae ” was for 
long a standard text-book in the universities. 
He died in 1630. His son, Thomas, born at 
Copenhagen in 1616, died in 1680, was 
equally celebrated as a philologist, natural¬ 
ist, and physician. He was Professor of 
Anatomy at Copenhagen in 1648; physician 
to the King, Christian V., in 1670; and 
Councilor of State in 1675. His sons, Kas- 
[*ar (born in 1654, died in 1704), and Thomas 
(born in 1659; died in 1690), were also 
highly distinguished — the first as an anat¬ 
omist, the other as an archaeologist. 

Bartholomew, Edward Sheffield, an 

American sculptor, born at Colchester, 
Conn., in 1822; studied in New York and 
in Pome, where he lived during the latter 
part of his life. Among his works are 
“ Blind Homer, Led bv His Daughter,” 
“ Eve,” “ Youth and Old Age,” “ Ganymede,” 
and “ Evening Star.” He died in Naples, 
May 2, 1858. 

Bartholomew Fair, or Bartlemy Fair, 

a celebrated fair, which was long held in 
Smithfield at Bartliolomcw-tide. The char¬ 
ter authorizing it was granted by Henry I. 
in 1153, and it was proclaimed for the last 
time in 1855. 

Bartholomew, Massacre of St., the 

slaughter of French Protestants in Paris, 
beginning Aug. 24, 1572. After the death 
of Francis II., Catherine de’ Medici had 
assumed the regency for her son, Charles 
IX., then only 10 years old, and was com¬ 
pelled, in spite of the opposition of the 
Guises, to issue an edict of toleration in 
favor of the Protestants. The party of the 
Guises now persuaded the nation that the 
Catholic religion was in the greatest danger. 
The Huguenots were treated in the most 
cruel manner; Prince Conde took up arms; 
the Guises had recourse to the Spaniards, 
Conde to the English, for assistance. Both 
parties were guilty of the most atrocious 
cruelties, but finally concluded peace. The 
queen-mother caused the king, who had en¬ 
tered his 14th year, to be declared of age, 
that she might govern more absolutely un¬ 
der his name. Duke Francis de Guise had 
been assassinated by a Huguenot, at the 
siege of Orleans; but his spirit continued 
in his family, which considered the Admiral 
Coligny as the author of his murder. The 
king had been persuaded that the Huguenots 
had designs on his life, and had conceived 
an implacable hatred against them. Mean¬ 
while, the court endeavored to gain time, 
in order to seize the persons of the prince 
and the admiral by stratagem, but was dis¬ 
appointed, and hostilities were renewed with 
more violence than ever. In the battle of 
Jarnac, 1569, Conde was made prisoner and 


shot by Captain de Montesquieu. Coligny 
collected the remains of the routed army, 
the young Prince Henry de Bearn (after¬ 
ward Henry IV., King of Navarre and 
France), the head of the Protestant party 
after the death of Conde, was appointed 
commander-in-chief, and Coligny command¬ 
ed in the name of the Prince Henry de 
Conde, who swore to revenge the murder of 
his father. The advantageous offers of 
peace at St. Germain-en-Laye (Aug. 8, 
1570) blinded the chiefs of the Huguenots, 
particularly Admiral Coligny, who was 
wearied with civil war. The king appeared 
to have entirely disengaged himself from 
the influence of the Guises and his mother; 
he invited the old Coligny, the support of 
the Huguenots, to his court, and honored 
him as a father. The most artful means 
were employed to increase this delusion. 
The sister of the king was married to the 
Prince de Bearn (Aug. 18, 1572), in order 
to allure the most distinguished Huguenots 
to Paris. Some of his friends endeavored 
to dissuade the admiral from this visit; but 
he could not be convinced that the king 
would command an assassination of the 
Protestants throughout his kingdom. On 
Aug. 22, a shot from a window wounded 
the admiral. The kinc hastened to visit 
him, and swore to punish the author of the 
villainy; but, on the same day, he was in¬ 
duced by his mother to believe that the 
admiral had designs on his life. “ God’s 
death!” he exclaimed: “kill the admiral; 
and not only him, but all the Huguenots; 
let none remain to disturb us! ” The fol¬ 
lowing night Catherine held the bloody 
council which fixed the execution for the 
night of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. 
After the assassination of Coligny, a bell 
from the tower of the royal palace, at mid¬ 
night, gave to the assembled companies of 
burghers the signal for the general massacre 
of the Huguenots. The Prince of Conde 
and the King of Navarre saved their lives 
by going to mass, and pretending to em¬ 
brace the Catholic religion. By the king’s 
orders, the massacre was extended through 
the whole kingdom; and if, in some prov¬ 
inces, the officers had honor and humanity 
enough to disobey the orders to butcher 
their innocent fellow citizens, yet instru¬ 
ments were always found to continue the 
massacre. This horrible slaughter con¬ 
tinued for 30 days, in almost all the prov¬ 
inces; the victims are calculated at 30,000. 
At Rome, the cannons were discharged, the 
Pope ordered a jubilee and a procession to 
the Church of St. Louis, and caused the 
Te Deurn to be chanted. Those of the 
Huguenots who escaped fled into the moun¬ 
tains and to Rochelle. The Duke of Anjou 
laid siege to that city, but, during the siege, 
received the news that the Poles had elected 
him their king. He concluded a treaty, 
July 6, 1573, and the king granted to the 



Bartholomew, St. 


Bartlett 


Huguenots tlie exercise of their religion in 
certain towns. The court gained nothing 
by the massacre of St. Bartholomew. See 
Huguenots. 

Bartholomew, St., the apostle, probably 
the same person as Nathanael, mentioned, in 
the Gospel of St. John, as an upright Is¬ 
raelite, and one of the first disciples of 
Jesus. The derivation of his name and de¬ 
scent from the family of the Ptolemies is 
fabulous. He is said to have taught Chris¬ 
tianity in the South of Arabia, and to have 
carried there the Gospel of St. Matthew, in 
the Hebrew language, according to Eusebius. 
Chrysostom mentions that he preached in 
Armenia and Natolia; and a later writer 
of legends savs that he suffered crucifixion 
at Albania Pyla (now Derbend), in Persia. 
The ancient Church had an apocryphal Gos¬ 
pel bearing his name, of which nothing has 
been preserved. The Catholic Church cele¬ 
brates a feast in his honor, on the 24th of 
August. 

Bartholomew, St., an island, one of the 
West Indies, in the Leeward group, belong¬ 
ing to France, being transferred by Sweden 
in 1878. It is a dependency of Guadeloupe. 
The island has a mountainous surface and 
is about 24 miles in circumference. The 
soil is fertile enough to produce fair crops 
in spite of insufficient moisture. Many veg¬ 
etables are raised besides bananas, tama- 
rinds, cassia, tobacco, sugar, indigo, cot¬ 
ton, etc. Deposits of zinc and iron are 
found. The port is not capable of accom¬ 
modating the largest vessels. The only 
town is Gustavia, which is on an arm of the 
sea in the S. W. part of the island. 

Bartholomew’s Hospital, more generally 
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, a celebrated 
London hospital and medical school, on the 
S. side of Smithfield, believed to have been 
founded as far back as A. d. 1102, by Ra- 
here, usually described as having been a 
minstrel in the court of Henry I. It is still 
a highly flourishing institution. 

Bartholomew’s Tide, the festival of St. 
Bartholomew is celebrated on Aug. 24, and 
St. Bartholomew's tide is the term most 
nearly coinciding-with that date. Two great 
historical events have occurred on St. Bar¬ 
tholomew’s day; one in France, the other 
in England: (a) On Aug. 24, 1572, Paris 
disgraced itself by the atrocious and treach¬ 
erous massacre of the Admiral Coligny and 
an immense multitude of less distinguished 
Huguenots, (b) On Aug. 24, 1662, about 
2,000 clergymen, unable conscientiously to 
sign adherence to the Act of Uniformity, had 
to leave their livings in the Church of Eng¬ 
land and make way for others who would 
accept that Act. 

Bartizan, a battlement on the top of a 
house or castle; a small overhanging turret 


projecting from the angle on the top of a 
tower, or from the parapet or other parts 
of a building; or, the battlement surround¬ 
ing a spire or steeple, or the roof of a cathe¬ 
dral or church. 

Bartlett, Edwin Julius, an American 

chemist, born in Hudson, O., Feb. 16, 1851; 
graduated at Dartmouth College in 1872, 
and at Rush Medical College in 1879; made 
Associate Professor of Chemistry in Dart¬ 
mouth in 1879, and full professor in 1883. 
He is a member of the American Chemical 
Society, and the New York Medico-Legal 
Society, and an honorary member of the 
New Hampshire Medical Society. He is the 
author of many papers on chemical subjects. 

Bartlett, Sir Ellis Ashmead, an English 
politician, born in Brooklyn, N. Y., of Amer¬ 
ican parents, in 1849; graduated at Christ 
Church College, Oxford, in 1872; admitted 
to the bar in 1877; was a member of 
Parliament from Eye division of Suffolk in 
1880-1885; and from Ecclesall division of 
Suffolk since 1895; was Civil Lord of the 
Admiralty in 1885-1886, and 1886-1892. 
He was the author of “ The Battlefields of 
Thessaly” (1897), and brother of William 
Ashmead Bartlett, who married the Baron¬ 
ess Burdett-Coutts ( q. v .). He died in 
London, Jan. 18, 1902. 

Bartlett, Homer Newton, an American 

composer, born in Olive, N. Y., Dec. 28, 
1846; began his public career v r hen nine 
years of age, and at 10 composed violin 
music, piano duos, songs and vocal duets. 
He has written a large number of anthems, 
quartets, and glees for vocal rendering, and 
pieces for the flute, stringed instruments, 
and military bands and orchestras. His best 
compositions include a three-act opera, “ La 
Valliere:” a cantata, “ The Last Chieftain;” 
an oratorio, “ Samuel,” etc. 

Bartlett, John, an American author and 

publisher, born in Plymouth, Mass., June 14, 
1820; became a publisher in Cambridge in 
1836, and senior partner in the Boston pub¬ 
lishing house of Little, Brown & Co., in 1878. 
His works include “ Familiar Quotations ” 
(1854; 9th ed., 1891); “New Method of 
Chess Notation” (1857); “The Shakes¬ 
peare Phrase-Book” (1882); “Catalogue 
of Books on Angling, Including Ichthyology, 
Pisciculture, etc.” (1882); “The Shakes¬ 
peare Index;” “The Complete Concordance 
to Shakespeare Dramatic Works” (1894), 
and “ Poems.” He died Dec. 3, 1905. 

Bartlett, John Russell, an American 
author, born in Providence, R. I., Oct. 23, 
1805; was educated for a mercantile career. 
After 1837, he entered the book-importing 
trade in New York. In 1850, he was ap¬ 
pointed one of the commissioners to fix the 
Mexican boundary. In 1855, he was made 
Secretary of State of Rhode Island. He 
wrote various valuable records, genealogies, 




Bartlett 


Bartoli 


local histories, etc. His best known work 
is his “Dictionary of Americanisms ” (1850). 
lie died in Providence, May 28, 1880. 

Bartlett, John R., an American naval of¬ 
ficer, born in New York in 1843; was ap¬ 
pointed an acting midshipman in the navy 
from Rhode Island in 1850; entered the 
United States Naval Academy, where he re¬ 
mained till the beginning of the Civil War, 
when he applied for active duty, and was 
assigned to the West Gulf Blockading 
Squadron. He took part in the bombard¬ 
ment and passage of Ports St. Philip and 
Jackson, and the Clialmette batteries, and 
the capture of New Orleans and attack on 
Vicksburg, in June, 1802. He was promoted 
Lieutenant in 1804; took part in the bom¬ 
bardment of Port Fisher in December, and 
the assault on its wc"ks in January. Sub¬ 
sequently he was on surveying duty in Nic¬ 
aragua and on the United States Coast Sur¬ 
vey; was promoted to Captain, July 1, 
1892; and was retired July 12, 1897. After 
the declaration of war against Spain, in 
1898, he was recalled to active service, and 
on July 9, succeeded Rear-Admiral Erben 
as commander of the Auxiliary Naval 
Squadron, comprising 33 vessels organized 
for the protection of the Atlantic coast 
cities. He died Nov. 21, 1904. 

Bartlett, Josiah, an American physician 
and statesman, born in Amesbury, Mass., in 
1729; was one of the signers of the Declara¬ 
tion of Independence, and a member of the 
Continental Congress (1775-1776); became 
Chief Justice of New Hampshire (1788); 
and first Governor of New Hampshire un¬ 
der the new State Constitution. He died 
in 1795. 

Bartlett, Samuel Colcord, an American 
educator, born in Salisbury, N. H., Nov. 25, 
1817 ; was educated at Dartmouth College, 
and became a teacher there and at Andover 
Theological Seminary. He had charge of a 
church at Monson, Mass.; subsequently be¬ 
coming Professor of Philosophy in Western 
Reserve University, Ohio. He afterward be¬ 
came pastor of a church in Manchester, N. 
H., and later of the New England Church 
in Chicago. In 1858 he was made Professor 
of Biblical Literature in the Chicago Theol¬ 
ogical Seminary, where he remained until 
1873, when he spent a year of travel in the 
East. In 1877 he accepted the presidency 
of Dartmouth College, which he held until 
1892, when he resigned. He was the author 
of a number of works, including “ From 
Egypt to Palestine” (1879), and also wrote 
a part of the American edition of “ Smith’s 
Dictionary of the Bible.” He died in Han¬ 
over, N. H., Nov. 16, 1898. 

Bartlett, William Francis, ftn American 
military officer, born in Haverhill, Mass., 
Jan. 6, 1840; was a student in Harvard Uni¬ 
versity at the outbreak of the Civil War, 
but left to enter the army; was wounded in 

46 


the battle of Ball’s Bluff, suffering the loss 
of a leg; but continued in the service; was 
twice wounded at Port Hudson; and in the 
battles of the Wilderness, while leading the 
57th Massachusetts Regiment, was again 
wounded, taken prisoner, and sent to Libby 
Prison. At the close of the war, he was 
made a Major-General of Volunteers for dis¬ 
tinguished services in the field. He died in 
Pittsfield, Mass., Dec. 17, 1876. 

Bartlett, William Henry ,an English au¬ 
thor and illustrator, born in London, March 
26, 1809; illustrated works on America, 
Switzerland, Palestine, etc.; was the author 
and illustrator of “Walks About Jerusa¬ 
lem” (1844) ; “Forty Days in the Desert” 
(1848); “The Nile Boat” (1849); “Pic¬ 
tures from Sicily” (1853); “The Pilgrim 
Fathers ” (1853), etc. He died Sept. 13, 1854. 

Bartley, Elias Hudson, an American 
chemist, born in Bartleyville, N. J., Dec. 6, 
1849; graduated at Cornell L^niversity in 
1873; was an instructor there in 1874-1875; 
Professor of Chemistry at Swarthmore Col¬ 
lege, 1875-1878; Lecturer at the Franklin 
Institute, Philadelphia, in 1877-1878; re¬ 
moved to Brooklyn in 1879; graduated at 
Long Island College Hospital in 1879; was 
lecturer there on Physiological and Prac¬ 
tical Chemistry in 1880-1885; and then be¬ 
came Professor of Chemistry and Toxicol¬ 
ogy. He was made chief chemist of the 
health department of Brooklyn, in 1882. He 
is the author of several articles in Wood’s 
“ Household Practice of Medicine ” (1885), 
and of “ A Text-Book of Medical Chemistry.” 

Bartok, Ludwig von, a Hungarian poet 
and dramatist, born in 1851. He is widely 
known as a versifier of taste, “ Carpathian 
Songs ” being his happiest verse. As a play¬ 
wright, he is even more distinguished; the 
comedy of “The Most Beautiful” (1880), 
and the historical tragedy, “ Margareta 
Kendi,” as well as “ Anna Thuran,” a his¬ 
torical drama, having been frequently acted. 

Bartol, Cyrus Augustus, an American 
clergyman, born in Freeport, Me., April 30, 
1813; graduated at Bowdoin College in 1832, 
and at Cambridge Divinity School in 1835; 
became colleague pastor with Dr. Charles 
Lowell of the West Church (Unitarian), in 
Boston, 1837, and full pastor in 1861. His 
works include “ Discourses on the Christian 
Spirit and Life” (1850); “Discourses on 
Christian Body and Form” (1854): “Pic¬ 
tures of Europe Framed in Ideas” (1855) ; 
“ History of the West Church and Its Min¬ 
isters ” (1858); “ Church and Congregation” 
(1858); “Word of the Spirit to the Church ” 
(1859); “Radical Problems” (1872); “The 
Rising Faith” (1874); “Principles and 
Portraits” (1880), etc. He died in Boston, 
Dec. 17, 1900. 

Bartoli, Adolfo (bar-to'le), an Italian 
historian, born in Fivizzano, Nov. 19, 1833. 



Bartolini 


Barton 


He has long been a recognized arbiter of 
taste and the elegancies in connection with 
his country’s literature; his “ First Two 
Centuries of Italian Literature” (1870- 
1880), and “ History of Italian Literature” 
(1878-1889) being masterpieces. In 1874 
he became Professor of Italian Literature in 
the Institute of Florence. 

Bartolini, Lorenzo (biir-to-le'ne), an 
Italian sculptor, born at Yernio, in Tuscany, 
in 1777; went to Paris while still a young 
man. His chief patron was Napoleon, who, 
in 1808, sent him to Carrara, to establish 
a school of sculpture. After the battle of 
Waterloo he repaired to Florence, where he 
died in 1850. Besides an immense number 
of busts, he produced several groups, the 
most celebrated of which are his “ Charity ” 
and “ Hercules and Lycus.” 

Bartolommeo di San Marco, Fra, or 
Baccio della Porta, one of the most distin¬ 
guished masters of the Florentine school of 



painting, born at Savignano, in Tuscany, in 
1409. His subjects are mostly religious, 
and the greater part belong to the later pe¬ 
riod of his life. He was a warm adherent 
of Savonarola, after whose tragical end in 
1500 he took the habit of the cloister. He 
imparted to Raphael his knowledge of col¬ 
oring, and acquired from him a more per¬ 
fect knowledge of perspective. He died in 
Florence in 1517. 

Bartolozzi, Francesco (-lot'ze), an 
Italian engraver, born at Florence in 1725, 
or, according to others, in 1730. In Venice, 
in Florence, and Milan, he etched several 
pieces on sacred subjects, and then went to 
London, where he received great encourage¬ 
ment. After 40 years’ residence ir London, 
he went to Lisbon, on the invitation of the 
Prince Regent of Portugal, to take the su¬ 
perintendence of a school of engravers, and 
remained there till his death, in 1813. 


Barton, Andrew, one of Scotland’s first 

great naval commanders; flourished during 
the reign of James IV., and belonged to a 
family which for two generations had pro¬ 
duced able and successful seamen. In 1497 
he commanded the escort which accompanied 
Perkin Warbeck from Scotland. After do¬ 
ing considerable damage to English shipping, 
he was killed in an engagement with two 
ships which had been especially fitted out 
against him (1512). 

Barton, Benjamin Smith, an American 

naturalist, born in Lancaster, Pa., *Feb. 10, 
1766; studied the natural sciences and medi¬ 
cine in Philadelphia, Edinburgh, and London 
(1782-1788), and took his degree at Got¬ 
tingen. He practiced medicine in Phila¬ 
delphia, and held successively the chairs of 
Botany and Natural History, Materia Med- 
ica, and Theory and Practice of Medicine 
in the university there. He became presi¬ 
dent of many learned societies, was a cor¬ 
respondent of Humboldt, and, among other 
works, wrote “Elements of Botany” (1812— 
1814) ; “Collections for an Essay Toward 
a Materia Medica of the United States ” (3d 
ed., 1810) ; and “Flora Virginica ” (1812). 
He died in Philadelphia, Dec. 19, 1815. 

Barton, Bernard, an English poet, born 
in Carlisle, Jan. 31, 1784; educated at a 
Quaker school in Ipswich. He is called the 
Quaker poet, and is best known because of 
his friendship with Charles Lamb. His life 
was spent in Woodbridge. He published 
“ Metrical Effusions,” which led to a cor¬ 
respondence with the poet Southey (1812) ; 
“ Poems by an Amateur” (1818) ; “ Poems,” 
which gained him the friendship of Charles 
Lamb and Lord Byron (1820); “Napoleon 
and Other Poems” (1822); “Poetic Vig¬ 
ils” (1824) ; “Devotional Verses” (1826) ; 
“ A New Year’s Eve and Other Poems ” 
(1828) ; and — his last work—“Household 
Verses” (1845). He died in Woodbridge, 
Suffolk, England, Feb. 19, 1849. His daugh¬ 
ter Lucy published “ Selections from the 
Poems and Letters of Bernard Barton ” in 
1849. His poetry, though deficient in force, 
is pleasing, fluent, and graceful, animated 
by a love of nature, and by a pure religious 
spirit. 

Barton, Clara, an American philanthro¬ 
pist; born in Oxford, Mass., in 1830; was 
educated at Clinton, N. Y., and early be¬ 
came a teacher, and founded at Bordentown, 
N. J., a free school, opening it with six 
pupils. In 1854 it had grown to 600, when 
she became a clerk in the Patent Office in 
Washington. On the outbreak of the Civil 
War she resigned her clerkship, and be¬ 
came a volunteer nurse in the army hos¬ 
pitals and on the battle-field. In 1864 she 
was appointed by General Butler to the 
charge of the hospitals at the front of the 
Army of the James. She was present at 






Barton 


Bartram 


several battles, and in 18G5 went to An- 
dersonville, Ga., to identify and mark the 
graves of Union prisoners buried there, and 
was placed by President Lincoln in charge 
of the search for missing men of the Union 
armies, having already devoted much time 
to that work at her own expense. She lec¬ 
tured on her war experiences in 18GG-18G7, 
and afterward went to Switzerland for her 
health. On the breaking out of the Franco- 
Prussian War, in 1S70, she aided the Grand 
Duchess of Baden in preparing military hos¬ 
pitals, assisted the Red Cross Society, and, 
at the request of the authorities, superin¬ 
tended the distribution of work to the poor 
of Strasburg, in 1871, after the siege, and 
in 1872 did a like work in Paris. At the 
close of the war, she was decorated with the 
Golden Cross of Baden and the Iron Cross 
of Germany. On the organization of the 
American Red Cross Society in 1881, she 
was made its President, and in that capacity 
in 1884 had charge of the measures to re¬ 
lieve sufferers from the Mississippi and Ohio 
floods. In 1883, she was appointed by Gov- 
ernor Butler Superintendent, Treasurer, and 
Steward of the Reformatory Prison for Wo¬ 
men, at Sherborn, Mass. She was Special 
Commissioner for Foreign Exhibits at the 
New Orleans Exposition in 1883, represented 
the United States at the Red Cross Confer¬ 
ence in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1884, and 
was delegate to the International Peace Con¬ 
ference in Geneva the same year. In 1889 
she had charge of movements in behalf of 
sufferers from the floods at Johnstown, Pa.; 
in 1892 distributed relief to the Russian 
famine sufferers; in 1896, personally di¬ 
rected relief measures at the scenes of the 
Armenian massacres; in 1898, at the re¬ 
quest of President McKinley, took relief to 
the Cuban reconcentrados, and performed 
field work during the war with Spain; and 
in 1900 undertook to direct the relief of 
sufferers at Galveston, but broke down physi¬ 
cally. She published “ History of the Red 
Cross,” “ History of the Red Cross in Peace 
and War,” etc. 

Barton, David, an American legislator, 
born probably in Waco county, Ky., in 1785; 
was one of the earliest settlers in Missouri; 
president of the convention that drew up 
the State Constitution in 1820; and was a 
United States Senator from that State in 
1821-1831. He died near Boonesville, Mo., 
Sept. 27, 1837. 

Barton, Elizabeth, commonly called the 
“ Holy Ma id of Kent,” was used as an in¬ 
strument, bv the Roman Catholics and ad¬ 
herents of Queen Catharine, to excite the 
English nation against the proposed divorce 
of Henry VIII. from his first wife, and the 
apprehended separation of the English 
Church from Rome, with which the King then 
threatened the Pope. Her delirium, in a 
violent nervous illness, was made use of by 


the parson of Aldington, Richard Masters, 
and by a canon of Canterbury named Bock- 
ing, to persuade her that she was a prophet¬ 
ess inspired by God, and destined to prevent 
this undertaking of the King. Her revela¬ 
tions, published and distributed by the 
monk Deering, produced such a fermentation 
among the people that Henry ordered the 
apprehension and examination of Elizabeth 
and her accomplices before the Star 
Chamber. After they had there confessed 
the imposture, they were condemned to 
make a public confession, and to imprison¬ 
ment; and, when it was found that the 
party of the Queen were laboring to make 
them retract their confession, they were ad¬ 
judged guilty of high treason, for a con- 
spiracv against the King, and executed, 
April 30, 1534. 

Barton, George Hunt, an American 
geologist, born in Sudbury, Mass., July 8, 
1852; was graduated at the Massachusetts 
Institute of Technology in 1880; assistant 
on Hawaiian Government survey, 1881-1883; 
assistant in Geology in the Massachusetts 
Institute of Technology in 1883-1884; then 
Assistant Professor of Geology there; also 
occupied the corresponding chair in Boston 
University and the Teachers’ School of 
Science; and was Assistant Geologist of the 
United States Geological Survey. In 1896 
he was a member of the sixth Peary expe¬ 
dition to Greenland. He is a member of the 
Boston Society of Natural History, the Na¬ 
tional Geological Society, and the Geological 
Society of America, and the author of many 
technical papers. 

Barton, William, an American military 
officer, born in Warren, R. I., May 2G, 1748; 
learned the trade of a hatter; but joined 
the Revolutionary Army soon after Bunker 
Hill. On the night of July 10, 1777, he 
performed the exploit which made him fam¬ 
ous. Leading 38 men, in four whale-boats, 
across Narragansett Bay, he surprised and 
captured the British General, Prescott, at 
his headquarters, and hurried him away to 
Washington’s camp in New Jersey. Bar¬ 
ton received a sword from Congress, and was 
brevetted Colonel. He was afterward a 
member of his State Convention which 
adopted the Federal Constitution. He died 
in Providence, Oct. 22, 1831. 

Barton, William Paul Crillon, an Amer¬ 
ican botanist, born in Philadelphia, Pa., 
Nov. 17, 178G; a nephew of Benjamin Smith 
Barton; was educated at Princeton College, 
and in the medical school of the University 
of Pennsylvania; became Professor of Bo¬ 
tany in Jefferson Medical College, in 1815; 
and was author of “ Medical Botany,” 
“ Flora of North America,” and Other works. 
He died in Philadelphia, Feb. 29, 185G. 

Bartram, John, an American botanist, 
born in Chester county, Pa., March 23, 1699; 




Bart ram 


Baryta 


was called the “ father of American bo¬ 
tany,” and founded at Kingsessing the first 
botanical garden in America. Linnaeus 
termed him “ the greatest natural botanist 
in the world.” He published “ Observations 
on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Diverse 
Productions, Animals, etc., Made in His 
Travels from Pennsylvania to Lake On¬ 
tario,” and a similar volume on Eastern 
Florida (1706). He died at Kingsessing, 
near Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 22, 1777. 

Bartram, William, an American botan¬ 
ist and ornithologist, born in Kingsessing, 
Pa., Feb. 9, 1739; a son of John Bartram; 
spent five years in the Southern States 
studying natural history, and published the 
results in “ Travels Through North and 
South Carolina and East and West Florida.” 
He compiled a list of American birds, which 
was the best of its kind up to the time of Wil¬ 
son. He died in Kingsessing, July 22, 1823. 

Baru, a wooly material found at the base 
of the leaves of a particular palm-tree, sa- 
guerus saccharifer. 

Baruch, in Church history, a son of Ne- 
riah, who was a friend of Jeremiah’s, and 
at least occasionally acted as his amanuen¬ 
sis (Jer. xxxii: 12; xxxvi: 4, 17, 32; 
xliii: G; xlv: 1; li: 59). Two apocryphal 
books or letters have been attributed to him: 

(a) The first of these was nominally de¬ 
signed to assure the tribes in exile of an 
ultimate return to their own land. Its date 
seems to have been the 2d century b. c., while 
the real Baruch lived in the latter part of 
the 7th — that is, about 500 years before. 

(b) The second epistle, or book, was nomin¬ 
ally designed to counsel those Jews who 
were left in Palestine, during the time that 
their brethren were in captivity abroad, to 
submit to the Divine will. It was written 
probably about the same date as the former 
one — i. e., the 2d century b. c. 

Barus, Carl, an American physicist, born 
in Cincinnati, O., Feb. 19, 1856; edu¬ 

cated at Columbia College and the Univer¬ 
sity of Wurzburg; was Physicist of the 
United States Geological Survey in 1880- 
1892; Professor of Meteorology in the 
United States Weather Bureau, 1892-1893; 
and Physicist of the Smithsonian Institu¬ 
tion, in 1893-1895. He is a member of the 
National Academy of Sciences; was Vice- 
President and Chairman of the Section of 
Physics in the American Association for the 
Advancement of Science in 1897; and is a 
corresponding member of the British Asso¬ 
ciation for the Advancement of Science. 

Bary, Heinrich Anton de, a German 
physician and botanist, born in Frankfort- 
on-the-Main, Jan. 26, 1831; noted for his 
investigations in cryptogamic botany; Pro¬ 
fessor of Botany at Freiburg in 1855, at 
Halle, in 18G7, and at Strasburg in 1872. 


Barye, Antoine Louis, a French sculp¬ 
tor, born in Paris, Sept. 24, 1795. He stud¬ 
ied engraving with Fourrier and a gold¬ 
smith named Beinnais; in 1812, was a top¬ 
ographical engineer, and is supposed to 
have modeled a number of relief maps now 
in the French War Office; in 181G studied 
drawing with the painter Gros, and sculp¬ 
ture with Basio; and, in 1819, took the 
second prize for a “ Milo di Crotona,” which 
was awarded him at a Concours of the Beaux 
Arts. From 1823 till 1831 he worked un¬ 
der Fauconnier, jeweler to the Duchesse 
d’Angouleme. About this time he began to 
work upon animals, and, in 1831, exhibited 
the celebrated “ Tiger Devouring a Croco¬ 
dile.” He was then employed by M. Le- 
fuel to make four groups for the pavilion 
on the Place du Carrousel. He was an of¬ 
ficer of the Legion of Honor, a member of 
the Institute, and a professor at the Jardin 
des Plantes. He died in Paris, June 25, 
1875. 

Baryta, or Barytes, or Oxide of Ba¬ 
rium, symbol BaO — the earth present in the 
minerals witherite (carbonate of barium) 
and heavy spar (sulphate of barium). It 
may be prepared in several ways: (1) By 

acting upon the carbonate of baryta, BaC0 3 , 
by nitric acid, HN0 3 , which causes the dis¬ 
engagement of the carbonic acid, CO ; , and 
the nitric acid combining with the baryta 
forms the nitrate of barium, Ba2N0 3 . On 
evaporating the latter substance to dryness, 
and igniting the residue, the nitric acid 
volatilizes, and leaves the baryta, BaO. (2) 
Another mode of preparing the same sub¬ 
stance is to act upon a solution of sulphide 
of barium, BaS, by the black oxide of cop¬ 
per, CuO, when an interchange of elements 
occurs, the sulphur uniting with the copper, 
producing sulphide of copper, Cu 2 S, and the 
oxygen with the barium, forming baryta, 
BaO, which remains dissolved in the water, 
and, on evaporation, deposits crystals in 
the hydrated condition, BaH„0 2 ,8H 2 0. 
Baryta belongs to the group of alkaline 
earths, and lias the property of acting like 
an alkali on coloring matters. It has a 
very harsh taste, is highly caustic, and is 
very poisonous. The presence of carbonic 
acid gas may be detected by exposing a 
solution of baryta to the air, when carbonic 
acid combines with the baryta and forms a 
film of white carbonate of barium, BaC0 3 . 
Baryta exposed to air or oxygen absorbs 
oxygen, forming peroxide of barium. On 
this being heated oxygen is liberated and 
baryta again produced. Till lately it was 
found impossible to produce oxygen by this 
simple method, as the action became weak 
when the process was repeated. But recently 
it has been found that by carefully removing 
all carbonic acid gas and water from the 
air before passing it over the barium, the 
difficulty is removed, and oxygen is thus 



Baryton 


Bascom 


economically produced. The sulphate of 
baryta, BaS0 4 , otherwise called ponderous 
or heavy spar, is found in fissures or cracks 
in other rocks. It is crystalline, and is 
sometimes found pure and white, but gener¬ 
ally presents a flesh-red color, from the red 
oxide of iron (rust) incorporated in it. The 
rust can be got quit of by reducing the sul¬ 
phate of baryta to a fine powder under rol¬ 
lers or traveling wheels, and subjecting the 
pulverized material to the action of dilute 
sulphuric acid, which dissolves the oxide of 
iron, and leaves the sulphate of baryta as a 
white, dense powder. The principal use of 
heavy spar is as a pigment under the name 
of permanent white; but having little opac¬ 
ity, it cannot be employed by itself, but 
only when mixed with ordinary white lead. 
When added to the latter, however, it must 
be regarded as an adulteration, for the little 
opacity it possesses renders it of service only 
as an increaser of the bulk of the white 
lead. Several mixtures of sulphate of 
baryta and white lead are manufactured, 
and are known in commerce. Venice white 
contains one part sulphate of baryta and 
one part white lead. Hamburg white con¬ 
tains two parts sulphate of baryta and one 
part white lead. Dutch white contains three 
parts sulphate of baryta and one part white 
lead. The native sulphate of baryta has 
been employed by the celebrated potter 
Wedgewood in the manufacture of jasper 
ware, and for the formation of white fig¬ 
ures, etc. 

Baryton (viola di Bardone), an old 
chamber instrument, somewhat like the viol 
di gamba in tone; had a broader finger¬ 
board, with six or seven gut-strings, while 
under the neck there were from nine to 24 
strings of brass wire, which were pinched 
with the point of the thumb, to produce a 
sound, while the gut-strings were acted on 
bv a bow. 

4/ 

Basalt, a word said to have been derived 
from an African word, and to have meant 
basaltoid syenite, from Ethiopia or Up¬ 
per Egypt. In general the name is given 
to any trap rock of a black, bluish, or 
leaden gray color, and possessed of a uni¬ 
form and compact texture. 

In a special sense it is a trap rock con¬ 
sisting of augite, feldspar and iron inti¬ 
mately blended, olivine also being not un- 
frequently present. The augite is the pre¬ 
dominant mineral; it is, sometimes, how¬ 
ever, exchanged for hornblende, to which it 
is much akin. The iron is usually mag¬ 
netic, and is, moreover, often conjoined with 
titanium. Other minerals are also occa¬ 
sionally present, one being labradorite. It 
is distinguished from doleryte or dolerite 
by its possessing chlorine disseminated 
through it in grains. It is of a very hard, 
endurable nature, and may be used to ad¬ 
vantage in macadamizing roads. 


The specific gravity of basalt is 3.00. It 
so much tends to become columnar that all 
volcanic columnar rocks are by some people 
called basalt, which is an error. There are 
fine columnar basalts at the Giant’s Cause¬ 
way in the N. of Ireland; in Scotland at 
Fingal’s Cave and other parts of the Island 
of Staffa ; and along the sides of many hills 
in the old volcanic district of Western and 
Central India. Non-columnar basalts may 
be amorphous, or they may take the form 
of volcanic bombs cemented together by a 
ferruginous paste, or again they may be 
amygdaloidal. At West Orange, N. J., the 
face of the First Mountain exhibits basaltic 
formations, the lines being diagonal and 
suggesting a huge open fan, with its ribs 
converging near the ground. 

Bascinet, or Basnet, a light helmet 
sometimes with, but more frequently with¬ 
out, a visor, in general use for English in¬ 
fantry in the reigns of Edward II. and III., 
and Richard II. 

Bascom, Florence, an American edu¬ 
cator; daughter of Dr. John Bascom, was 
educated at the University of Wisconsin, and 
at Johns Hopkins University, receiving from 
the first the degree of B. A. and B. L. in 
1882, B. S., in 1884, and M. A. in 1S87; 
and from the latter that of Ph. D., in 1892. 
She was the first woman to whom Johns 
Hopkins granted a degree, and the first to 
receive a Ph. D. from any American college. 
She had much difficulty in securing admis¬ 
sion to Johns Hopkins as a graduate stu¬ 
dent, the only concession to her sex being 
that she might attend the lectures on geol¬ 
ogy, and use the laboratory apparatus in 
that branch. She had previously applied 
herself to geology, and her thesis on receiv¬ 
ing her Ph. D. was on inorganic geology, 
palaeontology and chemistry being minor sub¬ 
jects. Subsequently, she was engaged in 
teaching; became professor at Bryn Mawr 
College; and, in 1899, was chosen to super¬ 
vise the geological survey of Chester county, 
Pa. 

Bascom, Henry Bidleman, an American 
clergyman, born in Hancock, N. Y., May 
27, 1796; was licensed to preach in 1813, 
and made Chaplain to Congress in 1823; 
President of Madison College, Pennsylvania, 
in 1827-1829; and of the Transylvania Uni¬ 
versity, Kentucky, in 1842. In 1850 he was 
made a Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church. He edited the “ Quarterly Review ” 
from 1846 till 1850. His writings were pub¬ 
lished in 1856. He died in Louisville, Ky., 
Sept. 8, 1850. 

Bascom, John, an American educator 
and philosophical writer, born at Geneva, 
N. Y., in 1827. He was President of the 
University of Wisconsin, in 1874-1887, and 
in 1900 was Professor of Political Science 
in Williams College. He has written a num¬ 
ber of philosophical works, among them 



Base 


Base Ball 


“ Philosophy of English Literature ” 
(1874); lectures before the Lowell Insti¬ 
tute; “Comparative Psychology'*’ (1878); 
“ Sociology ” (1887 ) ; “ An Historical Inter¬ 
pretation of Philosophy” (1893), etc. 

Base, a, word having many applications, 
of which the following are the most com¬ 
mon: 1. Architecture. (a) The part of 
a column between the bottom of the shaft 
and the top of the pedestal. In cases in 
which there is no pedestal, then the base is 
the part between the bottom of the column 
and the plinth, (b) A plinth with its 
moldings constituting the lower part (that 
which slightly 7- projects) of the wall of a 
room. 

2. Sculpture: The pedestal of a statue. 

3. Geometry: (a) The base of an ordi¬ 

nary triangle is its third side, not necessa¬ 
rily the one drawn at the bottom of the 
diagram, but the one which has not yet been 
mentioned, while the two others have. 
(Euclid, book i, Prop. 4, Enunciation.) 
(b) The base of an isosceles triangle is the 
side which is not one of the equal two. 
(Prop. 5, Enunciation.) (c) The base of 

a parallelogram is the straight line on 
which in any particular proposition the 
parallelogram is assumed to stand. (Prop. 
35.) It also is not necessarily drawn 
the lowest in the figure. (Prop. 47.) 
(d) The base of a cone is the circle de¬ 
scribed by that side containing the right 
angle which revolves. (Euclid, book xi, 
Def. 20.) (e) The bases of a cylinder 

are the circles described by the two rotary 
opposite sides of the parallelogram, by the 
revolution of which it is formed. (Def. 
23.) 

4. Trigonometry, surveying and map¬ 
making: A base or base line is a straight 
line measured on the ground, from the two 
extremities of which angles will be taken 
with the view of laying down a triangle or 
series of triangles, and so mapping out the 
country to be surveyed. 

5. Fortification: The exterior side of a 
polygon, or the imaginary line connecting 
the salient angles of two adjacent bastions. 

6. Ordnance: The protuberant rear por¬ 
tion of a gun, between the knot of the cas- 
cabel and the basering. 

7. Military: That country or portion of 
a country in which the chief strength of 
one of the combatants lies, and from which 
he draws reinforcements of men, ammuni¬ 
tion, etc. During the Indian mutiny and 
War of 1857 and 1858, the base of the opera¬ 
tions for the recovery of Delhi was the Pun¬ 
jab. 

8. Zoology: That portion of anything by 
which it is attached to anything else of 
higher value or signification. (Dana.) 

9. Botany: A term applied to the part of 
a leaf adjoining the leaf-stalk, to that por¬ 


tion of a pericarp which adjoins the pedun¬ 
cle, or to anything similarly situated. 

10. Heraldry: The lower part of a shield, 
or, more specifically, the width of a bar 
parted off from the lower part of a shield 
by a horizontal line. It is called also base- 
bar, baste, and plain point. (“ Glossary of 
Heraldry.”) 

11. Chemistry: A metallic oxide which is 
alkaline, or capable of forming with an acid 
a salt, water being also formed, the metal 
replacing the hydrogen in the acid. Organic 
bases or alkaloids are found in many plants; 
they contain nitrogen, and are probably sub¬ 
stitution compounds of ammonia. Artificial 
organic bases are called amines. Bases solu¬ 
ble in water render red litmus blue. 

12. Dyeing: Any substance used as a 
mordant. 

Baseball, a field game, played chiefly in 
the United States, where it is known as 
“the national game.” it is undoubtedlv an 
evolution of the old Colonial game of “One 
Old Cat,” which was played by three boys—- 
thrower, catcher, and batsman. The latter, 
after striking at the ball, ran to a goal 
about 30 feet distant, and on returning to 
the batsman’s position without being put 
out counted one run or tally. From this 
early beginning was developed a game called 
“Town Ball,” from which baseball was 
originated. 

As early as 1842 baseball was played in 
New York city, which place may properly 
be called the home of the game; but it 
was not until 1845 that a regular club was 
organized and a code of rules formulated 
and published. Other clubs were soon or¬ 
ganized, the more prominent being the 
Gothams, Eagles, and Empires, of New 
York. The Knickerbocker club continued 
to make the rules for the game until 1857, 
when a convention of ball players was held 
in New York, which resulted in the forma¬ 
tion of the National Association of Ball 
Players. This organization was the gov¬ 
erning body of baseball until 1871, when the 
National Association of Professional Ball 
Players was formed, since which time the 
professional element, in the persons of the 
club proprietors, has been the governing and 
rule-making body. 

Baseball is played on a level field, upon 
which is outlined a square, which is known 
as the infield, or “diamond.” The term 
“diamond” is also frequently used to apply 
to the entire field. The infield is outlined 
by bases, placed at right angles to each 
other, on each corner, beginning from the 
home plate. Following the base-lines, the 
distance from base to base must be 90 feet. 
The territory outside the diamond infield 
is known as the outfield. All that portion 
of the field outside the base-lines, which 
extend from home plate to first base and 
from home plate to third base, all territory 




Baseball 


Baseball 


behind the home plate, and all territory 
outside of a straight line reaching from the 
outside corner of third and first bases in¬ 
definitely to the outfield, is foul ground. 

Two teams make up each contest, with 
nine players on each side. The fielders are 
known as the pitcher, the catcher, the first 
baseman, the second baseman, the third 
baseman, the shortstop, the left fielder, the 
center fielder, and the right fielder. None 
of these is required to occupy an exact po¬ 
sition except the pitcher, who must be with¬ 
in the pitcher’s “box” when pitching the 
ball to the batter, and the catcher, who 
must be within the space allotted to him 
behind the batter. The game begins with 
the fielders of one team in position and the 
first batter of the opposing side in his “box’' 
at the home plate. The batter tries to hit 
the ball anywhere within the fair lines 
and out of reach of the fielders—in which 
case it is a “fair” ball—and to reach first 
base before the ball can be fielded to the 
first baseman. He then tries, during in¬ 
tervals when the ball is being pitched to the 
succeeding batsman, or in case the latter 
hits the ball, to reach second base, and sub¬ 
sequently third base and home base, with¬ 
out being touched by the ball in the hands 
of a fielder. Should he do so successfully, 
he scores one run for his side. 

While at bat the batsman has three oppor¬ 
tunities given to him to hit the ball fairly, 
and at an unsuccessful attempt a “strike” 
is called by the umpire. At the third strike 
the batsman is out if the catcher holds the 
ball; or, in the event of the catcher miss¬ 
ing it, if it is thrown to first base and 
caught by the baseman before the batsman 
reaches the base. If the pitcher delivers a 
ball that the batsman should have struck 
at—one that crosses home base not lower 
than the batsman’s knee nor higher than his 
shoulder—the umpire calls a strike on the 
batsman. A strike is also called on the 
batsman when he hits the ball into foul 
territory until he has two strikes called 
on him; after which there is no penalty 
for fouling, except in case of a foul ball 
hit up into the air—called a foul fly and 
caught bv a fielder before it touches the 
ground, in which event the batsman is out. 
If the pitcher delivers to the batsman four 
balls which do not cross the home plate 
between the batsman’s knee and shoulder, 
or if he hits the batsman by a pitched ball, 
the batsman then becomes a base runnel 
and is entitled to take first base without 
being put out, after which he must take his 
chances of reaching home base in the usual 
way. Three men of the side at bat must 
be put out before the side retires and the 
team in the field takes its turn at the bat. 
The game regularly consists of nine full inn¬ 
ings, unless the side second at bat has made 
more runs at the conclusion of the eighth 


inning than the side first at bat makes at 
the end of its ninth. If for some reason a 
game of less than nine innings is played, 
whenever the side second at bat has scored 
more runs in half an inning less than the 
side first at bat, it shall be declared the 
winner, provided the side first at bat has 
completed five full innings at bat. A game 
is also won if the side last at bat scores 
the winning run before the third man is 
out. In case of a tie game play continues 
until, at the end of even innings, one side 
lias scored more runs than the other; pro¬ 
vided that if the side last at bat scores the 
winning run before the third man is out the 
game shall terminate. 

The implements used are a bat and a 
ball. The dimensions of the Spalding offi¬ 
cial National League ball, which is used 
exclusively in the National League, are spe¬ 
cified in the official rules as follows: The 
ball must weigh not less than 5 nor more 
than 5% ounces avoirdupois, and measure 
not less than 9 nor more than 9% inches in 
circumference. The bat must be round, not 
over 2% inches in diameter at the thickest 
part, nor more than 42 inches in length, and 
entirely of hardwood, except that for a dis¬ 
tance of 18 inches from the end twine may 
be wound around, or a granulated substance 
may be applied to, the handle. The home 
base was originally one square foot in size, 
two sides of which were bounded by the 
lines from home base to first base and third 
base, respectively; but to insure greater 
accuracy by the umpire in judging whether 
balls cross the home base or not, the corner 
nearest to the pitcher was squared, thus 
forming a five-sided figure, the measure¬ 
ments of which are 12 Inches on the two 
sides along the base lines, 17 inches on the 
side facing the pitcher, and 8 y 2 inches on 
the other two sides. The home base must 
be of rubber and sunk flush with the 
ground. First, second, and third bases are 
made of canvas, filled with some soft ma¬ 
terial, and securely fastened at the other- 
three points of the “diamond.” The pitch¬ 
er’s plate is a piece of rubber, 24 by 6 
inches, laid parallel to the squared end of 
the home plate and 00.5 feet from it, and 
serves to mark the boundary of the pitch¬ 
er’s “box.” In delivering the ball to the 
batsman the pitcher must keep one foot in 
contact with the plate, and must not raise 
either foot until in the act of delivering the 
ball to the bat, nor make more than one 
step in such delivery. 

A baseball uniform consists of shirt, 
knee trousers, cap, stockings, and shoes, 
the latter fitted with triangular short 
blades on sole and heel to prevent slipping. 
Coats and sweaters, or jerseys, also form 
part of the equipment, to be used when the 
players are not in action. The other ac¬ 
cessories of the game are of a protective 




Baseball 


Baseball 


nature, the catcher being equipped with the 
greatest number—a mask made of wire, to 
cover the face; an inflated body protector 
of canvas and rubber, which is suspended 
from the neck and strapped at the waist; 
and a large padded mitt, worn on the left 
hand (if the catcher is right-handed). The 
other players are permitted to use a glove 
or mitt, which, however, with the exception 
of that used by the first baseman, is re¬ 
stricted as to size and weight, 10 ounces in 
weight and 14 inches around the palm be¬ 
ing the maximum measurements. The size 
and weight of the glove or mitt worn by 
the catcher and first baseman are not lim¬ 
ited. 

The officials of the game consist of an 
umpire, who decides all plays, and whose 
authority is absolute, and a scorer, who 
records the game. Each team has a cap¬ 
tain, who directs the movements of the 
players while on the field and who is the 
only person permitted to address the um¬ 
pire, and then only on a question of inter¬ 
pretation of the rules. While a player is a 
base runner, a member of his team—styled 
a “coacher”—is permitted to stand near 
first base or third base to direct the run¬ 
ner’s movements. 

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 

Inning —The time at bat of the nine 
players representing a club in a game. It 
is completed when three of such players 
have been legally put out. Time at bat — 
The time at bat of a batsman. It begins 
when he takes his position and continues 
until he is put out or becomes a base run¬ 
ner ; but a time at bat shall not be charged 
against a batsman w r ho is awarded first 
base by the umpire for being hit by a 
pitched ball, or for the illegal delivery of 
the pitcher, or on called balls, or when he 
makes a sacrifice hit. Base hit —A hit made 
when the ball from the bat strikes the 
ground on or within the foul lines and out 
of reach of the fielders; when a fair-hit 
ball is partially or wholly stopped by a 
fielder in motion, but such player cannot 
recover himself in time to field the ball to 
first before the striker reaches that base or 
to force out another base runner; when the 
ball is hit with such force to an infielder or 
pitcher that he cannot handle it in time to 
put out the batsman or force out a base run¬ 
ner (in a case of doubt over this class of 
hits, a base hit should be scored and the field¬ 
er exempted from the charge of an error) ; 
wdien the ball is hit so slowly toward a fielder 
that he cannot handle it in time to put out 
the batsman or force out a base runner. In 
all cases where a base runner is retired by 
being hit by a batted ball, or when a batted 
ball hits the person or clothing of the um¬ 
pire, the batsman should be credited with 
a base hit. In no case shall a base hit be 
scored when a base runner is forced out by 


the play. Sacrifice hit —A sacrifice hit shall 
be credited to the batsman who, w 7 hen no one 
is out or when but one man is out, advances 
a runner a base by a bunt hit, which re¬ 
sults in the batsman being put out before 
he reaches first, or would so result if it 
were handled without error. Assist —A term 
used when a player handles the ball in a 
play that results in a base runner being 
put out, or would so result if the play fail 
through no fault of the assisting player. 
Error —A misplay which prolongs the time 
at bat of the batsman or allows the base 
runner to make one or more bases when 
perfect play would have insured his being 
put out. Earned run —A run made when a 
player makes the circuit of the bases with¬ 
out the assistance, by errors, of the oppos¬ 
ing team; a run is not counted as earned 
under any circumstances after the oppo¬ 
nents in the field have had three chances to 
retire the side at bat and have not taken 
advantage of them. Left on base —When 
the third man is declared out in an inning 
before any base runner, or runners, com¬ 
plete the circuit of the bases, the latter are 
said to be left on base. This ends any pos¬ 
sible chance of their scoring a run for their 
side, as they cannot resume their places in 
the next inning. Stolen base —When a 
player advances himself a base unaided by 
his team mates or misplays by his oppo¬ 
nents he is said to “steal” the base. Base 
on balls —When a pitcher delivers to the 
batsman four balls that, in the judgment 
of the umpire, did not cross the home base 
or were below the batsman’s knee or above 
his shoulder, the batsman is entitled to 
take first base. Two-base hit —When the 
batsman makes a hit that enables him to 
reach second base without stopping and 
without being put out, it is called a two- 
base hit. Tliree-base hit —Same as two-base 
hit, except that the base runner reaches 
third base. Borne run —When the batsman 
makes a hit that enables him to make the 
complete circuit of the bases without stop¬ 
ping and without being put out, thus scor¬ 
ing a run for his side, the run is termed a 
home run. Bunt hit —A legally batted ball, not 
swung at, but met with the bat and tapped 
slowly within the infield by the batsman. 
Fly ball —A ball knocked high up in the air, 
affording a comparatively easy chance for 
a catch by a fielder. The batsman is out ii 
the fly is caught before touching the ground 
whether it is on fair or foul territory. Don 
ble play —When two base runners are pnf, 
out on a continuous play, the play is called 
a double play. Triple play —When three 
base runners are put out on a continuous 
play, the play is called a triple play. Curve 
pitching —A peculiar twist imparted to the 
ball by the pitcher with the intent to de¬ 
ceive the batsman by making him strike at 
the ball and miss it, thus causing a strike 
to be called on him. Infielders —The term 




Basedow 


Basel 



applied to the three base players and the 
shortstop, although the pitcher and catcher 
are properly infielders, also. Outfielders— 
The left fielder, center fielder, and right 
fielder. Battery —The term applied to the 
combination of pitcher and catcher, the 
main attacking force in the game. Substi¬ 
tutes —A substitute may take the place of 
another player at any time during the 
progress of the game, but 
the player relieved cannot 
again enter that game. 

Consult: Ward, “Base¬ 
ball” (1888) ; and the “Offi¬ 
cial Baseball Guide,” pub¬ 
lished annually. 

A. G. Spalding. 

Basedow, or Bassedau, 

Johann Bernhard (bils'e- 
dou), a celebrated German 
educator; born in Ham¬ 
burg, Sept. 11, 1723; be¬ 
came one of the most acute 
thinkers of his day, the 
problem of education espe¬ 
cially enlisting his intel¬ 
lectual powers; and in the 
famous “Elementary Treat¬ 
ise” ( 1774), he inaugurated 
a pedagogical revolution, the 
work being analogous to that 
of Comenius in the “Pictured 
(or Painted) World,” and al¬ 
so to the “Emile” of Rous¬ 
seau. It dealt with organiza¬ 
tion, methods of instruction, 
and the preparation of teach¬ 
ers. Its chief theorem was 
“education according to na¬ 
ture,” the application of sci¬ 
entific and vital methods. 

The numerous works he sub¬ 
sequently prepared were 
elaborations of the ori¬ 
ginal treatise, and all of 
vital importance in the 
history of education. In 
1771 he was invited by 
the Prince of Anhalt-Des- 
sau to establish at Dessau 
a model institution ex¬ 
emplifying his theories. 

The result was the “Phi- 
lanthropinum,” as he styled 
it. In its management he 
did not attain the practical results for 
which he had hoped, and he therefore re¬ 
signed his directorship in 1778. The institu¬ 
tion was closed in 1793, but it had been 
much imitated in Germany and Switzerland, 
and exerted no small influence. Basedow 
then turned to theology and published sev¬ 
eral rationalistic essays. Reference is made 
to him in Goethe’s autobiography. He died in 
Magdeburg, July 25,1790. Consult: Barnard, 
“German Teachers and Educators” (1801) ; 
Quick, “Educational Reformers” (1879). 


Baseilhac, Jean (bils'el-hac), a French 
surgeon; born in 1703 at Pouyastruc, near 
Tarbes. He was the inventor of the trocar 
(q. v.) and other appliances, and wrote on 
surgery. He died in 1781. 

Basel (bii-zel),or Bale (never Basle), 
a canton and city of Switzerland. The can¬ 
ton borders on Alsace on the W. and Baden 


THE SPAIILENTHOR AT BASEL. 

on the N., has an area of 176 square miles, 
and a population (1908) of 205,530, nearly 
all speaking German. The region is located 
on the northern slope of the Jura Alps, the 
range attaining here an altitude of more 
than 3.000 feet. In the valleys is an abund¬ 
ance of orchards and vineyards, and ample 
pasturage for cattle. It is divided into two 
half-cantons, Basel city (Basel-Stadt) and 
Basel country (Basel-Landschaft). The 
former consists of the city proper and its 
several precincts, the remaining part of the 

























































































































Basel 


Bashan 


canton forming Basel-Landschaft, the capi¬ 
tal of which is Liestal. The city of Basel 
is 43 miles N. of Bern, and consists of two 
parts on opposite sides of the Bhine, and 
communicating by three bridges, one of them 
an ancient wooden structure; in the older 
portions is irregularly built with narrow 
streets; has an ancient cathedral, founded 
1010, containing the tombs of Erasmus and 
other eminent persons; a university, 
founded in 1459; a seminary for mission¬ 
aries; a museum containing the valuable 
public library, pictures, etc. The industries 
embrace silk ribbons (8,000 hands em¬ 
ployed), tanning, paper, aniline dyes, brew¬ 
ing, etc.; and the advantageous position of 
Basel, a little below where the Rhine be¬ 
comes navigable and at the terminus of the 
French and German railways, has made it 
the emporium of a most important trade. 
At Basel was signed the treaty of peace 
between France and Prussia, April 5, and 
that between France and Spain, July 22, 
1795. Pop. (1900) 111,009. 

Basel, Confession of, a Calvinistic con¬ 
fession introduced by CEcolampadius at the 
opening of the Synod of Basel (1531). 
It was adopted by the Protestants of Basle 
in 1534. Simple and comparatively moder¬ 
ate in its terms, it occupies an intermediate 
place between Zwingli and Luther. 

Basel, Council of, a celebrated Ecumeni¬ 
cal council of the Church, convoked by Pope 
Martin V. and his successor, Eugenius IV. 
It was opened Dec. 14, 1431, under the presi¬ 
dency of the Cardinal Legate Juliano Cesa- 
rini of St. Angelo. The objects of its de¬ 
liberations were to extirpate heresies (that 
of the Hussites in particular), to unite all 
Christian nations under the Catholic 
Church, to put a stop to wars between Chris¬ 
tian princes, and to reform the Church. 
But its first steps toward a peaceable recon¬ 
ciliation with the Hussites were displeasing 
to the Pope, who authorized the Cardinal 
Legate to dissolve the Council. That body 
opposed the pretensions of the Pope, and, 
notwithstanding his repeated orders to re¬ 
move to Italv, continued its deliberations 
under the protection of the Emperor Sigis- 
mund, of the German princes, and of France. 
On the Pope continuing to issue bulls for its 
dissolution the Council commenced a formal 
process against him, and cited him to appear 
at its bar. On his refusal to comply with 
this demand the Council declared him guilty 
of contumacy, and, after Eugenius had 
opened a counter synod at Ferrara, decreed 
his suspension from the papal chair (Jan. 
24, 1438). The removal of Eugenius, how¬ 
ever, seemed so impracticable, that some 
prelates, who till then had been the boldest 
and most influential speakers in the Council, 
including the Cardinal Legate Juliano, left 
Basel, and Avent over to the party of Euge¬ 
nius. The Archbishop of Arles, Cardinal 


Louis Allemand, was now made First Presi¬ 
dent of the Council, and directed its pro¬ 
ceedings with much vigor. In May, 1439, 
it declared Eugenius, on account of his dis¬ 
obedience of its decrees, a heretic, and for¬ 
mally deposed him. Excommunicated by 
Eugenius, they proceeded, in a regular con¬ 
clave, to elect the Duke Amadeus of Savoy 
to the papal chair. Felix V.— the name he 
adopted — was acknowledged by only a few 
princes, cities, and universities. After this 
the moral power of the Council declined; 
its last formal session was held May 16, 
1443, though it was not technically dissolved 
till May 7, 1449, when it gave in its adhesion 
to Nicholas V., the successor of Eugenius. 
The decrees of the Council of Basel are ad¬ 
mitted into none of the Roman collections, 
and are considered of no authority by the 
Roman lawyers. They are regarded, how¬ 
ever, as of authority in points of canon law 
in France and Germany, as their regulations 
for the reformation of the Church have been 
adopted in the pragmatic sanctions of both 
countries, and, as far as they regard clerical 
discipline, have been actually enforced. 

Basel, Treaty of. (1) A treaty of peace 
between Prussia, represented by Harden- 
berg, and the French Republic, represented 
bv Barthelemv; signed at Basel, April 5, 
1795. Prussia agreed to withdraw from 
the coalition against France, and to give up 
her possessions W. of the Rhine. A secret 
article provided for Prussian compensation 
elsewhere, in case France’s claim to the 
Rhine provinces was ratified by a general 
peace. (2) A treaty consummated by 
France with Spain, July 22, 1795, whereby 
Spain became an ally of France and ceded 
St. Domingo. 

Basella, a tropical genus of chenopodi- 
acece. B. alba and B. rubra are known in 
Great Britain as stove biennials. They are 
plants with twining stems, in common use 
as pot herbs in the East Indies, and culti¬ 
vated in China; also sometimes in France 
as a substitute for spinach. B. rubra yields 
a rich purple dye. The great fleshy root of 
B. tuberosa, a South American twiner, is 
edible. 

Bashahr, one of the Punjab Hill States, 
on the lower slopes of the Himalayas, 
traversed from E. to W. by the Sutlej; area, 
3,320 square miles. The Rajah and upper 
classes in the S. parts are Rajputs, and the 
people generally are of the Hindu race, but 
their observance of Hinduism is very par^ 
tial. The Rajah pays tribute to the British 
Government, for which he is required to 
raise troops in time of war, and by which 
his sentences Of death must be confirmed. 
Pop. 75,727. 

Bashan, a rich, hilly district, lying E. 
of the Jordan, and between the mountains 
of Hermon on the N., and those of Gilead 



Basil ee 


Basil, St. 


and Ammon on the S. The country takes 
its name (“fat,” “fruitful”) from its soft 
and sandy soil. It is celebrated in Scrip¬ 
ture for its stately oaks, fine breeds of cat¬ 
tle, and rich pasturage. Modern travelers 
describe the country as still abounding with 
verdant and fertile meadows, valleys trav¬ 
ersed by refreshing streams, hills crowned 
with forests, and pastures offering an abun¬ 
dance to the flocks that wander through 
them. Bashan was assigned, after the con¬ 
quest of Og and his people, to the half tribe 
of Manasseh. From it came the Greek 
name Batanaea, in modern Arabic Fl-Bottein. 
But this latter only included its S. part. 
The ancient Bashan covered the Roman 
provinces named Gaulonites, Trachonites, 
Auranites, Batamea, and Itursea. 

Bashee, or Bashi. See Batane Islands. 

Bashford, James Whitford, an Ameri¬ 
can clergyman, born in Fayette, Wis., May 
27, 1849; graduated at the University of 
Wisconsin in 1873, and at the Theological 
School of Boston Universitv in 187C; be- 
came instructor of Greek at the University 
of Wisconsin in 1874, president of the Wes¬ 
leyan University of Ohio in 1889, and a 
bishop in 1904. His works include “ Science 
of Religion,” published sermons, and contri¬ 
butions to periodical literature. 

Bashi Bazouks, a body of irregular troops 
in the service of the Turkish Sultan. They 
are principally of Asiatic races, and formed 
a contingent of the Turkish army during 
the Russian War, 1853-1850. As light 
cavalry they are considered excellent, far 
surpassing the Cossacks in courage and 
powers of endurance. Dr. William H. Rus¬ 
sell, in describing these “wild cavaliers,” 
says: “It would have been difficult to find 
more picturesque looking scoundrels if the 
world was picked for them from Scinde to 
Mexico. Many of them were splendid look¬ 
ing fellows, with fine, sinewy legs, beauti¬ 
fully proportioned muscular arms, and no¬ 
ble, well set heads of the true Caucasian 
mold; others were hideous negroes from 
Nubia, or lean, malignant looking Arabs, 
with sinister eyes and hungry aspect; and 
some were dirty Marabout fanatics from 
Mecca, inflamed by the influence of their 
hadji, or pilgrimage.” 

Bashkirs, Baschkirs, or Bashkeers, a 

Tartar tribe of Russia, where they occupy 
a portion of the governments of Orenburg, 
Perm, and Viatka. These people are in Asia 
generally called Istiuks or Ischtiulcs, and 
they live principally in tents, and on the 
produce of the chase, troubling themselves 
but little with agriculture, except in win¬ 
ter, which they pass in their villages. It 
is in their territory that the rich gold and 
platina mines exist. They are Moham¬ 
medans and pay no taxes, but all are held 
under military service to guard the frontier. 


Their number is about 200,000, of whom 
70,000 are enrolled on the same footing as 
the Cossacks of the Don. 

Bashkirtseff, Marie (bash-kerts'ef), a 
Russian author, born in Russia in 18G0; 
came of a noble and wealthy family, went 
to Italy to study singing, and to Paris to 
study art. Her fame rests on her private 
“Journal,” which seems to have been writ¬ 
ten with ultimate publication in view. She 
died in Paris in 1884. 

Basic Slag, the slag or refuse matter 
which is obtained in making basic steel, 
and which from the phosphate of lime it 
contains is a valuable fertilizer. 

Basil, a labiate plant, ocymum basilTcum, 
a native of India, much used in cookery, 
especially in France, and known more par¬ 
ticularly as sweet or common basil. Bush 
or lesser basil is O. minimum; wild basil 
belongs to a different genus, being the 
calamintha clinopodium. 

Basil I., The Macedonian, Emperor of 
the East, was of low origin, but obtained 
employment at the court of the Emperor 
Michael III., became his chamberlain, mur¬ 
dered his rival, Bardas, was associated in 
the empire, then murdered Michael, and 
succeeded him in 8G7. Though he had risen 
by a series of crimes, he governed wisely, 
made many reforms in the administration 
and in the army, and compiled a body of 
laws called the Basilica, which, augmented 
by his son and successor, Leo the Philoso¬ 
pher, were in force till the fall of the em¬ 
pire. Basil I. deprived Photius of the See 
of Constantinople, and restored Ignatius; 
but on the death of the latter he recalled 
Photius. He successfully carried on war 
with the Saracens. Died in 886. 

Basil II., Emperor of the East, was son 
of Romanus II., and with his brother, Con¬ 
stantine, was first associated in the em¬ 
pire by John Zimisces, and succeeded him 
in 976. His long reign was a series of wars 
with his rivals, Bardas, Sclernus, and Pho- 
cas, with the Saracens, and with the Bul¬ 
garians. In 1014, after a great victory over 
the latter, having 15,000 prisoners, he had 
99 out of every 100 deprived of their eyes, 
and thus sent home. This horrible cruelty 
caused the death of Samuel, King of the 
Bulgarians. The war ended in 1019, by the 
complete conquest of Bulgaria. Died in 
1025. 

Basil, St., surnamed Tiie Great, Bishop 
of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, where he was 
born about 326. He was studying at Athens 
in 355, and there became the friend of 
Gregory, afterward Bishop of Nazianzero. 
After extensive travels, St. Basil retired to 
the Desert of Pontus, and there founded an 
order of monks. He succeeded Eusebius in 
the See of Caesarea in 370, and by liis oppo 



Basilan 


Basilides 


sition to Arian doctrines greatly offended 
the Emperor Valens. His constitution being 
much impaired by the austerities of a mon¬ 
astic life, he died in 380. 

Basilan, the largest island of the Sulu 
Archipelago, Philippine Islands. Basilan 
is of oblong form, about 36 miles long and 
situated S. of Mindanao. It is separated 
from Mindanao by a strait only 9 miles 
wide. This island is very mountainous, and 
most of it is covered by virgin forests. The 
soil is extremely rich and produces a va¬ 
riety of valuable crops, including cotton, 
coffee, sugar, chocolate, tobacco, indigo, and 
spices of all sorts. Basilan has about 15,000 
inhabitants and three excellent harbors. 
The name Basilan is also applied to the 
whole group of 34 adjacent islets. The 
leading port is Isabela, on Basilan Strait. 

Basilean Manuscripts, two manuscripts 
of the Greek New Testament now in the 
library of Basel. (1) A nearly complete 
uncial copy of the Gospels of the 8tli cen¬ 
tury; (2) a cursive copy of the whole New 
Testament except the Apocalypse, 10th cen¬ 
tury. 

Basilian Liturgy, that form for celebra¬ 
ting the Eucharist drawn up toward the 
close of the 4th century by Basil the Great, 
still used in the Greek Church. 

Basilian Monks, monks who strictly fol¬ 
low the rules of St. Basil, chiefly belonging 
to the Greek Church. 

Basilica, originally the hall or court¬ 
room in which the King administered the 
laws made by himself and the chiefs who 
formed his council. Of the vast size of 
some of these buildings we may form a con¬ 
ception from the accommodation which must 
have been required for the tribunal alone, 
where, in addition to the curule chair of 
the pretor, and space required by the suitors 
and their advocates, seats had to be pro¬ 
vided for the judices or jurymen, who oc¬ 
casionally amounted to as many as 180. 
When the Christian religion was made the 
State religion in Rome many of these build¬ 
ings were given up to the new sect; the 
arrangement of that portion of the interior 
where the official business was conducted 
easily lending itself to the Christian ritual. 
In some of the oldest basilicas in Rome, 
e. g., in the subterranean Church of San 
Clemente, the early development of the 
Christian arrangement from the Roman is 
still to be seen. Many of the oldest and 
most splendid of the Roman churches are 
built on the plan of the basilica, and are 
called basilicas in consequence. The original 
church, on the site of which St. Peter's is 
built, was a basilica, and hence the name is 
often applied to the present church, which 
is not, strictly speaking, a basilica. 

Basilicata, the ancient Lucania, in South 
Italy, composed solely of the province of 


Potenza; so called after the Emperor Ba- 
silius II., who reconquered it from the Sara¬ 
cens and Lombards in the 11th century. It 
it mountainous, several peaks rising to up¬ 
ward of 4,500 feet (Monte Pollino, 7,375 
feet). The Apennines here divide into two 
parts,which branch off to the E. and W. 
From these the rivers, Bradano, Basento, 
Salandrella, Agri, and Sinni, take their 
source, and, after draining this fertile dis¬ 
trict, fall into the Gulf of Taranto in the 
Ionian Sea. There are also many lakes, 
some of volcanic origin. The chief are Mon- 
ticchio, Pesole, Maorno, and Santa Pala- 
gina. The bulk of the people are poor and 
ignorant, and talk a dialect called basilisco. 
Its coast line being for the most part 
marshy, and, as a consequence, unhealthful, 
the province derives next to no commercial 
benefit from it. Nevertheless, there are 
works of amelioration in progress or pro¬ 
jected under the Acts of 1882 and 1886. 
The railway runs across the territory from 
N. W. to S. E., where there is a junction at 
Metaponto with the lines from Reggio and 
Brindisi. There are, moreover, other lines 
in course of construction or projected. Not¬ 
withstanding the great fertility of the soil 
agriculture is backward, and emigration to 
South America comparatively large. The 
products are varied. On the slopes of the 
Apennines, forests and pasture grounds are 
numerous, and the chestnuts plentiful. But 
even in the mountain valleys the vine is 
grown. In the vast plains that extend to 
Apulia and Calabria wheat is the principal 
product, while toward Melfi and the neigh¬ 
borhood of Melfi it is noted for its excellent 
wine. The orange and lemon grow well 
nearer the coast. Among other products 
are cotton, flax, silk, honey, wax, liquorice, 
dried fruit, saffron, tobacco, etc. Mineral 
springs are many, chiefly sulphurous. 
There are marble quarries at Avigliano, 
Latronico, Muro, Lucano, and Picerno; 
chalk at Mauro Forte and Montemuro; 
transparent quartz at Lagonegro; tufa at 
Matera; and excellent lignite at San Chirico 
Raparo and Rotonda. Area, 3,845 square 
miles; pop. (1906) 490,705. 

Basilicon, a name of several ointments, 
the chief ingredients of which are wax, 
pitch, resin, and olive oil. 

Basilicon Doron (the royal gift), the 
title of a book written by King James I. 
in 1599, containing a collection of precepts 
of the art of government. It maintains 
the claim of the King to be sole head of 
the Church. Printed at Edinburgh, 1603. 

Basilides (-dez), an Alexandrian gnos¬ 
tic who lived under the reigns of Trajan, 
Adrian, and Antoninus, but the place of 
his birth is unknown. He was well ac¬ 
quainted with Christianity, but mixed it 
up with the wildest dreams of the gnostics, 
peopling the earth and the air with multi- 



Basiliscus 


Basket Ball 


tudes of ceons. His disciples (Basilidians) 
were numerous in Syria, Egypt, Italy, and 
Gaul, but they are scarcely heard of after 
the 4th century. Many of his fantastic 
speculations bear greater resemblance to 
the doctrines of Zoroaster, and in some 
points to Indian philosophy, than to the 
religion of Jesus. The first principle of all 
things is the unborn and unknown Father, 
from whom emanated in succession nous 
(“mind”), logos (“the word”), phronesis 
(“ understanding ”), sophia (“ wisdom ”), 
and dynamis (“power”). From the last 
sprung diJcaiosyne (“justice”) and eir- 
ene (“peace”), and these seven with the 
Father formed the first Ogdoad, or octave 
of existence which originated the first 
heaven. From them emanated other powers 
which created the second heaven, and so on 
through the whole circle of emanations, 
which amount to 3G5, the mystic number 
so often inscribed on the symbolic stones 
in the Gnostic schools. Each of these an¬ 
gelic powers governs a world. There are, 
consequently, 365 worlds, to each of which 
Basilides gave a name. The archon or head 
of the 365tli, or lowest world, rules the ma¬ 
terial universe, which he also created. He 
is the God or Jehovah of the Old Testament, 
and when the earth was divided among 
the rulers of the material universe, the Jew¬ 
ish nation fell to the share of himself, who 
was the prince of the lowest class of angels. 
But wishing to absorb all powers himself, 
he strove against the other angels, the re¬ 
sult of which was the loss of the true re¬ 
ligion, to restore which the Supreme God 
sent Nous, the first emanation, who became 
incarnate in Jesus at his baptism. 

Basiliscus, an emperor of the East; 
lived in the 5tli century. He was the 
brother of the Emperor Leo’s wife, Verina. 
As commander of a large armament sent 
against Genseric, chief of the Vandals, he 
was signally defeated in 468. In 474 he 
usurped the throne and was proclaimed em¬ 
peror by the Senate. His reign was short 
and turbulent and in 476 he was defeated, 
and imprisoned by Zeno. He died in 477. 

Basilisk, a fabulous creature formerly 
believed to exist, and variously regarded as 
a kind of serpent, lizard, or dragon, and 
sometimes identified with the cockatrice. 
It inhabited the deserts of Africa, and its 
breath and even its look was fatal. The 
name is now applied to a genus of saurian 
reptiles (basiliscus ), belonging to the fam¬ 
ily iguanidce, distinguished by an elevated 
crest or row of scales, erectible at pleasure, 
which, like the dorsal fins of some fishes, 
runs along the whole length of the back and 
tail. The mitered or hooded basilisk ( B . 
mitratus) is especially remarkable for a 
membranous bag at the back of the head, of 
the size of a small hen’s egg, which can be 
inflated with air at pleasure. The other 


speeies have such hoods also, but of a less 
size. To this organ they owe their name, 
which recalls the basilisk of fable, though 
in reality they are exceedingly harmless and 
lively creatures. The B. amboinensis is a 
native of the Indian Archipelago, where it 
is much used for food. It frequents trees 
overhanging water, into which it drops 
when alarmed. 

Basilius. See Basil. 

Basin, in physical geography, the whole 
tract of country drained by a river and its 
tributaries. The line dividing one river 
basin from another is the watershed, and 
by tracing the various watersheds we di¬ 
vide each country into its constituent basins 
The basin of a loch or sea consists of the 
basins of all the rivers which run into it. 
In geology a basin is any dipping or dispo¬ 
sition of strata toward a common axis or 
center, due to upheaval and subsidence. It 
is sometimes used almost synonymously 
with formation to express the deposits lying 
in a certain cavity or depression in older 
rocks. The Paris basin and London basin 
are familiar instances. 

Baskerville, John, an English printer 
and type-founder, born in 1706; settled at 
Birmingham as a writing-master; subse¬ 
quently engaged in the manufacture of 
japanned works; and in 1750 became a 
printer. From his press went highly prized 
editions of ancient and modern classics, 
Bibles, prayer books, etc., all beautifully 
printed works. He died in 1775. 

Basket, originally a light and airy vessel 
made of plaited osiers, twigs, or similar 
flexible material, much used in domestic 
arrangements. The baskets made by the 
old inhabitants of Great Britain were so 
good that they became celebrated at Borne, 
and were called bv a Latin name which 
was confessedly only their native appella¬ 
tion pronounced by foreign lips. Martial 
thus speaks of them: “ Barbara . de pictis 
venit bascauda Britannis ” (“ The barbarian 
basket came from the painted Britons”). 
By barbarian he probably meant made by 
foreigners, as contradistinguished from Bo- 
mans, and did not mean in any way to im¬ 
peach the excellence of the manufacture. 
Mr. Freeman (“Old English History for 
Children”) instances basket as one of the 
few Welsh words in English, and points out 
that the small number that do exist are 
mainly one sort of words which the women, 
whether wives or slaves, would bring in. 
From this and other facts, he infers that in 
what at the end of the 6th century had be¬ 
come England, the prior inhabitants had 
been all but extirpated by the Anglo-Saxon 
invaders. 

Basket Ball, an indoor game played upon 
a circumscribed space on a floor, usually 
by five players on each side. At each end 




Baskett 


Bas=Relief 


of this playing space a basket is placed at 
a height of about 10 feet. The ball is round, 
somewhat lighter than a foot-ball, and is 
passed from one player to another by throw¬ 
ing, or striking with the hands only; the 
ultimate object being to lodge it in the op¬ 
ponent’s basket, which action counts one 
point. The rules as to interference, playing 
out of bounds, etc., are adapted from those 
of foot-ball. 

Baskett, James Newton, an American 
zoologist, born in Kentucky, Nov. 1, 1849; 
graduated at the Missouri State University 
in 1872. He has devoted himself to the 
study of comparative vertebrate anatomy, 
with ornithology as a specialty. In 1893 he 
presented a paper on “ Some Hints at the 
Kinship of Birds as Shown by Their Eggs ” 
at the World’s Congress of Ornithologists 
in Chicago. Among his publications are 
“ The Story of the Birds,” “ The Story of 
the Fishes,” “ The Story of the Amphibians 
and Reptiles,” “ The Story of the Mam¬ 
mals,” “At You-All’s House” (a novel); 
“As the Light Led” (a novel), etc. 

Basking Shark, a shark, called in Eng¬ 
lish also the sun fish and the sail fish, and 
hv zoologists selachus maximus. As its 
name maximus imports, it is the largest 
known shark, sometimes reaching 3fi feet in 
length, but it has little of the ferocity seen 
in its immediate allies. It is called bask¬ 
ing because it has a habit of lying motion¬ 
less on the water, as if enjoying the warmth 
of the sun. Tt inhabits the Northern seas, 
but is occasionally found on the shores of 
England. 

Basle. See Basel. 

Basques, or Biscayans fin their own lan¬ 
guage, Euscaldunac ), a remarkable race of 
people dwelling partly in the S. W. corner 
of France, but mostly in the N. of Spain 
adjacent to the Pyrenees. They are proba¬ 
bly descendants of the ancient Iberi, who 
occupied Spain before the Celts. They pre¬ 
serve their ancient language, former man¬ 
ners, and national dances, and make ad¬ 
mirable soldiers, especially in guerrilla war¬ 
fare. Their language is highly polysyn¬ 
thetic, and no connection between it and any 
other language has as yet been made out. 
There are four principal dialects, which 
are not only distinguished by their pronun¬ 
ciation and grammatical structure, but dif¬ 
fer even in their vocabularies. As no an¬ 
cient Basque literature has been preserved, 
it is impossible to determine what changes 
the language lias undergone. The extant 
literature contains proverbs, lyrics, and his¬ 
torical ballads and crude forms of dramatic 
writings. 

As a race, the Basques are proud, inde¬ 
pendent and patriotic and have preserved 
many of their ancient and peculiar cus¬ 
toms and characteristics. In the Basque 
provinces in Spain there are small parlia¬ 


ments that negotiate through deputations 
with the representatives of the crown. The 
entire race numbers about GOO,000 and oc¬ 
cupies in Spain the provinces of Biscay, 
Guipuzcoa, and Alava; in France parts of 
the deparments of the Upper and Lower 
Pyrenees, Ariege, and Upper Garonne. 

Basra. See Bassora. 

Bas=Relief (in Italian, basso-rilievo), 
that is, low relief, as applied to sculpture; 
a representation of one or more figures, 
raised on a flat surface or background, in 
such a manner, however, as that no part of 
them shall be entirely detached from it. 
Alto-rilievo y or high relief, is that in which 
the figures project half of their apparent 
circumference from the background. Mezzo- 
rilievo, or middle relief, is a third species, 
between the two. But, generally speaking, 
the first term is made to comprehend both 
the others. The term itself was invented 
in Italy, about the 11th or 12th century, 
on the revival of the arts; for the Greeks 
called such works simply carved ( anaglyp- 
ta) ; and to what is now called high relief 
they only applied the term rounded ( toreu - 
tike ). 

Bas-relief A s particularly allied to archi¬ 
tecture, and under its dominion, since any 
considerable work of this kind must be made 
for the pediment, frieze, or panel of a build¬ 
ing, or for some other architectural work, 
such as a tomb, sarcophagus, pedestal, or 
column. Bas-reliefs seem to have been in¬ 
vented in the earliest ages by the Egyptians, 
for the whole of their ancient monuments 
are covered with them, being executed in 
the same way as the hieroglyphics on their 
sepulchral chambers, obelisks, and temples. 
This has been finely illustrated by the draw¬ 
ings and models of the tomb of Sethi I., 
originally discovered near the ancient M 
Thebes, by Belzoni, and which has since be¬ 
come familiar to many persons; all the 
walls of that extraordinary excavation be¬ 
ing covered with thousands of figures in 
low relief, colored, and exhibiting the re¬ 
ligious and warlike ceremonies of that won¬ 
derful people. Bas-reliefs, too, are found 
in India, decorating the subterraneous tem¬ 
ples of Ellora and Elephanta in an astonish¬ 
ing profusion. The subjects are, of course, 
sacred, and in the style of drawing resemble 
very strongly those of the Egyptian monu¬ 
ments, but are evidently inferior, having 
larger heads and disproportioned bodies and 
limbs. Both these temples have been well 
illustrated and described by Thomas Dan- 
iell, R. A., and Captain Scaley; and for 
further information, their respective works 
may be consulted. The Persians, too, like 
other ancient nations, employed bas-relief 
as a figured writing, thereby recording and 
representing the symbols of the power and 
energy of the Divinity, their own religious 
ceremonies, and warlike achievements. The 
sculptures still existing on the ruins of the 



Bas=Relief 


Bass 


palace of Persepolis and the royal tombs 
accord in many striking particulars with 
those taken to England by Belzoni. In both 
the figures are arranged in lines, either 
horizontal or perpendicular, to suit the 
double purpose of decoration and descrip¬ 
tion. In both of them the natives of Egypt 
are distinguished by the hood with lappets, 
the miter, the full hair artificially curled, 
the close tunic, the apron of papyrus; the 
Hindus, by the necklaces, bracelets, and an¬ 
klets; the Hebrews, by their long beards, 
and hair in spiral ringlets, their caps, full 
tunics, with regular folds and large sleeves. 
The Medes, again, by their close tunics; 
while the Persians themselves, in many par¬ 
ticulars, resemble the Hebrews. The com¬ 
parison may be easily made by looking over 
the prints in Sir Robert Ker Porter’s 
“ Travels in Persia,” and those in Le 
Bruyn’s “ Travels,” and then the engrav¬ 
ings of Denon’s and Belzoni’s large works. 

Since it has been well observed that the 
Greeks commenced in works of art precisely 
where the Egyptians left off, we find that 
the early bas-reliefs of Greece resemble 
pretty accurately those of Egypt. The ob¬ 
jects are represented in the same hard and 
simple manner, and the marbles taken to 
England from the temple of Angina serve to 
fill up the history of sculpture, in the inter¬ 
val between its first introduction into Greece 
and its full development under Phidias, at 
Athens, when that glorious work, the Par¬ 
thenon, was produced under the auspices of 
Pericles. 

The draperies in these early bas-reliefs 
are thin and meager, showing the forms of 
the body and limbs, the folds regular, small, 
and distinct, consisting chiefly of perpen¬ 
dicular and zigzag lines. Some of the head¬ 
dresses consist of small curls, very like the 
fashions of barbarous nations; and in a 
bronze patera in the British Museum, the 
club of Hercules is ornamented with spiral 
flutes, like one brought by Captain Cook 
from the Sandwich Islands. 

The best examples of bas-relief now in 
existence are to be found within the walls 
of the British Museum. We mean, of course, 
those of the Elgin Marbles, which are ex¬ 
ecuted in this manner. And in the same 
collection are the tombstone of Xanthippus, 
and a man curbing a horse, both conjectured 
to be of the age of Phidias, and which 
formed part of the Townley collection. In 
the collection of the Marquis of Lansdowne 
is a Greek bas-relief of Calchas, the size of 
life. At Wilton there is a beautiful repre¬ 
sentation of the Death of Meleager, and a 
small but curious Hercules and iEgle; a 
bas-relief composed of mosaic in natural 
colors, which is supposed to be unique. The 
celebrated Barberini vase, formerly in the 
possession of the Duke of Portland, is of 
dark blue glass, bearing figures in bas-relief 
of white enamel or glass of admirable work¬ 


manship. Fragments of bas-reliefs of simi¬ 
lar materials have been found in the ruins 
of Caesar’s palace, at Rome, where they had 
been fixed in the walls. The two triumphal 
columns of Trajan and Antonine are covered 
with bas-reliefs, containing several thou¬ 
sand figures (the first, indeed, has 2,50ft 
human figures, according to Vasi), without 
reckoning horses, elephants, mules, and the 
implements of war. 

Bass, in music. (1) The string which 
gives a bass sound. (2) An instrument 
which plays the bass part; especially of the 
violoncello or bass-viol, and the contrabasso 
or double bass. Both this and the previous 
sense are found in the following example: 
(3) The lowest of the principal human 
voices; those higher in pitch being, re¬ 
spectively, baritone, tenor, alto or contralto, 
mezzo-soprano, soprano. (4) The portion 
of a choir singing the bass part; also the 
portion of a string band playing the bass 
part. (5) The lowest instrument of any 
class or family of instruments; as bass 
clarionet, bass flute, bass horn, bass trom¬ 
bone, bass tuba, bass viol or base viol. (6) 
The string of lowest pitch on a string 
instrument having deep sounds. (7) Bass 
clef: The lowest sign of absolute pitch used 
in music; the F clef. 

A fundamental bass: The supposed gen¬ 
erator or foundation of any harmonic com¬ 
bination. Thus C is said to be the funda¬ 
mental base of the chord G, C. E. 

Thorough or continuous bass: Originally 
the bass part figured for the player on a 
harpsichord or organ. Hence, the art of 
adding chords to a figured bass; the art of 
harmony. 

Bass, the name of a number of fishes of 
several genera, but originally belonging to 
a genus of sea fishes ( labrax ) of the perch 
family, distinguished from the true perches 
by having the tongue covered by small teeth 
and the preoperculum smooth. L. lupus, 
the only British species, called also sea- 
dace, and from its voracity sea-wolf, re¬ 
sembles somewhat the salmon in shape, and 
is much esteemed for the table, weighing 
about 15 pounds. L. lineatus (roccus linc- 
atus), or striped bass, an American species, 
weighing from 25 to 30 pounds, is much 
used for food, and is also known as rock- 
fish. Both species occasionally ascend riv¬ 
ers, and attempts have been made to culti¬ 
vate British bass in fresh water ponds with 
success. Two species of black bass ( microp- 
terus salmoides and M. dolomieu) , American 
fresh water fishes, are excellent as food and 
give fine sport to the angler. The former is 
often called the large mouthed black bass, 
from the size of its mouth. Both make nests 
and take great care of their eggs and young. 
The centropristis nigricans, an American 
sea fish of the perch family, and weighing 



Bass 


Basses-Pyrenees 


two to three pounds, is known as the sea- 
bass. 

Bass, Edward, first Protestant Episco¬ 
pal Bishop of Massachusetts, born in Dor¬ 
chester, Nov. 23, 1726; graduated at Har¬ 
vard in 1744; was ordained in England in 
1752; and became pastor of the church at 
Newburyport, Mass. During the Revolution 
he omitted from the church service all ref¬ 
erence to the royal family and the British 
Government. For this he was expelled from 
the Society for Propagating the Gospel. In 
1797 he was consecrated Bishop of Massa¬ 
chusetts, and finally also of New Hamp¬ 
shire and Rhode Island. He died in New¬ 
buryport, Mass., Sept. 10, 1803. 

Bass, Michael Arthur. See Burton. 

Bass, Michael Thomas, an English 
brewer, born in 1799. He became head of 
the Burton brewing firm of Bass & Co., upon 
the death of his father, and was a member 
of Parliament from 1848 to 1883. His bene¬ 
factions were very numerous, and included 
the building and endowing of St. Paul’s, 
Burton, the total expenditure on the parish 
being about £100,000; and recreation 
grounds, a free library, and swimming baths 
for Derby, at a cost of £37,000. Of simple 
tastes, he declined more than once a 
baronetcy and a peerage. He died in 1884. 

Bassano (blis-a'no), a commercial city 
of North Italy, province of Vicenza, on the 
Brenta, over which is a covered wooden 
bridge. It has lofty old walls, an old castle, 
various industries, and an active trade. 
Near Bassano, Sept. 8, 1796, Bonaparte de¬ 
feated the Austrian General Wurmser. 

Bassano, Hugues Bernard Maret, 
Due de, a French publicist and statesman, 
born at Dijon, in 1763. On the first out¬ 
burst of the French Revolution he enthusi¬ 
astically embraced its principles, published 
the “ Bulletin de 1’ Assemblee,” and soon 
after was appointed editor of the “ Moni- 
teur.” He became acquainted with Bona¬ 
parte, and was made by him Chef de Di¬ 
vision in the ministry of foreign affairs. In 
1811, Maret was created Duke de Bassano, 
and appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs; 
and in 1812 he conducted and signed the 
treaties between France, Austria, and Prus¬ 
sia, preparatory to the fatal expedition to 
Russia. When the Emperor was sent to 
Elba, in 1814, Bassano retired from public 
life; but immediately after Napoleon’s re¬ 
turn he joined him, and was very nearly 
being taken prisoner at Waterloo. On the 
Emperor’s final overthrow, the Duke was 
banished from France, but at the Revolution 
of July, 1830, he was recalled, and restored 
to all his honors. In 1838 he was made 
Minister of the Interior, and President of 
the Council, but the ministry of which he 
formed a part survived only three days. 
Died in 1839. 


Bassano, Jacopo, or Giacomo da Ponte, 

an Italian painter, born at Bassano, in 
1510. In early life he went to Venice, where 
he studied the great works of Parmegiano, 
Titian, and Bonifazio. He spent the rest of 
his life at his native place. His first pro¬ 
ductions had much grandeur of conception 
and excellence of color, but he afterward 
painted in a coarser and lower style. He 
treated even sacred subjects with a vulgar 
familiarity. Bassano worked rapidly, and 
his paintings are very numerous. There are 
three of them in the National Gallery, Lon¬ 
don. Died in 1592. 

Bassein. (1) A thriving town in Burma, 
India, on the left bank of the Bassein river, 
one of the mouths of the Irawadi, 75 miles 
from the sea, but accessible to the largest 
ships. It is an important center of the 
rice trade, has considerable trade with 
Madras, and in a military view also is im¬ 
portant, as it completely commands the 
navigation of the stream. It was captured 
by the British in 1852. Pop. (1891) 30,177. 
The district of Bassein has an area of 6,848 
square miles, and a pop. (1891) of 475,002. 
(2) Bassein, a decayed town of 10,500 in¬ 
habitants, 28 miles N. of Bombay. Ceded 
to the Portuguese in 1534, it was a place of 
much importance as late as 1720, when the 
population was 60,000; its remains still 
point to former splendor. In 1765 it was 
wrested from the Portuguese by the Mah- 
rattas, and in 1780 surrendered to the Brit¬ 
ish after a 12 days’ siege. 

Basselin, or Bacheliti, Olivier (bas-lan*), 

a French poet, born in the Val-de-Vire, 
Normandy, about 1350; presumably died 
there about 1419. His career has been in¬ 
vestigated with some pains because of the 
assertion that the vocabulary of theatrical 
and poetical literature is indebted to him 
for the word vaudeville. It would appear 
he was a cloth-fuller or presser, with a mill 
in his native vale, which brought him in 
quite a revenue. He was much given to 
versified narration and iteration of con¬ 
vivial themes, in rhymed fragments dubbed 
vciux-de-vire in honor of the poet’s purlieus. 
In the “ Book of New Songs and Vaux-de- 
Vire ” (1610) appears a collection of these 
bacchanalian stanzas, the most touching of 
which is addressed by the singer “ To My 
Nose,” the rubescence thereof being taste¬ 
fully and exquisitely celebrated. 

Basselisse Tapestry (biis-les'), a kind 
of tapestry wrought with a horizontal warp. 

Basses=Alps (bas-alp), (Lower Alps), 
a Department of France, on the Italian bor¬ 
der. See Alps. 

Basses=Pyrenees (biis-per-na'), (Lower 
Pyrenees), a French Department, bordering 
on Spain and the Bay of Biscay. See 
Pyrenees. 



Basset 


Bassi 


Basset, a game at cards, played some¬ 
what similar to the modern faro. It is of 
Venetian invention, and was formerly much 
played in France. Louis XIV. issued some 
very severe decrees against it, after which 
it was played under the name of pour et 
contre. 

“ Some dress, some dance, some play; not to 
forget 

Your piquet parties, and your dear basset.” 

— Rowe. 

It is played as follows: The banker deals 
the cards in pairs, and each punter, or 
player, has a livrct of 13 cards, from which 
he selects one or more, and stakes on them. 
The principle of the game depends upon the 
corresponding card in the banker’s pack 
turning up in an odd or an even place. 
When a player wins, he may either take his 
money or go on, risking his stake and gains. 
The first time this is done it is called paroli, 
or double; the second time, sept et le va, 
seven and it goes; the third time, quinze 
et le va, fifteen, etc.; the fourth time, trente 
et le va, thirty-one, etc.; and on the fifth 
risk, soixante et le va, sixtv-three, etc. In 
till cases the odds are greatly in favor of 
the banker; it is 1.023 to 1 against the 
player winning ten successive games. 

Basset, a name used with some latitude 
in France for any very short-legged dogs, 
but especially for various breeds of sporting 
dogs resembling (though considerably larger 
than) the dachshund, known in France as 
basset Allemand, as distinguished from bas¬ 
set Frangais. They may be divided into 
straight legged and crooked legged, and 
these again into rough haired and smooth 
haired. They vary in color, but are fre¬ 
quently, like foxhounds, tan on the head, 
and black and white on the body. Bassets 
(or basset hounds) are used for tracking 
deer, boars, etc., and driving them out of 
coverts; and are best known as companion¬ 
able pets. 

Basse=Terre (bas-tfir'), (French, low¬ 
land), the name of the capitals of St. 
Christopher’s and of Guadeloupe in the West 
Indies. 

Basset=Horn, a musical instrument, the 
tenor of the clarionet family, having more 
than three octaves in its compass, extending 
upward from F below the bass stave. It 
differs from the shape of the clarionet 
mainly in having the bell mouth, which is 
made of metal, recurved. 

Bassett, James, a Canadian-American 
missionary, born in Glenford, Ontario, Jan. 
31, 1834; was graduated at Lane Theological 
Seminary in 1850; served as a chaplain in 
the Union army in 1862-1863; and after¬ 
ward held Presbyterian pastorates in New 
Jersey until 1871, when he went as a mis¬ 
sionary to Persia under the direction of 

47 


the Presbyterian Board. There he gained 
a thorough knowledge of the people; and 
by publications and personal efforts finally 
obtained the establishment of a United 
States legation in Persia. He was the first 
American to visit the tomb of the Caliph 
Haroun al Raschid. He has written 
“ Among the Turcomans ” (1880) ; “ Hymns 
in Persian” (1884) ; “Persia, the Land of 
the Imams” (1886); and “Grammatical 
Note on the Simnuni Dialects of the Per¬ 
sian ” (1884). 

Bassett, John Spencer, an American 
historian, born in Tarboro, N. C., Sept. 10, 
1867; graduated at Trinity College, Dur¬ 
ham, N. C., in 1888, and took a Ph. D. at 
Johns Hopkins in 1804. His works include 
“ Constitutional Beginnings in North Caro¬ 
lina,” “ Slavery and Servitude in the Colony 
of North Carolina,” “ Anti-Slavery Leaders 
of North Carolina,” “Slavery in the State 
of North Carolina,” “ The War of the Regu¬ 
lation,’’'etc. In 1006 he became Professor of 
History in Smith College, Mass. 

Bassi, Laura Maria Caterina (biis'se), an 
Italian lady, distinguished for her learn¬ 
ing, born in Bologna, Oct. 20, 1711; received 
a doctor’s degree on account of her attain¬ 
ments, and delivered public lectures on ex¬ 
perimental philosophy. She also lectured 
in the Philosophical College, where she was 
appointed professor. Her correspondence, 
with the most eminent scholars of Europe, 
was verv extensive. She married Guiseppe 
Verrati in 1738 and had several children. 
She died Feb. 20, 1778. 

Bassi, Ugo, a Barnabite monk, and dis¬ 
tinguished Italian patriot, born in Cento, in 
the Homan States, in 1804, of an Italian 
father and Greek mother. He was much 
distinguished among the brethren for his 
extraordinary learning and talents. The 
liberality of his political opinions, how¬ 
ever, rendered him obnoxious to the Papal 
Court, and he was sent into a sort of exile 
in Sicily, from which he only returned on 
the accession of Pius IX., in 1846. On the 
breaking out of the Lombard Revolution in 
1848, he greatly distinguished himself by his 
valor in battle, and his untiring services in 
the hospitals. On the capitulation of Tre¬ 
viso, he went to Venice, where he fought in 
the ranks against her Austrian besiegers. 
Thence he went to Rome, and joined Gari¬ 
baldi’s legion as chaplain. On the fall of 
Rome, he was one of those who followed 
Garibaldi when he made a last attempt to 
fight his way to Venice, which still held out 
against the Austrians. The little band was, 
however, dispersed and cut up by Austrian 
troops, and Garibaldi himself escaped with 
great difficulty. Bassi was taken prisoner, 
carried to Bologna, and condemned to death 
Aug. 18, 1849. Bassi was the author of a 
work on “ The Church After the Image of 





Bassia 


Bass Rock 


Christ,” and an unfinished poem called 
“ Constantine, or the Triumph of the Cross.” 
His talents were universal. He was an ac¬ 
complished musician and composer, wrote 
his own language in remarkable perfection, 
and was a perfect master of Greek, Latin, 
English, and French. He was equally re¬ 
markable for his personal beauty, and his 
eloquence as an improvisatore, while his 
memory was so prodigious that he is said 
to have been capable of reciting the whole 
of Dante’s “ Divina Commedia.” 

Bassia (named after Fernando Bassi, 
curator of the botanic gardens at Bologna), 
a genus of plants belonging to the order 
sapotacece (sapotads). It consists of large 
trees which grow in the East Indies. Bas¬ 
sia latofolia (broad leaved bassia) is com¬ 
mon in some parts of India. It is called the 
mohra or moho tree. The flowers have a 
heavy, sickening smell, and an intoxicating 
spirit is distilled from them. B. butyracea 
is the Indian butter tree. The African but¬ 
ter tree, that of Mungo Park and Bruce, is 
also a bassia. 

Bassompierre, Francois de ((bas-omp- 
yar'), a marshal of France, born in Harouel, 
in Lorraine, in 1579. At the age of 20 he 
went to the French court, where he gained 
the favor of Henry IV. Appointed Colonel 
of the Swiss Guards after the King’s mur¬ 
der, he was raised to the rank of Marshal, 
in 1622; was sent on embassies to Spain, 
Switzerland, and England; and bore an 
active part in the siege of La Rochelle. He 
became, however, an object of suspicion and 
dislike to Richelieu, who caused him to be 
cast into the Bastille in February, 1631, 
from which he was not liberated until 1643, 
after the death of Richelieu. He himself 
died in 1646. Bassompierre was an accom¬ 
plished courtier, extravagant in luxury, and 
excessively addicted to gallantries. At the 
time of his arrest he destroyed 6,000 love- 
letters. 

Bassoon (so called from its similarity in 
appearance to a bundle of sticks). (1) A 

reed instrument of the double reed class, 
forming in ordinary orchestras the tenor 
and bass of the wood wind band. It has a 
compass of about three octaves, commencing 
at the note B fiat below the bass stave. (2) 
An organ stop of a quality of tone similar 
to the orchestral instrument. (3) A series 
of free reeds on a harmonium or kindred in¬ 
strument, of a like quality of tone. 

Bassora, onr Bussora, a town of Asiatic 
Turkey, on the W. bank of the Euphrates, 
here called the Shat-el-Arab, 56 miles from 
its mouth in the Persian Gulf. The river, 
which is navigable to this point for ships 
of 500 tons, is divided into a number of 
channels, and, by evaporation and frequent 
overflowing, makes the climate very un¬ 
healthy. Most of the houses are low huts, . 


built of unburned bricks. The population, once 
150,000, had sunk in 1854 to 5,000, but the 
establishment of the English Tigris and 
Euphrates Steamship Company has alto¬ 
gether changed the prospects of Bassora and 
the town now probably contains at least 40,- 
000 inhabitants, most of them actively en¬ 
gaged in commerce, notably in the exchange 
of the productions of Turkey and Persia for 
Indian and European goods, particularly 
articles of British manufacture. Bassora 
was founded in 636 by the Caliph Omar, and 
soon became one of the most famous and 
opulent cities of the East. The possession 
of it has been the subject of many contests 
between the Turks and the Persians. It is 
a place of great note in the history of Ara¬ 
bic literature. 

Bassora Gum, a gum brought from Bas¬ 
sora; supposed to be derived either from a 
cactus or a mesembrvanthemum. 

Bassorin, a kind of mucilage found in 
gum tragacanth, which forms a jelly with 
water, but does not dissolve in it. A clear, 
aqueous looking liquid, apparently of the 
nature of bassorin, exists in the large cells 
of the tubercular roots of some terrestrial 
orchids of the section ophyrew. It is formed 
of minute cells, each with its cytoblast; the 
whole being compactly aggregated in the in¬ 
terior of the parent cell. 

Bass Rock, a remarkable island rock of 
Haddingtonshire, Scotland, near the mouth 
of the Firth of Forth, 2 miles from Canty 
Bay, and 314 miles E. N. E. of North Ber¬ 
wick. Confronted by the ruins of Tantal- 
lon Castle, and composed of volcanic green¬ 
stone and trap tuff, it is about a mile in 
circumference, nearly round, and 313 feet 
high. It is inaccessible on all sides except 
the S., where it shelves down to the water, 
and there the landing is difficult, almost 
impossible when there is any swell. On the 
W., N., and E., the cliffs rise sheer out of 
the sea. They are denizened by countless 
numbers of solan geese and other birds, 
which give the rock a snowy appearance in 
the distance. A cavern tunnels the rock 
from W. to E., and is accessible at low tide. 
In 756 St. Balthere or Baldred died in a 
hermitage on the Bass Rock; in 1316 it 
came into the possession of the Lauder fam¬ 
ily. In 1671 Charles II. purchased it for 
£4,000, and within its dreary dungeons 
many of the most eminent of the Covenant¬ 
ers were confined during his and James II.’s 
reign. The Bass was the last spot in the 
British Islands which held out for the 
Stuarts. Four young Jacobite prisoners 
had the address to capture, and, with 12 
more who joined them, to hold it for King 
James, from June, 1691, till April, 1694, 
against all the forces which William III. 
sent against them; at last the spirited little 
garrison surrendered on honorable terms, 



Bass Strait 


Bastard 


and only from a consciousness of failing 
provisions. In 1701 the fortifications were 
demolished. Five years afterward the Bass 
passed into the possession of Sir Hew 
Dalrymple, to who-se descendant it now be¬ 
longs. 

Bass Strait, a channel beset with islands, 
which separates Australia from Tasmania, 
120 miles broad, discovered by George Bass, 
a surgeon in the Boyal navy, in 1798. 

Bassville, Nicolas Jean Hugon de, a 

French journalist and diplomatist. As edi¬ 
tor of the “ Mercure National ” he attracted 
attention to himself and was appointed 
Secretary to the Legation at Naples, in 
1792. Soon after this he was dispatched to 
Rome, where he was killed, in 1793, by the 
populace for attempting, under orders of 
the French Government, to oblige all French 
residents to wear the tricolor cockade. The 
death of Bassville has furnished the sub¬ 
ject for many compositions both in prose 
and verse, in French and Italian. 

Basswood, the American lime tree or lin¬ 
den (tilia americana ), a tree common in 
North America, yielding a light, soft timber. 

Bast, (1) The inner bark of the lime or 
linden tree, used in Russia and elsewhere 
for making mats. (2) A rope made from 
this material. (3) Anything similar; also a 
strong, woody fiber derived from two palms, 
aticilca funifera and Icopolcliana piassaba, 
and used for making brooms and brushes. 

Cuba bast: The fibers of paritium 
elation, a mallow-wort. It is used for tying 
up plants in gardens, or binding together 
cigars. 

Bast, in Egyptian mythology, a goddess 
represented with a cat head or lioness head. 
Bubastis, in Egypt, was the city where she 
held a high place, similar to that of Neitli 
in Sais. Nearly a million Egyptians made 
annual pilgrimages to her shrine. Great 
numbers of bronze images of Bast were pur¬ 
chased in Bubastis. 

Bastar, a feudatory State of British 
India, joined with the Chanda district of 
the Central Provinces. It has an area of 
13,062 square miles. Pop. (1891) 310,884. 

Bastard, an illegitimate child. The 
Romans distinguished two kinds of natural 
children — nothi the issue of concubinage, 
and spurii, the children of prostitutes; the 
former could inherit from the mother, and 
were entitled to support from the father; 
the latter 'had no claims whatever to sup¬ 
port. The Athenians treated all bastards 
with extreme rigor. By the laws of Solon, 
they were denied the rights of citizenship. 
A law of Pericles ordered the sale of 5,000 
bastards as slaves. What rendered these 
regulations more severe was that not only 
the issue of concubinage and adultery, but 
all children whose parents were not both 


Athenians, were considered bastards at Ath¬ 
ens. Thus Themistocles, whose mother was 
a native of Halicarnassus, was deemed a 
bastard. The law, as might be expected, 
was often set aside by the influence of pow¬ 
erful citizens. Pericles himself had it re¬ 
pealed in favor of his son by Aspasia, after 
he had lost his legitimate children by the 
plague. The condition of bastards has been 
different in different periods of modern his¬ 
tory. Among the Goths and Franks, they 
were permitted to inherit from the father. 
Thiery, the natural son of Clovis, inherited 
a share of his father’s conquests. William 
the Conqueror, natural son of Robert I., 
Duke of Normandy, and of Arlette, daugh¬ 
ter of a furrier of Falaise, inherited his 
father’s dominions. He called himself Wil- 
lelmus, cognomento Batardus. The cele¬ 
brated Dunois styled himself, in his letters, 
the Bastard of Orleans. In Spain, bastards 
have always been capable of inheriting. 
The bastardy of Henry of Transtamare did 
not prevent his accession to the throne of 
Castile. In France, the condition of bas¬ 
tards was formerly very different in the 
different provinces. The code civil thus 
fixes their rights: If the father or mother 
leave legitimate descendants, the bastard is 
entitled to one-third of the portion he would 
have inherited had he been a lawful child; 
if the father or mother die without de¬ 
scendants, but leave ascendants, or broth¬ 
ers or sisters, then he is entitled to one- 
half of such a portion; if the father 
or mother leave no ascendants nor 
descendants, nor brothers nor sisters, 
he is entitled to three-quarters of such a 
portion; and if the father or mother leave 
no relations within the degrees of succes¬ 
sion, he is entitled to the whole property. 
These regulations do not apply to the issue 
of an incestuous or adulterous connection. 

By the common law of England, a child 
born after marriage, however soon, is legit¬ 
imate, or at least he is presumed to be so; 
for one born in wedlock, and long enough 
after the marriage to admit of the period 
of gestation, may still be proved illegitimate, 
in case of absence and non-access of the 
husband, and under some other circum¬ 
stances. According to the common law, a 
bastard is not the heir of any one; and, on 
the other hand, his only heirs are his 
children born in wedlock, and their descend¬ 
ants. According to the Roman law, one 
born out of wedlock might be legitimated 
by subsequent marriage and acknowledg¬ 
ment of his parents. In 1236 the English 
prelates proposed the introduction of the 
Roman law, in this respect, into England, 
to which the nobility made the celebrated 
reply, Nolumus leges Anglice mutare (We 
are unwilling to change the laws of En¬ 
gland). The Roman law has been long 
adopted in Scottish law, and in that of 
some of the United States. 



Bastard Bar* 


Bastille 


Bastard Bar, more correctly baton sin¬ 
ister, the heraldic mark used to indicate 
illegitimate descent. It is a diminutive of 
the bend sinister, of which it is one-fourth 
in width, coupcd or cut short at the ends, 
so as not to touch the corners of the shield. 

Bastia, the former capital of Corsica; is 
picturesquely situated on the slope of a 
mountain, rising from the sea in the form 
of an amphitheater, in the N. E. part of the 
Island, 95 miles N. N. E. of Ajaccio. Its 
streets are narrow and crooked, its harbor 
somewhat difficult of access, yet it has con¬ 
siderable shipping. Antimony mining, boat 
building, iron founding, tunny, and coral 
fishing are carried on; besides, there is some 
trade in oil, wine, and fruit. Population 
(1901) 25,425. Bastia was founded in 1383 
by the Genoese Leonello Lomellino, and was 
the seat of the Genoese governors for 400 
years. It has several times been in the 
hands of the English, who, under Admiral 
Hood, last captured the town in 1794, after 
an obstinate and protracted siege. When 
Corsica was divided into two French De¬ 
partments, it was made the capital of one; 
but when both were united in 1811, the seat 
of government was transferred to Ajaccio. 

Bastian, Adolf, a German traveler and 
ethnologist, born in 1826. His travels have 
embraced various parts of Europe, the 
United States, Mexico, Peru, Australia and 
New Zealand, Southern and Western Africa, 
Egypt, Arabia, India, Southeastern Asia, 
the Asiatic Archipelago, Japan, China, Mon¬ 
golia, Siberia, etc. Ilis numerous writings 
throw light on almost every subject con¬ 
nected with ethnology or anthropology, as 
well as psychology, linguistics, non-Chris¬ 
tian religions, geography, etc. One of his 
chief works is “ Die Volker des ostlichen 
Asien ” (“ Peoples of Eastern Asia,” 6 vols., 
1866-1871). He died in 1905. 

Bastian, Henry Charlton, an English 
biologist, born in Truro in 1837. He was 
educated at Falmouth and at University 
College, London, where he was Assistant 
Curator in the Museum in 1860-1863. He 
obtained the degree of M. A. in 1861, from 
the University of London, graduating sub¬ 
sequently in medicine at the same univer¬ 
sity (M. B. 1863, M. D. 1866). In 1864- 
1866 he was a medical officer in Broadmoor 
Criminal Lunatic Asylum, and in the latter 
year was appointed Lecturer on Pathology 
and assistant physician in St. Mary’s Hos¬ 
pital. In 1867 he became Professor of 
Pathological Anatomy in University College, 
subsequently he was also Professor of Clini¬ 
cal Medicine, and he has recently been ap¬ 
pointed to the chair of medicine and clini¬ 
cal medicine. Apart from numerous con¬ 
tributions to medical and other periodicals, 
and to Quain's “ Dictionary of Medicine,” 
he has written “ The Modes of Origin of 
Lowest Organisms (1871); “The Begin¬ 


nings of Life” (1872) ; “Evolution and the 
Origin of Life” (1874) ; “Lectures on Par¬ 
alysis from Brain Disease” (1875); and 
“The Brain as an Organ of Mind” (1880), 
which has been translated into French and 
German. He has been an advocate of spon¬ 
taneous generation. 

Bastien=Lepage, Jules (bast-yen' le-pazh), 
a French painter, born at Damvilliers, 
Nov. 1, 1848; studied under Cabanel, and 
early began to attract notice by his 
impressionist, but strong and real, pictures 
in the Salon. Some of his more important 
works were “ In Spring,” “ The First Com¬ 
munion,” “ The Shepherds,” “ The Wheat- 
field,” “The Beggar,” and “Joan of Arc 
Listening to the Voices.” Striking por¬ 
traits were those of his grandfather, his 
father and mother, Sarah Bernhardt, Andre 
Theuriet, and the Prince of Wales. He died 
at the height of his fame, Dec. 10, 1884. 

Bastille, properly means any strong cas¬ 
tle provided with towers, but as a proper 
name is applied to a famous castle which 
once existed in Paris, in which State pris¬ 
oners and other persons arrested by lettres 
de cachet were confined. It was founded by 
Hugues d’ Aubriot in 1369, and completed 
by the addition of four towers in 1383. 
The lettres de cachet mentioned above were 
issued in the name of the king, but the 
names of the individuals were inserted by 
the ministers, who were the depositaries of 
these letters. Of the origin of this custom 
we may perhaps find the explanation in 
Montesquieu’s “ Esprit des Lois,” where it 
is said, “ Honor is the virtue of monarchies, 
and often supplies its place.” A nobleman 
was unwilling to be dishonored by a mem¬ 
ber of his family. Filial disobedience and 
unworthy conduct were probably not more 
uncommon among the nobility of France 
than elsewhere. But in each case fathers 
and relations often requested the confine¬ 
ment of the offender, till the head of the 
family should express a wish for his re¬ 
lease. At first this privilege was limited to 
the chief families of the country. The next 
step was that the ministers of government 
considered themselves entitled to the same 
privileges as heads of families among the 
nobility. If an offense was committed in 
their offices or households, which, if known, 
would have cast a shadow on the ministers 
themselves, they arrested, motu proprio, 
the obnoxious individuals, and often made 
use of their privilege to put out of sight 
persons whose honest discharge of duty had 
excited their displeasure, or who were ac¬ 
quainted with facts disgraceful to the min¬ 
isters themselves. It sometimes happened 
that no further examination of the pris¬ 
oners was held, and the cause of their de¬ 
tention nowhere recorded. In such cases an 
individual remained in prison sometimes 
30 or 40 years, or even till his death, be- 




Bastion 


Bat 


cause succeeding officers took it for granted 
that he had been properly confined, or that 
his imprisonment was required for reasons 
of State. 

The invention of the lettres de cachet im¬ 
mediately opened the door to the tyranny of 
ministers and the intrigues of favorites, 
who supplied themselves with these orders, 
in order to confine individuals who had be¬ 
come obnoxious to them. These arrests be¬ 
came continually more arbitrary, and men 
of the greatest merit were liable to be 
imprisoned. On July 14, 1789, the Bastille 
was surrounded by a tumultuous mob, who 
first attempted to negotiate with the gover¬ 
nor, Delaunay, but this failing attacked 
the fortress. For hours they continued the 
siege without being able to effect more 
than an entrance into the outer court of 
the Bastille, but at last the arrival of some 
of the Royal Guard with a few pieces of 
artillery forced the governor to let down 
the second drawbridge and admit the pop¬ 
ulace. The governor was seized, but on the 
way to the Hotel de Ville he was torn from 
his captors and put to death. The next day 
the destruction of the Bastille commenced. 
A bronze column has been erected on its site. 
The event considered by itself was of no 
great national importance, but it marked 
the beginning of the French Revolution. 

Bastion, a projecting mass of earth or 
masonry at the angle of a fortification, hav¬ 
ing two faces and two flanks, and so con¬ 
structed that every part of it may be de¬ 
fended by the flank fire of some other part 
of the fort. The flanks of adjacent bastions 
are connected by a curtain. The distance 
between two such flanks is termed the gorge. 
A detached bastion is called a lunette. 
Also: (a) A composed, bastion is one which 
has two sides of the interior polygon very 
irregular, with the effect of making the 
gorges also irregular, (b) A cut bastion is 
one which has a re-entering angle instead 
of a point, (c) A deformed bastion is one 
in which the irregularity of the lines and 
angles prevents the structure from having 
a regular form, (d) A demi-bastion is a 
bastion composed of one face only, with but 
a single flank and a demi-gorge. (e) A 
double bastion is a bastion raised on the 
plane of another one. (f) A flat bastion is 
one erected in the middle of a curtain when 
the latter is too long to be protected by the 
bastions at its ends, (g) A hollow bastion 
is one hollow in the interior, (h) A regu¬ 
lar bastion is one so planned as to possess 
the true proportion of its faces, flanks, and 
gorges, (i) A solid bastion is one solid 
throughout its entire structure. 

Bastwick, John, an English physician 
and political writer, born in 1593. He stud¬ 
ied at Cambridge, traveled all over Europe, 
and finally settled at Colchester as a phy¬ 
sician. In 1637 he was condemned by the 


Star Chamber for his books against the Ro¬ 
man Church, viz., “ Eleuchus Papismi,” and 
“ A New Litany; ” and was, like Prynne and 
Burton, his fellow prisoners, sentenced to 
pay a heavy fine, to be set in the pillory, 
have his ears cut off, his cheeks and fore¬ 
head branded, and be imprisoned for life. 
He was sent to Sicily, and kept there till 
released by the Long Parliament, when he 
had a reward of $25,000 allowed him for his 
sufferings. He died about 1650. 

Basutoland, a native province and Brit¬ 
ish South African possession, between the 
former Orange Free State, Natal, Griqua- 
land East, and Cape Colony. The Basutos 
belong chiefly to the great stem of the 
Bechuanas, and have made greater advances 
in civilization than perhaps any other South 
African race. In 1866 the Basutos, who had 
lived under a semi-protectorate of the Brit¬ 
ish since 1848, were proclaimed British sub¬ 
jects, their country placed under the gov¬ 
ernment of an agent, and, in 1871 it was 
joined to Cape Colony. In 1879 the at¬ 
tempted enforcement of an act passed for 
the disarmament of the native tribes caused 
a revolt under the chief Moirosi, which the 
Cape forces were unable to put down. When 
peace was restored Basutoland was disan- 
nexed from Cape Colony (1884), and is now 
governed by a resident commissioner under 
the High Commissioner for South Africa. 
Basutoland lias an area of about 10,300 
square miles, much of it covered with grass, 
and there is but little wood. The climate 
is pleasant. Capital, Maseru. The chief 
products are wool, wheat, mealies, and Kaffir 
corn. The natives keep large herds of cat¬ 
tle. The revolt in Basutoland led by Ma- 
supha came to an end Feb. 1, 1898, and 
Masupha was fined 200 head of cattle, ban¬ 
ished from his stronghold at Thaba Bosigo, 
and deposed from his chieftainship. Pop. 
(1904) 349,000, almost all native, as Euro¬ 
pean settlement is prohibited. 

Bat, the common name of all animals of 
the class mammalia which are furnished 
with true wings, and so are capable of really 
flying or propelling themselves in the air. 



LONG-EARED BAT. 


They were all included by Linnseu3 in the 
genus vespertilio. It is very interesting to 
compare the organs of flight in bats with 
those of birds, both as to the points in which 






Batavi 


Batallia 


they agree and these m which they differ. 
They beat the air, as birds do, with their 
anterior members; but, the requisite ex¬ 
tension of surface is not obtained by quills, 
but by a great elongation of the arms and 
fingers, upon which a thin membrane is 
stretched, folding close to the body, by 
means of their joints, when the wing is not 
in use. Bats were placed by Linnseus in his 
order primates, along with monkeys and 
lemurs, with which they agree in their pec¬ 
toral teats and in other characters, particu¬ 
larly of the organs of reproduction. In 
one genus ( dysopus ) there is an additional 
resemblance to the primates in the partially 
opposable thumbs of the hind feet, and a 
trace of this character is to be found in the 
fore thumbs. Bats are now, however, gen¬ 
erally placed by naturalists in the order 
cheiroptera, although, like many other ani- 



SKELETON OF A BAT. 


mals of that great order, most of them are 
by no means exclusively carnivorous. Up¬ 
ward of 130 species have been described, 
and there is great probability that the 
actual number existing is very much greater. 
Bats walk or creep awkwardly upon the 
ground, one side of the body being jerked 
forward, and then the other; yet they run 
with considerable celerity. There is a com¬ 
mon notion that they cannot rise easily from 
a level surface, but must find some emi¬ 
nence from which to throw themselves. Of 
the fallacy of this any one will soon be 
convinced who gets a bat and places it on 
the floor. Bats commonly produce one or 
two young at a birth. Fossil remains of 
cheiroptera are occasionally found in Eocene 
rocks, but owing to the delicacy of the bones 
great difficulty has been experienced in the 
determination of the genera and species. 

Batalha (ba.-ta.Ta), a town of Portugal, 
district of Leira, on the Liz river. It con¬ 
tains a Dominican monastery, which was 
begun in 1388 and completed in 1515. The 
monastery church has the proportions of a 
cathedral, with lofty, but not over-artisti<5 


interior. The Founder’s Chapel opens to 
the S. In this chapel is an elaborate octa¬ 
gonal lantern, and the royal tombs. Be¬ 
hind the choir is the uncompleted chapel of 
Dom Manuel, which is massive in design 
and marked by a richly ornamented surface. 
The same style is found in the cloister, 
whose arches have an intricate tracery 
paralleled nowhere else. The monastery 
as a whole exemplifies the Portuguese florid 
pointed style. 

Batane Islands (bli-tan'), a group of 
small islands in the extreme N. of the 
Philippine Archipelago, over which, and 
Calayan, nearby, American control was es¬ 
tablished in March, 1900, with Teofilo Cos- 
tillejo as the first American governor. The 
Batanes are bounded on the N. by Bashi 
Channel, which divides the Philippines from 
the Japanese insular territory, and have an 
area of 125 square miles and a population 
estimated at 9,500. The principal islands 
in the group are Itbayal, Basay, Saptan and 
Hujos. Santo Domingo de Basco, the prin¬ 
cipal town and port, is about 500 miles from 
Manila, and has a population of about 3,000. 
The other large towns are San Bartolome de 
Calayan, pop. 1,722; San Carlos de Mari- 
gatao, pop. 1,229; San Jos6 de Ibana, pop. 
1,951; Santa Maria de Mayan, pop. 1,855; 
and San Vicente de Saptan, pop. 1,753. 
Under Spanish rule Santo Domingo was 
the residence of a political military gov¬ 
ernor, a judge and an attorney-general. The 
new governor is a Filipino who resided in 
Aparri, Luzon, and who greatly aided Gen¬ 
erals Wheaton, Lawton and Young in quell¬ 
ing the insurrection in the N. part of the 
island and made Aguinaldo a fugitive. 

Batangas (ba-tan'gas), a province on the 
S. coast of Luzon Island, Philippines; also 
the capital of the province. The city has 
an excellent harbor, and prior to the war 
between the United States and Spain was 
the seat of a large commerce. The province 
is one of the richest sugar growing dis¬ 
tricts in the Philippines; but the industry is 
far inferior to its possibilities owing to the 
lack of proper machinery and modern 
methods of treatment. It is also notable 
for its large production of cocoanut oil, the 
larger part of which is used for domestic 
purposes, chiefly lamp oil and lubricating 
machinery. Such of it as is exported to 
Europe, after being solidified, is manufac¬ 
tured into soap and candles. Pop. (United 
States census, 1903), province, 257,715; 
city, 33,131. 

Batavi, an old Teutonic people who in¬ 
habited a part of the present Holland, par¬ 
ticularly the island named from them In¬ 
sula Batavorum (modern Betuwe), which 
is formed by the branch of the Rhine that 
falls into the sea near Leyden, by the Waal, 
and the Meuse. Their country extended 






Batavia 


Bate 


southward across the Waal. Under Augus¬ 
tus they became allies of the Romans, and 
earned for their fidelity the honorable title 
cf friends and brothers of the Roman people, 
and were permitted to choose their com¬ 
manders from among themselves. Their 
cavalry were famous, and were often em¬ 
ployed by the Romans. 

Batavia, properly the name of the island 
occupied by the ancient Batavi, became at a 
later date the Latin name for Holland and 
the whole kingdom of the Netherlands. The 
name Batavian Republic was given to the 
Netherlands on their new organization, 
May 1G, 1795, and they continued to bear 
it till they were converted into the king¬ 
dom of Holland, under Louis Bonaparte, 
June 8, 1806. 

Batavia, a city and seaport of Java, on 
the N. coast of the island, the capital of 
all the Dutch East Indies. It is situated on 
a wide, deep bay, the principal warehouses 
and offices of the Europeans, the Java bank, 
the exchange, etc., being in the old town, 
which is built on a low, marshy plain near 
the sea, intersected with canals and very 
unhealthful; while the Europeans reside in 
a new and much healthier quarter. Batavia 
has a large trade, sugar being the chief 
export. It was founded by the Dutch in 
1619, and attained its greatest prosperity 
in the beginning of the 18th century. Its 
inhabitants are chiefly Malay, with a con¬ 
siderable admixture of Chinese and a small 
number of Europeans. Pop. (1908) 138,551. 

Batavia, a village and county-seat of 
Genesee co., N. Y., on Tonawanda creek and 
several railroads; 37 miles E. of Buffalo. 
It is in an agricultural region; contains 
manufactories of ploughs and harvesters, 
carriage wheels, shoes, guns and forgings, 
and other industries; and has the State In¬ 
stitution for the Blind, the Dean Richmond 
Memorial Library, a National bank, news- 
papers, and an assessed property valuation 
of over $6,500,000. Pop. (1910) 11,613. 

Batbie, Anselme Polycarpe (bii-be'), a 
French jurist and politician, born in Seis- 
san, May 31, 1828; first belonged to the 
faculties of law at Dijon and Toulouse; but, 
in 1862, he became Professor of Constitu¬ 
tional Law at Paris. Elected to the Na¬ 
tional Assembly (February, 1871), he be¬ 
came one of the leaders of the Monarchist 
party. In Broglie’s reactionary cabinet 
(1873) he was made Minister of Public In¬ 
struction. After 1876 he was a member of 
the Senate. He wrote “ Turgot, Philosopher, 
Economist, and Administrator” (1860); 
“Course of Political Economy” (1864); 
“New Course of Political Economy” (1865); 
“ The Public Credit ” (1865) ; “ Summary of 
the Course of Public and Administrative 
Law” (1885), and “Theoretical and Prac¬ 
tical Treatise on Public and Administrative 


Law” (1885). He died in Paris, June 30, 
1887. 

Batchelder, Richard Napoleon, an 

American military officer, born in Lake Vil- 
lage, N. IL, July 27, 1832; entered the 
Union army at the beginning of the Civil 
War; and was brevetted Brigadier-General, 
United States Volunteers, March 13, 1865; 
became Brigadier-General and Quarter¬ 
master-General, United States Army, June 
26, 1890; and was retired July 27, 1896. He 
was awarded a Congressional medal of honor 
for distinguished gallantry during the Civil 
War. He died Jan. 4, 1901. 

Batcheller, George Sherman, an Ameri¬ 
can jurist; born in Batchellerville, N. Y., 
July 25, 1837; graduated at Harvard Uni¬ 
versity; was admitted at the bar in 1858; 
entered the Union army at the beginning of 
the Civil War; was taken prisoner at Harp¬ 
er’s Ferry, and exchanged in 1863; was then 
appointed Deputy Provost-Marshal-General 
of the Department of the South; and, in 
1865-1870, was Inspector-General on the 
staff of Governor Fenton of New York. In 
1858, 1872 and 1873 he was elected to the 
State Assembly; and, in 1875, was ap¬ 
pointed one of the judges of the newly or¬ 
ganized Supreme Court of Egypt for a term 
of five years. In 1883 he became President 
of the International Tribunal of Egypt; in 
1889, Assistant Secretary of the United 
States Treasury; in 1890, United States 
Minister-Resident, and Consul-General to 
Portugal; and in 1897, a member of the In¬ 
ternational Tribunal of Egypt again. In 
the last year he received from King Hum¬ 
bert the decoration of the great cordon of 
the Order of the Crown of Italy, in recogni¬ 
tion of his services as President of the Uni¬ 
versal Postal Congress which met in Wash¬ 
ington in May, 1897. He died in 1908. 

Batchian, or Batjan, one of the Moluc¬ 
cas, W. of the southern peninsula of the 
large island of Halmahera or Gilolo. Area, 
835 square miles; pop. about 11,000. It 
belongs to the Dutch residency of Ternate, 
consists of two peninsulas joined by a nar¬ 
row isthmus, and has many mountains. 
Batchian produces gold, copper, much coal, 
sago, cocoanut trees, rice, cloves, and fine 
timber. 

Bate, William Brimage, an American 
legislator, born near Castalian Springs, 
Tenn., Oct. 7, 1826; received an academic 
education; became a Mississippi river 
steamboat clerk; served through the Mexi¬ 
can War; was graduated at the Lebanon 
Law School in 1852; elected Attorney-Gen¬ 
eral of the Nashville district in 1854; and 
was Presidential Elector in 1860. In the 
Civil War he rose from private to the rank 
of Major-General in the Confederate army, 
and was three times dangerously wounded. 
He was an Elector-at-Large for Tennessee 



Bateman 


Bates 


on the Democratic ticket in 187G; was 
elected Governor in 1882 and 1884; and 
a United States Senator in 1887, 1893, and 
1899. He died March 9, 1905. 

Bateman, Kate Josephine, an American 
actress, born in Baltimore, Md., Oct. 7, 1842. 
About 1851 she and her sister Ellen began 
to act, they being known as the Bateman 
Sisters. Kate began, in 1861, to play 
Juliet, Pauline, etc., but Avas especially suc¬ 
cessful in Leah. She became rich and fam¬ 
ous, and, having married George Crowe, an 
English physician, identified herself with 
the management of a London theater. 

Bates, Alfred E., an American military 
officer, born in Monroe, Mich., July 15, 
1840 : graduated at the United States Mili¬ 
tary Academy in 1865; commissioned a 
Second Lieutenant in the 2d Cavalry; pro¬ 
moted to First Lieutenant, Oct. 19, 1865; 
transferred to pay department with the rank 
of Lieutenant-Colonel, Jan. 7, 1897; pro¬ 
moted Colonel and Assistant Paymaster- 
General, March 31, 1899; and Brigadier- 
General and Paymaster-General, July 12, 
following. He served for several years as 
military attache to the United States Em¬ 
bassy in London, and was a Brigadier-Gen¬ 
eral of Volunteers in the war with Spain in 
1898. 

Bates, Arlo, an American author, born 
in East Machias, Me., Dec. 16, 1850. He 
graduated from Bowdoin in 1876, when he 
engaged in literary work in Boston, and af¬ 
terward became Professor of English Litera¬ 
ture in the Massachusetts Institute of Tech¬ 
nology. He is author of poems and novels, 
including “The Pagans” (New York, 1884); 
“A Lad's Love;” “The Wheel of Fire” 
(1885); “The Philistines” (1888); “Ber¬ 
ries of the Brier” ( 1886), poems; “Talks 
on Writing English; ” “ Talks on the Study 
of Literature” (1897); “The Puritans;” 
“ Under the Beech Tree,” etc. 

Bates, Charlotte Fiske, an American 
poet and miscellaneous prose-writer, born 
in New York city, Nov. 30, 1838. She was 
educated in Cambridge, Mass.; assisted 
Longfellow in compiling “ Poems of Places; ” 
edited the “ Cambridge Book of Poetry and 
Song” (Boston, 1882); “The Longfellow 
Birthday Book;” and “Seven Voices of 
Sympathy; ” has contributed to magazines; 
and has published “ Bisk and Other Poems ” 
(1879). She was married in 1891 to 
Adolphe Boge, who died in 1896. 

Bates, Clara Doty, an American author, 
born in Ann Arbor, Mich., in 1838. She 
lived in Chicago and published many juve¬ 
nile books, also “ From Heart’s Content ” 
(1892). She died in 1895. 

Bates, David, an American poet, born 
about 1810. He was the author of the well 
known poem “ Speak Gently.” In 1848 his 
poems were published under the title, “ The 


Eolian.” He died in Philadelphia, Pa., Jan, 
25, 1870. 

Bates, Edward, an American lawyer, 
born in Belmont, Va., Sept. 4, 1793. Having 
settled in Missouri, he served in the Legis¬ 
lature and Constitutional Convention, and 
in Congress in 1827-1829. He was Attor¬ 
ney-General of the United States in Lin¬ 
coln's first administration; and had been a 
candidate for the presidential nomination 
in 1860. He died in St. Louis, Mo., March 
25, 1869. 

Bates, Harriet Leonora (Vose), bet¬ 
ter known as Eleanor Putnam, an Amer¬ 
ican story and sketch writer, wife of Arlo 
Bates, born in 1856; wrote “ A Woodland 
Wooing;” “Old Salem” (1886); with her 
husband, “ Prince Vance,” etc. She died in 
1886. 

Bates, Henry Walter, an English natur¬ 
alist, born in Leicester, Feb. 18, 1825. In 
1S48 he began an exploration of the Amazon 
region in Brazil. He published “ Natural¬ 
ist on the Biver Amazons” (1863); a 
“ Handbook of Central and South America,” 
etc. He died in London, Feb. 16, 1892. 

Bates, John Coalter, an American mili¬ 
tary officer, born in St. Charles co., Mo., 
Aug. 26, 1842; educated at Washington Uni¬ 
versity, St. Louis; entered the regular army 
as a Lieutenant in the lltli United States 
Infantry, May 14, 1861; served on the staff 
of General Meade from the battle of Get¬ 
tysburg to the close of the Avar; promoted 
Captain, May 1, 1863; Major, May 6, 1882; 
and Colonel of the 2d United States In¬ 
fantry, April 25, 1892. On May 4, 1898, he 
Avas appointed a Brigadier-General of Volun¬ 
teers; on July 8, Avas promoted Major-Gen¬ 
eral for his services in the Santiago cam¬ 
paign; on April 13, 1899, Avas honorably 
discharged under this commission, and on 
the same day was recommissioned a Brig¬ 
adier-General of Volunteers. In February, 
1899, he Avas appointed Military Governor 
of the province of Santa Clara, Cuba, and 
in April folloAving, aatis ordered to duty in 
the Philippines, where he seA T eral times 
greatly distinguished himself in the latter 
part of that year and the early part of 1900. 
In March, 1900, he Avas assigned to the com¬ 
mand of the department of Southern Luzon, 
and for his sendees was promoted Major- 
General, U. S. A., June 9, 1902; Lieutenant- 
General and Chief of Staff in 1906. 

Bates, Joshua, an American financier, 
born in Weymouth, Mass., in 1788; entered 
the counting house of William Gray & Son, 
of Boston, at the age of 15, and later Avas 
sent to Europe as their agent. In 1828 he 
became a member of the house of Baring 
Brothers & Co., in London, and subsequently 
its senior partner. In 1854 he Avas ap¬ 
pointed umpire to the joint British and 
American Commission for the settlement of 



Bates 


Bath and Bathing 


claims arising from the war of 1812. Mr. 
Bates was the principal founder of the Bos¬ 
ton Public Library, and in 1852, the first 
year of its existence, he made it a gift of 
$50j000, and later gave it 30,000 volumes. 
He died in London, Sept. 24, 1864. 

Bates, Katharine Lee, an American 
story writer, poet, and educator, born in 
Falmouth, Mass., Aug. 12, 1859; was called 
to the chair of English Literature in 
Wellesley College in 1891 ; has edited collec¬ 
tions of ballads, etc.; and written juvenile 
stories, including “ Bose and Thorn ” (Bos¬ 
ton, 1889); also “The English Religious 
Drama” (New York, 1893), and “The Col¬ 
lege Beautiful and Other Poems” (1887). 

Bates, Samuel Penniman, an American 
historian, born in Mendon, Mass., Jan. 29, 
1827; graduated at Brown University, in 
2851; principal of Meadville Academy, Pa.; 
Superintendent of Schools in Crawford 
county, Pa., 1857-1860; Deputy State Su¬ 
perintendent of Schools, 1860-1866; and 
State Historian, 1866—1873. Among his 
publications are the “ Lives of the Govern¬ 
ors of Pennsylvania,” and works on “ Edu¬ 
cation ” and the “ Civil War.” 

Bates College, a co-educational institu¬ 
tion in Lewiston, Ale.; organized in 1864, 
under the auspices of the Free Baptist 
Church; reported at the end of 1899: Pro¬ 
fessors and instructors, 21; students, 340; 
volumes in the library, 21,000; grounds and 
building valued at $200,000; endowment, 
$353,000; income, $31,000; number of grad¬ 
uates, 904; president, George C. Chase, 
D. D. 

Batfish, a fish found in the waters of 
Florida and the West Indies; noted for its 
peculiar shape. Its ventral and pectoral 
fins resemble the legs of a frog. It has a 
small mouth, and rough skin, with bony 
tubercles. It has no commercial value. 

Bath, city, port of entry, and! county-seat 
of Sagadahoc co., Me., on the Kennebec 
river, and the Maine Central railroad; 12 
miles from the ocean and 35 miles S. of Au¬ 
gusta. It is admirably situated as a com¬ 
mercial port : has regular steamboat con¬ 
nections with Boston and Portland; is prin¬ 
cipally engaged in ship building, both wood 
and iron; and has manufactories of brass 
and iron goods, oil cloth, shoes, and lumber, 
The Bath Iron Works have built the gun¬ 
boats “ Machias ” and “ Castine,” the ram 
“ Katahdin,” and several of the new tor¬ 
pedo boats for the navy. Bath has a large 
coastwise and foreign trade in ice, coal, lum¬ 
ber, hay, iron, and steel; and contains 4 
National banks, public library, a costly sys¬ 
tem of water works, and property valued 
at $7,000,000. Pop. ( 1910) 9,396. 

Bath, a village and county-seat of Steu¬ 
ben Co., N. Y.; on the Cohocton creek, and 
several railroads; 36 miles W. of Elmira. It 


is the seat of the New York State Soldiers’ 
and Sailors’ Home, the Davenport Home for 
Orphan Girls, and Haverling Academy; is 
principally engaged in agriculture; and has 
manufactories of shoes, sash and blinds, har¬ 
ness, etc. Pop. (1900) 4,994. 

Bath, a city of England, in Somerset¬ 
shire, on the Avon, which is navigable for 
barges from Bristol; is beautifully placed 
among the hills, and the houses are built of 
freestone, obtained from the neighborhood. 
The Abbey Church ranks as one of the 
finest specimens of perpendicular Gothic 
architecture. Bath is remarkable for its 
medicinal waters, the four principal springs 
yielding no less than 184,000 gallons of 
water a day; and the baths are both elegant 
and commodious. The temperature of the 
springs varies from 109° to 117° F. 
They contain carbonic acid, chloride of 
sodium and of magnesium, sulphate of 
soda, carbonate and sulphate of lime, etc. 
Bath was founded by the Romans, and 
called by them Aqucc Solis (waters of the 
sun). Among the Roman remains discov¬ 
ered here have been some fine baths. The 
height of its prosperity was reached, how¬ 
ever, in the 18th century, when Beau Nash 
was leader of the fashion and master of its 
ceremonies. Since then, though it still at¬ 
tracts large numbers of visitors, it has be¬ 
come the resort of valetudinarians chiefly. 
Jointly with Wells it is the head of a dio¬ 
cese, and returns two members to the House 
of Commons. Pop. of municipal borough 
(1901) 49,817. 

Bath and Bathing. The use of the bath 
is primarily for purposes of cleanliness, but 
it also subserves various other useful ends. 
Bathing undoubtedly took place first in 
rivers and in the sea, but men soon learned 
to enjoy this pleasure in their own houses. 
Even Homer mentions the use of the bath as 
an old custom. When Ulysses enters the 
palace of Circe, a bath is prepared for him, 
after which he is anointed with costly per¬ 
fumes, and dressed in rich garments. In 
later times, rooms, both public and private, 
were built expressly for the purpose of 
bathing. The public baths of the Greeks 
were mostly connected with the gymnasia, 
because a bath was taken immediately after 
the athletic exercises. The Romans imi¬ 
tated the Greeks in this matter, and built 
magnificent baths in which both males and 
females could bathe (in separate divisions), 
and warm or cold baths could be taken; 
such establishments, indeed, were so exten¬ 
sive that even their ruins excite admiration. 

The Cold Bath .— The first effect of the 
cold bath (at a temperature say from 50° 
to 70°) is to produce a shock to the nerves 
of the skin. In the case of the cold bath 
as ordinarily used, the application is 
short, and the more near to the temperature 
of 50° F. the water is the shorter it must 



Bath and Bathing 


Bath and Bathing 1 


be. Following the first action is reaction, 
during which the blood returns to the 
skin, the blood-vessels of which relax, and a 
pleasant sensation of glow, spreading rapid¬ 
ly over the surface, is experienced. This 
reaction is aided by rapid friction of the 
skin, as by towels, and if, after drying, the 
body is quickly clothed and exercise engaged 
in, the total effect of the bath is stimulat- 



INTERIOR OF BATH IN ANCIENT ROME. 


ing, inducing a feeling not only of warmth 
but also of vigor. The length of time the 
cold may be applied without interfering 
with the setting in of a proper reaction 
depends on the individual. A mere instant’s 
immersion is sufficient for some, others can 
bear several minutes, while some could not 
bear complete immersion of the body at all, 
a feeling of coldness and shivering lasting 
for hours after it. Obviously for such per¬ 
sons the full cold bath is not suitable, and 
the cold wet towel, cold wet sponge, wet 
sheet, etc., may be used instead, and may 
gradually lead up to the full cold plunge, 
which may thus be made tolerable and en¬ 
joyable. 

The cold bath is not usually suitable for 
the old and the delicate. The action of 
the cold water may be intensified by shower¬ 
ing it or spraying it on the body by means 
of various arrangements of pipes, etc. The 
morning or early part of the day is the 
suitable time for all such kinds of baths. 
Persons who are thus habituated to the use 
of cold water are less susceptible to the 
influence of cold and can stand longer ex¬ 
posure than others. 

Tepid baths (temperature 85° to 95°) 
produce neither depression nor excitement, 
and are therefore suited for all. They are 
the best when prolonged immersion is de¬ 
sired, as in the treatment of chronic skin 
and nervous diseases. 

The warm bath (temperature 9G° to 
104°) is particularly serviceable in remo/- 
ing feelings of fatigue. It should quicken 
only slightly the circulation, and bring an 
additional quantity of blood to the skin. 
It is by this means that it removes the tired 
feeling from exhausted muscles, for it pro¬ 
motes the removal from the tissues of the 
waste products, which have accumulated 
during the period of activity, and whose 


presence in the muscles is the cause of the 
feeling of weariness. After prolonged labor, 
or a long fatiguing walk, or prolonged ex¬ 
posure to damp and cold, or after, for 
example, the exertion of much dancing, 
nothing is so restorative and refreshing as 
a warm bath. When employed for such 
purposes, the person should end with a 
spray or douche, or simple sponge of tepid 
water (70°) if he is about to go 
to bed, or with a warm spray, quick¬ 
ly reduced to cold, before dressing to 
go out. Warm baths are largely em¬ 
ployed in feverish affections of chil¬ 
dren for promoting the action of the 
skin; and they are a safe resort in 
the convulsions of children, cold be¬ 
ing at the same time applied to the 
head. 

The hot bath (temperature 102° to 
110°) acts in a more pronounced 
way upon the heart and nervous sys¬ 
tem than the merely warm bath. If 
very hot it powerfully excites the 
heart, Avliose action, indeed, it may 
stimulate to violence. The brain is also 
influenced by the more copious flow of blood 
through it, due to the vigorous action of tlic 
heart. These effects, however, are largely 
counterbalanced by the increased flow of 
blood to the skin. But the prolonged use 
of hot baths is weakening, and the tem¬ 
porary strain thrown upon the heart and 
blood-vessels and brain would be hurtful 
to many. The bather should be immersed 
to the chin; the hair is damped with cold 
water, and a thin cold cloth is wrapped 
about the head. Cold water may be drunk 
if desired. The bath should last 20 min¬ 
utes, or less if oppression is felt. It should 
conclude, as directed for warm bath, with 
tepid douche or sponging, or with warm 
spray quickly reduced to cold. The hot 
bath should not be used in the morning or 
early part of the day, or at any time ex¬ 
cept before going to bed, unless the person 
is properly cooled down before dressing 
and going out. 

The hot-air bath is one of the most pow¬ 
erful ways of stimulating the activity of 
the skin. The person, unclothed, is placed 
in an apartment which is heated by 
means of furnaces, the air being dry. 
In a longer or shorter time, according to 
the heat of the air and the con¬ 
dition of the bather, the perspiration 
bursts out upon the skin, becoming very 
copious, so that the whole body is bathed 
in sweat. A very high temperature may be 
borne so long as the air is quite dry, for 
the sweat passes rapidly off from the body 
in the form of vapor, removing a large 
quantity of heat, and thus the temperature 
of the body does not rise, unless the air is 
very hot, when the heat of the body usually 
increases by two or three degrees. The 
same high temperature could not be borne 



























































































Bath and Bathing 


Bath and Bathing 


if the air were moist, as in the case of a 
vapor bath, for then the air is saturated or 
nearly so with moisture and cannot take up 
more, or can take up very little. Marked 
oppression, difficulty of breathing, fullness 
in the head, faintness, etc., would then 
speedily arise. When the air is quite dry, 
however, a high temperature, for example, 
that of 180° F., can usually be endured with 
ease, and even above 212°. Not only the 
activity of the skin, but the action of the 
heart and of breathing are greatly increased. 
It is thus not suited for everyone, certainly 
not in its full form for anyone with weak 
heart or vessels, and for very full-blooded 
persons. 

The Turkish Bath .— The hot-air bath is 
usually obtained with other accessories in 
the form of the Turkish bath. This bath 
was adopted by the Turks from the Ro¬ 
mans, who derived it from the Greeks. 
The bather enters the dressing-room (Ro¬ 
man vestiarium) which is heated to an or¬ 
dinarily comfortable temperature. Beyond 
this room there are, in the fully-equipped 
Turkish baths, three rooms, separated from 
the dressing-room by well-padded doors. The 
first of these corresponds to the Roman 
tejndarium, the warm room, in which the 
temperature is from 115° to 120°; beyond 
this and separated from it by heavy cur¬ 
tains is the hot room, or calidarium, in 
which the temperature ranges from 120° 
to 140°; and still beyond is the hottest 
room, called also the flue room, correspond¬ 
ing to the Roman laconicum. Here the 
temperature is not below 150°, usually 
175° to 180°, but may be 200° and up¬ 
ward. Every Turkish bath has at least 
two rooms beyond the dressing-room, one 
in which the temperature may readily be 
raised to 140° or thereby, and one beyond it 
in which the highest temperatures may be 
obtained. 

When ’a full Turkish bath is taken the 
following is the usual course: The bather 
undresses in one of the curtained recesses 
of the dressing-room, girds a towel or sim¬ 
ilar cloth round his loins, and carrying a 
bath-towel over the arm passes into the 
warm room. Here he stays only long 
enough to wet the hair with cold water, 
and perhaps drink of it, and then passes 
on, straight through the hot room, into the 
hottest room. Spreading his towel over a 
chair he reclines on it, wets his head with 
cold water, and drinks at his pleasure, but 
not too copiously, of cold water, which the 
attendant will bring him. Here he remains 
5 or 10 minutes. By this time the whole 
body will be bedewed with perspiration; 
and the bather passes out into the room 
next in temperature, the hot room, where 
he reclines for another 10 or 15 minutes. 
Then he passes to the warm room, lower in 
temperature than the former, and here he 
reclines till the attendant is ready for him, 


when he proceeds to the washing room. 
Here he lies on a table and the attendant 
goes over the whole body, rubbing the sur¬ 
face, and thus removing all loose effete 
skin, grasping and kneading the muscles, 
bending joints and so on. He is then 
rubbed over with soap, scrubbed and washed 
down, and lastly douched with warm and 
then tepid and cold water. From this room 
the bather passes out quickly, plunges 
through a cold bath, and regains the dress¬ 
ing-room, where he is quickly dried down 
with warm dry towels. He is then enveloped 
in a dry bath-towel, and so attired he lies 
down on his couch in the dressing-room, 
covered over with a light rug or blanket, 
till his skin assumes its natural degree of 
warmth. When the skin is cool and dry, 
usually in 15 or 20 minutes, the bather 
dresses quietly and deliberately, and may 
then go out. The ordinary duration of the 
full bath, from the flue room to the wash¬ 
ing room, is from 40 minutes to an hour. 
The full bath, however, is suited chiefly for 
those accustomed to it, for the healthy and 
robust. 

The vapor bath acts upon the body much 
as the hot-water bath does, but it acts more 
powerfully, though the effect of the heat 
is not so quick since vapor is a slower con¬ 
ductor of heat than water. This bath can, 
therefore, be borne hotter than a water 
bath, but the high temperature cannot be 
borne long, for the vapor does not permit 
of the loss of heat from the body as hot 
air does. The temperature of the vapor 
bath cannot be comfortably endured above 
120° F. The vapor bath is characteristic 
of the Russian baths. It is taken in a 
chamber filled with vapor, which is thus not 
only applied to the surface of the body but 
also inhaled. This makes it still more op¬ 
pressive. It may be used, however, in a 
simple form, in which the vapor is not 
breathed, by the person sitting on a chair, 
surrounded from the neck downward by 
blankets, which envelop the chair also and 
hang to the ground. Under the chair is 
placed a shallow earthenware or metal dish, 
containing boiling water to the depth of 
3 or 4 inches. Into the water are placed 
a couple of red-hot bricks. Or under the 
chair may be placed a spirit-lamp; support¬ 
ed above it being a shallow pan containing 
boiling water. Such baths are very useful 
for catarrh, for rheumatic and neuralgic 
pains, sciatica, etc., as well as for cases 
where excessive action of the skin is desired 
to relieve deeper organs, for example the 
kidneys. Ten to 15 minutes are long enough 
for exposure in the vapor bath. 

Sea-Bathing .—Ordinary sea-bathing is of 
course cold, and produces the stimulating 
effects described in regard to the cold bath. 
There is besides the additional stimulus due 
to the salt, so that sea-bathing acts as an 
invigorating tonic. It is not, however, suit- 



Bath and Bathing 


Bath 


ed for everyone, and is taken much too in¬ 
discriminately. It is also indulged in with¬ 
out due precaution. It is a very common 
error for persons to remain in the sea too 
long, the result being shivering, blueness 
of the skin, difficulty in recovering warmth, 
headache, etc. Persons who are anaemic — 
that is, of deficient quality of blood — ought 
not to indulge in sea-bathing without ad¬ 
vice, and failing advice had better try first 
a salt-water bath at home. Persons who have 
suffered from any internal complaint ought 
also to refrain. The best time for sea-bath¬ 
ing is in the morning. It should never be 
indulged in immediately after a meal, when 
the business of digestion is going actively 
forward. A good time is before lunch or 
early dinner, for which the brisk walk home 
after the bath will prove an excellent ap¬ 
petizer. Neither should sea-bathing be en¬ 
gaged in immediately after very active ex¬ 
ercise, when the body is in a state of very 
active perspiration or in a condition of 
fatigue. At the same time, moderate exer¬ 
cise before the bath is unobjectionable, and 
the body ought to be comfortably warm. The 
person should undress quickly and plunge in 
bodily, wetting the whole body at once. 
During the bath exercise should be active, 
as in continued swimming. Children, be¬ 
cause of the little resisting power of their 
bodies are readily depressed by sea bathing. 
They may be gradually accustomed to it; 
but they ought not to be forcibly immersed 
to their aversion and terror. Sea-baths may 
be imitated at home by the addition of com¬ 
mon salt or sea salt to water. The benefits 
of open-air bathing—sea or river — are not 
limited, of course, to the action of the water, 
but are increased by the action of the fresh 
air, the respiration of which is stimulated 
by the bath, and by the exercise in the 
open air invariably indulged in afterward. 

There are many kinds of medicated baths, 
which have, or are supposed to have, special 
properties, valuable for diseased conditions, 
because of containing various saline sub¬ 
stances dissolved in them. Such baths may 
be artificially prepared by the addition of 
the salts to the water, or natural mineral 
waters may be used for the purpose. Mud- 
baths are recommended for special reasons. 

Various arrangements are employed for 
accentuating the effect of the water, whether 
used hot or cold, or for applying it to par¬ 
ticular parts of the body. The spray bath 
is one well-known variety of bath. The 
douche is a jet of water directed upon some 
part of the body through a 1% inch pipe, 
the force of the water, quantity discharged, 
and temperature being capable of modifica¬ 
tion. It at first lowers the vitality of the 
part to which it is applied, but reaction sets 
in quickly, so that its whole effect is stim¬ 
ulating, quickening tissue change. The 
douche may be used hot or cold, or one after 
the other in rapid succession, a change which 


is most stimulating of all. In old-standing 
complaints, thickenings about joints, stiff 
joints, etc., it is a very useful application. 
In the case of the descending douche, the 
pipe is 10 to 15 feet above the floor level, 
and for the horizontal douche the pipe is 4 
feet above floor level. In the former case it 
is played first on the spine, and then shoul¬ 
ders, hips, arms and legs in succession. Ah 
the close it is directed on to the chest and 
head, the force of the water being broken by 
the hands. In the latter case the back, 
chest, arms, and legs are douched in the or¬ 
der named, while the patient rubs himself 
vigorously. Before beginning the head is 
wet with cold water, and is douched last, 
the force of the water being broken. The 
process should last scarcely two minutes. 

The sitz-bath or hip-bath is a means of 
limiting the application of the water to the 
hips and neighboring parts. The form of 
the bathing-tub is such that the person has 
the bath in the sitting posture, the limbs 
and upper part of the body being out of the 
bath. The sitz-bath, hot or cold according 
to circumstances, is in much use for abdom¬ 
inal and liver complaints, and specially for 
feminine ailments. Its soothing effects, 
used hot, in such disorders are marked. 

Altogether the use of the bath, in asso¬ 
ciation with treatment by medicine, is of 
the highest value in numerous disorders, 
rheumatic, gouty, digestive, febrile, etc. In 
particular, the Turkish bath, under due 
superintendence, may produce surprising re¬ 
sults, from checking a simple cold upwards. 



COLLAR AND BADGE OF THE ORDER OF THE 

BATH. 

Bath, Order of the, in heraldry, etc., an 
order of knighthood, so called because the 
recipients of the honor were required for¬ 
merly to bathe the evening before their cre¬ 
ation. It was instituted by Henry IV. in 
1399, and, falling into disuse, was revived 
by George I. in 1725. Under George IV., 





Bath Brick 


Baths of Diocletian 


its regulations were modified, and now 
there are various subdivisions of the order, 
viz., Knights Grand Cross of the Bath (G. 
C. B.), Knights Commanders of the Bath 
(K. C. B.), and Companions of the Bath 
(C. B.). Under each of these classes there 
are now a military and a civil (meaning a 
civilian) sub-class. The ribbon worn by the 
Knights of the Bath is crimson, with the 
Latin motto, “ Tria juncta in uno ” =: three 
(England, Ireland, and Scotland, or their 
floral emblems) joined in one. 

Bath Brick, an artificially manufactured 
brick, of the usual form, but formed of cal¬ 
careous earth. It is used for cleaning 
knives and various kinds of metal work. 

Bath Bun, a bun, richer than a common 
one, and generally without currants. 

Bath Chair, a small carriage or chair on 
wheels, drawn by a chairman, and intended 
for the conveyance of invalids or others for 
short distances. So called because either 
originally or principally used at Bath, where 
the steepness of many of the streets ren¬ 
dered such conveyances especially useful. 

Bathometer, an instrument for measur¬ 
ing the depth of sea beneath a vessel with¬ 
out casting a line. It is based upon the 
fact that the attraction exerted upon any 
given mass of matter on the ship is less 
when she is afloat than ashore, because of 
the less density of sea w r ater as compared 
with that of earth or rock. 

Bathori (ba'to-re), a Hungarian family, 
Which gave Transylvania five princes, and 
Poland one of its greatest kings. The more 
important members were: ( 1 ) Stephen, 

born in 1532, elected Prince of Transylvania 
in 1571, on the death of Zapolya, and in 
1575 King of Poland. He accomplished 
many internal reforms, recovered the Polish 
territories in possession of the Czar of Mus¬ 
covy, and reigned prosperously till his death 
in 158G. (2) Sigismund, nephew of Stephen, 
educated by the Jesuits, became waiwode, 
or Prince of Transylvania in 1581, shook off 
the Ottoman yoke, and had begun to give 
hopes of reigning gloriously when he re¬ 
signed his dominions to the Emperor Ru¬ 
dolph II., in return for two principalities 
in Silesia, a cardinal’s hat, and a pension. 
Availing himself, however, of an invitation 
by the Transylvanians, he returned, and 
placed himself under the protection of the 
Porte, but was defeated by the Imperialists 
in every battle, and finally sent to Prague, 
where he died almost forgotten, in 1G13. 
(3) Elizabeth, niece of Stephen, King of 
Poland, and wife of Count Nadasdy, of 
Hungary. By means of large bribes, she 
induced an old man servant and two female 
servants to kidnaji and convey to her, either 
by stratagem or force, young girls from the 
neighboring country, whom she slowly put 
to death in the dungeons of her castle by 


the most horrible tortures. It is related., 
that, on a certain occasion, having violently 
struck one of her victims, the blood spurted 
up into her own face, and, as she fancied, 
left the skin whiter when it was wiped off. 
An infernal idea instantly possessed her. 
She invited to a grand banquet all the young 
girls round about, and caused 300 of them 
to be put to death, being under the impres¬ 
sion that a bath of blood would renew her 
youth. So monstrous a story is probably 
exaggerated, but it at least shows that she 
was believed capable of it. Inquiry was at 
length made into the appalling rumors, 
when it was discovered that this female 
fiend had murdered, in cold blood, not fewer 
than G50 maidens. The domestics who as¬ 
sisted her were either beheaded or burned 
alive. The Countess, who merited certainly 
the greater punishment, died quietly in 
1G14, in her fortress of Esej, where she had 
been confined for life. 

Bath=sheba, the wife of Uriah. David 
first committed adultery with her, then 
caused her husband to be slain, and after¬ 
ward took her to wife. These sins dis¬ 
pleased Jehovah, who sent the prophet Na¬ 
than to David, with the parable of the ewe 
lamb. David bitterly repented, but yet was 
punished. Batli-sheba was the mother of 
Solomon, whose succession to the throne she 
took pains to secure. She is afterward men¬ 
tioned in the history of Adonijah, in the 
title of Psalms li, and among the ancestors 
of Christ (Matt, i: G). 

Baths of Agrippa, the earliest of the Ro¬ 
man thermae; erected by Marcus Agrippa in 
the reign of Augustus. It stood in the 
Campus Martius, about 20 feet behind the 
Pantheon. In 1881, on the removal of some 
houses, ruins were found of a great hall 
paved with marble and lined with fluted 
columns. 

Baths of Caracalla, one of the most mag¬ 
nificent of the Roman thermae; in the S. E. 
part of the city; 2,300 men could bathe in 
it at the same time. It was begun in 
206 A. D. by Caracalla, and completed by 
Severus. There were stadia for the athletes, 
galleries for the exhibition of paintings and 
sculpture, libraries, conversation halls, lec¬ 
ture rooms, etc. The mechanical skill dis¬ 
played in its construction was very great. 
The ruins which still remain are among the 
most remarkable in Rome. Many master¬ 
pieces were found here. 

Baths of Diocletian, the most extensive 
of the Roman thermae; in the N. E. part of 
the city, and covering most of the ground 
between the Porto Collina and the Porta 
Viminalis. Over 3,000 persons could bathe 
in it at the same time. It contained a li¬ 
brary, picture gallery, odeum, etc. Michael 
Angelo transformed the great hall of the 
Tepidarium into a nave for the Church of 
S. Marie degli Angeli. One of the laconica 



Baths of Titus 


Baton 


(hot rooms) forms the vestibule of the 
church. 

Baths of Titus, a structure on the Es- 
quiline hill in Koine; built by the Emperor 
Titus. Considerable ruins are found N. E. 
of the Coliseum. 

Bath Stone, a species of English lime¬ 
stone, also called bath-oolite and roe-stone, 
from the small rounded grains of which it 
is composed. It is extensively worked near 
Bath for building purposes. When just 
quarried, it is soft, but though it soon be¬ 
comes hard on exposure to the atmosphere, 
and is of handsome appearance, it is not 
very durable. 

Bathurst, Allen, Earl, an English states¬ 
man, a zealous opponent of the measures of 
Sir Robert Walpole’s ministry, and the in¬ 
timate friend of Bolingbroke, Pope, Addison, 
and the other great writers of the time. 
Born in 1684; died in 1775. 

Bathurst, Henry, Earl, son of the pre¬ 
ceding, born in 1714. He was made, in 1771, 
Lord High Chancellor of England, and was 
author of the “ Theory of Evidence,” etc. 
He died in 1794. 

Bathhurst, Henry, Earl, son of the sec¬ 
ond Earl, a prominent Tory statesman, after 
whom various capes, islands, and districts 
were named; born May 22, 1762; in 1807 
became President of the Board of Trade; in 
1809, Secretary for Foreign Affairs; and in 
1812, Secretary for the Colonies, a post held 
by him for 16 years. He was also President 
of the Council under Wellington, 1828-1830. 
He died in 1834. 

Bathurst Island, on the North Australian 
coast, belonging to South Australia, sepa¬ 
rated from Melville Island by a narrow 
strait; triangular in shape, with a wooded 
area of about 1,000 square miles. Also an 
island in the Arctic Ocean, discovered by 
Parrv, E. of Cornwallis and W. of Melville 
Island, 76° N., 100° W. 

Bathybius, a peculiar slimy matter 
dredged up in the North Atlantic, in 1857, 
from a depth of 6,000 to 25,000 feet, by 
the crew of the “ Cyclops,” when examining 
what has since been called the telegraph 
plateau, for the deposition of the Atlantic 
telegraph cable. Specimens of this viscous 
mud, examined by Prof. Huxley in 1858, 
were re-examined by him with higher mi¬ 
croscopic power in 1868, when he came to 
the conclusion that they contained a proto¬ 
plasmic substance apparently existing in 
masses over wide areas of ocean bottom. 
Minute bodies, which he had before called 
coccoliths, of two forms, were believed to 
stand to the gelatinous protoplasm in the 
same relation as the spicula of sponges to 
the softer parts of the animal. Professor 
Haeckel, after examining the slimy sub¬ 
stance, adopted the views of Professor Hux¬ 
ley, and attributed the origin of the proto¬ 


plasmic substance, though not dogmatically, 
to spontaneous generation. It was named 
after him, by Prof. Huxley, bathybiu* 
haeclcelii. The naturalists of the exploring 
vessel “ Porcupine,” in 1868, stated that 
they had found bathybius alive, but consid¬ 
ered it to be derived from sponges, etc. 
Those of the “ Challenger,” however, failed 
to find it in the parts of the ocean which 
they dredged over, and propounded the hy¬ 
pothesis that the bathybius was nothing 
more than a precipitate from the sea water 
by the alcohol in which the specimens had 
been preserved. Subsequently, Dr. Bessels, 
of the American exploring ship “ Polaris,” 
considered that he had found masses of un¬ 
differentiated protoplasm in the Greenland 
seas. The subject is still one of scientific 
investigation. 

Bathymetry, the art of measuring depths 
in the sea, especially for the purpose of in¬ 
vestigating the vertical range of distribu¬ 
tion of plants and animals. An extensive 
series of such bathymetric measurements 
was made by H. M. S. “ Challenger ” (1872- 
1876), the deepest made being at 4,575 fath¬ 
oms. In February, 1900, Lieutenant-Com¬ 
mander H. M. Hodges, of the United States 
surveying ship “ Nero,” reported to the Sec¬ 
retary of the Navy that in surveying for a 
proposed telegraphic cable line between 
Honolulu and Manila, by way of Guam and 
Yokohama, he had encountered the greatest 
ocean depths on record; two casts showing 
5,160 fathoms (30,960 feet), and 5,269 fath¬ 
oms (31,614 feet) respectively. 

Batiste, a fine linen cloth, made in Flan¬ 
ders and Picardy, named after its inventor, 
Batiste, of Cambray. 

Bathe, Lorenzo, an Uruguayan states¬ 
man; born in Montevideo in 1812; com¬ 
manded a body of infantry in the nine 
years’ siege of Montevideo; was minister of 
war in 1866-1868; president of the republic 
in 1868-1872, when he resigned the office 
and resumed his place as general in the 
army. 

Batn=el=Hajar (bat'en-el-ha-var') (Womb 
of Rocks), a stony district of Nubia, stretch¬ 
ing along the Nile in the neighborhood of 
the third cataract. The Nile, in the upper 
portion of the district, is often forced by 
the approaching rocks into a very narrow 
channel, and its navigation is frequently in¬ 
terrupted by small islands, rocks, and rap¬ 
ids. The granite hills in some parts attain 
a height of 2,000 feet above the river. 

Baton, a short staff or truncheon, in some 
cases used as an official badge, as that of 
a field marshal. The conductor of an or¬ 
chestra has a baton for the purpose of di¬ 
recting the performers as to time, etc. In 
heraldry, what is usually called the bastard 
bar, or bar sinister, is properly a baton 
sinister. 




BATRACHIANS AND OTHER AMPHIBIANS 


FIG. 

1. Ringed Siphonops. 

2. Tree Frog. 

3. Common Frog. 

4. Skeleton of Frog. 

5. Egg-carrying Frog. 

6. Fire-bellied Frog. 

7. Toad. 

8. Horned Frog. 

9. Pipa or Surinam Toad. 

10. Spotted Salamander. 

11. Spectacled Salamander. 

12. Waltel’s Salamander. 

13. Newt. 

i 

14. Giant Salamander. 

15. Axolotl—larval stage. 

16. Axolotl—perfect animal. 

17. Amphiuma. 

18. Proteus. 

19. Siren. 



BATRACHIANS AN 


I §»ll 


FOR DESCRlPnO 



























































HER AMPHIBIA. 



3THER SIDE. 









































































































































































































Batoni 


Batrachians 


Baton!, Pompeo (ba-to'ne), an Italian 
painter, born at Lucca, in 1708. Ilis works, 
the best of which are “ Simon the Sorcerer 
Contending with St. Peter,” and “Mary 


Magdalen,” are celebrated for their truthful¬ 
ness, character, and coloring. He died in 
178G. 

Baton Rouge (-rozh), city, capital of the 
State of Louisiana and of East Baton Roime 
parish; on the Mississippi river, and several 
railroads; 89 miles X. W. of New Orleans. 
It is built on a bluff on the E. bank of the 
river, and commands a fine view of the sur¬ 
rounding territory. Architecturally, it pos¬ 
sesses much interest, because of the mix¬ 
ture of French and Spanish styles. The 
Capitol is a structure in the Elizabethan 
style, showing also Gothic windows and bat- 
tlemented towers. Baton Rouge contains 
the State University, occupying the old 
United States Arsenal, the State Agricul¬ 
tural and Mechanical College, the State Asy¬ 
lums for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind, the 
State Penitentiary, an insane asylum, two 
orphans’ homes, a collegiate institute, and 
other institutions. The city has National 
and State banks; several daily and weekly 
newspapers; a large trade with the sur¬ 
rounding cotton and sugar growing regions; 
and a property valuation of $2,000,000. It 
was here, on Jan. 20, 1861, that the State 
Convention adopted the ordinance of seces¬ 
sion; on May 7, 1862, the city was taken by 
the United States forces; on Aug. 5, follow¬ 
ing, a determined Confederate attack was 
repulsed; and the city was held by the 
Union troops till the close of the war. 
Baton Rouge was the capital of the State 
from 1847 to 1864, when the seat of govern¬ 
ment was removed to New Orleans, whence, 
on March 1, 1882, it was again located in 
this city, where it has since remained. Pop. 
(1900) 11,269; (1910) 14,894. 

Batoo, or Batu, Khan, an early Mongol¬ 
ian chief and conqueror. He sacked Moscow 
and terribly defeated the Hungarians. 


Batoum, or Batum (ba-tom'), a port on 

the E. coast of the Black Sea, acquired by 
Russia by the Treaty of Berlin, on condition 
that its fortifications were dismantled and 
it were thrown open as a free port. 
It rapidly grew to be the main out¬ 
let for Transcaucasia; its harbor was 
enlarged for alleged commercial rea¬ 
sons; an arsenal was built outside ic; 
it was connected by a military road 
with Kars; and, finally, in July, 
1886, the Russian government de¬ 
clared it to be a free port no longer. 
Its importance as a naval and mili¬ 
tary station to Russia is unquestion- 
a bly great, and it will probably rank 
as one of the strongest positions 
on the Black Sea. The water is of 
great depth close inshore, and the 
shipping lies under protection of the 
overhanging cliffs of the Gouriel 
Mountains. Pop. (1897) 28,512. 

Batrachians, according to the sys¬ 
tem of Cuvier, an order of reptiles, of which 
the frog (in Greek batrachos) , may be con¬ 
sidered as the type; but modern naturalists 
have separated the Batracliia from the rep¬ 
tiles proper, and the term is now employed 
either as synonymous with Amphibia, the 
Amphibia being regarded as forming a 
separate class of the vertebrata; or the 
term batracliia is applied (as by Hux¬ 
ley) in a narrower sense to an order 
of this class, including the frogs and 
toads, or the tailless amphibians. Hence 
the name Anoura is sometimes given to 
this order, from an, the Greek negative 
prefix, and oura, the Greek word for a 
“ tail.” The Amphibia, or Batracliia in the 
wider sense, are so far from being really 
allied to the Reptilia that by Huxley they 
have been arranged along with the fishes to 
form the group lchthyopsicla, one of the 
three primary sections into which he divides 
all vertebrata, while he puts the reptiles in 
the class Bauropsida along with the birds. 
One marked distinction between the batra¬ 
chians and the reptiles is that the former 
have invariably gills at some period of their 
life while the latter have not. The chief 
characters of the batrachians in the narrow¬ 
er sense, that is the frogs and toads and 
perhaps the extinct labyrinthodon, are as 
follows: In the larval stage the animals have 
both gills and a tail, the young living in the 
water like fish, but these organs are absent 
in the adult stage, in which two pairs of 
limbs are present, the respiration then being 
purely aerial and carried on by means of 
lungs; the skin is soft and devoid of scales; 
the dorsal vertebrae are proccelous (that is, 
concave in front) ; no ribs proper are present, 
but only long transverse processes which 
serve instead; teeth are sometimes wanting 
altogether, but generally the upper jaw at 
least is furnished with small teeth; the hind 



BATONI’S MARY MAGDALEN. 










Batta 


Battering Ram 


limbs are generally longer and more power¬ 
ful than the fore limbs and are usually web¬ 
bed for swimming; the radius and ulna in 
the fore limb, and the tibia and fibula in the 
lnnd limb are ankylosed into one bone; the 
spinal column is short (consisting of 10 ver¬ 
tebrae in the frogs) ; the tongue is soft and 
fleshy. The common frog and toad are the 
batrachians best known, and the develop¬ 
ment of the former, from the familiar “ tad¬ 
pole ” stage to the perfect animal, is a most 
interesting and instructive study. The 
Anoura are usually divided into three sec¬ 
tions Ranidce, the frogs, Bufonidce, the 
toads, and Pipidce, the Surinam toads. A 
number of these forms are shown in the ac¬ 
companying illustration. Fig. 4 exhibits 
the skeleton of a frog, a being the scapula, 
b the united tibia and fibula, c the femur, 
d the tarsus, c the carpus, f the united ra¬ 
dius and ulna. 

Batta, a country in the N. of Sumatra, 
which stretches between Sinkell and Tabu- 
yong, on the W. side of the island, and the 
Bila and the Rakan on the E. side. The 
whole pop. is estimated at about 300,000. 
The soil is fertile, and produces chiefly cam¬ 
phor, gum, benzoin, cassia, cotton, and in¬ 
digo. The natives practise cannibalism. A 
knowledge of reading and writing is com¬ 
mon ; bark or bamboo staves are used in 
place of books, being written on from bot¬ 
tom to top. Their literature treats chiefly 
of witchcraft, riddles, stories, etc. There 
are three dialects. 

Batta, a province in Africa, formerly 
an independent State, now subject to Kon¬ 
go. Principal towns, Batta and Cangon. 

Battalion, an assemblage of companies; 
the tactical and administrative unit of in¬ 
fantry — that is, the first body that is, as 
a rule, used independently, and commanded 
by a field officer (major or lieutenant-col¬ 
onel). In the United States army eight 
companies of cavalry and artillery and 10 
of infantry constitute a battalion; each in¬ 
fantry regiment has one battalion and those 
in the cavalry and artillery have two. 

English battalions are formed of 10 com¬ 
panies for administrative, and eight for tac¬ 
tical purposes. The first 25 regiments have 
two battalions, the remainder, originally of 
one battalion each, are linked in pairs, ac¬ 
cording to their territorial derivation. 
Linked battalions are interchangeable as re¬ 
gards officers, and each shares the honors 
and advantages of the other. Two regiments 
of rifles have four battalions each, and the 
three regiments of the guards, seven bat¬ 
talions in all. The peace strength of a bat¬ 
talion is about 400 men, but varies; its 
war strength in the field is 1,000 men, with 
one lieutenant-colonel, two majors, eight cap¬ 
tains, 16 subalterns, four officers of the regi¬ 
mental staff (adjutant, paymaster, quarter¬ 
master, and medical officer), and 50 ser¬ 
geants. The corporals and lance-corporals 


fall in with the privates in the ranks, and, 
therefore, number among the rank and lue. 

The French infantry is divided into (1) 
infantry of the line; (2) regiments of 
zouaves; (3) regiments of tirailleurs Al- 
geriens; and (4) battalions of chasseurs 
a pied. The 144 regiments of infantry of 
the line have each four battalions; a bat¬ 
talion (which is divided into four field com¬ 
panies), consisting of 12 commissioned offi¬ 
cers, 54 non-commissioned officers, and 2G4 
soldiers — in all 330 men, raised in time of 
war to 1,000 men. The regiments of zouaves 
have, in peace, 612 men in a battalion, and 
in war, 1,000. The tirailleurs Algeriens, 
who in time of peace are stationed in Al¬ 
geria, have, in peace, 652 men in a battalion, 
and in war, 1,000 men. Finally, the chas¬ 
seurs a pied have, in peace, 4G8 men, and in 
war, 1,000 men. 

In Germany, with the exception of the 
116th (Hesse) Regiment, the 148 line regi¬ 
ments have three battalions. The yagers 
are formed into 26 separate battalions. To 
each line regiment is attached a landwehr 
regiment of two battalions, and these latter 
bear the same number as the regular regi¬ 
ments to which they are affiliated. The 
five Prussian Guard regiments have 22 offi¬ 
cers and 678 men per battalion in peace 
time, the remaining regiments having 18 
officers and 526 men per battalion, and the 
yagers, 22 officers and 526 men. On mobil¬ 
ization for war, all battalions are raised to 
a strength of 22 officers and 1,000 men, with 
a regimental staff of one commandant, one 
extra field officer, and one aide-de-camp. 
Pioneer battalions are practically field en¬ 
gineer bodies, and are divided into ponton- 
iers (for bridging), and sappers and miners 
(for siege operations, demolitions, or the 
construction of artificial defenses). They 
have each three field and one depot com¬ 
pany; the former comprising 15 officers and 
650 men. 

Battering Ram, an ancient military con¬ 
trivance used for battering down walls. It 
existed among the Assyrians, and is seen 
depicted on a number of the bas-reliefs dis¬ 
covered by Layard or other explorers. This 
engine of war was known to the Greeks 
also. The simplest form was a beam sup¬ 
ported and swung by the soldiers them¬ 
selves. In its most perfect form among 
the Romans, it consisted of a pole or beam 
of wood, sometimes as much as 80, 100, or 
even 120 feet in length. It was suspended 
by its extremities from a single point, or 
from two points in another beam above, 
which lay horizontally across two posts. 
When at rest it was level, like the beam 
above it. When put in action against a 
wall, it was swung horizontally by men 
who succeeded each other in constant re¬ 
lays, the blow which it gave to the masonry 
at each vibration being rendered all the more 




Battersea 


Batteux 


effective that one end of it was armed with 
iron. This, being generally formed like a 
ram’s head, originated the name aries (ram), 
by which it was known among the Romans, 
and battering-ram, by which it was after- 



BATTERING RAM. 


ward known. A roof or shed covered it to 
protect the soldiers who worked it, from 
hostile missiles, and to facilitate locomotion 
it was often placed on wheels. 

Battersea, a suburban district of London, 
in Surrey, in a low situation on the S. 
bank of the Thames, nearly opposite Chel¬ 
sea, with a fine public park extending over 
185 acres. The district is associated with 
the names of Pope and Bolingbroke, and 
with the Wellington-Winchelsea duel. Pop. 
borough, (1901) 108,896. 

Battery, in law, the unlawful beating of 
another, or even the touching him with hos¬ 
tile intent. It is legitimate for a parent 
or a master to give moderate correction to 
his child, his scholar, or his apprentice. A 
churchwarden, or beadle, may gently lay 
hands on a person disturbing a congregation. 
A person, also, who is violently assailed by 
another may strike back in self defense. He 
may do so also in defense of his property. 
But to strike anyone in anger, however 
gently, without these justifications, exposes 
one to the liability to be prosecuted for as¬ 
sault and battery, the assault being the men¬ 
acing gesture and the battery the actual 
blow. Wounding and mayhem are a more 
aggravated kind of battery. 

In military usage. 1. Breaching (siege) 
battery: One placed as close as possible 

to the object to be destroyed; as the stone 
revetment of a fortress. 

2. Counter or direct (siege) battery: 
One intended to crush the opponent’s fire by 
an equal number of heavy .guns. 

3. Cross batteries: Two batteries play¬ 
ing on the same point from two different 
positions. 

4. Elevated (siege) battery: One in 
which the gun platforms are on the natural 
level of the ground. 

48 


5. Enfilading battery: One which is 
placed on the prolongation of the line oc¬ 
cupied by the enemy. 

0. Fascine battery: One made of fascines. 

7. Floating battery: A heavily armed 
and armored vessel intended for bombard¬ 
ing fortresses and not for sea cruising. 

8. A gabion battery: One built up of 
gabions. 

9. Half sunken battery: One in which 
the terreplein is sunk two feet below the 
level of the ground. 

10. Masked battery: One that is concealed 
from view of the enemy by brushwood or the 
non-removal of natural obstacles in front 
until it is ready to open fire. 

11. Mortar battery: One without em¬ 
brasures in the parapets, and the platform 
is horizontal. The shells are fired over the 
parapet at an angle of 45°. 

12. Open batteries: Those which are not 
protected by earthen or other fortifications. 

13. Ricochet battery: One in which the 
guns are placed on the prolongation of the 
front of an enemy’s battery, so that by firing 
low charges the shot or shell may be made 
to bound along inside the work and dis¬ 
mount the guns. 

14. Sand-bag battery: One constructed in 
rocky or sandy sites of sand-bags filled with 
earth or sand. 

15. Screen (siege) battery: One in 
which the actual gun battery is protected 
by a low earthen screen placed parallel to, 
and a short distance from, the main 
battery. 

16. Sunken (siege) battery: One in which 
the gun platforms are sunk three feet below 
the surface. 

17. A certain number of artillerymen 
united under the command of a field officer, 
and the lowest tactical unit in the artillery. 
In a batterv there are gunners who work 
the guns, and drivers who drive the horses 
by which these guns are transported from 
place to place. Batteries are usually dis¬ 
tinguished as horse, field, and garrison. The 
first two consist of six guns each. 

(1) Horse batteries are those in which 
the gunners are carried partly on the car¬ 
riages and partly on horses. 

(2) Field batteries are those in which all 
the gunners are carried on the carriages; 
and these are divided again into (a) moun¬ 
tain, and (b) position batteries. 

(3) Garrison batteries are those bodies of 
foot artillerymen who have to serve and 
mount the heavy guns in forts or coast bat¬ 
teries. 

Battery, in physics. See Electricity. 

Batteux, Charles (ba-te), a noted 
French sesthetician, born in Vougiers, May 
6, 1713; became Professor of Rhetoric and 
Humanities in 1750, and later of Greek and 
Roman Philosophy, at the Royal College of 










Batthyanyi 


Battle 


Paris. In 17G1 he was elected to the French 
Academy. Batteux may be styled the foun¬ 
der of French art philosophy, for he was 
the first to apply to poetry and the creative 
arts the formula: imitate the beauty of 
nature. His teaching greatly influenced 
Lessing and other German art critics. 
Among his works are “ The Ethics of Epic¬ 
urus ” (1750); “History of the First 

Causes” (1709); “The Fine Arts Reduced 
to One Principle” (1716), and “Course of 
Belles-Lettres, or Principles of Literature ” 
(1747-1750). He died in Paris, July 14, 
1780. 

Batthyanyi (ba-te-ya'ne), one of the old¬ 
est and most powerful of the noble families 
of Hungary, which traces its origin as far 
back as the invasion of Pannonia by the 
Magyars, in 884 a. d., and has given to 
Hungary many distinguished warriors, 
statesmen, and churchmen. The surname is 
derived from lands obtained in the 14th cen¬ 
tury. Count Casimir Batthyanyi, a mem¬ 
ber of the principal branch of the family, 
was born June 4, 1807. He was Minister of 
Foreign Affairs in Hungary during the in¬ 
surrection in 1849, in which he also distin¬ 
guished himself as a military governor. 
After the catastrophe of Vilagos, he fled, 
along with Kossuth, into the Turkish ter¬ 
ritory, where he remained till 1851. He 
then went to France, and died at Paris, July 
13, 1854. Count Louis Batthyanyi, belong¬ 
ing to another branch of the same fam¬ 
ily, and born at Presburg, in 1809, having 
espoused the national cause, yet seeking to 
maintain the connection with Austria and 
his allegiance to the Austrian sovereign, was 
appointed President of the Ministry, when 
Hungary obtained a ministry of its own, 
in March, 1848. His ability was not equal 
to the goodness of his intentions, and the 
circumstances in which he was called to act 
were very difficult and embarrassing. He 
did not hold the office long, and afterward 
took part in public affairs, chiefly as a mem¬ 
ber of the Diet, and with great moderation. 
Yet, after the Austrians entered Pest, he 
was arrested in January, 1849, and on Oct. 6 
was executed by sentence of martial law. 
His condemnation was unexpected, and 
awakened the more sympathy, because all 
men regarded it as unjust. His estates, 
which were valued at £400,000, were con¬ 
fiscated, but were restored to his family in 
1867; and in 1870 his body was removed, 
and interred anew, with great pomp and 
solemnity. A Prince Batthyanyi (1803- 
1883), occupied for 45 years a prominent 
position on the turf, winning the Derby in 
1876. 

Battik, an ornamental production of the 
natives of the Dutch East Indies, who dec¬ 
orate their clothing with it; also made in 
The Hague for local use and export. A piece 


of linen is taken and all kinds of designs 
are outlined upon it with a pencil. When 
the design is completed, the ornamented 
parts of the fabric are covered with a liquid 
which possesses the quality of stiffening af¬ 
ter being applied. The parts not ornamented 
are dyed the color desired. After the en¬ 
tire fabric has been ornamented in this man¬ 
ner, it is boiled in hot water so as to take 
the hard stuff out of the battik. The dyed 
parts will then hold the dye and the battik 
is ready. The Hague people were the first 
to introduce battik into Europe. It is made 
on linen, silk, velvet, and leather, and is 
exported to all the principal cities of Eu¬ 
rope. 

Battle. The object of war may be ob¬ 
tained in two different ways: either one 
party forces the enemy, by skillful maneu¬ 
vers, marches, demonstrations, the occu¬ 
pation of advantageous positions, etc., to 
quit the field (which belongs to the province 
of strategy) ; or the hostile masses approach 
each other so that a battle becomes neces¬ 
sary to determine which shall keep the field. 
Troops may either meet by design or by 
chance. When they meet by chance, and 
are thus obliged to fight, it, is called a ren¬ 
contre. The rules for ensuring a successful 
issue, whether they respect the preparations 
for the conflict, or the direction of the forces 
when actually engaged, belong to tactics, in 
the narrower sense of the word. Strategy 
also shows the causes which bring armies 
together, and produce battles without any 
agreement between the parties. It may be 
sufficient to say, in general, that armies in 
their marches (and consequently in their 
meeting) are chiefly determined by the 
course of the mountains and rivers of a 
country. In ancient times and the Middle 
Ages the battle-ground was often chosen by 
agreement, and then the battle was a mere 
trial of strength, a sort of duel; but, in our 
time, such trifling is done away with. War 
is now carried on for the real or pretended 
interest of a nation, or a ruler who thinks 
or pretends that his interest is that of the 
nation. Wars are not undertaken for the 
purpose of fighting, and battles are merely 
the consequence of pursuing the purpose of 
the war. They arise from one party’s striv¬ 
ing to prevent the other from gaining his 
object. Every means, therefore, of winning 
the battle is resorted to, and an agreement 
can hardly be thought of. In this respect a 
land battle is entirely different from a naval 
battle. The former is intended merely to 
remove an obstacle in the way of gaining 
the object of the war; the destruction of the 
enemy, therefore, is not the first thing 
sought for. But the object of a naval en¬ 
gagement is, almost always, the destruction 
of the enemy; those cases only excepted, in 
which a fleet intends to bring supplies or 



Battle 


Battle 


reinforcements to a blockaded port, and is 
obliged to fight to accomplish its purpose. 

As the armies of the ancients were not so 
well organized as those of the moderns, and 
the combatants fought very little at a dis¬ 
tance, after the battle had begun maneuvers 
were much more difficult, and troops, when 
actually engaged, were almost entirely be¬ 
yond file control of the general. With them, 
therefore, the battle depended almost wholly 
upon the previous arrangements, and the 
valor of the troops. Not so in modern 
times. The finest combinations, the most 
ingenious maneuvers, are rendered possible 
by the better organization of the armies, 
which thus, generally at least, remain under 
the control of the general. The battle of 
the ancients was the rude beginning of an 
art now much developed. It is the skill of 
the general, rather than the courage of the 
soldier, that now determines the event of 
a battle. 

Battles are distinguished as offensive and 
defensive. Of course, a battle which is of¬ 
fensive for one side is defensive for the 
other. Tacticians divide a battle into three 
periods — that of the disposition, that of 
the combat, and the decisive moment. The 
general examines the strength, reconnoiters 
the position, and endeavors to learn the in¬ 
tention of the enemy. If the enemy con¬ 
ceals his plan and position, skirmishes and 
partial assaults are often advisable, in order 
to disturb him, to obtain a view of his 
movements, to induce him to advance, or 
with the view of making prisoners, who may 
be questioned, etc. Since the general can¬ 
not direct all these operations in person, 
officers of the staff assist him; single scouts 
or small bodies are sent out, and spies are 
employed. Every means is made use of for 
obtaining information regarding the enemy, 
or the ground on which the battle is likely 
to take place. According to the knowledge 
thus acquired, and the state of the troops, 
the plan of the battle, or the disposition, is 
made; and here military genius has an 
opportunity to display itself. To the dis¬ 
position also belongs the detaching of large 
bodies which are to cooperate in the battle, 
but not under the immediate command of 
the chief. The plan of the battle itself, the 
position of the troops, etc., is called the 
order of battle. This is either the parallel, 
or the inclosing (if the enemy cannot de¬ 
velop his forces, or you are strong enough 
to outflank him), or the oblique. When 
each division of troops has taken its posi¬ 
tion, and received its orders, and the weaker 
points have been fortified (if time allows 
it), the artillery placed on the most favor- 
ble points, all chasms connected by bridges, 
villages, woods, etc., taken possession of, 
and all impediments removed as far as pos¬ 
sible (which very often cannot be done, ex¬ 
cept by fighting), then comes the second 
period — that of the engagement. 


The combat begins, either on several 
points at a given signal, as is the case 
when the armies are very large, and a gen¬ 
eral attack is intended, as, for instance, at 
Leipsic, where three fire-balls gave the sig¬ 
nal for battle on the side of the allies; or 
by skirmishes of the light troops, which is 
the most common case. The artillery en¬ 
deavors to dismount the batteries of the 
enemy, to destroy his columns, and, in gen¬ 
eral, to break a passage, if possible, for the 
other troops. The forces, at the present 
day, are brought into action mostly in open 
order, and not, as formerly, in long but 
weak lines. Here the skill of the command¬ 
ers of battalions is exerted. Upon them 
rests the principal execution of the actual 
combat. The plans and orders of a general 
reach only to a certain point; the chiefs of 
battalions must do the great work of the 
battle. Before the battle, the general places 
himself at a point from which he can see 
the conflict, and where he can easily receive 
reports. A few men are near him as his 
bodyguard; others take charge of the plans 
and maps; telescopes are indispensable. He 
often sends one of his aides to take com¬ 
mand of the nearest body of cavalry, in 
order to execute a new movement quickly. 
He receives the reports of the generals under 
him; disposes of the troops not yet in ac¬ 
tion; strengthens weak points; throws his 
force on the enemy where he sees them 
waver; or changes, if necessary, with a bold 
and ingenious thought, the whole order of 
battle. The general now uses every means 
to bring on the third period of the battle —- 
the decisive movement. 

In the Austro-German campaign of 1866, 
and the still more important Franco-German 
campaign of 1870, great changes were de¬ 
veloped both in strategy and tactics. The 
changes in strategy were due chiefly to the 
ease with which the general could direct 
detached bodies of troops over a wide area 
by means of the telegraph, and the facility 
with which troops, provisions, and ammuni¬ 
tion could be moved from point to point by 
railway. The changes in tactics, again, 
arose chiefly from the longer range and 
quicker firing capacity of modern rifles, and 
the greater importance attached to the 
massed firing of long-range breech-loading 
artillery. See Army*. Naval Fleets: Navy. 

Battle, a town in Sussex, England, 6 
miles N. W. of Hastings. Encircled on three 
sides by wooded hills, it consists of one 
street extending along a valley from N. W. 
to S. E. Till recent years Battle was noted 
for its manufacture of gunpowder, known 
as Battle powder. An uninhabited heath- 
land then, Senlac by name, it received its 
present name from the battle of Hastings, 
fought here on Oct. 14, 1066, when the Nor¬ 
mans, led by William the Conqueror, over¬ 
threw the old English monarchy under King 



Battle 


Battle Axe 


Carold. William, to commemorate his vic¬ 
tory, founded in 1007, on the spot where 
Harold fell, a splendid Benedictine Abbey, 
which was endowed with all the land within 
a league of it, and had the privileges of a 
sanctuary. The probably fabulous original 
roll of the Conqueror’s barons deposited in 
it was said to have perished in the burning 
of Cowdray House in 1793; and the 10 
copies extant have all been grossly tampered 
with. The existing decorated and perpen¬ 
dicular buildings occupy three sides of a 
quadrangle — two sides in ruins, the third 
converted at the dissolution into a private 
dwelling-house. The abbey was bought in 
1857 by Lord Harry Vane, afterward Duke 
of Cleveland. Pop. (1901) 2,996. 

Battle, Burrill Bunn, an American ju¬ 
rist; born in Hinds county, Miss., July 24, 
1838; graduated at Arkansas College in 
1856 and in law at Cumberland University 
in 1858; admitted to the bar, 1858 ; entered 
the Confederate army in 1861, and partici¬ 
pated in several battles. After the war he 
served in the legislature and practised until 
1885, when he became an Associate Justice 
of the Supreme Court of Arkansas. 

Battle, Cullen Andrews, an American 
military officer; born in Powelton, Ga.; 
June 1, 1829; studied at Brownwood Insti¬ 
tute, La Grange, and was graduated at the 
University of Alabama; admitted to the bar 
in 1852 and practised till 1860; was a 
Breckenridge and Lane presidential elector, 
and accompanied William L. Yancy in his 
canvass of Alabama. At the outbreak of 
the Civil War he entered the Confederate 
army, and during the war was wounded 
seven times, promoted Brigadier-General on 
the field of Gettysburg, and Major-General 
in October, 1864. After the war he devoted 
most of his time to journalism in Newbern, 
N. C. He died in 1905. 

Battle, Kemp Plummer, an American 
educator; born in Franklin Co., N. C., 
Dec. 19, 1831; graduated at the University 
of North Carolina in 1849; was a member of 
the State Convention of North Carolina in 
1861 that passed the ordinance of secession; 
State Treasurer, 1866-1868; president of 
the University of North Carolina, in 1876- 
1891; and afterward Professor of History 
there. His works include: “ History of the 
Supreme Court of North Carolina; ” “His¬ 
tory of .Raleigh, North Carolina;” “Trials 
and Judicial Proceedings of the New Testa¬ 
ment; ” “Life of General Jethro Sumner,” 
as well as numerous writings on the history 
of North Carolina. 

Battle, Trial by, or Wager of (original 
spelling, battel), a barbarous method of 
deciding in the court of last resort, by 
personal combat, all civil and criminal ques¬ 
tions turning on disputed matters of fact. 
The practice seems to have been immemo- 
rially in use among the Northern nations; 


the Burgundians reduced it to stated forms 
about the end of the 5th century; from 
them it passed to the Franks and Normans, 
and through William the Conqueror came to 
be established in England. It was used (1) 
in courts-martial, or courts of chivalry and 
honor; (2) in appeals of felony; and (3) 
upon cases joined in a writ of right—the 
last and most solemn decision of real prop¬ 
erty. In civil actions the parties at vari¬ 
ance appointed champions to fight for them, 
but in appeals of felony they had to do so 
themselves. The weapons were batons of 
an ell long, and a four cornered target. The 
combat went on till the stars appeared in 
the evening, unless one of the combatants 
proved recreant and cried craven. If he 
did so, or if his champion lost the battle, 
Divine Providence was supposed to have 
decided that his cause was bad. If the one 
who thus railed was appellant against a 
charge of murder, he was held to have done 
the felonious deed, and without more ado 
was hanged. Henry II. struck the first blow 
at the system of trial by battle by giving 
the defendant in a case of property the op¬ 
tion of the Grand Assize, then newly intro¬ 
duced. The last trial by battle in the Court 
of Common Pleas at Westminster was in 
1571, the last in the provinces in 1638. The 
case of Ashford v. Thornton, in 1818, hav¬ 
ing led to a judicial duel of the old type, the 
Act 59 George III., chapter 46, passed in 
1819, finally abolished trial by battle. 
Montesquieu traces both dueling and knight 
errantry back to the trial by battle. 

BattSe Axe, a weapon much used in the 
early part of the Middle Ages, particu¬ 
larly by those who fought on foot. It was 
not uncommon, however, among the knights, 
who used also the mace, a species of iron 
club or hammer. Both are to be seen in the 
different collections of old arms in Europe. 
The Greeks and Romans did not employ the 
battle axe, though it was found among con¬ 
temporary nations. In fact, the axe is one 
of the earliest weapons, its use as an instru¬ 
ment of domestic industry naturally sug¬ 
gesting its application for purposes of of¬ 
fense ; but, at the same time, it has always 
been abandoned as soon as the art of fenc¬ 
ing, attacking, and guarding was cultivated; 
because the heavier the blow given with this 
instrument, the more will it expose the 
fighter. It never would have remained so 
long in use in the Middle Ages, had it not 
been for the iron armor, which protected 
the body from everything but heavy blows. 
In England, Ireland, and Scotland, the bat 
tie axe was much employed. At the battle 
of Bannockburn, King Robert Bruce, clave 
an English champion down to the chin with 
one blow of his axe. The Lochaber axe re¬ 
mained a formidable weapon in the hands 
of the Highlanders till recently, and 
was used by the old city guard of Edin¬ 
burgh. 




Battle Creek 


Batuecas 


Battle Creek, a city in Calhoun co., 
Mich.; at the junction of Kalamazoo river 
and Battle creek, and on several railroads. 
It is in an agricultural, fruit growing and 
sandstone quarrying region It contains a 
college, the headquarters, and the publishing 
house of the Seventh-Bay Adventists; Bat¬ 
tle Creek Medical College; division offices 
of the Grand Trunk railway; and what is 
said to be the largest sanitarium in the 
world. The city is an attractive summer 

resort, with more 
than 75 lakes in its 
immediate vicinity. 
It has a National 
bank; numerous 
daily, weekly and 
monthly periodicals; 
an assessed property 
valuation of over 
$5,000,000; and a 
total debt of about 
$200,000. Pop. (1800) 
13,197; (1900) 18,- 
503; (1910) 25,207. 

Battledore and 
Shuttlecock, a pop¬ 
ular game invented 
in the 14th century. 
The implements are 
a bat shaped like a tennis racket and strung 
with gut or covered with parchment, and 
a shuttlecock consisting of a cork stuck 
with feathers, which is batted to and fro 
between the players. See Badminton. 

Battleford, a town in the new province 
(1905) of Saskatchewan, Canada; at the 
junction of the Saskatchewan and Battle 
rivers; on the Canadian Pacific railway; 90 
miles from Saskatoon. It is memorable as 
the center cf the insurrection headed by the 
half breed, Louis Biel, in 1885. 

BattIe=Ground, a town in Tippecanoe co., 
Ind., where the famous battle of Tippecanoe 
was fought between the United States troops 
under General Harrison and the Indians 
under Tecumseh and his brother, “ The 
Prophet/’ on Nov. 7, 1811. 

Battlement. (1) A wall or rampart built 
around the top of a fortified building, with 
interstices or embrasures to discharge ar¬ 
rows or darts, or fire guns through. (2) 
A similar erection around the roofs of 
churches and other Gothic buildings, where 
the object was principally ornamental. 
They are found not only upon parapets, but 
as ornaments on the transoms of windows, 
etc. (3) A wall built around a flat roofed 
house, in the East and elsewhere, to prevent 
any one from falling into the street, area, 
or garden. 

Battle Piece, a painting which repre¬ 
sents a battle, exhibiting large masses of 
men in action. The armor of the ancients, 
and the whole array and action of their 


battles, afford subjects much more favor¬ 
able to the artist than the straight lines or 
condensed columns and the firearms of the 
moderns. A painter of battle pieces ought 
to have an accurate knowledge of the ap¬ 
pearance of horses and men, and, if possible, 
to have seen a battle, as few persons are 
able to form from hearsay an accurate idea 
of such a scene. Some of the greatest pieces 
of this kind are the “ Battle of Constan¬ 
tine,” of which the cartoons were drawn by 
Raphael, and which was executed by Giulio 
Romano; and the “Battle of the Stand¬ 
ard,” which Leonardo da Vinci was com¬ 
missioned to paint for the Palace of the 
Signory in Florence. In this famous work 
he has represented in a marvelous manner 
the “ bestial frenzy ” of war. The car¬ 
toon for this painting was exhibited in 
Florence at the same time with one by 
Michael Angelo intended for a wall paint¬ 
ing in the Palazzo Veccliio. Only the car¬ 
toon of the latter was finished. It repre¬ 
sents a troop of soldiers surprised, and 
attacked while bathing. Among other 
battle pieces are: The “ Battle of the Huns 
and Romans ” by Ivaulbach, a striking 
production; Lebrun’s “ Battles of Alexan¬ 
der,” the “ Battles of the Amazons,” by 
Rubens; “Gettysburg” by Rothermel; and 
“ Hooker’s Battle Above the Clouds ” by 
Walker. 

Battleship, a warship of the heaviest 
class, designed for fighting in line of battle. 
The battleship is the fighting unit in a 
fleet engagement, designed to take the hard¬ 
est blows and to overcome any ship that 
may oppose her. Her armor is the least 
vulnerable, her guns are the heaviest, and 
the qualities of the cruiser and armored 
cruiser are subordinated to secure this pre¬ 
ponderance of protection and armament. 
The United States navy, Jan. 1, 190(fi con¬ 
tained the following named battleships, all 
of which had rendered remarkable service 
in the war with Spain in 1898: “Iowa,” 
“ Indiana,” “ Massachusetts,” “ Oregon,” 
and “ Texas,” the last being rated as sec¬ 
ond class, the others as first class. On the 
same date there were authorized or under 
construction, all first class, the “ Kearsarge,” 
“ Kentucky,” “ Illinois,” “ Alabama,” “ Wis¬ 
consin,” “Maine,” “Missouri,” “Ohio,” 
“ Georgia,” “ New Jersey,” and “ Pennsyl¬ 
vania.” The new “Kearsarge,” in June, 
1900, was designated as the flag ship of the 
reorganized European Squadron, which was 
disintegrated at the beginning of the war 
with Spain. See Dreadnaughts. 

Battue, a method of killing game by 
having persons beat a wood, copse, or 
other cover, to drive the animals (pheas¬ 
ants, hares, etc.) toward the spot where 
sportsmen are stationed. 

Batuecas, Las, two valleys, inclosed by 
high mountains, in the Spanish province of 



BATTLEDORE AND 
SHUTTLECOCK. 













Baucher 


Bauer 


Salamanaca, so difficult of access as to have 
been unknown, so it is said, for several 
centuries. A convent of Carmelites was 
built there as early as 1599. These val¬ 
leys are so situated that in the longest 
days the sun shines into them only four 
hours. 


Baucher, Francois, a French hippologist, 
born in Versailles, in 1790; is best known 
because of his method of training saddle 
horses, and his book “ Methode d’ Equita¬ 
tion ” (1842). He died in Paris, March 14, 
1873. 



Baucis (ba'sis), an old and infirm woman 
of Phrygia, who, with her husband, lived in 
a small cottage, in a penurious manner. 
When Jupiter and Mercury traveled in dis¬ 
guise over Asia, they came to the cottage, 
and were so pleased with the hospitality 
they received, that Jupiter changed their 
dwelling into a magnificent temple, of which 
Baucis and her husband Philemon were 
made priests. After they had lived happily 
to an extreme old age, they died both at the 
same hour, according to their request to 
Jupiter, that one might not have the sorrow 
of following the other to the grave. Their 
bodies were changed into trees before the 
doors of the temple. 

Baudelaire, Charles (bod-lar'), a French 
poet, born in Paris, April 21, 1821. In his 
youth he traveled to India, and is said to 
have likewise visited the Mauritius and 
Madagascar. On his return to Paris he 
became a notable figure in the second group 
of romantic poets who carried on the move¬ 
ment begun by the Romanticists of 1830. 

His “ Flow¬ 
ers of Evil,” 
a volume of 
poems issued 
in 1857, was 
the subject 
of a prosecu¬ 
tion on the 
score of im- 
m o r a 1 i ty, 
and had to 
undergo ex¬ 
pur g a t i o n. 
II e after¬ 
ward pub¬ 
lished “ Ar¬ 
tificial Para- 
charles Baudelaire. dises, Opium 

and Hash¬ 
eesh,” a work partly original, partly 
composed of selections, admirably trans¬ 
lated, from the writings of Poe and De 
Quincey. His occasional essays, which were 
finally collected in a volume entitled “ Ro¬ 
manesque Art,” are remarkable for the 
Inish of the style and the subtlety of the 
criticism. Apart from his verse, however, 
Baudelaire’s finest work is contained in his 


50 “ Little Poems in Prose.” All of these 
are exquisitely written, and in many of 
them the beauty of the thought is equal to 
the beauty of the language. Baudelaire died 
in Paris Aug. 31, 18G7. He united a re¬ 
markably keen analytic faculty with a 
powerful, somber imagination. Brooding 
melancholy, curiously tinctured with irony, 
inspires the solemn music and dreamlike 
imagery of his best verses. The writer 
whom, in many respects, he resembles most 
strongly is Edgar Allan Poe. 

Baudissin (bou'dis-sen), Wolf Heinrich, 
Count von, a German litterateur, born 
in 1789; one of the chief contributors to the 
famous German translation of Shakespeare 
edited by Schlegel and Tieck, of which he 
rendered “ Comedv of Errors; ” “Love’s La¬ 
bor’s Lost: ” “All's Well that Ends Well; ” 
“ Taming of the Shrew; ” “ Much Ado About 
Nothing;” “Merry Wives of Windsor;” 
“Measure for Measure;” “Titus Androni- 
cus; ” “King Lear;” “Antony and Cleo¬ 
patra;” “Troilus and Cressida;” “Othello;” 
and “ Henry VIII.” Under the title “ Ben 
Jonson and His School” (183G), he pub¬ 
lished translations of old English dramas. 
He died in 1878. 

Baudry, Paul (bo-dre), a French painter, 
born Nov. 7, 1828, at La Roche-sur-Yon; 
studied in Paris and Rome. Among his best 
known works are “ Punishment of a Vestal 
Virgin” (1857), and the “Assassination of 
Marat” ( 1867). He was for 10 years em¬ 
ployed in decorating the foyer of the Grand 
Opera in Paris. Elected a member of the 
Academic des Beaux-Arts in 1870, he died 
Jan. 17, 1886. 

Bauer, Bruno (bour), a German Biblical 
critic and scholar, born in Eisenberg. Sept. 
9, 1809. His writings carry the nev; move¬ 
ment in rational theology very far, his 
“ Critical Exposition of the Religion of the 
Old Testament” (1838), and “Critique of 
the Gospels” (1850) being extreme in their 
various expositions. He died in Rixdorf, 
April 13, 1882. 

Bauer, Caroline, a German actress, born 
at Heidelberg in 1807, made her debut in 
1822, and had achieved a brilliant success, 
in comedy and tragedy alike, when in 1829 
she married Prince Leopold, afterward King 
of the Belgians. Their morganatic union 
was as brief as it was unhappy; in 1831 
she returned to the stage, which she quitted 
only in 1844, on her marriage to a Polish 
count. She died at Zurich, Oct. 18, 1878. 

Bauer, Louis A., an American mathe¬ 
matician, born in Cincinnati, O., Jan. 28, 
1865; graduated at the University of Cin¬ 
cinnati in 1888; took a special course in 
the University of Berlin, 1892-1895; was 
Astronomical and Magnetic Computer for 
the United States Coast and Geodetic Sur¬ 
vey, 1887-1892; Docent in Mathematical 





Bauer 


Baunugarten 


Physics in the University of Chicago, 1895- 
1896; Instructor in Geophysics, 1896-1897; 
Chief of Division of Terrestrial Magnetism 
of Maryland Geological Survey since 1896; 
became Assistant Professor of Mathematics 
in the University of Cincinnati in 1897; 
Astronomer and Magnetician of the Western 
Boundary Survey of Maryland. He is an 
honorary member of the Sociedad Cientifica 
Antonio Alzate of Mexico, and a member of 
the Permanent Committee on Terrestrial 
Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity of 
the International Meteorological Conference. 
He edits and publishes the “ Terrestrial 
Magnetism.” 

Bauer, Wilhelm, a German inventor, 
born in Dillingen, in 1822. He served as an 
artilleryman during the Schleswig-Holstein 
War (1848) , and, meanwhile, conceived the 
plan of a submarine vessel for coast de¬ 
fense. From 1851 to 1855 he vainly sought 
means from Austria, France, and England 
to complete his experiment. Russia finally 
adopted his scheme. He afterward made 
improvements in torpedoes and in sub¬ 
marine guns. He died in 1875. 

Bauerle, Adolf (boi'er-le), an Austrian 
dramatist and novelist, born in Vienna, 
April 9, 1786; cultivated with much success 
the field of popular comedy and local farce 
in Vienna, where, in 1804, he founded the 
“Vienna Theater-Gazette,” until 1847 the 
most widely read paper in the Austrian 
monarchy, and now a valuable source for 
the history of the stage in Vienna. Of his 
numerous plays the following became known 
also outside of Austria: “Leopold’s Day” 
(1814) ; “The Enchanted Prince” (1818) ; 
“The Counterfeit Prima Donna” (1818) ; 
“A Deuce of a Fellow” (1820); “The 
Friend in Need.” Under the pseudonym 
Otto Horn he wrote the novels “ Tlierese 
Krones ” (1855) and “Ferdinand Rai- 

mund ” (1855), full of the personal element 
and local anecdote. He died in Basel, Sept. 
20, 1859. 

Bauernfeld, Eduard von (bou'ern-feid), 
an Austrian dramatist, born in Vienna, Oan. 
13, 1802; studied law and entered the gov¬ 
ernment service in 1826, blit resigned, after 
the revolutionary events of 1848, to devote 
himself exclusively to his literary pursuits. 
A brilliant conversationalist, he soon be¬ 
came a universal favorite in Vienna society. 
Intimate from childhood with the genial 
painter, Moritz von Schwind, and the com¬ 
poser, Franz Schubert, he also kept up a 
lifelong intercourse with Grillparzer. 
Among his comedies, distinguished for their 
subtle dialogue and sprightly humor, partic¬ 
ularly the descriptions of fashionable soci¬ 
ety have made his great reputation. The 
best known and most successful were “ Reck¬ 
less from Love ” (1831) ; “ Love’s Protocol ” 
(1831) ; “Confessions” (1834) ; “Domestic 
and Romantic ” (1835) ; “ Of Age ” (1846) ; 


“ The Categorical Imperative ” (1851) ; 

“ From Society ” (1866) ; “ Modern Youth ” 
(1868). He died in Vienna, Aug. 9, 1890. 

Bauhinia (named by Blunder after John 
and Caspar Bauhin, the plants which have 
two-lobed leaves being deemed suitable for 
rendering honor to two brothers, instead of 
to one person simply), mountain ebony, a 
genus of plants belonging to the order 
fabacew, or leguminosce, and the sub-order 
ccesalpiniece. The species, which are mostly 
climbers, belonging to the East or West In¬ 
dies, have beautiful flowers. 

Baum, Friedrich (bourn), a German 
military officer in the British service in the 
Revolutionary War. He arrived in Canada 
in 1776, and in Burgoyne’s expedition acted 
as Lieutenant-Colonel of the Brunswick 
dragoons. He was sent out with 800 men 
and two pieces of artillery on a foraging 
expedition. Near Bennington, Vt., he was 
attacked by the New Hampshire militia 
under Stark, and utterly defeated. He him¬ 
self was killed Aug. 16, 1777. 

Baumbach, Rudolf (boum'bach), a Ger¬ 
man poet, born at Kranichfeld, Saxe-Mein- 
ingen, Sept. 28, 1840. After studying nat¬ 
ural science in Wurzburg, Leipsic, Freiburg, 
and Heidelberg, he lived as a tutor in Aus¬ 
tria, last at Trieste, where he devoted him¬ 
self afterward exclusively to writing. In 
1885 he returned to Meiningen. He has 
most successfully cultivated the poetical 
tale, based upon ancient popular legends. 
Epics: “ Zlatorog,” a Slovenic Alpine legend 
(1875, 37th ed., 1892); “ Horand and 

Hilda” (1879); “Lady Fair” (1881); 
“The Godfather of Death” (1884); “Em¬ 
peror Max and His Huntsmen” (1888). 
Lyrics: “ Songs of a Traveling Journeyman” 

( 1878); “Minstrel’s Songs” (i882); 
“From the Highway” (1882) ; “Traveling 
Songs from the Alps” (1883); “Adven¬ 
tures and Pranks Imitated from Old Mas¬ 
ters ” (1883) ; “ Jug and Inkstand ” (1887); 

“ Thuringian Songs” (1891). He is also 
an excellent prose writer, author of “ False 
Gold” (1878), a historical romance of the 
17th century; “Summer Legends” (1881) ; 

“ Once upon a Time ” (1889), etc. 

Baumgarten, Alexander Gottlieb, a 

German philosopher of the school of Wolf, 
was born in Berlin, July 17, 1714; studied 
at Halle, and in 1740 became Professor of 
Philosophy at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where 
he died May 26, 1762. He is the founder 
of aesthetics as a systematic science of the 
beautiful and an integral part of philosophy. 
In 1750-1758 he issued two volumes of his 
“ ZEsthetica,” but his death hindered the 
completion of the work. His writings in 
other departments of philosophy are marked 
by clearness and precision. He carried the 
dogmatic, rationalistic system of Wolf to its 
utmost development; his “ Metaphysica ” 





Baumgarten-Crusius 


Bautzen 


(Halle, 1739; 7tli ed., 1779) is one of the 
most useful books for the study of the Wol- 
fian philosophy. He also wrote “ Philo- 
sophia Generalis ” (1770); “ Etliica ” (1740); 
“ Jus Naturaj ” (1705). 

Baumgarten=Crusius, Ludwig Fried= 
rich Otto, a German theologian, born in 
Merseburg, in 17S8; studied theology in 
Leipsic, and became the University Preacher 
in 1810; appointed Professor of Theology 
at Jena, in 1817; and became widely known 
as a foremost champion of religious libertj^. 
His publications include “ Introduction to 
the Study of Dogmatics” (1820) ; “Manual 
of Christian Ethics” (1827) ; “Outlines of 
Biblical Theology” (1828); “Outlines of 
Protestant Dogmatics ” (1830) ; “Text-book 
of the History of Doctrines” (1832); 
“ ScLleiermacher, His Method of Thought, 
and His Value” (1834); “Considerations 
on Certain Writings of Lamennais ” (1834), 
etc. He died in Jena, May 31, 1843. 

Baur, Ferdinand Christian (bour), a 
German theologian and Biblical critic, head 
of the so-called Tubingen School of Ration¬ 
alist divines, born in Schneiden, June 21, 
1792. While holding a professorship at a 
seminary in Blaubeuren, he published, in 
1824, his “ Symbolik und Mythologie.” In 
182G he accepted a call to the chair of theol¬ 
ogy at Tubingen, and henceforward distin¬ 
guished himself by his labors and learned 
productions in the field of Biblical criticism, 
and the history of doctrines. A disciple of 
Hegel, he applied the principles of his phil¬ 
osophy to the study of theology and the 
criticism of the earliest Christian literature, 
with results startling enough, and which 
are still the subjects of grave controversy. 
His principal works on the history of dog¬ 
mas, are: “ The Christian Gnosis,” “ The 
Christian Doctrine of the Atonement, ” and 
“ The Christian Doctrine of the Trinity and 
Incarnation.” Of his works of New Testa¬ 
ment criticism the most important are “ The 
Christ Party in the Corinthian Church,” 
“ The So-called Pastoral Letters of the Apos¬ 
tle Paul,” “ Paul, the Apostle of Jesus 
Christ, ” “ Critical Researches Respecting 
the Canonical Gospels” (in which he espe¬ 
cially attempts to disprove the historical 
character of the Fourth Gospel), and a work 
on “ The Origin and Character of the Gospel 
of Mark.” He died Dec. 2, I860. 

Baur, Frederick Wilhelm von, a Rus¬ 
sian military engineer, born in Hanau, Ger¬ 
many, in 1735; early adopted a military 
life, and, in 1755, entered the British ser¬ 
vice. In 1757 he obtained the rank of gen¬ 
eral, and engineer-in-cliief. Frederick II. 
of Prussia ennobled him. In 1769 he en¬ 
tered into the service of Catherine II., Em¬ 
press of Russia, and was employed against 
the Turks. The Empress had a high notion 
of his talents, and employed him in making 
the aqueduct of Tsarskoe-Selo, for supplying 


Moscow with water, and in deepening the 
canal near St. Petersburg, at the end of 
which he constructed a large harbor, and 
other important undertakings. He died in 
St. Petersburg, in 1783. Baur had for his 
secretary the celebrated Kotzebue, who di¬ 
rected in his name the German theater at 
St. Petersburg. 

Bausset, Louis Francois, Cardinal 

(bo-sa'), born in Pondicherry, India, Dec. 14, 
1748. Ilis father, who held an important 
position in the French Indies, sent young 
Bausset to France when he was but 12 years 
of age. He was educated by the Jesuits, and 
became Bishop of Alais in 1784. Having 
signed the protest of the French bishops 
against the civil constitution of the clergy, 
he emigrated in 1791, but in the following 
year he returned to France. He was soon 
arrested, and imprisoned in the old Convent 
of Tort Royal, where he remained until after 
the fall of Robespierre. After the restora¬ 
tion of Louis XVIII., in 1815, he entered 
the Chamber of Peers; the following year he 
became a member of the French Academy; 
and, in 1817, he received the appointment 
of Cardinal. He wrote the “ History of 
Fenelon ” (1808-1809, 3 Amis.), at the re¬ 
quest of the Abbot Emery, who had in his 
possession the MSS. of the illustrious Arch¬ 
bishop of Cambray. The work had great 
success, and its author Avas awarded, in 
1810, the second decennial prize of the Insti¬ 
tute, for the best biography. His “ History 
of Bossuet ” (1814) Avas less favorably re¬ 
ceived. He died in Paris, June 21, 1824. 

Bautain (bo-tan'), Louis Eugene Marie, 

a French philosopher, born in Paris, Feb. 
17, 1796: educated at the Normal School; 
became Professor of Philosophy in Stras- 
burg College in 1816; entered the Church, 
and became a priest in 1828; resigned his 
professorship in 1830; and later Avas sus¬ 
pended as a priest because of his work, “ La 
Morale de l’E\ 7 angile comparee a la Morale 
des Philosoplies; ” but Avas reinstated in 
1841. He Avas made Dean of the Faculty of 
Letters at Strasburg in 1838, and subse¬ 
quently Director of the College of Juilly. 
At a still later period he Avas transferred to 
Paris, and made Vicar-General of the Metro¬ 
politan Diocese. He was also appointed a 
member of the theological faculty of Paris. 
Ilis Avritings include “ Philosophie-psycholo- 
gie Experimentale ” (1S39) ; “Philosophic 
Morale” (1842); “Philosophic du Chris- 
tianisme ” (1835) ; “La Religion et la Lib- 
erte considerees dans leurs Rapports ” 
(1848) ; “La Morale de l’Evangile comparee 
aux divers Systemes de Morale” (1855), 
etc. He died Oct. 18, 1867. 

Bautzen (Wendish Budissin) , an import¬ 
ant manufacturing toAvn in Saxony, situated 
on a rising ground overlooking the river 
Spree, 35 miles W. of Gorlitz by rail. It 
is the chief town of an administrative dis* 



Bauxite 


Bavaria 


trict of the same name, which had a popu¬ 
lation (1890) of 370,739, including 50,000 
Wends, remnants of the old Slavic popula¬ 
tion of Eastern Germany. The chief build¬ 
ings are a former cathedral (1497), and 
the Castle of Ortenburg, dating from 958, 
and a frequent residence of the Kings of 
Bohemia. The leading industries are manu¬ 
factures of woolens, fustian, linen, hosiery, 
leather, and gunpowder. Pop. (1890). 
21,510. Bautzen was first made a town 
under Otho I. It suffered greatly in thi 
war with Hussites, and still more during 
the Thirty Years’ War. Here Napoleon, after 
an obstinate resistance, won a barren vic¬ 
tory over Russians and Prussians, May 20- 
21, 1813. Pop. (1905) 29,419. 

Bauxite, a mineral occurring in round, 
concretionary disseminated grains; found 
extensively in France and other parts of 
Europe, and, in the United States, princi¬ 
pally in Alabama and Georgia. The purest 
bauxite is called aluminum ore, because 
commercial aluminum is made from it. 
Beds of this mineral have been discovered 
in Alabama, Arkansas, and Georgia, and 
now that aluminum has been introduced 
rapidly into many of the economic arts, the 
mining of bauxite bids fair to become the 
basis for important industries in the South¬ 
ern States. In Alabama the deposits known 
as the Cherokee and Calhoun, are near 
Jacksonville, and are hard on the outcrops, 
but after being cut into become soft and 
crumbly. White, gray, and red are the prin¬ 
cipal colors. An analysis of samples showed 
54.G8, 55.73, G1.05, 60.15, and 58.25 per 
cent, of alumina. In Arkansas the ore is 
found in Saline and Pulaski counties, and 
in the Little Rock region some veins are 
estimated to be 20 feet thick. The deposits 
are red, black, and cream colored, the first 
two predominating; the red showing 4G.44 
per c^nt. of alumina, the black 55.89. In 
Georgia, the counties of Floyd, Polk, and 
Bartow, which are adjacent to the Alabama 
deposits, have been shewn by government 
surveys and Smithsonian Institute reports 
to be rich in the ore, and experts agree that 
these counties and Cherokee, Calhoun, and 
Cleburne counties in Alabama, are almost 
wholly underlaid with beds, practically in¬ 
exhaustible. In 1908 the total production 
in the United States—Georgia, Alabama, 
and Arkansas—was 52,167 long tons, valued 
at the mines at $263,968; and the consump¬ 
tion of aluminum in the same year amounted 
to 11,152,000 pounds, a decrease in a year 
of 6,059,000 pounds. The Pittsburg Reduc¬ 
tion Company is the sole American producer. 

Bavaria (German, Baiern; French, Ba- 
viere), a kingdom of Central Europe, in the 
S. of Germany, composed of two isolated 
portions of unequal size. The larger por¬ 
tion, comprising about seven-eighths of the 
monarchy, is included between lat. 47° 19' 


and 50° 41' N., and Ion. 8° 53' and 13° 50' 
E.; bounded E. by Bohemia and the arch¬ 
duchy of Austria, S. by Tyrol, Vorarlberg, 
and Lake Constance, W. by Wtirtemberg, 
Baden, the grand-duchy of Hesse, and the 
Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, N. by 
the States of Ducal Saxony, the principal¬ 
ities of Reuss, and the kingdom of Saxony. 
The smaller portion, the Pfalz or Palatinate, 
lies W. from the main portion of the king¬ 
dom, and separated from it by Wiirtemberg, 
Baden, and the grand-duchy of Hesse. It 
is included between lat. 48° 57' and 49° 50' 
N.; and Ion. 7° 6' and 8° 31' E.; and is 
bounded E. by the Rhine, which separates 
it from Baden, S. by the German territory 
of Alsace-Lorraine, W. by the Prussian 
Rhine provinces and a portion of Saxe- 
Coburg, and N. by the grand-duchy of 
Hesse. Bavaria is estimated to contain an 
area of 29,286 English square miles, and is 
divided into eight circles (kreisc ), which 
were formerly named after the rivers that 
watered them; but an edict of Nov. 29, 
1837, gave the circles new names and new 
boundaries. The following table shows the 
names of the circles, with their area and 


population: 

Area, 

Circles (Ivreise). . gn Pop. 1905. 

1. Oberbaiern (Upper Bavaria).. 1,414,224 

2. Niederbaiern (Lower Bavaria) 4jsc '707,007 

3. Pfalz (Palatinate)... 2^288 885^833 

4. Oberpfalz (Upper Palatinate) 

and Regensburg (Ratisbon) 3,728 574,693 

5. Oberfranken (Upper Fran¬ 

conia) . 2,702 637,700 

6. Mittelfranken (Middle Fran¬ 

conia) ... 2,925 808,846 

7. Unterfranken (Lower Fran¬ 

conia) and Aschaffenburg. 3,243 682.532 

8. Schwaben (Swabia) and 

Neuburg . _3ff92 753,17 7 

Total . 29,286 6,524,372 


Mountains .— Bavaria is a hilly rather 
than a mountainous country. A large por¬ 
tion, more especially S. of the Danube, is a 
plateau country of considerable elevation, 
and indeed, the whole of the main portion 
of the kingdom may be described as an up¬ 
land valley, averaging about 1,600 feet 
above the sea-level, intersected by numerous 
large streams and ridges of low hills. On 
all sides it is surrounded bv hills of a great- 
er or less altitude, either quite upon the 
frontier or only at small distances from it. 
The whole S. frontier is formed by a branch 
of the Noric Alps, offsets from which pro¬ 
ject far into the S. plateau of Bavaria. 
Besides numerous peaks which this range 
contains, varying from 4,000 to 8,000 feet 
high, the following may be named as being 
above the latter number: The Zugspitze, 
10,394 feet high; the Watzmann, 9,470 feet; 
the Hochvogel, 8,460 feet; the Madeler Ga¬ 
bel, 8,650 feet. Passing along the valley of 
the Inn and across the Danube, we come to 
the Bohemian frontier, formed by the Bbh- 
merwald mountains running S E. to N. W.> 
and lowering down at the valley of the Eger. 










Bavaria 


Bavaria 


The highest peaks in this range are the 
Rachel, 5,102 feet, and the Arber, 5,185 feet. 
Crossing the Eger we meet with the Fichtel- 
gebirge, presenting the Schneeberg, 3,750 
feet high, and the Ochsenkopf, 3,033 feet. 
W. from this range, and along the fron¬ 
tier of the Saxon ducal territories and 
Hesse-Cassel, run hills of moderate eleva¬ 
tion, under various names, Frankenwald, 
Rhongebirge, etc., no peaks of which attain 
an elevation of more than 3,327 feet. The 
W. mountain boundary of the Bavarian val¬ 
ley is formed N. of the Main by the Spes- 
sartwald range, and in the kingdom of 
Wiirtemberg by the Alb or Alp. The only 
noteworthy interior ranges are, in the N. 
W., the Steigerwald; and in the N. E., run¬ 
ning in a S. W. direction from the Fichtelge- 
birge, the Franconian Jura; a low limestone 
range, containing numerous remarkable 
stalactitic caves. The Pfalz or Palatinate 
is traversed by the N. extremity of the 
Vosges, the highest peak in this locality 
being the Konigstuhl, 2,162 feet high. 

Lakes .— The lakes of Bavaria are neither 
very numerous nor of very great extent, 
though many of them present exceedingly 
picturesque scenery. The larger are all sit¬ 
uated on the upper part of the S. plateau; 
the smaller within the range of the Noric 
Alps. The most remarkable of the former 
are, Lake Ammer, about 10 miles long by 
214 broad, 1,736 feet above the sea; Lake 
Wiirm or Starnberg, about 12 miles long by 
3 broad, 1,899 feet; and Lake Chiem, 9 
miles long by 9 to 4 broad, 1,651 feet above 
the sea. Of the smaller, the more remark¬ 
able are Lake Tegner, about 3 miles long, 
2,586 feet; Lake Walchen, 2,597; and vari¬ 
ous others upward of 2,000 feet above the 
sea-level. Most of the lakes are well sup¬ 
plied with fish. 

Rivers .— Bavaria belongs wholly to the 
basins of the Danube and the .Rhine, with 
exception of a very small portion in the N. 
E. corner, which through the Eger appertains 
to the basin of the Elbe. The river Danube 
intersects the main portion of the kingdom 
W. to E. nearly in the center, and before 
it enters the Austrian dominions at Passau, 
where it is still 925 feet above the sea, it 
receives on its right bank the rivers Iller, 
Lech, and Isar, which have their sources in 
the Noric Alps, besides numerous smaller 
streams; and on its left bank, the Wornitz, 
Altmiihl, Nab, and Regen, besides other 
lesser streams. The Main traverses nearly the 
whole of the N. part of this portion of the 
kingdom from the E. to W., and is navigable 
for steam-vessels from Bamberg to the 
Rhine. Its principal affluents are the Reg- 
nitz and the Saale. In the Palatinate there 
are no streams of any importance, the Rhine 
being merely a boundary river. 

Climate .— If we except the valley of the 
Rhine, and the valley of the Main in lower 
Franconia, Bavaria, even including the Pa¬ 


latinate, in comparison with other German 
States, is a cold country. The average tem¬ 
perature of the year is about 47° F., the 
same as the E. coast of Scotland. Winter, 
30°; spring, 47°; summer, 63°; and autumn, 
47°. 

Soil, Vegetation, etc .— Bavaria is one of 
the most favored countries in Germany, in 
respect of the fruitfulness of its soil, due no 
doubt in a considerable degree to the undu¬ 
lating nature of the country, to the numer¬ 
ous streams by which it is watered, and to 
being nearly wholly composed of Jura lime¬ 
stone. In the plains and valleys the soil is 
capable of producing all kinds of crops, but 
not till lately were the natural advantages 
of the country turned to good account. Ig¬ 
norance and idleness opposed a barrier to 
improvement, which it took the utmost ef¬ 
forts of an enlightened government, aided by 
the general spread of education, to remove. 
At length a spirit of agricultural enterprise 
pervades the kingdom, improved methods 
of cultivation have been introduced, and 
large tracts of waste land have been re¬ 
claimed and brought under the plow. The 
principal crops are wheat, rye, barley, and 
oats; but in some districts rice, spelt, maize, 
and buckwheat are also raised. To these pro¬ 
ductions of the soil may be added potatoes 
(the cultivation of which is yearly increas¬ 
ing), tobacco, and fruit, of which large quan¬ 
tities are grown in the valleys of the Main 
and the Rhine. In the circles of Mittelfranken 
and Schwaben-Neuburg, the hop plant is cul¬ 
tivated to a considerable extent, the quanti¬ 
ty varying from 30,000 to 40,000 hundred 
weight per annum; and the vine in the cir¬ 
cles of Pfalz and Unterfranken. The latter 
produces the Franconian wines; the best 
wines of the former are produced near Deid- 
esheim and Wachenheim. The celebrated 
Steinwein and Leistenwein are the produce 
of the S. slope of the Marienberg, near the 
town of Wurzburg. The forests of Bavaria, 
composed chiefly of fir and pine trees, 
cover nearly a third of its entire 
surface, and yield a large revenue to 
the State; much timber being an¬ 
nually exported, together with potashes, tar, 
turpentine, and other products peculiar to 
these wooded regions. The principal min¬ 
eral products are salt, coal, and iron. Some 
of the mining works belong to the State, 
and contribute something to the public rev¬ 
enue; but the minerals are not wrought to 
the extent they might be. Coal mining gives 
employment to between 4,500 and 5,000 
hands. Black lead is found in several places, 
and pretty largely manufactured into pen¬ 
cils* Porcelain clay of the finest quality 
likewise abounds in some localities, the best 
being obtained in the districts of Wunsiedel 
in the Upper Main. Lithographic stones 
should also be mentioned. In the rearing of 
cattle and sheep the Bavarians are some¬ 
what backward. Swine are reared in great 




Bavaria 


Bavaria 


numbers in all parts of the country, and 
poultry and wild fowl are abundant. The 
wolves and bears, with which the forests of 
Bavaria were at one time infested, are near¬ 
ly extinct. 

Manufactures .— The manufactures of Ba¬ 
varia are singly not very important, being 
mostly on a small scale, and conducted by 
individuals of limited capital. The princi¬ 
pal articles manufactured are linens, wool¬ 
ens, cottons, silks, leather, paper, glass, 
earthen and iron and steel ware, jewelry, 
etc., but the supply of some of these articles 
is inadequate to the home consumption. Of 
leather, paper, glass, and ironware, rather 
large quantities are exported. The optical 
and mathematical instruments made at 
Munich are the best on the Continent, and 
are prized accordingly. But the most im¬ 
portant branch of manufacture in Bavaria 
is the brewing of beer — the universal and 
favorite beverage of the country. There 
are upward of 5,000 brewing establishments 
in the kingdom, which have been calculated 
to supply on an average about 20 gallons 
a year to every individual of the popula¬ 
tion. The beer is neither so strong nor so 
sweet as Scotch ale; but is of more deli¬ 
cate flavor, and forms a pleasant and whole¬ 
some beverage. It is not only consumed in 
immense quantities in the country, but is 
sent to all parts of Germany, and even as 
far as America and India. Spirits are also 
largely distilled. A large portion of the 
industrial population maintain themselves 
by weaving linen, and by the manufacture 
of articles in wood (some of which are of 
beautiful workmanship), and by the felling 
and hewing of timber. Notwithstanding its 
favorable geographical position, and other 
natural advantages, the trade of Bavaria is 
comparatively limited. Among the exports 
are corn, timber, wine, cattle, leather, glass, 
hops, fruit, beer, iron and steel wares, ma¬ 
chinery, fancy articles, colors, lucifer 
matches, stoneware, etc. Among the im¬ 
ports are coffee, cacao, tea, cotton, tobacco, 
drugs, copper, oil, spices, dyestuffs, silk 
and silk goods, lead, etc. 

Communications .—From its position Ba¬ 
varia enjoys a considerable portion of 
transit trade, much facilitated by the 
good roads that traverse the country in 
all directions. The means of communi¬ 
cation are now very complete. The Dan¬ 
ube, the Rhine, the Main, the Begnitz, 
etc., afford ample scope for inland naviga¬ 
tion, besides the Konig Ludwig Canal, 
which connects the Main at Bamberg with 
the Altmiihl a short distance above its em- 
bouchre in the Danube, thus establishing 
direct water communication through the 
Rhine between the German Ocean and the 
Black Sea. The railway system (now man¬ 
aged as a part of the imperial system of 
railways) has been carried out on an ex¬ 
tensive scale. The lines are partly State 


property, partly private. The number of 
miles in operation amounts (1899) to 4,062, 
about 3,000 of this total being State rail¬ 
ways the remainder private railways. The 
amount of debt contracted for railways by 
Bavaria is £50,000,000, forming over four- 
fifths of the total debt of the country. The 
receipts from the railways are now general¬ 
ly sufficient to pay the interest and charges 
on account of this debt. The State also 
possesses two canals. 

Education and Art .— The department of 
education is under the superintendence of 
the Superior Board of Education and Ec¬ 
clesiastical Affairs. A complete system of 
inspection is established throughout the 
country; the reports of the inspectors in¬ 
cluding not only the number and proficiency 
of the scholars, but also the conduct of the 
teachers, the state of the buildings, and the 
nature and extent of the funds available. 
It is necessary in Bavaria, before admis¬ 
sion can be obtained into any higher school, 
to have passed a satisfactory examination 
in the lower school. Not only must all can¬ 
didates for offices under the State pass ex¬ 
aminations, but examinations are held of 
apprentices in trade who wish to become 
masters, and even of officers in the army on 
promotion. There are over 8,000 schools in 
Bavaria, attended by more than 600,000 pu¬ 
pils. Attendance on school is compulsory 
up to 14 years of age. There are three uni¬ 
versities in Bavaria — two of which (Mu¬ 
nich and Wurzburg) are Roman Catholic, 
and one (Erlangen) Protestant. The Uni¬ 
versity of Munich is attended by about 3,500 
students, and has about 170 professors and 
instructors; that of Wurzburg has 80 pro¬ 
fessors and instructors, and about 1,350 
students; and that of Erlangen 67 profes¬ 
sors and instructors, and about 1,100 stu¬ 
dents. There are also several lycea, a num¬ 
ber of gymnasia, numerous Latin, normal, 
and polytechnic schools, besides acade¬ 
mies of arts and sciences, fine arts, horti¬ 
culture, etc. The capital, Munich, contains 
a library of 800,000 volumes, including 25,- 
000 MSS.; several scientific and literary in¬ 
stitutions, academies, and national socie¬ 
ties, and extensive collections ot works of 
art. 

Bavaria enjoys the honor of having orig¬ 
inated a school of painting of a high order 
of merit, known as the Nuremberg school, 
founded about the middle of the 16th cen¬ 
tury by Albert Diirer, a native of that town, 
whose works are little, if at all, inferior to 
those of his great Italian contemporaries. 
Hans Holbein, who excelled Diirer in por¬ 
trait, though far behind him in historical 
painting, is claimed by Bavaria, but neither 
the precise locality nor the date of his 
birth is known with certainty — Augs¬ 
burg, Basel, and Griinstadt being severally 
named as the one, and the dates 1495 and 
1498 as the other. To these celebrated 



Bavaria 


Bavaria 


names have been added those of the eminent 
sculptors Kraft and Vischer, both also Ba¬ 
varians; the former born about 1435 and the 
latter about the middle of the same century. 
The masterpiece of the latter distinguished 
artist is the bronze shrine of St. Sebaldus 
in Nuremburg, esteemed a marvel of art for 
beauty of design and delicacy of workman¬ 
ship. The most celebrated of Kraft’s works 
is the remarkable tabernacle in stone, 
affixed against one of the columns of the 
choir of the church of St. Lawrence, also 
in Nuremberg. The restoration of Bavarian 
preeminency in modern times, in connec¬ 
tion with the fine arts, is, in a great meas¬ 
ure, if not entirely, owing to Louis I., whose 
love of art and liberal patronage have ren¬ 
dered the capital one of the most celebrated 
seats of the fine arts in Europe. 

Religion .— The religion of the State is 
Roman Catholicism, which embraces more 
than seven-tenths of the population (in 
1895, 4,115,578). The remainder are prin¬ 
cipally Protestants (1,042,348) and Jews 
(53,750). The proportion between Catho¬ 
lics and Protestants has scarcely varied 
during the last three-quarters of a century. 
All citizens, whatever their creed, are 
equally admissible to the same public func¬ 
tions and employments, and possess the 
same civil and political rights. The arti¬ 
cles of the concordat concluded with the 
Pope are subordinate in their application to 
the fundamental law of the State. By an 
ordinance of Louis I. females are prohibited 
from pronouncing any monastic vow until 
after having passed their 33d year. The 
dioceses of Bavaria comprise two arch¬ 
bishoprics, Munich and Bamberg; and six 
bishoprics, Augsburg, Batisbon, Eichstadt, 
Passau, Wurzburg, and Spires. The sala¬ 
ries are paid by the government. In Bava¬ 
ria marriage between individuals having 
no capital cannot take place without the 
consent of the principal persons appointed 
to superintend the poor institutions, who, 
if they grant such liberty where there are 
no means of supporting the children that 
may spring from such marriage, render 
themselves liable for their maintenance. 
The law is intended to prevent improvident 
marriages, for which it seems certainly 
better adapted than for the promotion of 
morality. 

People .— In personal appearance the Ba¬ 
varians are stout and vigorous, well adapted 
to bear the’fatigues of war, and are in gen¬ 
eral considered as good soldiers. Thev are 
accused of being indolent, and somewhat 
addicted to drinking, but are brave, patri¬ 
otic, and faithful to their word. Their man¬ 
ners and customs toward the close of the 
18th century were described as very coarse, 
and they were said to be deeply imbued with 
superstitious bigotry; but, since the more 
general diffusion of knowledge a great 
change for the better has taken place. Many 


of the peasantry wear long loose snuff-col¬ 
ored coats, lined or edged with pink, and 
studded in front with silver or white metal 
buttons, thrown open to display a smart 
waistcoat of various and brilliant colors; 
their hats are ornamented with artificial 
flowers. Many of the Bavarian females are 
handsome, lively, and graceful. They dress 
smartly, and display much taste in their at¬ 
tire. Some of them wear black silk hand¬ 
kerchiefs tied tightly round their heads, 
decorated with flowers or ribbons, some 
caps of silver or gold tissue, and all having 
their hair neatly braided. German is the 
language spoken, with local peculiarities; 
but they have never been conspicuous for 
the cultivation of their native tongue. 

Constitution .— Bavaria was formerly a 
member of the Germanic Confederation, and 
now forms part of the German empire. 
The executive is in the hands of the king. 
The legislature consists of two chambers — 
one of senators, and one of deputies; the 
former composed of princes of the royal 
family, the great officers of the State, the 
two archbishops, the heads of certain noble 
families, a bishop named by the king, the 
president of the Protestant General Con¬ 
sistory, and any other members whom the 
king may create hereditary peers; the lat¬ 
ter, of members chosen indirectly, one to 
every 31,500 persons of the total population. 
The qualifications are that the candidate 
shall have completed his 30th year, that 
he shall be a free and independent citizen, 
that he shall be a member of the Roman or 
the Reformed Church, and pay direct State 
taxes. The members are chosen every six 
years, unless the house is dissolved by the 
king, and are generally convened once a 
year, but are bound to assemble at least 
once every three years. Each of the eight 
circles or provinces has a provincial gov¬ 
ernment, consisting of two boards, one for 
the management of the police, schools, etc., 
and the other for the management of finan¬ 
cial affairs. The revenue for the financial 
year 1896-1897 was 345,356,505 marks or 
£17,267,825, and the public debt, including 
railway debt, etc., was 1,332,000,000 marks, 
or £66,600,000. The army is raised by con¬ 
scription— every man being liable to serve 
from January 1 of the year in which he com¬ 
pletes his 20th year — and it forms an inde¬ 
pendent part of the army of the German 
empire. In time of peace it is under the 
command of the King of Bavaria, but in 
time of war it is placed under that of the 
Emperor of Germany, as commander-in¬ 
chief of the whole German army. The peri¬ 
od of service is three years in the active 
force, four in the reserve, and five in the 
landwehr; and no Bavarian can settle or 
marry, or accept of any definite appoint¬ 
ment, till he has fulfilled his military lia¬ 
bilities. On a peace footing the Bavarian 
army consists in all of fully 63,000 men 



Bavaria 


Baxter 


and 2,600 officers; on a war footing, about 
twice this number. 

History. — The Bavarians take their name 
from the Boii, a Celtic tribe who inhabited 
the districts which, when conquered by the 
Romans, became the Roman provinces of 
Vindelicia and Noricum. After the fall of 
the Western Empire this territory was over¬ 
run by various Germanic tribes, who formed 
themselves into a confederation, like that 
of the Franks and Marcomanni, and 
called themselves Boiarii. The confederacy 
of the Boiarii was made tributary first to 
the Ostrogoths, and then to the Franks. 
Finally the sovereignty over them was as¬ 
sumed by Charlemagne, and on the death of 
that monarch the Kings of the Franks and 
Germans governed it by their lieutenants, 
who bore the title of margrave, afterward 
converted into that of duke, and latterly 
(1623) into that of elector. In 1070 Ba¬ 
varia passed into the possession of the fam¬ 
ily of the Guelplis, and in 11 SO it was trans¬ 
ferred by imperial grant to Otho, Count of 
Wittelsbach. On the extinction of the direct 
line of that familv in 1777, the elector 
palatine, Charles Theodore, added the Palat¬ 
inate and the duchies of Juliers and Berg 
to the Bavarian dominions. In 1799 the 
Duke Maximilian Joseph of Deux-Ponts 
came into possession of all the Bavarian 
territories. The peace of Luneville (Feb. 
9, 1801) essentially affected Bavaria. While 
it lost all its possessions on the left bank 
of the Rhine, and also the lands of the 
Palatinate on the right bank, it obtained, 
on the other hand, by an imperial edict, an 
indemnification, by which it gained, in ad¬ 
dition to the amount lost, a surplus of 2,109 
square miles, and 216,000 inhabitants. 

In 1805 Bavaria was raised, by the treaty 
of Presburg, to the rank of a kingdom, 
with some further accessions of territory, 
all of which were confirmed by the treaties 
of 1814 and 1815, by which also a great 
part of the lands of the Palatinate was re¬ 
stored. In 1848 the conduct of the King 
of Bavaria, in maintaining an open liaison 
with Lola Montcz, had thoroughly alien¬ 
ated the hearts of his subjects, and quick¬ 
ened that desire of political change which 
had previously existed. The people, early 
in March, 1848, demanded immediate con¬ 
vocation of the chambers, liberty of the 
press, public judicial trials; also that elec¬ 
toral reform should be granted, and that 
the army should take an oath to observe 
the constitution. The king having re¬ 
fused, tumults occurred, and King Louis 
announced his resignation of the scepter 
to his son, Maximilian II., under whom 
the reforms and modifications of the 
constitution were carried out. Maximil¬ 
ian died in 1864, and was succeeded by 
Louis II. In the war of 1866 Bavaria sided 
with Austria, in consequence of which it 
was obliged, by the treaty of August 22 in 


the same year, to cede a small portion of 
its territory to Prussia, and to pay a war 
indemnity of 30,000,000 florins (£2,500,- 
000). Soon after Bavaria entered into an 
alliance with Prussia, and in 1867 joined 
the Zollverein under Prussian regulations. 
In the Franco-German War of 1870-1871 
Bavaria took a prominent part, and since 
1871 it has been one of the constituent 
States of the German empire, represented 
in the Bundesrath by 6; in the Reichstag 
by 48 members. In 1886 King Louis II. 
committed suicide from alienation of mind. 
His brother Otto succeeded, but he being 
also insane, his uncle Leopold became re¬ 
gent. 

Bax, Ernest Belfort, an English social¬ 
ist; born in Leamington, duly 23, 1854; was 
educated in London and Germany; followed 
journalism in Germany, as foreign corre¬ 
spondent in 1880-1881; and returning to 
England, became one of the founders of the 
English socialist movement. In 1885 he 
aided in starting the Socialist League. 
He wrote a large number of works on so¬ 
cialistic and historical subjects. 

Baxter, Richard, an English Nonconform¬ 
ist preacher and theological writer; born in 
Shropshire in 1615. He early entered the 
Church, and, taking sides with the Parlia¬ 
mentary party, became chaplain to one of 
the regiments of the Commonwealth, though 
not participating in actual combat, he wit¬ 
nessed most of the bloodshed of the Civil 
War. It was while so employed that he 
wrote his first book, the “ Saint’s Rest.” 
The Restoration and the Act of Con¬ 
formity drove Baxter into retirement, 
and shut him out of the pulpit, dur¬ 
ing which time, and till religious animosity 
had sufficiently abated to allow him to re¬ 
sume his clerical functions, he wrote his 
second book, 

“The Call.” 

But, either 
his Republican 
opinions were 
still offensive¬ 
ly prominent, 
or his enemies 
took advan¬ 
tage of his 
public preach- 
i n g to de¬ 
nounce him; 
for, after en¬ 
during much 
persecution, 
he, then 70 
years old, was 
brought before 
Judge Jef- 
freys, who abused him in court, and fined 
him £500, with imprisonment till paid. Bax¬ 
ter was a prolific writer, a huge portion of 



RICHARD BAXTER. 



Baxter 


Bayard 


his works being polemical and now little 
read. His most popular books are the 
“ Saint’s Everlasting Best,” “ Dying 
Thoughts,” and “ Call to the Unconverted.” 
His theological views are set forth in the 
“ Methodus Theologise,” and “ Catholic The¬ 
ology;” and he has left an account of the 
principal passages of his life in the “ Reli¬ 
quiae Baxterianae.” He died Dec. 8, 1691. 

Baxter, Sylvester, an American journal¬ 
ist, born in Massachusetts, in 1850. At¬ 
tached to the Boston “ Herald,” he was 
prominent in pushing the Metropolitan Park 
system and advocating a Greater Boston. 
He has written “ The Cruise of a Land 
Yacht, a Boy’s Book of Mexican Travel.” 

Baxter, William, an American clergy¬ 
man and author, born at Leeds, England, in 
1820. President of Arkansas College, Fay¬ 
etteville; when it was burned in the Civil 
War, he removed to Cincinnati. He has 
written “ The Loyal West in the Time of 
the Rebellion,” and Pea Ridge and Prairie 
Grove, or Scenes and Incidents of the War 
in Arkansas” (1864). His “War Lyrics,” 
originally published in “ Harper’s Weekly,” 
were very popular at the time of their pub¬ 
lication. 

Bay, an arm or inlet of the sea extending 
into the land, with a wider mouth propor¬ 
tionally than a gulf. Compare in this re¬ 
spect the Bay of Biscay with the Gulf of 
Venice. 

In hydraulics: a pond-head raised to keep 
a store of water for driving a mill. 

In architecture: a term used to signify 
the magnitude of a building. Thus, if a 
barn consists of a floor and two heads, where 
they lay corn, they call it a barn of two 
bays. These bays are from 14 to 20 feet 
long, and floors from 10 to 12 broad, and 
usually 20 feet long, which is the breadth 
of the barn. 

Bay, a berry, and especially one from 
some species of the laurel; also the English 
name of the laurus nobilis. A fine tree, 
with deep green foliage and a profusion of 
dark purple or black berries. Both of these 
have a sweet, fragrant odor, and an aro¬ 
matic, astringent taste. The leaves, the ber¬ 
ries, and the oil made from the latter are 
narcotic and carminative. The leaves were 
anciently used to form wreaths or garlands 
with which to encircle the brows of victors. 
The bay is common in Spain, Italy, Greece, 
and the Levant. It is common in English 
gardens, the leaves being often used for 
flavoring certain dishes. There are several 
trees called by the same name. The red bay 
of our Southern States is laurus carolinien- 
sis. The white bay is magnolia glauca. 

Bayadere, a name originally given by the 
Portuguese to the singing and dancing girls 
of Hindustan. They are of two kinds — 
those who are employed as priestesses in the 


temples, and those who go about the country 
as itinerants. The former class celebrate 
with song and dance the festivals of the 
gods; the latter are employed by the grand¬ 
ees of India to amuse and cheer them at 
their banquets. 

Bayamo, or San Salvador, a town in the 
interior of the E. part of the island of Cuba, 
situated in a fertile and healthy district on 
the northern slope of the Sierra Maestra. 
It is connected by a railway with Manzan- 
illa. 

Bayard, or more properly Bayart, 
Pierre du Terrail, Chevalier de, called 
the “ knight without fear and without re¬ 
proach”; born in 1476, in the castle of 
Bayard, near Grenoble, was one of the most 
spotless characters of the Middle Ages. He 
was simple and modest; a true friend and 
tender lover; pious, humane, and magnani¬ 
mous. The family of Terrail, to which he 
belonged, was one of the most ancient in 
Dauphine, and was celebrated for nobility 
and valor. Young Bayard, educated under 
the eyes of his uncle George du Terrail, 
Bishop of Grenoble, early imbibed those vir¬ 
tues which distinguished him later. At 
the age of 13 he was received among the 
pages of the Duke of Savoy, the ally of 
France. Charles VIII., who saw him at 
Lyons, struck with the dexterity with which 
the youth managed his horse, begged him of 
the duke, and committed him to the care 
of Paul of Luxemburg, Count de Ligny. 
The tournaments were his first field of glory. 

At the age of 18 he accompanied Charles 
VIII. to Italy, and distinguished himself 
greatly in the battle at Verona, where he 
took a standard. At the beginning of the 
reign of Louis XII., in a battle near Milan, 
he pursued the foe with such eagerness 
that he entered the city with them, and 
was taken prisoner. Ludovico Sforza re¬ 
turned his arms and his horse, and dis¬ 
missed him without ransom. In Apulia, 
Bayard defeated a Spanish corps, and making 
the leader, Alonzo de Sotomayor, prisoner, 
treated him generously. Sotomayor, how¬ 
ever, broke his parole by flight, and calum- 
inated Bayard, who, according to the cus¬ 
tom of that time, challenged, and killed 
him. Afterward, he defended a bridge over 
the Garigliano singly, and saved the French 
army by checking the advance of the Span¬ 
iards. For this exploit he received as a 
coat of arms a porcupine, with the motto, 
“ Vires agminis unus habet” He distin¬ 
guished himself equally against the Gen¬ 
oese and the Venetians. When Julius II. 
declared against France, Bayard assisted 
the Duke of Ferrara. He did not succeed 
in his plan of taking the Pope prisoner; 
but he refused with indignation an offer 
made to betray him. I^eing severely wound¬ 
ed at the assault of Brescia, he was taken 
into the house of a nobleman who had fled, 
leaving his wife and two daughters ex- 



Bayard 


Bayazid 


posed to the insolence of the soldiers, i 
Bayard protected the family, refused the 
reward of 2,500 ducats, which they offered to 
him, and returned, as soon as he was cured, 
into the camp of Gaston de Foix, before 
Kavenna. In an engagement that followed 
shortly after he took two standards from 
the Spaniards, and pursued the fugitives. 
Gaston, the hope of France, perished 
through his neglect of the advice of Bayard. 
In the retreat from Pavia Bayard was again 
wounded. He was carried to Grenoble; his 
life was in danger. “ I grieve not for 
death,” he said, “ but to die on my bed, like 
a woman.” 

In the war beyond the Pyrenees, he 
showed the same qualities that had dis¬ 
tinguished him beyond the Alps. When 
Henry VIII. of England put to flight the 
French at Terouane, Bayard by his intre- 
pedity and gallantry won the king’s admi¬ 
ration and to a certain extent saved the 
honor of the French army. 

When Francis I. ascended the throne, he 
sent Bayard into Dauphine to open for his 
army a passage over the Alps and through 
Piedmont. Prosper Colonna lay in wait for 
him on his march, expecting to surprise him, 
but Bayard made him prisoner. This bril¬ 
liant exploit was the prelude to the battle 
of Marignano, in which Bayard, at the side 
of the king, performed wonders of bravery, 
and decided the victory. After this glorious 
day Francis was knighted with the sword 
of Bayard. When Charles V. invaded 
Champagne with a large army, and threat¬ 
ened to penetrate into the heart of France, 
Bayard defended the weakly fortified town 
of Mezieres against every assault, until the 
dissensions of the hostile leaders compelled 
them to retreat. Bayard was saluted in 
Paris as the savior of his country; the king 
bestowed on him the Order of St. Michael, 
and a company of 100 men, which he was to 
command in his own name — an honor 
which till then had only been conferred on 
princes of the blood. Soon afterward 
Genoa revolted from France; Bayard’s pres¬ 
ence reduced it to obedience. But after the 
surrender of Lodi fortune changed, and the 
French troops were expelled from their 
conquests. Bonnivet was obliged to retreat 
through the valley of Aosta; his rear was 
beaten, and himself severely wounded, when 
the safety of the army was committed, to 
Bayard. It was necessary to pass the Sesia 
in the presence of a superior enemy, and 
Bayard, always the last in retreat, vigor¬ 
ously attacked the Spaniards, when a stone 
from a blunderbuss struck his right side, 
and shattered his backbone. The hero fell, 
exclaiming, “ Jesus, my God, I am a dead 
man! ” They hastened toward him. 
“ Place me under yon tree,” he said, “ that 
I may see the enemy.” For want of a cruci¬ 
fix he kissed the cross of his sword, con- 


| fessed to his squire, consoled his servants 
and his friends, bade farewell to his king 
and his country, and died April 30, 1524, 
surrounded by friends and enemies, who all 
shed tears of admiration and grief. His 
body, which remained in the hands of his 
enemies, was embalmed by them, given to 
the French, and interred in a church of the 
Minorites, near Grenoble. His monument 
consists of a simple bust, with a Latin in¬ 
scription. 

Bayard, Thomas Francis, an American 
statesman and diplomatist, born in Wil¬ 
mington, Del., Oct. 29, 1828. He came of 
a family which for four successive genera¬ 
tions represented the State of Delaware in 
the United States Senate. The first of his 
ancestors to settle in that State was Peter, 
a son of Petrus Bayard, probably a collat¬ 
eral descendant of the celebrated Chevalier 
Bayard and Anne C. Stuyvesant, the latter 
a sister of Peter Stuyvesant, the last of the 
Dutch Governors of New Netherlands. Mr. 
Bayard’s great-grandfather, Richard Bas¬ 
sett, was a member of the convention that 
framed the Constitution of the United 
States. Mr. Bayard was admitted to the 
bar in 1851 and practiced law until 18G8, 
when he succeeded his father, James A. Bay¬ 
ard, in the United States Senate. In the 
Democratic National Convention of 1872 he 
received 15 votes for the presidential nomi¬ 
nation, and in the convention of 1876, 31 
votes, which he turned over to Samuel J. 
Tilden. In 1880 and again in 1884 his 
name was voted on in the National conven¬ 
tions of his party. In 1885 he was chosen 
by President Cleveland as Secretary of 
State, and on Cleveland’s second election, 
in 1892, he was appointed United States 
Ambassador to ohe Court of St. James, be¬ 
ing the first to bear that title. Mr. Bayard 
filled this office with high honor to himself 
and his country. During his official resi¬ 
dence in London he was the recipient of 
marked attentions, and by his public utter¬ 
ances and his engaging personality pro¬ 
moted the best feeling in both social and 
government circles. He died in Dedham, 
Mass., Sept. 28, 1898. 

Bayazid, or Bayezeed, a town of Turk¬ 
ish Armenia, in the province of Erzerum; 
on one of the spurs of Ala Dagh, about 15 
miles to the S. W. of the foot of Mt. 
Ararat. Prior to 1829 its population was 
upward of 15,000, and it had a brisk trade; 
but afterward the dread of Russian en¬ 
croachments drove away most of its Arme¬ 
nian inhabitants, and the population is now 
but 5,000, mostly Kurds. Bayazid has re¬ 
peatedly been the scene of conflict. Here 
the Russians defeated a Turkish army in 
1854. In 1877 it was seized by the Rus¬ 
sians, but was restored by the Berlin Con¬ 
gress of 1878. 

Bayazid. See Bajazet. 





Bay City 


Bayfield 


Bay City, city and county-seat of Bay 
co., Mich.; on the Saginaw river and sev¬ 
eral railroads; 13 miles N. of Saginaw. It 
is noted for its large steel ship-building 
plants and its extensive trade in lumber, 
coal, and manufactured products. The city 
is the farming, lumbering and mining trade 
and wholesale center for Northern Michigan; 
has 2 National banks, a number of impos¬ 
ing public buildings, including the United 
States Government Building, City Hall, Ma¬ 
sonic Temple, and the First Presbyterian 
Church; an assessed property valuation ex¬ 
ceeding $10,000,000, and a total debt of 
about $700,000. According to the census of 
1890 there were 331 manufacturing estab¬ 
lishments, employing $9,654,415 capital and 
4.696 persons; paying $2,006,052 for wages 
and $5,043,587 for materials; and having 
a combined output valued at $9,069,342. 
Bay City and West Bay City long had many 
trade, manufacturing, and financial inter¬ 
ests in common. They practically formed 
one city, and in 1905 they were consolidated. 
Pop. (‘1910) 45,166. 

Bayer, Johann, a German constructor of 
charts of the stars, born in 1572, at Rhain, 
in Bavaria. His zeal for the Protestant 
Church was so conspicuous that he was com¬ 
monly called Os Protestantium (“ the Mouth 
of the Protestants”). His contributions to 
astronomy are contained in his “ Uranome- 
tria ” (1603), in which he gave 51 maps of 
the heavens, constructed from the observa¬ 
tions of his predecessors, and followed by 
explanations in his “ Explicatio ” (1654). 
He died at Augsburg in 1625. 

Bayer, Karl Robert Hmerich von. 

See Byr, Robert. 

Bayern. See Bavaria. 

Bayeux fbl-e'), an ancient city of Nor¬ 
mandy, in the French Department Calvados, 
on the Aure, 15 miles N. W. of Caen. Many 
of the houses are built of wood, and the 
streets have a forlorn and decayed appear¬ 
ance. The Gothic cathedral — the oldest 
it is said, in Normandy-—-was rebuilt after 
a fire by William the Conqueror, in 1077; 
but the present edifice dates mainly from 
1106 to the 13th century. The W. front, 
with its two 12th century steeples, and the 
three sculptured porches, are notable feat¬ 
ures. Porcelain and lace are manufactured. 

Bayeux Tapestry, a celebrated roll of 
linen cloth or canvas, 214 feet in length and 
20 inches wide, containing, in 72 distinct 
compartments, a representation, in embroid¬ 
ery, of the events of the Norman invasion of 
England, from Harold’s leave-taking of Ed¬ 
ward the Confessor, on his departure for 
Normandy, to the battle of Hastings. It 
contains the figures of 623 men, 202 horses, 
55 dogs, 505 animals of various kinds not 
hitherto enumerated, 37 buildings, 41 ships 
and boats, and 49 trees — in all 1,512 fig¬ 


ures. These are all executed by the needle, 
and are believed to have been the handiwork 
of Matilda, the queen of William the Con¬ 
queror, and by her presented to the Cathe¬ 
dral of Bayeux. Montfaucon caused re- 



BAYEUX TAPESTRY-HAROLD ANCHORING ON 

THE COAST OF NORMANDY. 

searches to be made that ended in the dis¬ 
covery of the tapestry in 1728; it narrowly 
escaped destruction during the frenzy of the 
first French Revolution, and Napoleon I. had 
it conveyed to Paris in 1803, where it was 
kept some time and exhibited. This piece 



BAYEUX TAPESTRY-THE CROWN OFFERED TO 

HAROLD. 


of tapestry is exceedingly valuable, both as 
a work of art of the period referred to, and 
as correctly representing the costume of the 
time. It has been engraved, and several 
works upon the subject have been published. 

Bayfield, Matthew Albert, an English 
clergyman, born in Edgbaston, June 17, 
1852; educated at the King Edward’s School, 
in Birmingham, and at Clare College, Cam¬ 
bridge; was assistant master in the Black- 
heath School, in 1875-1879, and in Marl¬ 
borough College in 1S79-1881; headmas¬ 
ter’s assistant in Malvern College, in 1881- 
1890 ; Headmaster of Christ College, Brecon, 
in 1S90-1895, and Headmaster of East¬ 
bourne College, in 1900. He was the editor 
of “ Ion, Alcestis and Medea.” His works 















Bay islands 


Bayley 


include “ Septem contra Thebas ” (with 
Dr. Verrall) ; “Iliad” (with Dr. Leaf); 
“ Latin Prose for Lower Forms,” etc. 

Bay Islands, a small group in the Bay 
of Honduras, 150 miles S. E. of Balize. The 
cluster was proclaimed a British colony in 
1852, but in 1859 they were ceded to the Re¬ 
public of Honduras. The chief of the six 
islands are Roatan (30 by 9 miles; 900 feet 
high), and Guanaja, whence, in 150k, Colum¬ 
bus first sighted the mainland of America. 

Bay Lake, a body of water in tiie north¬ 
ern part of Luzon, Philippine Islands. This 
lake is connected with Manila liay by the 
Pasig river, and from its center rises a high 
volcanic island. Bay Lake is about 20 miles 
in extent from N. to S., and about 47 miles 
from E. to W. In 1899 it was made a naval 
headquarters for the gunboat fleet and small 
eraft of the United States in Philippine 
waters. 

Bayle (bal), Pierre, a French critic and 
writer, the son of a Calvinist preacher, 
born at Carlat (Languedoc) in 1G47; studied 
at Toulouse, and was employed for some 
time as a private tutor at Geneva and 
Rouen. He went to Paris in 1674, and soon 
after was appointed Professor of Philosophy 
at Sedan. Six years after he removed to 
Rotterdam, where he filled a similar chair. 

The appear- 
ance of a 
comet, in 
1G80, which 
occasioned an 
almost uni¬ 
versal alarm, 
induced him 
to publish, in 
1 G 8 2, his 
“ Pensees Di- 
verses sur la 
Com etc,” a 
work full of 
learning, in 
which he dis¬ 
cussed vari¬ 
ous subjects 
of metaphys¬ 
ics, morals, theology, history and poli¬ 
tics. It was followed by his “ Critique 
Generale de 1’IIistoire du Calvinisme de 
Maimbourg.” This work excited the jeal¬ 
ousy of his colleague, the theologian Jurieu, 
and involved Bayle in many disputes. 
In 1G84 he undertook a periodical work, 
“ Nouvelles de la Republique des Let- 
fcres,” containing notices of new books in 
theology, philosophy, history, and general 
literature. This publication, which lasted 
for three years, added much to his reputa¬ 
tion as a philosophical critic. In 1G93 
Jurieu succeeded in inducing the magis¬ 
trates of Rotterdam to remove Bayle from 
his office. He now devoted all his attention 
49 


to the composition of his “ Dictionnaire His. 
torique et Critique,” which he first pub¬ 
lished in 1G9G, in two volumes folio. This 
work, much enlarged, has passed through 
many editions. It is a vast storehouse of 
facts, discussions and opinions, and though 
it was publicly censured by the Rotterdam 
consistory for its frequent impurities, its 
pervading scepticism, and tacit atheism, it 
long remained a favorite book both with 
literary men and with men of the world. 
The articles in his dictionary, in them¬ 
selves, are generally of little value, and 
serve only as a pretext for the notes, in 
which the author displays, at the same time, 
his learning and the power of his logic. 
The best editions are that of 1740, in four 
volumes folio (Amsterdam and Leyden), 
and that in 1G volumes, published in 1820- 
1824, at Paris. He died in Rotterdam, in 
170G. 

Baylen, or Bailen,a town of Spain, Prov¬ 
ince of Jaen, at the foot of the Sierra Mor- 
ena, 22 miles N. of Jaen. It commands the 
road leading from Castile into Andalusia, 
and derives its celebrity from the events 
which took place in its vicinity leading to 
the “ Capitulation of Baylen,” signed July 
20, 1808. when General Dupont, and about 
20,000 French troops under his command, 
surrendered to the Spaniards on condition 
of their being conveyed to France by the 
Spanish government; but the latter stipu¬ 
lation was not carried into effect. The in¬ 
capacity of Dupont was mainly instrumental 
in bringing about this result, which inspired 
the Spaniards with confidence, and was al¬ 
ways regarded by Napoleon as the principal 
source of the French disasters in the Pen¬ 
insula. 

Bayley, James Roosevelt, an American 
theologian, born in New York city, Aug 23, 
IS 14; studied at Trinity College, Hartford, 
and became minister of the Protestant Epis¬ 
copal Church; but, in 1842, was converted 
to the Roman Catholic faith; and, after 
studying at Paris and Rome, became a 
priest in 1844. He accepted the Chair of 
Belles-Lettres at St. John’s College, Ford- 
ham, and was its Acting President in 1846. 
After serving as secretary to Archbishop 
Hughes, he was consecrated the first Bishop 
of Newark, N. J., in 1853. In 1872 he be¬ 
came Archbishop of Baltimore, Md. He was 
the founder of Seton Hall College and sev¬ 
eral other institutions. His “ Pastorals for 
the People,” and “History of the Catholic 
Church on the Island of New York,” are 
his chief writings. He died in Newark, 
N. J., Oct. 3, 1877. 

Bayley, William Shirley, an American 

geologist, born in Baltimore, Md., Nov. 10, 
1861, graduated at Johns Hopkins, in 1883; 
since 1887 has been Assistant Geologist of 
the Lake Superior division of the United 
States Geological Survey, and since 1886 as- 



PIERRE BAYLE. 




Bayliss 


Bayonet 


sociate editor of the “American Natural¬ 
ist;” reviewer on “Neues Jahrbueh ftir Min- 
eralogie,” etc. (Berlin). He is the author 
(with Prof. C. R. Van Hise) of the “Report 
on the Geology of the Marquette Iron Dis¬ 
trict of Michigan,” and has been a frequent 
contributor to scientific journals. 

Bayliss, Sir Wyke, an English artist; 
born in Madeley, Oct. 21, 1835; educated by 
his father and at the Royal Academy. He 
was president of the Royal Society of Brit¬ 
ish Artists, 1888-1906. His paintings include 
“La Sainte Chapelle” (1865) ; “St. Mark’s, 
Venice” (1880); “St. Peter’s, Rome” 
(1888) ; “The Golden Duomo, Pisa” (1892), 
etc. He died April 5, 1906. 

Baylor University, a Baptist educational 
institution at Waco, Tex. It was chartered 
in 1845, named in honor of R. E. B. Baylor 
(a judge of the district and supreme courts 
under the Republic, and a district judge of 
the State of Texas) ,and located at Independ¬ 
ence. In 1866 a female department was char¬ 
tered under a separate management, named 
Baylor Female College, and in 1886 located 
at Belton,Tex. Soon after the organization of 
the Baptist State Convention in 1848, Baylor 
University passed to its control. In 1886 
Baylor University and Waco University 
(chartered in 1861, under the control of the 
Baptist General Association) were consoli¬ 
dated as Baylor University at Waco; the 
two governing bodies were consolidated as 
the Baptist General Convention of Texas. 
R. C. Burleson, president of Waco Univer¬ 
sity, became president of Baylor. The school, 
though sectarian, is broad in its policy. In 
1904 a medical department was founded and 
located at Dallas, and in 1905 the Baylor 
Theological Seminary was opened in connec¬ 
tion with the university. The university has 
grounds and buildings valued at over $656,- 
000; scientific apparatus, about $72,000; 
endowment, $120,000; faculty, about 70; 
students, over 1,300; graduates, over 1,350. 

Bayly, Ada Ellen, an English novelist, 
best known as Edna Lyall, born at 
Brighton. She published “Won by Waiting” 
(1879); “Donovan” (1882); “We Two” 
(1884); “In the Golden Days” (1885); 
“Knight Errant” (1887); “Autobiography 
of a Slander” (1887); “Derrick Vaughan, 
Novelist” (1889); “A Hardy Norseman” 
(1889) ; “Doreen” (1894) ; “How the Chil¬ 
dren Raised the Wind” (1895) ; “Autobiog¬ 
raphy of a Truth” (1896) ; “Wayfaring 
Men” (1897) ; “Hope the Hermit” (1898) ; 
“In Spite of All” (1901), etc. Although her 
novels are romantic, their aim is to depict 
the development of character. She died Feb. 
9, 1903. 

Bayly, Thomas Haynes, an English 
song-writer and author; born in Bath, Oct. 
13, 1797. After deserting successively both 
law and church, Bayly, during a short so¬ 


journ in Dublin, first discovered his powers 
as a ballad writer and achieved his earliest 
successes. In 1824 he settled in London, 
and his “I’d Be a Butterlly” was quickly 
followed by “The Soldier’s Tear”; “W T e 
Met—’Twas in a Crowd”; “She Wore a 
Wreath of Roses”; “Oh, No, W T e Never Men¬ 
tion Her,” and many others, familiar wher¬ 
ever the English language is spoken. Bayly 
also wrote a novel, “The Aylmers,” several 
volumes of verse, some tales, and numerous 
dramatic pieces, the best of which was “Per¬ 
fection,” a clever little comedy, produced by 
Madame Vestris, and once very popular. He 
died April 22, 1839. 

Baynes, Thomas Spencer, an English 
editor, born in Wellington, Somerset, in 
1823. He studied under Sir William Ham¬ 
ilton at Edinburgh and acted as his class 
assistant from 1S51 to 1855. From 1857 to 

1863 he was resident in London, where he 
acted as examiner in logic and mental 
philosophy in the University of London, and 
as assistant editor on the “Daily News.” In 

1864 he was appointed to the chair of logic, 
rhetoric, and metaphysics in St. Andrews 
University, a post he held till his death. In 
1873, when he became editor of the 9th edi¬ 
tion of the “Encyclopaedia Britannica,” his 
wide acquaintance with men of letters and 
learning assisted him greatly in the selec¬ 
tion of suitable contributors. He translated 
the “Port Royal Logie,” and was a fre¬ 
quent contributor to the principal reviews 
and literary journals. He died in London 
in 1887. 

Bay of Islands, a large, deep, and safe 
harbor on the N. E. coast of the North 
Island of New Zealand. On it is Ivoror- 
arika, the first European settlement in New 
Zealand. Also a large bay formed by the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence, on the W. coast of 
Newfoundland. 

Bayonet, a straight, sharp-pointed 
weapon, generally triangular, intended to be 
lixed upon the muzzle of a rifle or musket, 
which is thus transformed into a thrusting 
weapon. It was probably invented about 
1640, in Bayonne (though this is doubtful), 
but was not universally introduced until af¬ 
ter the pike was wholly laid aside, in the 
beginning of the 18th century. About 1690 
the bayonet began to be fastened by means 
of a socket to the outside of the barrel, in¬ 
stead of being inserted, as formerly, in the 
inside. A variety of the bayonet, called the 
sword bayonet, is now quite widely used in 
European armies, especially for the short 
rifles of the light infantry, the carbines of 
the artillery, etc. It is a compound of the 
sword and the bayonet, as its name indi¬ 
cates, having a sword-like blade with only 
one edge, and being capable of being fast¬ 
ened to the muzzle of the gun like the 
bayonet. 



Bayonne 


Bazaine 


Bayonne, a city in Hudson Co., N. 
J., on New York harbor, the Kill von Kull, 
and Newark bay, and the Central Railroad 
of New Jersey; 7 miles S. W. of New York 
city. The city is also on the grand Hudson 
County Boulevard and the Morris canal. It 
was formed by the union of a number of 
former villages (Pamrapo, Bayonne, Cen¬ 
terville and Bergen Point), and is princi¬ 
pally engaged in coal shipping and the ex¬ 
porting and refining of petroleum, the 
works for the latter being connected 
by pipe lines with New York, Philadelphia, 
Baltimore, and other cities. Other indus¬ 
tries are the manufacture of chemicals, 
ammonia and colors. The residential part 
of the city is very attractive, containing 
fine homes of New York business men, and 
having trolley connection with Jersey City, 
Newark, and the Oranges. The assessed 
property valuation exceeds $13,000,000, and 
the total debt is less than $2,000,000. Pop. 
(1900) 32,722; (1910) 55,545. 

Bayonne, a strongly fortified seaport of 
France, in the Department of Basses-Pyr- 
enees, capital of an cirrondisscment; at the 
confluence of the Neve with the Adour, and 
58 miles W. N. W. of Pan. It is a first 
class fortress; the citadel, one of the finest 
works of Vauban, commands the town and 
harbor; and the fortifications have been still 
further augmented and strengthened. It is 
a well built town, with superb quays and 
promenades. A mint is established here. 
Chocolate, liqueurs, glass, sugar, etc., are 
manufactured. There are also extensive 
yards for the building of ships of war and 
merchant vessels. The hams of Bayonne 
have long enjoyed a high celebrity. The 
military weapon called the bayonet takes 
its name from this city, where it is said to 
have been first invented and brought into 
use during the siege of 1523. Though often 
besieged, Bayonne has never been taken; and 
hence its motto, “ Nunquam Polluta.” It 
was invested by the British Feb. 24, 1814, 
who sustained considerable loss from a 
sortie made by the garrison. Pop. (1901) 
27,001. 

Bayonne Conference, a conference held 
at Bayonne, in June, 1565, between Charles 
IX. of France, the queen mother, Catherine 
de Medicis, Elizabeth, Queen of Spain, and 
the Duke of Alva, envoy of Philip II., to ar¬ 
range plans for the repression of the Hugue¬ 
nots. It is generally believed that the mas¬ 
sacre of St. Bartholomew’s Day was de¬ 
termined upon at this meeting. 

Bayonne, Treaty of, a treaty of peace 
agreed to May 4, 1808, and signed on the 
next day, between Napoleon I. and Charles 
IV., King of Spain. The latter resigned his 
kingdom, and Napoleon I. engaged to main¬ 
tain its integrity, and to preserve the 
Roman Catholic religion. His son, Ferdi¬ 
nand VII., confirmed the cession May 10. 


Bayreuth. See Baireuth. 

Bayrhoffer, Karl Theodore, a German 

Hegelian philosopher, and radical politician, 
born in Marburg in 1812, was Professor of 
Philosophy there, taking the chair in 1845. 
In 1846 his radical views caused his expul¬ 
sion. During the brief rule of liberalism 
in Hesse, he was chosen president of the 
Chamber; but, in 1853, he was forced to flee 
to the L nited States. Among other works he 
wrote “ On Catholicism in Germany, ” “ Idea 
and History of Philosophy, “ Fundamental 
Problems of Metaphysics,” etc. He died in 
Jordan, Wis., Feb. 3, 1888. 

Bay Rum, an aromatic, spirituous liquid, 
used by hair dressers and perfumers, pre¬ 
pared in the West Indies by distilling rum 
in which bay leaves have been steeped. As 
imported it is almost colorless, and contains 
86 per cent, of proof spirit. It is difficult 
to obtain genuine bay rum, except directly 
from the importer, more than one-half of 
that consumed in the United States being 
an artificial mixture of oil of bay, alcohol, 
and water. 

Bay Salt, a general term for coarse 
grained salt, but properly applied to salt 
obtained by spontaneous or natural evapo¬ 
ration of sea water in large shallow tanks 
or bays. 

Bay Window, a window projecting be¬ 
yond the line of the front of a house, gen¬ 
erally either in a semi-hexagon or semi¬ 
octagon. Strictly speaking, a bay-window 
rises from the ground or basement, while 
an oriel is supported on a corbel or brack¬ 
ets, and a bow window is always a segment 
of an arch; but in ordinary use these dis- 
tinotions are seldom accurately observed, all 
three words being used as synonymous. 

Baza (bii'tha), an old town of Spain, An¬ 
dalusia, Province of Granada, formerly a 
large and flourishing city. In 1810 the 
French, under Marshal Soult, here defeated 
the Spaniards under Generals Blake and 
Freire. 

Bazaine, Francois Achille (ba-zan), 
a French military officer, born in Versailles, 
Feb. 13, 1811. He served in Algeria, in 
Spain against the Carlists, in the Crimean 
War, and joined the Mexican expedition as 
general of division, in 1862, and, in 1864, 
was made a marshal of France. He com¬ 
manded the 3d Army Corps in the Franco- 
Prussian War, when he capitulated at Metz, 
after a seven weeks’ siege, with an army of 
175,000 men. For this act he was tried by 
court-martial in 1871, found guilty of 
treason and condemned to death. This sen¬ 
tence was commuted to 20 years’ seclusion in 
the Isle St. Marguerite, from which he es¬ 
caped and retired to Spain. He died in 
Madrid. Sept. 23, 1888. His widow, who had 
clung faithfully to him in his adversity 



Bazan 


Bdellium 


and had plotted successfully for his escape, 
died in Mexico City, Jan. 8, 1900. She was 
a woman of aristocratic birth and much 
beauty. 



Bazan, Emilia Pardo (ba-than'), a Span¬ 
ish novelist, born in Coruna, in 1852; pub¬ 
lished works on history and philosophy, and 

was the au- 
tlior of 
“ Studies in 
Darwinism,” 
“Saint Fran¬ 
cis of As¬ 
sisi,” and 
many novels. 
These, trans- 
1 a t e d into 
English, 
have become 


very popu¬ 
lar, and in- 
elude “A 
Christian 
W o m a n ” 
(New York 


Emilia pardo bazan. and Lon¬ 

don, 1891) ; 

“Homesickness” (1891); “The Swan of 
Vilamorta ” (1891), and “The Weddiim 

Trip” (1891). 


Bazar, an exchange; a market place; a 
place where goods are exposed to sale. Ba¬ 
zar is a term originally derived from the 
Arabic, and literally signifies the sale or 
exchange of goods. Among the Turks and 
Persians it is exclusively applied to a mar¬ 
ket place, whether open or covered, where 
goods are sold, and where merchants meet 
for the transaction of business. The bazar 
of Taurus (or Tabriz) in Persia, is the most 
extensive in the world, and that of Khan 
Khalil, at Cairo, which occupies the site of 
the tombs of the caliphs, contains some 
valuable records. It was built in 1292. The 
bazar at Ispahan is, perhaps, the most mag¬ 
nificent one in the East. Adrianople and 
Constantinople have each large bazars. The 
last mentioned was built in 14G2. The name 
has of late years been adopted in many 
European and American cities, and is ap¬ 
plied to places for the sale of fancy goods, etc. 

Bazard, Saint=Amand (ba-zar'), a 
French Socialist, born in Paris in 1791. Af¬ 
ter the Restoration, he helped to found the 
revolutionary society of the “ Amis de la 
Verity,” and in 1820 an association of French 
Carbonari. In 1825, Bazard, impressed with 
the necessity of a total reconstruction of 
society, attached himself to the school of 
Saint-Simon, and became one of the editors 
of a journal termed “ Le Prcducteur.” In 
1828 he delivered at Paris a series of lec¬ 
tures, the substance of which was published 
in the “ Exposition de la Doctrine de Saint- 
Simon ” (2 vols., 1828-1830), of which the 
first part was by Bazard. the second being 


chiefly the composition of Enfantin. He 
and Enfantin became the acknowledged lead¬ 
ers of the school. After the July revolu¬ 
tion (1830), a larger scope was afforded to 
the Saint-Simonians. The masses were at¬ 
tracted by the doctrine that all social in¬ 
stitutions ought to have for their end the 
moral, intellectual, and physical ameliora¬ 
tion of the poor. In a short time, Bazard 
and his friends had created a new society, 
living in the midst of the old, with peculiar 
laws, manners, and doctrines. But Bazard’s 
connection with it was of short duration. 
He differed from Enfantin on the doctrine 
of the emancipation of women, and in 1831 
seceded in disgust. His efforts to found a 
school of his own proved unsuccessful, and, 
during a heated discussion with his former 
friend, Enfantin, he was struck with apo¬ 
plexy. from the effects of which he died, July 
29, 1S32. 

Bazigars, a tribe of Indians dispersed 
throughout the whole of Hindustan, mostly 
in wandering tribes. They are divided into 
seven castes; their chief occupation is that 
of jugglers, acrobats, and tumblers, in which 
both males and females are equally skilful. 
They present many features analogous to 
the gypsies of Europe. 

Bazoche (ba-zosh'), or Basoche (a cor¬ 
ruption of Basilica), a brotherhood formed 
by the clerks of the Parliament of Paris at 
the time it ceased to be the Grand Council 
of the French King. They had a king, chan¬ 
cellor, and other dignitaries; and certain 
privileges were granted them by Philip the 
Fair early in the 14th century, as also by 
subsequent monarclis. They had an annual 
festival, having as a principal feature dra¬ 
matic performances in which satirical al¬ 
lusions were freely made to passing events. 
The representation of these farces or satires 
was frequently interdicted, but their devel¬ 
opment had a considerable effect on the 
dramatic literature of France. 

Baztau (bas-to'), or Bastau, a Pyre¬ 
nean valley in the extreme N. of Spain; 
having a length of 9 miles, and an average 
breadth of 4 miles. It is inhabited by about 
8,000 people, who form, under Spanish su¬ 
pervision, a sort of diminutive republic, at 
the head of which is the mayor of Elizondo. 
The citizens of this republic rank with the 
Spanish nobility and hold special privileges, 
which were granted them for former services 
to the Spanish crown. 

Bdellium, in Scripture, is in Hebrew 
bedholachh, rendered in the Septuagint of 
Gen. ii: 12, anthrax (literally, burning 
coal)= * * * the carbuncle, ruby, and 

garnet (Liddell and Scott), the red sapphire 
(Dana) : while in Numb, xi: 7, it is trans¬ 
lated kri/stallos = * * * rock crystal. 

Some modern writers, following the Sep¬ 
tuagint translation, make it a mineral, as 
are the gold and the onyx stone, with which 




Beach 


Beaconsfield 


it is associated in Gen. ii: 12. Otheio 
think that it was the gum described below; 
while the Rabbins, Bochart, and Gesenius 
consider that it was a pearl, or pearls. 

In botany and commerce, Indian bdellium, 
or false myrrh, is a gum resin produced by 
balsamodendron roxburghii, or amyris bdel¬ 
lium. It appears in light colored pellicles in 
the bark of the tree, which peel off from time 
to time; they diffuse for some distance 
around a fragrance of a delightful kind, but 
not equal to that of myrrh. It was formerly 
used in plasters. 

The bdellium of the Persian Gulf is a gum 
resin derived from balsamodendron mukul. 

African bdellium is the name of two gum 
resins; the one from balsamodendron afri- 
canum, which grows in Abyssinia and West¬ 
ern Africa; the other from a composite 
plant, ceradia furcata. 

Sicilian bdellium is a gum resin, pro¬ 
duced by a species of carrot, daucus his- 
panicus (De Candolle), D. gummifer (La¬ 
marck), or by D. gingidium (Linnaeus.). 

Beach, Alfred Ely, an American pub¬ 
lisher and inventor, born in Springfield, 
Mass., in 1826; son of Moses Yale Beach, 
editor of the old New York “ Sun.” In 
1846 he established the “ Scientific Amer¬ 
ican,” in connection with Orson D. Munn. 
For nearly 50 years he was editor of this 
paper and director of its patent business. 
In 1852 he perfected a typewriting ma¬ 
chine, for which the American Institute 
awarded him a gold medal. Later lie in¬ 
vented a system of carrying letters from 
street lamp posts to the central office by 
means of underground pneumatic tubes. In 
1867 he exhibited a working model of a 
section of a pneumatic elevated railway at 
the American Institute. He also invented 
a hydraulic shield, by the use of which a 
tunnel could be excavated without interfer¬ 
ing with surface traffic. He died in New 
York city, Jan. 1, 1896. 

Beach, Amy Marcy, an American com¬ 
poser, born in Henniker, N. H., Sept. 5, 
1867; studied music from childhood, and 
made her first appearance in public as a 
pianist at the Boston Music Hall, when 16 
years old. She has composed a mass, a 
symphony, cantatas, anthems, songs, and 
compositions for various musical instru¬ 
ments and full orchestras. 

Beaches, Raised, a term applied to those 
long, terraced, level pieces of land, consisting 
of sand and gravel, and containing marine 
shells, now, it may be, a considerable dis¬ 
tance above and away from the sea, but bear¬ 
ing sufficient evidences of having been at 
one time sea beaches. In Scotland, such a 
terrace has been traced extensively along 
the coasts at about 25 feet above the pres¬ 
ent sea level. 

Beachy Head, a promontory in the S. 
of England, on the coast of Sussex, rising 


575 feet above sea level, with a revolving 
light, visible in clear weather from a dis¬ 
tance of 28 miles. A naval battle took place 
here, June 30, 1690, in which a French fleet 
under Tourville defeated an English and 
Dutch combined fleet under Lord Torrington. 

Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, Earl 

of, an English statesman and author; born 
in London, England, Dec. 21, 1804; the eld¬ 
est son of Isaac D’lsraeli, the well-known au¬ 
thor of the “ Curiosities of Literature ”; his 
mother also being of Jewish race. Little is 
known of his early education, though it is 
certain he never attended a public school 
or a university. In 1817 -ie was baptized 
into the Church of England. While yet a 
boy he was apprenticed to a firm of attor¬ 
neys, but he did not long remain in this un¬ 
congenial occupation. His father’s position 
gained him an easy entrance into society, 
and before he was 20 he was a frequenter of 
such salons as those of Lady Blessington. 
In 1826 he published “ Vivian Grey,” his 
first novel, which was very popular, and 
displays remarkable cleverness and knowl¬ 
edge of the world. He now traveled for 
some time, visiting Italy, Greece, Turkey, 
and Syria, and gaining experiences which 
were afterward reproduce! in his books. In 
1831 another novel, “ The Young Duke,” 
came from his pen. It was followed at 
short intervals by “ Contarini Fleming,” 
“ Alroy,” “Henrietta Temple,” “Venetia,” 
“The Revolutionary Epic” (a poem), etc. 

His father having acquired a residence 
near High Wycombe in Buckinghamshire, 
he attempted to get elected to Parliament 
from this borough in 1832. He came for¬ 
ward as a Radical or “ people’s ” candidate 
as against the Whigs, and he was supported 
by the Tories, but was defeated. On this 
occasion he was recommended to the constit¬ 
uency by Hume and O’Connell. At the gen¬ 
eral election after the passing of the Reform 
Bill he again unsuccessfully contested High 
Wycombe, and the like ill fortune attended 
him on another attempt in 1835, as also at 
Taunton the same year. On the latter oc¬ 
casion he appeared in the character of a 
decided Tory, and his change of political 
opinions naturally occasioned a good deal 
of comment. To this period belongs the 
noted passage of arms between him and 
O’Connell, which was signalized by a 
strength of language happily rare between 
public men in these days. At last, how¬ 
ever, he gained an entrance to the House of 
Commons, being elected for Maidstone in 
1837. His first speech in the house was 
treated with ridicule; he had to stop abrupt¬ 
ly and sit down; but he finished with the 
prophetic declaration that the time would 
come when they would hear him. In 1839 
he married the widow of his colleague in 
the representation of Maidstone, a lady 15 
years older than himself. At the general 






Beaconsfield 


Beagle Island 


election of 1841 he was sent to Parliament 
by Shrewsbury. He had now gained some 
reputation in Parliament, and he was for 
some years an enthusiastic supporter of Sir 
Robert Peel. 

About this time he became a leader of 
what was known as the “ Young England ” 
party, the most prominent characteristic of 
which was a sort of sentimental advocacy 
of feudalism. This spirit showed itself in 
his two novels of “ Coningsby, or The New 
Generation,” and “ Sybil, or The New Na¬ 
tion,” published respectively in 1844 and 
1845. For some years previous to the 
downfall of Sir Robert Peel in 1846 he was 
most persistent and bitter in his hostility to 
this statesman, whom he had so recently 
supported, being the advocate of protection 
against the free-trade policy of Sir Robert. 
His clever speeches of this period greatly 
increased his reputation, and by 1847 he 
was recognized as one of the leaders of the 
Tory party. Having acquired the manor 
of Hughenden in Buckinghamshire, he was 
in the above year elected for this county, 
and he retained his seat till raised to the 
peerage nearly 30 years later. In 1847 was 
published his novel of “ Tancred, or the 
New Crusade,” a somewhat extravagant 
production containing enigmatic allusions to 
the great “ Asian mystery.” 

His first appointment to office was in 
1852, when he became chancellor of the ex¬ 
chequer under Lord Derby. The following 
year, however, the ministry was defeated, 
and* Mr. Disraeli again became leader of a 
Conservative opposition. He remained out 
of office till 1858, when he again became 
chancellor of the exchequer with Lord Der¬ 
by as his chief. As on the former occasion 
his tenure of office was but short, a reform 
bill which he had introduced causing the 
defeat of the government and their resig¬ 
nation after an appeal to the country. Dur¬ 
ing the next six years, while the Palmerston 
government was in office, Mr. Disraeli led 
the opposition in the lower house with con¬ 
spicuous ability and courage. He spoke 
vigorously against the Reform Bill brought 
forward in 1866 by the Russell-Gladstone 
ministry; but when, soon after, he came 
into power along with his chief Lord Der¬ 
by, the demand for reform was so urgent 
that he had to bring in a reform bill him¬ 
self. Accordingly in August, 1867, a meas¬ 
ure by which the parliamentary representa¬ 
tion was reformed became law, being piloted 
through Parliament by Mr. Disraeli with re¬ 
markable tact and dexterity. In February, 
1868, he reached the summit of his ambi¬ 
tion, becoming premier on the resignation 
of Lord Derby, but being in a minority 
after the general election he had to give up 
office the following December. In 1874 he 
again became prime minister with a strong 
Conservative majority, and he remained in 
power for six years. This period was 


i marked by his elevation to the peerage in 
1876 as Earl of Beaconsfield, and by the 
prominent part he took in regard to the 
Eastern question and the conclusion of the 
treaty of Berlin in 1878, when he visited 
the German capital. 

In the spring of 1880 Parliament was 
rather suddenly dissolved, and the new Par¬ 
liament showing an overwhelming Liberal 
majority, he resigned office, though he still 
retained the leadership of his party. Not 
long after this, the publication of a novel 
called “ Endymion ” (his last, “ Lothair,” 
had been published 10 years before) showed 
that his intellect was still vigorous. His 
physical powers, however, were now giving 
way, and he died April 19, 1881, after an 
illness of some weeks’ duration. His wife 
had died in 1872 after having been created 
Viscountess Beaconsfield. Among others of 
his writings besides those already mentioned 
are: “A Vindication of the English Con¬ 
stitution” (1834), “ Alarcos, a Tragedy” 
(1839), and “Lord George Bentinck, a Po¬ 
litical Biography ” (1852). Lord Beacons¬ 
field was one of the most remarkable men of 
the 19th century; endowed with great intel¬ 
lectual power, he had astonishing ten¬ 
acity of purpose, and showed remarkable 
tact and ability in managing men. As a 
parliamentary speaker and debater he had 
few rivals, and in wit, sarcasm, epigram, 
and other rhetorical devices he was a mas¬ 
ter. His novels are open to criticism on 
many grounds. Their popularity has been 
largely owing to their author having so 
frequently introduced real persons into them 
under a more or less penetrable disguise, 
and presented them in a more or less fav¬ 
orable light. 

Bead Snake, a beautiful little snake 
(Elaps fulvius), variegated with yellow, 
carmine, and jet black. It belongs to the 
family Elapidce, of the colubrine sub-order 
of snakes. Though venomous, it rarely 
uses its fangs. It is about two feet long. 

Beagle, a small hunting dog, a sub-vari¬ 
ety of canis gallicus vcnatorius — the hunt¬ 
ing hound. It was formerly much used for 
hunting hares, which it pursued slowly, but 
surely to their fate. There are several sub- 
varieties: (1) the Southern, smaller and 

shorter, but at the same time thicker than 
the deep-mouthed hound; (2) the Northern, 
or cat beagle, smaller and finer in form, and 
a more untiring runner; (3) a cross between 
these two; and (4) a dwarf variety used 
for hunting rabbits or young hares. Queen 
Elizabeth had little “ singing beagles ” so 
small that they could be placed in a man’s 
glove. Hamilton Smith thinks the beagle 
the same with the brachet of the Middle 
Ages, and the agasseus of Oppian. 

Beagle Island, an island discovered by 
Admiral Fitzroy, during a voyage in the 



Beal 


Beam Tree 


" Beagle,” to survey Patagonia, in 1828- 
1834. The channel of the same name is on 
the S. side of the Island of Tierra del Fuego. 

Beal, George Lafayette, an American 
military officer, born in Norway, Me., May 
21, 1825. When the Civil War broke out, 
he was captain of the Norway Light In¬ 
fantry, and with this company was mustered 
into the 1st Maine Regiment for the three 
months’ campaign. At the end of this ser¬ 
vice, he was commissioned Colonel of the 
19th Maine Infantry, which took part in 
the battles of Cedar Mountain and Antietam 
and covered the retreat of General Banks 
from Winchester to Williamsport, Va. He 
was mustered out with his regiment in May, 
1863; volunteered again; was made Colonel 
of the 29th Maine, and promoted to Brig¬ 
adier-General of Volunteers, Nov. 30, 1864, 
for his services in the Red River campaign. 
On Jan. 15, 1866, he was mustered out of 
service with the brevet of Major-General of 
Volunteers. In 1880-1885 he was adjutant- 
general of Maine, and in 1888-1894, State 
treasurer. He died in Norway, Me., Dec. 
11, 1896. 

Beal, William James, an American 
botanist, born in Adrian, Mich., March 11, 
1833; graduated at the University of Mich¬ 
igan, in 1859; taught in various institutions 
from 1859 till 1870; since 1870 has been 
Professor of Botany in the Michigan Agri¬ 
cultural College. He is a Fellow of the 
American Society for the Advancement of 
Science, and was President of the Natural 
History section of this society in 1883; 
first President of the Association of Botan¬ 
ists of the United States Experimental Sta¬ 
tions in 1888, etc. His works include 
“Grasses of North America” (2 vols.) ; 
“ The New Botany,” “ Plant Dispersal,” 
etc. 

Beale, Dorothea, an English teacher, 
born in London, in 1831 ; became Mathemat¬ 
ical Tutor in Queen’s College in 1850, and 
later, Latin Tutor in the school; head 
teacher in the Clergy School, in Casterton, 
in 1857; and Principal of Cheltenham La¬ 
dies’ College, in 1858. Her publications in¬ 
clude “ Text-Book of English and General 
History; ” “ Chronological Maps; ” “ Report 
on Girls’ Education Commission of 1864 ”; 
“ Work and Play in Girls’ Schools.” In 
1880 she became editor of the “Ladies’ Col¬ 
lege Magazine.” 

Beale, Edward Fitzgerald, an American 
diplomatist, born in Washington, D. C., Feb. 
4, 1822: graduated at the United States 
Naval Academy in 1842, and at the begin¬ 
ning of the Mexican War was assigned to 
duty in California, under Commodore Stock- 
ton. After the war, he resigned his naval 
commission and was appointed Superintend¬ 
ent of Indian Affairs for California and 
New Mexico. He was commissioned a Brig¬ 
adier-General in the army by President 


Pierce. He served in the Union army in 
the Civil War, and at its close engaged in 
stock raising in Los Angeles, Cal., till 1876, 
when President Grant appointed him United 
States Minister to Austria. He died in 
Washington, D. C., April 22, 1893. 

Beale, Lionel Smith, an English physiol¬ 
ogist and microscopist, born in London, Feb. 
5, 1828; was educated at King’s College, 
London, where he was subsequently made 
Professor of the Principles and Practice of 
Medicine. In 1859 he became a Fellow of 
the Royal College of Physicians. He has 
contributed to the “ Lancet,” “ Microscop¬ 
ical Journal,” and other periodicals, and is 
author of “ How to Work with a Micro¬ 
scope ” (1858); “Life Theories and Their 
Influence upon Religious Thought ” (1871) ; 
“ Our Morality and the Moral Question ” 
(1887) ; “On Slight Ailments,” “Vitality: 
an Appeal, an Apology, and a Challenge,” 
“ Replies to Objections and a Further Ap¬ 
peal,” etc. He is a member of the Royal 
Medical and Chirurgical, the Microscopical, 
and other English and foreign societies. 

Beall, John Young, a Confederate guer¬ 
illa, born in Virginia, Jan. 1, 1835; was ap¬ 
pointed an acting master in the Confederate 
naval service in 1863. On Sept. 19, 1864, 
he and a number of followers were shipped 
on the Lake Erie steamer “ Philo Parsons ” 
as passengers, and at a given signal, took 
possession of the vessel, making prisoners 
of the crew. They also scuttled another 
boat, the “ Island Queen,” and tried to 
wreck a railroad train near Buffalo, N. Y. 
In spite of a proclamation of Jefferson Davis 
assuming the responsibility of this expedi¬ 
tion, Beall was hanged on Governor’s Isl¬ 
and, New York, Feb. 24, 1865, on the ground 
that, if acting under orders, he should have 
shown some badge of authority. 

Beam, a long, straight and strong piece 
of wood, iron, or steel, especially when hold¬ 
ing an important place in some structure, 
and serving for support or consolidation; 
often equivalent to girder. In a balance it 
is the part from the ends of which the scales 
are suspended. In a loom it is a cylindrical 
piece of wood on which weavers wind the 
warp before weaving; also, the cylinder on 
which the cloth is rolled as it is woven. In 
a ship, one of the strong transverse pieces 
stretching across from one side to the other 
to support the decks and retain the sides at 
their proper distance; hence, a ship is said 
to be on her beam ends when lying over on 
her side. 

Beaming, the art of winding the web on 
the weaver’s beam in a manner suitable for 
weaving, with regard to firmness and even¬ 
ness. It is to some extent a special employ¬ 
ment, followed by workmen trained as beam* 
ers. 

Beam Tree, a species of wild Service, so 
called probably from the beam-like aspects 



Bean 


Bear 


of its corymbiferous flowers. Its full name 
is the white beam-tree. It is pyrus aria. It 
has downy leaves and red fruit, larger than 
that of its near ally, P. aucuparia, the moun¬ 
tain ash, or rowan tree. The wood is ex¬ 
tremely hard. 

Bean, a well known cultivated plant, vicia 
faba, of Linnaeus, now called faba vulgaris. 
It belongs to the order leguminosce. The 
stem is quadrangular and hollow; the leaves 
are alternate; they are pinnate, with two 
to four leaflets. The flowers, which are fra¬ 
grant, are papilionaceous, white, with violet 
colored veins and blotches, looking almost 
black. The seeds are partly kidney-shaped. 
The native country of faba vulgaris is be¬ 
lieved to be the regions near the Caspian 
Sea, the Levant, and Egypt. The word bean 
occurs twice in Scripture (in II Sam. xvii: 
28, and Ez. iv: 9). 

Pythagoras and his followers did not eat 
it, and the flamen Dialis, or priest of Ju¬ 
piter at Pome, was forbidden to touch it. 
Faba vulgaris may be primarily divided into 
the garden bean and the field bean. Of the 
former, there are numerous sub-varieties. 
The earliest is the mazagan, which is small 
seeded; while the largest is the Windsor. 
The field bean runs into two leading sub- 
varieties, a larger and a smaller one; the 
latter is called ticks. The horse bean is 
the variety equina. 

The word is also applied to any legumin¬ 
ous plant resembling a bean, though not of 
the genuine genus faba. Such, for example, 
as the Florida bean, which is the seed, not 
the fruit, of a West Indian plant. These 
seeds are washed up on the Florida shore, 
and are sometimes used as food, and some¬ 
times they are polished and used as orna¬ 
ments. The navy bean is the common white 
bean, used largely as an article of diet by 
sailors. The pea bean is a small white bean 
used commonly as food. The tonquin bean 
is the fragrant seed of a leguminous tree. 

In commerce, the word is applied to the 
seeds of certain plants belonging to the nat¬ 
ural order leguminosce. The common field 
bean is the seed of the faba vulgaris, the 
broad, or Windsor bean, beinof a cultivated 
variety of the same plant. The French, or 
haricot bean, is the seed of phaseolus multi- 
florus, and the scarlet runner (which is 
closely akin to the former), is phaseolus 
vulgaris. 

Scarlet runners and French beans are used 
in the pod, in the green state, and eaten as 
a vegetable. Bean meal, which is more 
easily digested than whole beans, contains 
twice as much nitrogenous matter as wheat 
flour, and is more nutritious. It is some¬ 
times used to adulterate flour and bread, 
but this can be readily detected by the mi¬ 
croscope. The cells of the bean are larger, 
and the cell walls much thicker, than those 
of the wheat. The starch granules are also 


different, being oval or kidney-shaped, and 
having an irregular, deep cleft down the 
center. Boasted beans are sometimes used 
to adulterate coffee. 

Bean, Nehemiah S., an American inven¬ 
tor, born in Gilmanton, N. H., in 1818; 
learned the machinist’s trade. In the win¬ 
ter of 1857-1858 he built his first steam 
fire engine, which he named the “ Lawrence,” 
and sold it to the city of Boston. In 1859 
he took the management of the Amoskeag 
Locomotive Works in Manchester, where he 
had been employed in 1847-1850. During 
1859 he built the “Amoskeag Steam Fire 
Engine, No. 1,” the first of a class of en¬ 
gines which now is used everywhere. He 
died in Manchester, N. H., July 20, 1896. 

Bean, Tarleton Hoffman, an American 
ichthyologist, born in Bainbridge, Pa., Oct. 
S, 1846 ; graduated at Columbian University 
in Washington, 1876. He was editor of the 
“ Proceedings and Bulletins ” of the United 
States National Museum, Washington, 1878- 
1886, and of the “ Report and Bulletin of 
the United States Fish Commission,” Wash¬ 
ington, 1889-1802; was Assistant in charge 
of the Division of Fish Culture in the United 
States Fish Commission, 1892-1895, and 
Curator of the Department of Fishes in the 
United States National Museum, 1880-1895. 
In 1893 he represented the United States 
Fish Commission at the World’s Columbian 
Exposition, in 1895 at the Atlanta Exposi¬ 
tion, in 1900 at Paris, and in 1902-1905 at 
St. Louis; in 1895-1898 was Director of the 
New York (city) Aquarium; and in 1906 
became New York State Fisli Culturist. His 
works include “ The Fishes of Pennsyl¬ 
vania,” “ The Salmon and Salmon Fisher¬ 
ies,” “Oceanic Ichthyology” (with George 
Brown Goode), “The Fishes of Bermuda,” 
etc. 

Bear, the English name of the various 
species of plantigrade mammals belonging to 
the ursus and some neighboring genera. The 
term plantigrade, applied to the bears, inti¬ 
mates that they walk on the soles of their 
feet; not, like the digitigrade animals, on 
their toes. Though having six incisor teeth 
in each jaw, like the rest of the carnivora, 
yet the tubercular crowns of the molar teeth 
show that their food is partly vegetable. 
They grub up roots, and, when they can ob¬ 
tain it, greedily devour honey. They hiber¬ 
nate in winter. The best known species is 
ursus arctos, the brown bear, the one some¬ 
times seen dancing to the amusement of 
children in the streets. They are wild in 
this country, on the continent of Europe, 
and in Asia. Other species are the Syrian 
bear ( ursus syriacus, which is the bear of 
Scripture) ; the American black bear ( ursus 
americanus ) ; the grizzly bear of the same 
continent ( ursus ferox); and the Polar 
bear ( ursus or thalassarctos maritimus), 
and others. 



Bear 


Beard 


The earliest representative of the ursida , 
or bear family, known at present, does not 
belong to the typical genus ursus. It is 
called amphicyon, and is of Miocene age. 
Of the true bears belonging to the ursus 
genus none have as yet been found earlier 
than the Pliocene. The best known Pliocene 
species is ursus arvernensis. 

Of Post-pliocene bears, one, ursus pris- 
cus, seems the same as ursus ferox (the 
grizzly bear). Several bears, ursus spelceus, 
urctos, and others, have been found in caves 
in England and elsewhere. Of these, ursus 
spelceus, from the Greek spelaios — a grotto, 
cave, cavern, or pit, is the one called espe¬ 
cially the cave bear. It is a giant species, 
occurring in the later rather than the earlier 
Post-pliocene beds. 

In Stock Exchange parlance, a bear is one 
who contracts to sell on a specified day cer¬ 
tain stock not belonging to him, at the mar¬ 
ket price then prevailing, on receiving imag¬ 
inary payment for them at the rate which 
obtains when the promise was made. It 
now becomes his interest that the stock on 
which he has speculated should fall in price; 
and he is tempted to effect this end by cir¬ 
culating adverse rumors regarding it ; while 
the purchaser, called a “bull,” sees it to his 
advantage to make the stock rise. The 
origin of the term is uncertain. Dr. Warton 
derives it from the proverbial expression of 
selling the skin before the bear is caught, 
but he does not assign any explanation to 
the contrary term bull; others point out 
that the action of the former is like that ot 
a bear pulling down something with his 
paws, while that of the latter is suggestive 
of a bull tossing a person up with his horns. 

In astronomy, the word is applied to one 
or other of two constellations, Ursa Major 
and Ursa Minor, called respectiv ly the 
Great Bear and the Little Bear. When the 
word Bear stands alone, it signifies Ursa 
Major. 

Bear, or Bere, a species of barley (hor- 
deum hexastichum), having six row's in the 
ear, cultivated in Scotland and the N. of 
England. 

Bear Berry, the English name of the 
arctostaphylos, a genus of plants belonging 
to the order ericacece (heathworts). It in¬ 
cludes the two species, arctostaphylos uva 
ursi and A. alpina. They are sometimes 
ranked under the genus arbutus. The flow¬ 
ers are rose colored, the berry of the uva ursi 
is red, while that of the other is black. 
They afford food for moor fowl. The former 
is used in nephritic and calculous cases, and 
sometimes even in pulmonary diseases; it, 
moreover, dyes an ash color, and can be used 
in tanning leather. It is found on the Con¬ 
tinent, especially in Alpine regions, while its 
chosen habitat in the British Isles is in the 
Scottish Highlands. 


Beard, the hair that grows on the chin, 
lips, and adjacent parts of the face of men. 
and sometimes, though rarely, of women. 
Its growth is the distinctive sign of man¬ 
hood. Generally speaking, the growth of 
the beard was cultivated among the nations 
of the East, although it must be observed 
that most of the Egyptian figures in the 
ancient paintings are without beards. 
Among the Greeks, and especially among 
the Greek philosophers, this ornament was 
held in high estimation. Athen£eus tells us 
that the Greeks wore the beard until the 
time of Alexander the Great, who ordered 
his Macedonian soldiery to shave it off, lest 
the growth of it might give a ready handle 
to their enemies in battle. Socrates and 
Plato were honored with the distinction of 
“ bearded master ” by their pupils; and the 
origin of the proverb, eh pogon oi sophoi 
(wise men from their beards), arose from 
this class of wise men among the Greeks in¬ 
dulging always in this ornament. The Ro¬ 
mans wore the beard until the 5th cen¬ 
tury. a. u. c., when Publius Ticinus Mena 
brought over a colony of barbers from Sicily 
to exercise their profession on the Roman 
chins. It was customary, on the assumption 
of the toga virilis among the Roman youth, 
to consecrate the first fruits of their beards 
’ to some deity. The Lombards (or long- 
beards ), the early French, the ancient Brit¬ 
ons, and the Anglo-Saxons, after they con¬ 
quered Britain, all nourished the growth 
of their beards with peculiar care. The 
English clergy, by and by, probably in imita¬ 
tion of those of Western Europe, began to 
shave the beard, and until the time of Wil¬ 
liam the Norman, the whole of whose army 
shaved the beard, there prevailed a bearded 
class and a shaven class, in short, a laity 
and a clergy, in England. The higher classes 
indulged in the moustache, or the entire 
beard, from the reign of Edward III. down to 
the 17th century. The beard then gradually 
declined, and the Court of Charles I. was 
the last in which even a small one was cher¬ 
ished. After the restoration of Charles II., 
moustaches or lip-whiskers continued, but 
the rest of the face was shaved; and in a 
short time the process of shaving the entire 
face became universal. The beard went out 
of fashion in France in the reign of Louis 
XIII., and in Spain when Philip V. ascended 
the throne. At the present time, the Jews, 
and the Arabs, constant to their ancient cus¬ 
toms, continue to let the entire beard grow, 
when mourning, for a period of 30 days. 
“ By the beard of Aaron,” or “ By the beard 
of the Prophet,” is looked on as the most 
solemn oath of a Jew or Mohammedan. 
Among almost all civilized nations, the ten¬ 
dency is to let the beard grow, though in a 
way suggested by the taste of the individual. 

Beard, Daniel Carter, an American 
artist and author, born in Cincinnati, 0., 



Beard 


Beardsley 


June 21, 1850; first engaged in civil engi¬ 
neering and surveying; went to New York 
in 1878 and studied art, and has since be¬ 
come widely known as a book and magazine 
illustrator. He founded and became teacher 
of the Department of Animal Drawing in 
the Woman's School of Applied Design, be¬ 
lieved to be the first class of this character 
in the world. Besides his illustrative work 
he has published “ Moonlight,” “ Six Feet 
of Romance,” “ American Boys’ Handy 
Book,” “ American Boys’ Book of Sport,” 
etc. 

Beard, George Miller, an American 
physician and hygienic writer, born at Mont- 
ville, Conn., May 8, 1839; made a specialty 
of the study of stimulants and narcotics, 
hypnotism, spiritualism, etc. Among his 
works were “ Our Home Physician ” (1869); 
“Eating and Drinking” (1871); “Stimu¬ 
lants and Narcotics” (1871); “American Ner¬ 
vousness” (1881); “Sea-Sickness” (1882); 
etc. He died in New York, Jan. 23, 1833. 

Beard, Henry, an American painter, born 
in Ohio, in 1841; son of James Henry 
Beard, and nephew of William Holbrook 
Beard; served in the Union army during 
the Civil War; at its close applied himself 
to painting, particularly animal life; and, 
after his removal to New York city, in 1877, 
was chiefly engaged in illustrating books 
and periodicals. He died in New York, 
Nov. 19, 1889. 

Beard, James Henry, an American 
painter, born in Buffalo, N. Y., in 1814. In 
his childhood his parents removed to Ohio. 
He became a portrait painter in Cincin¬ 
nati, and painted the portraits of Henry 
Clay and other distinguished men. In 1846 
he exhibited his “ Carolina Emigrants ” at 
the National Academy in New York, of 
which he was elected an honorary member in 
1848. In 1870 he removed to New York, 
and, in 1872, was elected a full member of 
the National Academy. Subsequently he de¬ 
voted himself to animal painting. Among 
his better known works are “ Mutual 
Friend” (1875); “Consultation” (1877); 
“Blood Will Tell” (1877); “Don Quixote 
and Sancho Panza ” (1878); “Heirs at 
Law” (1880) ; “Which Has Pre-emption?” 
(1881); “Detected Poacher” (1884); 
“ Don’t You Come Here ” and “ The Missis¬ 
sippi Flood” (1885); “A Barnyard” and 
“’Ll Yer Gimme Some? Sav! ” (1886). He 
died in Flushing, N. Y., April 4, 1893. 

Beard, William Holbrook, an American 
painter, born in Painesville, 0., April 13. 
1825; brother of James H. Beard; was a 
traveling portrait painter from 1846 till 
1851, when he settled in Buffalo, N. Y. In 
1856 he went abroad ; studied at Dusseldorf, 
Germany, and in Italy, Switzerland, and 
France. He returned to Buffalo, but, in 
1860, removed to New York. In 1862 he 
was elected a member of the National Acad¬ 


emy. His works include genre and allegori¬ 
cal pictures, but he was most popular in 
painting animals, especially bears, whose ac¬ 
tions he humanized in a satirical and pleas¬ 
ing manner. He made many studies of deco¬ 
rative architecture. Among his most popu¬ 
lar works are “Power of Death” (1859); 
“Bears on a Bender” (1862); “Bear Dance” 
(1865); “ March of Silenus ” (1866); “Flaif 
in the Title” (1867); “Darwin Expound, 
ing His Theories ” and “ Runaway Match ” 
(1876); “ Divorce Court ” (1877); “Bulls and 
Bears in Wall Street” (1879); “Voices of 
the Night ” (1880); “ Spreading the Alarm ” 
(1881); “In the Glen ” (1882) Cattle Upon 
a Thousand Hills” (1883); “Who’s Afraid?” 
(1884); “ His Majesty Receives ” and “ Office 
Seekers” (1S86), etc. He published “Humor 
in Animals,” a collection of his sketches 
(1885). He died in New York city, Feb. 20, 
1900. 

Beard Grass, a name given to two well 
known British grasses of the genus polypo- 
gon from the bearded appearance of the 
panicles. 

Beard Moss (ucnea barbata ), a lichen of 
gray color, forming a shaggy coat on many 
forest trees. 

Beardsley, Aubrey, an English author 
and illustrator, born in Brighton, in 1874; 
received a grammar school education; began 
working for London periodicals and publish¬ 
ers in 1892; and soon became widely known 
by his striking designs for posters and book 
covers. In 1894 he became art editor of 
“ The Yellow Book,” and while supplying 
it with illustrations, contributed drawings 
also to the “ Savoy ” and “ Le Courrier 
Frangaise.” He illustrated “ Bons Mots ” 
(1892); Malory’s “La Morte d’Arthur ” 
(1893); Oscar Wilde’s “Salome” (1894); 
“ The Rape of the Lock ” and “ An Album 
of Fifty Drawings” (1896) ; and wrote and 
illustrated “ The Story of Venus and Tann- 
liauser ” (1895) ; and a novel, “Under the 
Hill ” ( 1896). He died in Mentone, France, 
March 16, 1898. 

Beardsley, Eben Edwards, an Ameri¬ 
can Episcopal clergyman and writer, born 
in Stepney, Conn., 1808; became pastor in 
New Haven in 1848. He wrote “ History of 
the Episcopal Church in Connecticut” (4th 
ed., 1883), and lives of “Samuel Johnson, 
First President of King’s College, New 
York” (1874) ; “William Samuel Johnson, 
President of Columbia College” (1876); 
and “ Samuel Seabury, First Bishop of Con¬ 
necticut ” (1881). He died in New Haven, 
Dec. 22, 1891. 

Beardsley, Samuel, an American jurist, 
born in Hoosic, N. Y., Feb. 9, 1790. On 
leaving the common school he took up the 
study of medicine, but abandoned it for law. 
In 1813 he was a member of the militia that 



Bearer Company 


Beast Fables 


defended Saekett’s Harbor. Two years later 
be was admitted to the bar, and became 
Judge-Advocate of the Militia. In 1823 he 
was State Senator from the Fifth District of 
New York. He was appointed attorney for 
the Northern District of New York by Presi¬ 
dent Jackson, and was a member of Con¬ 
gress in 1831-1836 and 1843-1845. From 
1836 to 1838 he was Attorney-General of 
the State of New York. He became Asso¬ 
ciate Judge of the Supreme Court of New 
York in 1844, and three years later suc¬ 
ceeded Judge Bronson as Chief Justice. On 
his retirement he devoted himself to the 
practice of his profesion. He died in Utica, 
N. Y., May 6, 1860. 

Bearer Company, a British organization 
for removing wounded soldiers from the field 
of battle to the dressing station or tempo¬ 
rary hospital, which is part of the equip¬ 
ment of the bearer company, and where 
first aid can be given to them. The bearer 
company, first introduced into the British 
army in 1873, comprises the medical and 
other officers for discipline and supply du¬ 
ties, over 30 non-commissioned officers and 
men, trained as sick bearers of the medical 
staff corps, about 100 attendant untrained 
bearers from the Militia Reserve, six “ bat¬ 
men” and drivers of the Army Service Corps. 
Tents for the personnel and for the dressing 
stations are carried, and a bearer company 
also has ambulances, surgery wagons, equip¬ 
ment, supply, and water carts, requiring 
over 100 horses. A modified organization 
for mountain warfare comprises muleteers, 
mules, and a special kind of cacolets or lit¬ 
ters. Half a bearer company is attached 
to each army corps on active service, form¬ 
ing the link between the battalion stretcher 
bearers and the field hospitals. 

Bearing, in architecture, the space be¬ 
tween the two fixed extremities of a pieca 
of timber, or between one of the extremities 
and a post or wall placed so as to diminish 
the unsupported length. Also and com¬ 
monly used for the distance or length which 
the ends of a piece of timber lie upon or are 
inserted into the walls or piers. 

In mechanics, (a) The portion of an axle 
or shaft in contact with the collar or box¬ 
ing. (b) The portion of the support on 
which a gudgeon rests and revolves, (c) 
One of the pieces resting on the axle and 
supporting the framework of a carriage, 
(d) One of the chairs supporting the frame¬ 
work of a railway carriage or truck. 

In ship carpentry (plural) : the widest 
part of a vessel below the plank-shear. 

In heraldry: a charge; anything included 
within the escutcheon. (Generally an the 
plural, as armorial bearings.) 

In nautical parlance: observation as to 
the direction by the compass in which an 
object lies from the vessel, or the direction 
thus ascertained. (Sometimes in the plural.) 


Bear Lake, Great, an extensive sheet of 
fresh water in the Northwest Territory of 
Canada, between about 65° and 67° 32' N. 
lat.; and under the 120tli degree of W. 
long.; of irregular shape; area about 
14,000 square miles. The water is very 
clear, and the lake abounds in fish. Bear 
Lake river, the outlet at the S. W. extremity 
of Great Bear Lake, runs S. W. for 70 miles 
and joins the Mackenzie river. 

Bearn (byarn), formerly one of the 32 
provinces into which France was divided, 
and now forming the greatest portion of the 
Department of Basses-Pyrenees. The inhab¬ 
itants are chiefly Gascons, with a strong in¬ 
fusion of Basque blood, and they speak the 
purest Gascon dialect. Bearn was a portion 
of Aquitania under the Romans, and, after 
the downfall of that Empire, under its rul¬ 
ing dukes, it was a country of considerable 
importance. From the intermarriage of the 
ruling family, the counts of Foix, with that 
of Navarre, sprang the French monarch, 
Henry IV., who, because he was born and 
brought up in Bearn, was derisively called 
Le Bearnois. When he ascended the throne 
of France, Bearn, of course, virtually be¬ 
came part of that country; but was only 
formally incorporated with it in 1620, by 
Louis XIII. 

Bear River, a river of the United States, 
400 miles long; rises in the N. of Utah, and 
flows N. into Idaho; turns abruptly S., re¬ 
enters Utah, and empties into Great Salt 
Lake. 

Bear’s Grease, the fat of bears, esteemed 
as of great efficacy in nourishing and pro¬ 
moting the growth of hair. The unguents 
sold under this name, however, are in a 
great measure made of hog’s lard or veal 
fat, or a mixture of both, scented and 
slightly colored. 

Beast Fables, stories in which animals 
play human parts, a widely spread primitive 
form of literature, often surviving in more 
or less developed forms in the more advanced 
civilizations. No better example of its sim¬ 
plest form could be found than those stories 
of the negroes within the Southern States 
of America, which, through Harris’ “ Uncle 
Remus,” are now so well known to the 
reading public. The primitive natives of 
many parts of Africa still tell stories sim¬ 
ilar to these, and, indeed, they have ac¬ 
quired no very exalted notions of the inher¬ 
ent superiority of the human race, and ad¬ 
mit without difficulty that the wisdom of 
the lower animals may be equal to their own. 

We find the “ Lion and the Mouse ” in a 
papyrus dating from 1200-1166 B. c.— the 
days of Rameses III. (Rhampsinitus) or 
Hak On — not as a rude and early attempt, 
but in a finished form postulating a much 
more ancient origin. Sir Richard Burton 
points out that from Kemi, the Black-land, 
it was but a step to Phoenicia, Judsea, Phry- 



Beast Fables 


Beast Fables 


gia, and Asia Minor, whence a ferry led 
over to Greece. Here the apologue found its 
popularizer in Aisopos, whose name, in¬ 
volved in myth, possibly connects with Aithi- 
ops. The fabulist’s era may be taken as con¬ 
temporary with Solon (570 b. c.), about a 
century after Psammetichus (Psamethik I.) 
threw Egypt open to the restless Greek. 
From Africa, too, the fable would spread 
eastward, and find a new home in the second 
great focus of civilization in the Tigris- 
Euphrates valley; while in later days the 
conquests of Alexander and his successors 
Ilellenized the Eastern world, and carried 
with their victorious arms every form of lit¬ 
erature that had been fostered by the West¬ 
ern peoples. To us the allegory in such 
fictions seems fundamental, but it was not 
so to the primitive mind. To the savage 
the beast fable is not nonsense, for he as¬ 
cribes to the lower animals the power of 
speech and a nature resembling his own, and 
believes readily in transmigration and meta¬ 
morphosis. Savage mythology is full of 
metamorphoses, and these happen still as 
contemporary events in Samoa and Sarawak. 

The belief in the affinity between man and 
animals in which primitive man has so 
nearly anticipated the would-be conclusions 
of certain advanced evolutionists belongs 
even now to half mankind, and most stu¬ 
dents of comparative religion maintain that 
in the other half the worship of animals rep¬ 
resented an earlier stage in the religious evo¬ 
lution. The Australians, Kamchadales, 
Polynesians, North American Indians, 
Basques, and Transylvanian gipsies at the 
present day tell beast fables into which as 
yet no moral lesson has entered. Among 
the Zulus and Hottentots we find the same 
stories, infused with the true iEsopic hu¬ 
mor. In the Bushmen’s beast fables, the 
hare, as among the American negroes the 
rabbit, plays much the same clever part as 
the fox in the European examples, and 
“ fables that illustrate the superior cunning 
of the hare can be traced,” says Savce, 
“ from the Bari of Central Africa through 
Malagasy, Swahili, Kafir, and Hottentot, 
back to the Bushmen, where he is associated 
with what Dr. Bleek calls ‘ a most unpro¬ 
nounceable click,’ not otherwise found in the 
language.” But, indeed, we find the beast- 
fable in all parts of the world. Thus, in 
Gill’s “ Myths and Songs from the South 
Pacific,” a stork speaks and acts like a 
man, and Mr. Bidlev tells us the Australians 
ascribe human speech and action to the peli¬ 
can and the musk duck. 

The question need not now be raised 
whether these fables are really an indi¬ 
genous native literature— it is sufficiently 
striking and significant to find here stories 
almost identical with those found among 
widely different people in widely distant 
regions. In our civilized world the ani¬ 
mal story lingered long after the moral 


beast fable had become predominant. The 
crows of JEsop had croaked their wisdom 
through the medium of Babrius and Phae- 
drus for 1,000 years before the genuine 
beast epic reached its highest development 
in “ Reynard the Fox,” belonging to the 
12th century, but containing materials of 
a far earlier date. It is not a didactic 
poem, nor essentially even a satirical poem. 
Its charm lies in the admirable manner in 
which the characters of the various ani¬ 
mals are sustained. Its influence in the 
Middle Ages may be partly understood from 
the fact that our common names, reynard, 
bruin and chanticleer, were originally the 
names of the characters in the great beast 
fable. Beast fables, resembling more par¬ 
ticularly the African, have been found in 
the cuneiform inscriptions of Babylonia. 
Stories of the name nature are equally com¬ 
mon farther E. in Asia. 

Perhaps no book has been more widely 
popular than the fables of Pilpay, trans¬ 
lated first into Pelilevi or ancient Persian 
from an old Indian original, in part rep¬ 
resented now by the Panchatantra. The 
Indian fables differ from the iEsopic in this: 
In the former, animals act as men in form 
of animals; in the latter, animals are al¬ 
lowed to act as animals. Benfey ascribes 
this peculiarity of Indian conception to the 
belief in metempsychosis, and the exclusively 
didactic nature of Indian tales. All tales, 
therefore, in which animals play the part of 
human beings, are Indian. As to the ulti¬ 
mate origin of beast fables, Benfey’s conclu¬ 
sion is that most fables about animals are 
Western or iEsopic; that, on the contrary, 
the tales are Indian. In all our folk tales 
the relations between the heroes and animals 
are usually kind or helpful. Nothing is 
more common than for the hero to do some 
kindness to a suffering animal, who after¬ 
ward shows his gratitude by some signal ser¬ 
vice to his benefactor at the moment of his 
own perplexity. Beasts and birds often 
carry grave secrets to favored individuals, 
and so save them from unhappiness and dan¬ 
ger. If this feeling for animals is not of 
Buddhist origin, it is at least, as Cosquin 
points out, a prevailing Indian idea, and is 
certainly derived from the belief in metem¬ 
psychosis, which effaces the distinction be¬ 
tween man and the animal, and which, in 
every living thing, sees a brother. Benfey 
throws out the hint that metempsychosis 
may have come from Egypt. It does not 
occur in any of the Indo-European races 
save the Indians themselves, and undoubt¬ 
edly intimate relations once existed between 
the Indus and the Nile. The Phoenicians 
were active intermediaries of commerce, and 
just as it is very probable they carried writ¬ 
ing to India, they may have carried and re¬ 
carried many other elements of civilization. 

There are many apologues in the “Arabian 
Nights,” but these are much longer and more 



Beat 


Beattie 


involved in circumstance than the straight¬ 
forward fables of iEsop, with their single 
event and simple moral. But these, despite 
their monumental antiquity, Burton regards 
as the offspring of a comparatively civilized 
age, when a jealous despotism or a powerful 
oligarchy threw difficulties and dangers in 
the way of speaking plain truths. The dan¬ 
ger of attempting openly to administer plain 
reproof to absolute Asiatic potentates may 
well have led to the invention of fables in 
which the lessons intended to be imparted 
were veiled under ingenious fictions of ani¬ 
mals. Mr. Clouston quotes the following 
story from an Oriental historian of a tyran¬ 
nical monarch having been reclaimed by such 
means. “ A wise and prudent vazir once 
related the following fable to his royal mas¬ 
ter: There was an owl in El-Basra and an 
owl in El-Mosul. And the owl of El-Basra 
said to the other one day: ‘Give me thy 
daughter in marriage to my son/ Quoth 
the owl of El-Mosul, ‘ I consent, on condition 
that thou give me as her dowry 100 
ruined villages/ ‘ That/ replied the owl of 
El-Basra, ‘I cannot do at present; but if 
Allah spare the Sultan another year, I will 
do what thou requirest/ The Sultan, deeply 
impressed by this simple fable, at once 
caused all the ruined towns and villages to 
be rebuilt, and henceforward studied to pro¬ 
mote the well being of his subjects, and to 
render his rule easy and acceptable to them.” 

Beat, in music, the beating or pulsation 
resulting from the joint vibrations of two 
sounds of the same strength, and all but 
in unison. Also a short shake or transient 
grace-note struck immediately before the 
note it is intended to ornament. 

Beatification, in general, the act of ren¬ 
dering supremely blessed, also the state of 
being rendered supremely blessed. In a 
special sense an act by which the Pope de¬ 
clares, on evidence which he considers him¬ 
self to possess, that a certain deceased per¬ 
son is in tne enjoyment of supreme felicity 
in Heaven. It is the first step toward 
canonization, but it is not canonization it¬ 
self. 

Crabb thus distinguishes between beati¬ 
fication and canonization: “In the act of 
beatification the Pope pronounces only as a 
private person, and uses his own authority 
only in granting to certain persons, or to 
a religious order, the privilege of paying a 
particular worship to a beatified object. In 
the act of canonization, the Pope speaks as 
a judge after a judicial examination on the 
state, and decides the sort of worship 
which ought to be paid by the whole 
Church. 

Beaton, David, Cardinal Archbishop of 
St. Andrew’s, Scotland, born in 1494. lie 
became Abbot of Arbroath in 1525, Lord 
Privy Seal three years later, was sent on 
several missions to France, received a cardi¬ 


nal’s hat in 1538, and in the following year 
became Primate. On the death of James V., 
he, by craft and determination, secured to 
himself the chief power in Church and State, 
being named Lord High Chancellor of Scot¬ 
land, and Papal Legate. He opposed an 
alliance with England, and especially dis¬ 
tinguished himself as a persecutor of the 
Reformers. The trial and burning of George 

ishart for heresy took place under his 
direction, and, a short time afterward 
Beaton was assassinated at St. Andrew’s, in 
May, 154(5. Y\ ith his death, church tyranny 
came to an end in Scotland. 

_ Beatrice, city and county-seat of Gage co., 
Heb.; on the Big Blue river, and several 
railroads; 40 miles S. of Lincoln, the State 
capital. It is the seat of the State Insti¬ 
tution for Feeble Minded Youth; and has 
an attractive courthouse, United States 
Government Building, Holly system of water 
works, electric light and street railway 
plants, public library, 3 National banks, 
excellent water power, flour and planing 
mills, tile and barbed wire works, creamery, 
iron foundry, and manufactories of gasolene 
engines, wind mills, and farming imple¬ 
ments. The assessed property valuation ex¬ 
ceeds $1,000,000, and the total debt is less 
than $500,000. Pop. (1910) 9,35(5. 

Beatrice Portinari (ba-a-tre'cha por-te- 
na're), the poetical idol of Dante; born 
about 1200, died 1290; the daughter of a 
wealthy citizen of Florence, and wife of 
Simone de Bardi. She was but eight years 
of age, and Dante nine, when he met her 
first at the house of her father. He alto¬ 
gether saw her only once or twice, and she 
probably knew little of him. The story of 
his love is recounted in the “ Vita Nuova,” 
which was mostly written after her death. 

Beattie, Francis Robert, a Canadian- 
American educator, born near Guelph, On¬ 
tario, in 1848 ; was educated at Toronto Uni¬ 
versity, and studied theology at Knox 
College, Toronto, and at the Presbyterian 
College in Montreal. He was pastor at 
Baltimore and Cold Springs, Ontario, in 
187S-18S2, and at Brantford in 1882-1888. 
In 1888 he became Professor of Apologetics 
in the Presbyterian Theological Seminary in 
Columbia, S. C., where he remained till 1893 
and then accepted the Chair of Systematic 
Theology and Apologetics in the Presbyte¬ 
rian Theological Seminary, Louisville, Ky. 
His writings include “An Examination of 
Utilitarianism” (1884): “Methods of 
Theism” ( 1887); “The Higher Criticism; 
or. Modern Critical Theories” (1888); 
“Radical Criticism, an Exposition and 
Examination of the Radical Critical Theory 
of the Old Testament Scripture ” (1895), etc. 
He died Sept. 4, 190(5. 

Beattie, James, a Scottish poet and mis¬ 
cellaneous writer, born at Laurencekirk, 
Kincardineshire, Oct. 25, 1735; studied at 




Beatty 


Beaufort 


Marischal College, Aberdeen, for four years, 
and received the M. A. degree. In 1753 he 
was appointed schoolmaster at Fordoun, a 
few miles from his native place; from 

whence he obtained a mastership in the 
Grammar School of Aberdeen, and ulti¬ 
mately was installed Professor of Moral 

Philosophy and Logic in Marischal College. 

In 1700 he 
published a 
volume of 
poems, which 
he subsequent¬ 
ly endeavored 
to buy up, con¬ 
sidering them 
unworthy of 
him. In 1765 
he published a 
p o e m, the 
“ Judgment of 
Paris,” and in 
1770 his cele¬ 
brated ‘"Essay 
on Truth,” for 
which the Uni¬ 
versity of Ox¬ 
ford conferred 
on him the degree of LL. D.; and George 
III. honored him, when on a visit to Lon¬ 
don, with a private conference and a 
pension. He next published in 1771 the 
first book of his poem, the “ Minstrel,” 
and in 1774 the second; this is the only 
work by which he is now remembered. In 
177G he published dissertations on “Poetry 
and Music,” “ Laughter and Ludicrous Com¬ 
position ; ” in 1783 “Dissertations, Moral 
and Critical;” in 178G “Evidences of the 
Christian Religion,” and in 1790-1793 “Ele¬ 
ments of Moral Science.” He died in Aber¬ 
deen, Aug. 18, 1803. 

Beatty, John, an American legislator, 
born in Bucks county, Pa., Dec. 19, 1749; 
was educated at Princeton, and took up the 
study of medicine with Dr. Rush of Philadel¬ 
phia. He fought with distinction through 
the Revolutionary War, reaching the rank 
of Colonel; was Delegate to the Continental 
Congress in 1783-1785; Speaker of the 
House; served in the convention which 
adopted the Federal Constitution; was a 
member of Congress in 1793-1795; and Sec¬ 
retary of State of New Jersey in 1795-1805. 
He died in Trenton, N. J., April 30, 182G. 

Beatty, John, an American military offi¬ 
cer, born near Sandusky, O.. Sept. 1G, 1828. 
He fought on the Union side in the Civil 
War, rising from private to Brigadier- 
General. and showing intrepid courage at 
Stone River, 1862-1863. He was a member 
of Congress in 1S68-1874, and Republican 
Presidential Elector-at-Large in 1884. He 
wrote “The Citizen Soldier; or, "Memoirs of 
a Volunteer” (187G) ; “The Belle o’ Beck- 
et’s Lane” (1882), etc. 


Beaucaire (bo-kar'), a town of France, 
in the Department of Gard, on the right 
bank of the Rhone, opposite Tarascon, with 
which it is connected by a suspension bridge, 
14 miles S. S. W. of Avignon. Vessels enter 
its harbor by a canal communicating with 
the Mediterranean. A great fair, established 
in the 13th century, is held from the 15th 
till the 20tli of July. It was once one of the 
principal occasions of trade between France, 
Italy, and the East, and was attended by 
300,000 foreigners. The fair is still the 
scene of a brisk trade in silks, wines, oil, 
southern fruits, and leather. 

Beauchamp, Alphonse de (bd-shan'), 

French historian and publicist, born at Mon¬ 
aco in 17G7. Under the Directory he had the 
surveillance of the press, a position which 
supplied him with materials for his “ His¬ 
tory of La Vendee.” He contributed to the 
“ Moniteur ” and the “ Gazette de France.” 
Among his chief works are the “ History of 
the Conquest of Peru,” the “ Historv of 
Brazil,” and the “Life of Louis XVIII.” 
The “ Memoirs of Fouehe ” is also with good 
reason ascribed to him. He died in Paris, 
June 1, 1832. 

Beaufort, town, port of entry, and 
county-seat of Beaufort co., S. C.; on the 
Port Roval river, and the Charleston and 
Western Carolina railroad; 15 miles from 
the Atlantic Ocean and 80 miles S. W. of 
Charleston. It is midway between Charles¬ 
ton and Savannah; has an excellent harbor, 
and is the center of the phosphate trade of 
the State. The city is nearly 200 years old, 
and for many years prior to the Civil War 
was a noted health and pleasure resort, 
especially for the cotton planters interested 
in the plantations on the adjoining Sea 
Islands. It is still a popular summer and 
winter resort, principally engaged in phos¬ 
phate mining, and with large exports of 
cotton, yellow pine and cypress lumber, 
rice, and sweet potatoes. In the fiscal year 
ending June 30, 1900, the imports of mer¬ 
chandise here aggregated in value $8L042, 
and the exports, $181,908. Pop. (1890) 
3,587; (1900) 4,110. 

Beaufort, Henry, Cardinal, natural son 

of John of Gaunt and half brother of Henry 
IV., King of England, born 1377; was made 
Bishop of Lincoln, whence he was trans¬ 
lated to Winchester. He repeatedly filled 
the office of Lord Chancellor, and took part 
in all the most important political move¬ 
ments of his times. He died April 11, 1447. 

Beaufort, Margaret, an English count¬ 
ess, born in 1441; daughter of John, first 
Duke of Somerset, and mother of Henry 
^ II-, King of England. She was three times 
married, viz.: to Edward Tudor, Earl of 
Richmond, in 1455; Henry Stafford, son of 
the Duke of Buckingham, and to Lord Stan¬ 
ley, a minister of Edward IV. In the Wars 
of the Roses, she and her son, Henry, bo* 



JAMES BEATTIE. 



Beaugrand 


Beaumarchais 


came more or less dangerous to the York¬ 
ists and were for a long time in retirement 
or exile. Henry was attainted by a Parlia¬ 
ment under Richard III., and Margaret’s 
estates forfeited. After the accession of her 
son as Henry VII. she took no part in pub¬ 
lic affairs. Her life forms one of the ro¬ 
mantic episodes of English history. She 
was devoutly religious, and founded sev¬ 
eral religious institutions. 

Beaugrand, Honore (bo-gran'), a Cana¬ 
dian journalist, born in Lanoraie, P. Q., 
March 24, 1849; educated in Joliette Col¬ 
lege. In 1835 he joined the French army 
in Mexico under Marshal Bazaine, and, af¬ 
ter the failure to establish Maximilian as 
Emperor, accompanied the army to France. 
In 1867 he went to New Orleans, where he 
engaged in newspaper work. He served sub¬ 
sequently as a journalist in Boston and St. 
Louis, and, returning to Canada, founded 
“La Patrie” in Montreal in 1879, as an 
organ of the French Liberal Party. Fie sold 
this paper in 1897. In 1887 he established 
a paper in the English language, the “ Mon¬ 
treal Daily News.” He was mayor of Mon¬ 
treal in 1885-1887, and a delegate from 
Montreal to the Congress of the World’s 
Chambers of Commerce in London in 1896. 
His publications include “Melanges; Trois 
Conferences ” (1888) ; “ Lettres de Voyage ” 
(1889), and a novel, “Jeanne la Fileuse.” 
He was decorated with the Cross of the Le¬ 
gion of Honor in 1S85, and became com¬ 
mander of that order in 1889. He is also 
an officer of the Academy of France; a com¬ 
mander of the Order of Nicham Iftikar of 
Tunis, etc. 

Beauharnais (bo-har-na'), the name of a 
noble French family, of which the following 
are historical personages: 

Beauitarnais, Alexandre, Vicomte de, 
born at Martinique, 1760. He served under 
Rochambeau in the War of American In¬ 
dependence. On his afterward taking up 
his residence in France, he was elected a 
Deputy to the States-General, where he 
espoused the Democratic or Liberal party, 
became President of the National Assembly, 
and played a conspicuous part in the Revo¬ 
lution. Beauharnais served with distinction 
in the French army, but became ultimately 
a victim to the Revolutionary Tribunal just 
previous to the fall of Robespierre, in 1794. 
His widow, Josephine Tascher de la Pagerie, 
became the first wife of Napoleon I. 

Beauitarnais, Francois, Marquis de, 
elder brother of the preceding, born in 1756. 
He was a Major-General in the French 
army, protested against revolutionary ex¬ 
cesses in a letter to the President of the 
National Assembly, and, on Bonaparte be¬ 
coming First Consul, recommended him to 
restore the scepter to the House of Bourbon. 
He was afterward Ambassador to Spain, but 
fell into disgrace with Napoleon, and, was 


banished. Fie returned to Paris after the 
Restoration, and died in 1823. 

Beauharnais, Eugene de, Viceroy of 
Italy, and a Prince of the French Empire, 
son of Alexandre de Beauharnais and Jose¬ 
phine, born in Paris in 1781. After his 
mother’s marriage to Napoleon, he, in 1796, 
became aide-de-camp to the latter, and 
served with distinction in the campaigns of 
Italy and Egypt. Beauharnais was wounded 
at Acre, contributed to the victory of 
Marengo, was created Prince of the Empire 
in 1805, and Viceroy of Italy. In 1806, he 
married the Princess Amalie Augusta, of 
Bavaria, and in the same year was adopted 
by the Emperor as his son, and appointed 
governor of Lombardy and Venice. He 
served in the campaign of 1S09, defeated the 
Austrians at Raab, and distinguished him¬ 
self at Wagram. His military talents were 
particularly evinced in the retreat from 
Moscow, and in the following campaigns of 
1813—1814. To Beauharnais may be mainly 
ascribed the victory of Liitzen. After the 
fall of Napoleon, he retired to Munich, was 
allowed, by the Treaty of Fontainebleau 
and the Congress of Vienna, to retain his 
extensive possessions in Italy, and took his 
place as Duke of Leuchtenberg among the 
Bavarian nobles. His children subsequently 
ranked as members of the imperial family 
of Russia. He died Feb. 21,-1824. 

Beaulieu, Jean Pierre (bol-ye'), an Aus¬ 
trian military officer, born in Namur, Oct. 
26, 1725; served in the Seven Years’ War; 
was promoted a Major-General for his suc¬ 
cessful operations against the Belgian in¬ 
surgents in 1789; commanded at Jemappes 
in 1792; was defeated by Napoleon, in 1796, 
while commander-in-chief of the forces in 
Italy, in the battles of Montenotte, Milles- 
imo, Montesano, Mondovi, and Lodi. Fie 
died near Linz, Dec. 22, 1819. 

Beaumarchais (bo-mar-sha'), Pierre Au= 
gustin, Baron de, born in Paris, Jan. 24, 
1732. Fie was a man of singular versatility 
of talent, being by turns politician, artist, 
dramatist, and merchant. Ilis father was a 
watchmaker,, and brought up his son to the 
same profession, in which young Beaumar¬ 
chais showed considerable skill. He was also 
remarkably fond of music, and attained great 
proficiency in playing on the harp and 
the guitar. But his fame rests on his plays, 
and chiefly on the two, “ Le Barbier de Se¬ 
ville ” (1775), and “ Le Mariage de Figaro ” 
(1784), which are too well known, both as 
plays and as operas, to require further no¬ 
tice here. The character of “ Figaro ” was 
a happy invention, and the other principal 
characters, in both plays, are drawn with 
great skill. The “ Mariage de Figaro ” alone 
produced to Beaumarchais 80,000 francs. 
He wrote a third play, “ Le M£re Coupable,” 
which may be considered as a sequel to the 
other two, but is inferior to them in many 





Beaumont 


Beaumont 


respects, and objectionable in a moral point 
of view. He also wrote “ Eugenie,” and 
“ Les Deux Amis.” The subject of the first 
is taken from an adventure which occurred 
to his own sister, and which he relates in his 
memoirs. Goethe has treated the same sub¬ 
ject in his drama of “ Clavigo.” At the 
beginning of the American War of Indepen¬ 
dence (1777), Beaumarchais entered into a 
speculation for supplying the colonies with 
arms, ammunition, etc.; he lost several ves¬ 
sels, three of 
which were taken 
in one day by the 
English cruisers 
in coming out of 
the river of Bor¬ 
deaux, but the 
greater number 
arrived in Amer¬ 
ica, and inspired 
the colonists with 
renewed hope. 
A mon" o t h e r 
speculations he 
engaged to sup¬ 
ply Paris with 
water and with 
fire engines. 

Beaumarchais. When the French 

Revolution broke 
out, Beaumarchais showed himself favorable 
to the popular cause, and entered into 
speculations to supply corn, muskets, etc. 
But his activity in that critical period ex¬ 
posed him to suspicion; he was accused and 
acquitted, then accused again, and. being 
obliged to run away, he escaped to England 
and afterward to Germany. He returned to 
France after the fall of Robespierre, and 
then entered into a new speculation in salt, 
by which he lost a large sum. He died in 
Paris, May 18, 1799. 

Beaumont, Francis, and Fletcher, 
John, two eminent English dramatic writ¬ 
ers, contemporaries of Shakespeare, and the 
most famous of literary partners. The for¬ 
mer, son of a Common Pleas judge, was 
born at Grace-Dieu, in Leicestershire, in 
1584. At the age of 16 he published a 
translation, in verse, of Ovid’s fable of 
“ Salmacis and Hermaphroditus,” and later 
he became the friend of Ben Jonson.. With 

Fletcher also he was earlv on terms of 

«/ 

friendship. He married Ursula, daughter 
of Henry Isley, of Sundridge, in Kent, by 
whom he left two daughters. He died March 
6, 1616, and was buried in Westminster 
Abbey. John Fletcher was born at Rye, 
Sussex, in December, 1579. His father was 
successively Dean of Peterborough, Bishop 
of Bristol, Worcester, and London. The 
“ Woman Hater,” produced in 1606-1607, 
is the earliest work known to exist in which 
he had a hand. It does not appear that he 
was ever married. He died in London in 



August, 1625, and was buried at St» 
Saviour’s, Southwark. The friendship of 
Beaumont and Fletcher, like their literary 
partnership, was singularly close; they lived 
in the same house, and are said to have even 
had their clothes in common. The works 
that pass under their names consist of over 
50 plays, a masque, and some minor poems. 
It is believed that all the minor poems ex¬ 
cept one were written by Beaumont. After 
the death of Beaumont Fletcher continued 
to write plays alone or with other dramat¬ 
ists. It is now difficult, if not indeed im¬ 
possible, to determine with certainty the re¬ 
spective shares of the two poets in the plays 
passing under their names. According to 
the testimony of some of their contempora¬ 
ries Beaumont possessed the deeper and 
more thoughtful genius, Fletcher the gayer 
and more idyllic. “ Four Plays in One,” 
“ Wit at Several Weapons,” “ Thierry and 
Theodoret,” “ Maid’s Tragedy,” “ Philaster,” 
“Ivin" and 


No 



King,” 

“ Knight of 
the Burning 
Pestle,” “Cu- 
p i d’s R e- 
venge,” “ Lit- 
11 e French 
L a w y e r,” 

“ Scornful 
Lady,” “ Cox¬ 
comb,” and 
“Laws of 
Candy ” have 
been assigned 
to Beaumont 
and Fletcher 
conjoint¬ 
ly. To Beau¬ 
mont alone 

“ The Masque of the Inner Temple and 
Gray’s Inn.” To Fletcher alone “ The 
Faithful Shepherdess,” “ Woman Hater,” 
“ Loyal Subject,” “ Mad Lover,” “ Valen- 
tinian,” “ Double Marriage,” “ Humor¬ 
ous Lieutenant,” “ Island Princess,” “ Pil¬ 
grims,” “ Wild Goose Chase,” “ Spanish 
Curate,” “ Beggar’s Bush,” “ Rule a Wife 
and Have a Wife,” “ Fair Maid of the Inn.” 
To Fletcher and Rowley “ Queen of Cor¬ 
inth.” “Maid of the Mill,” and “Bloody 
Brother.” To Fletcher and Massinger 
“False One,” and “Very Woman.” To 
Fletcher and Shirley Noble Gentleman,” 
“ Night Walker,” and “ Love’s Pilgrimage.” 
To Fletcher and Shakespeare “ Two Noble 
Kinsmen.” 


FRANCIS BEAUMONT. 


Beaumont, Gustav Auguste de la Bon- 
niere de (bo-mori'), a French publicist and 
general author, and member of the Institute, 
born Feb. 16, 1802. He early entered upon 
the legal profession, and, in 1831, was sent 
with De Tocqueville to study the peniten¬ 
tiary system of the United States. He was 
elected Deputy in 1839, and, in 1848, Vice- 





Beaumont 


Beauregard 


President of the Constituent Assembly. He 
was subsequently Ambassador to London 
and Vienna. Beaumont first became known 
as a writer by his publishing, in con junction 
with M. de Tocqueville, “ Traite du Systeme 
Penitentiaire aux Etats-Unis et de son ap¬ 
plication fl la France” (1832). Among liis 
other works may be named, “ Marie, ou F 
Esclavage aux Etats-Unis” (1835)—a 
work somewhat similar to “ Uncle Tom’s 
Cabin.” and “ L’ Irlande sociale, politique, 
et religieuse” (1839). He died in Tours, 
Feb. G,' 18GG. 

Beaumont, Jean Baptiste Elie de, a 

French geologist, born in Canon, in 1798; 
taught geology in the Ecole des Mines and 
College de France, was elected to the Acad¬ 
emy in 1835, and became, in 1850, its per¬ 
petual secretary. He died Sept. 22, 1874. 
His theory regarding the elevation of moun¬ 
tain systems has as yet found little accept¬ 
ance outside France. With Dufrenoy he 
prepared a great geological map of France 
(1840). Another work is his “Notice sur 
les Systemes des Montagnes ” (1852). 

Beaumont, Sir John, an English poet, 
born in 1583, brother of Francis Beaumont, 
the dramatist; published “ Bosworth Field,” 
an historical poem. He also wrote a poem 
in eight books, never printed, called “ The 
Crown of Thorns.” He died April 19, 1G27. 

Beaumont, Joseph, an English educator, 
born in 1615, descended from an old Leices¬ 
tershire family. In 1GG3 he became Master 
of Peterhouse College, Cambridge. Wrote 
“ Psyche, or Love’s Mystery,” a poem once 
very popular, and an attack on Henry 
More’s “ Mystery of Godliness,” for which 
he received the thanks of the university. 
He died in 1G99. 

Beaumont, William, an American sur¬ 
geon, born in Lebanon, Conn., in 1785. His 
experiments on digestion with the Canadian 
St. Martin, who lived for years after re¬ 
ceiving a gunshot wound in the stomach 
which left an aperture of about two inches 
in diameter, were of great importance to 
physiological science. He died in St. Louis, 
Mo., April 25, 1853. 

Beaumont, city and county-seat of Jef¬ 
ferson co., Tex.; on the Neches river 
and several railroads; 80 miles N. E. of 
Houston. It is an important shipping 
point; is at the head of tidewater navi¬ 
gation; anu has a variety of important 
manufactures. In 1901 it was the center 
of the large and newly discovered petro¬ 
leum fields of Texas. Fuel-oil wells were 
discovered of such capacity as made the 
Beaumont oil field one of the largest in the 
world. Pop. (1900) 9,427; (1910) 20,G40. 

Beaune, Florimond de, a French mathe¬ 
matician, born in 1601 at Blois, served as a 
soldier, and died at his native place in 1652. 


His labors and discoveries contributed 
greatly to the improvement of the modern 
analytical geometry first introduced by 
Descartes. He is well known through 
“ Beaune’s Problem,” solved with the help of 
the integral calculus by Jean Bernouilli in 
1G93, which turns on the determination of 
the nature of a curved line from a property 
of its tangent. 

Beaunoir, Alexandre Louis Bertrand 

(bon-war'), [true name Robinoir], a French 
dramatist, born in 174G. His more than 
200 comedies were very popular. Among 
the best of them are “ Love Goes A-Beg¬ 
ging,” “ Jennie, or The Losers Don’t Pay.” 
He died in 1823. 

Beauregard, Pierre Gustave Toutant, 

(bo-re-gar'), an American military offi¬ 
cer, born in St. Martin’s parish, La., May 
28, 1818; was graduated at the United 
States Military Academy and appointed a 
brevet Second Lieutenant of Artillery in 
1838; was promoted First Lieutenant and 
transferred to the Corps of Engineers in 
1839; distinguished himself in the Mexican 
War, where he won the brevet of Captain 
for gallantry at Contreras and Churubusco, 
and of Major for Chapultepec, where he 
was t wi c e 
wounded; was 
engaged in 
const ru c t- 
ing fortifica¬ 
tions on the 
Gulf of Mex¬ 
ico after the 
war, and for 
five days in 
J a n u a r y, 

1861, was Su¬ 
perintend on t 
of the Mili¬ 
tary Acad¬ 
emy. He re¬ 
signed his 
commission 
after the se¬ 
cession of 
Louisiana in February following; was ap¬ 
pointed commander of the Confederate 
forces at Charleston, S. C., and there 
opened the hostilities of the Civil War 
by bombarding Fort Sumter, on April 
11. After the evacuation of the fort by 
Major Anderson, General Beauregard was 
transferred to Virginia, where he com¬ 
manded the Confederate forces in the 
battle of Bull Run, on July 21. In March, 

1862, he was ordered to the Army of the 
Mississippi, under Gen. Albert S. John¬ 
ston, and in April following fought the bat¬ 
tle of Shiloh, gaining a victory over the 
National forces the first day, but being de¬ 
feated by General Grant on the second day. 
Failing health kept him from active duty 
till June, 18G3, when he took charge cf the 



PIERRE G. T. BEAUREGARD. 


50 




Beauregard 


Beaver 


defense of Charleston against the combined 
land and naval forces. He remained in com¬ 
mand there till April, 18G4, when he was 
ordered to Richmond to strengthen its de¬ 
fenses. On May 16, he attacked General But¬ 
ler in front of Drury’s Bluff, and forced him 
back to his intrenchments between the 
James and the Appomattox rivers. In an¬ 
ticipation of General Sherman’s successful 
march through the Carolinas, he ordered 
General Hardee to evacuate Charleston, 
which was done, Feb. 17, 1865. He at¬ 
tempted to aid Gen. Joseph E. Johnston 
in opposing General Sherman, but in April 
surrendered with the former to the latter. 
After the war he became president of the 
New Orleans, Jackson and Mississippi Rail¬ 
road Company, Adjutant-General of the 
State, and a manager of the Louisiana State 
Lottery. In 1866 the chief command of the 
Rumanian army was tendered him, and in 
1869 that of the army of the Khedive of 
Egypt, both of which he declined. He pub¬ 
lished “ The Principles and Maxims of the 
Art of War ” (Charleston, 1863), and “ Re¬ 
port of the Defense of Charleston” (Rich¬ 
mond, 1864), and was the last survivor of 
the full generals of the Confederacy. He 
died in New Orleans, Feb. 20, 1893. 

Beausoleil, Joseph Maxime (bd-sol-al'), 

a Canadian physician, born in St. Felix de 
Valois, P. Q., April 6, 1854; educated in 
Joliette College and at the School of Medi¬ 
cine and Surgery, Montreal. He lectured 
on histology in the Medical School in 1884- 
1888, and then became Professor of Materia 
Medica and Therapeutics there. In 1889 
he was elected Governor of the Provincial 
College of Physicians and Surgeons. In 
1900 he was Vice-President for Quebec of 
the Canada Medical Association. He was 
one of the editors of “The Journal of Pop¬ 
ular Hygiene,” and was subsequently for 
several years editor of the “ Medical Ga¬ 
zette ” of Montreal. Many of his papers 
have appeared in pamphlet form. 

Beauvais (bo-va) (ancient Bellovacum), 
a town of France, capital of the depart¬ 
ment of Oise, at the confluence of the Ave- 
lon with the Therain, 43 miles N. of Paris. 
It has some fine edifices, the choir of the 
uncompleted cathedral being one of the fin¬ 
est specimens of Gothic architecture in 
France. In 1443 the English besieged Beau¬ 
vais without success and in 1472 the city 
resisted an army of 80,000 Burgundians 
under Charles the Bold. On this occasion 
the women particularly distinguished them¬ 
selves, and one of them, Jeanne Laine, 
called La Hachette, seeing a soldier plant¬ 
ing a standard on the wall, seized it and 
hurled him to the ground. The banner is 
preserved in the town hall, and an annual 
procession of young girls commemorates 
the deed. Pop.* (1901) 20,300. 


Beaver (Castor fiber), a quadruped of 
the order Kodentia, or gnawers, the only 
species of its genus. It is very widely dis¬ 
tributed, being found in the N. parts of 
Europe, Asia, and America, nowadays most 
abundantly in the N. and thinly peopled 
parts of North America, dwelling in com¬ 
munities on the banks of rivers and lakes. 
It is only in a state of nature that the bea¬ 
ver displays any of those singular modes of 
acting which have so long rendered the 
species celebrated. These may be summed 
up in a statement of the manner in which 
they secure a depth of water that cannot 
be frozen to the bottom, and their mode of 
constructing the huts in which they pass the 
winter. They are not particular as to the 
site which they select for the establish¬ 
ment of their dwellings, but if it is in a 
lake or pond, where a dam is not required, 
they are careful to build where the water is 
sufficiently deep. In standing waters, how¬ 
ever, they have not the advantage afforded 
by a current for the transportation of their 
supplies of wood, which, when they build on 
a running stream, is always cut higher up 
than the place of their residence, and float¬ 
ed down. The materials used for the con¬ 
struction of their dams are the trunks and 
branches of small birch, mulberry, willow, 
and poplar trees, etc. They begin to cut 
down their timber for building early in the 
summer, but their edifices are not com¬ 
menced till about the middle or latter 
part of August, and are not completed till 
the beginning of the cold season. The 
strength of their teeth, and their persever¬ 
ance in this work, may be fairly estimated 
by the fact that they commonly cut down 
trees of the diameter of six, seven, or eight 
inches, and in some cases a good deal more. 
The trees are cut in such a way as to fall 
into the water, and then floated toward the 
site of the dam or dwellings. Small shrubs, 
etc., cut at a distance, they drag with their 
teeth to the stream, and then launch and 
tow them to the place of deposit. At a 
short distance above a beaver dam the num¬ 
ber of trees which have been cut down ap¬ 
pears truly surprising, and the regularity 
of the stumps might lead persons unac¬ 
quainted with the habits of the animals to 
believe that the clearing was the result of 
human industry. 

The figure of the dam varies according 
to circumstances. Should the current be 
ver y gentle, the dam is carried nearly 
straight across; but when the stream is 
swift, it is uniformly made with a consid¬ 
erable curve, having the convex part op¬ 
posed to the current. Along with the 
trunks and branches of trees they intermin¬ 
gle mud and stones, to give greater 
strength; and when dams have been long 
undisturbed and frequently repaired they 
acquire great solidity, and their power of 
resisting the pressure of water, ice, etc., is 




Beaver 


Beaver 


greatly increased by the willow and birch 
occasionally taking root, and eventually 
growing up into something like a regular 
hedge. The materials used in constructing 
the dams are secured solely by the resting 
of the branches, etc., against the bottom, 
and the subsequent accumulation of mud 
and stones by the force of the stream or by 
the industry of the beavers. 

The dwellings of the beavers are formed of 
the same materials as their dams, are very 
rude, and adapted in size to the number of 
their inhabitants, seldom more than four 
old, or six or eight young ones, are found in 
one of the lodges, though double that num¬ 
ber have been sometimes seen. In building 
their houses they place most of the wood 
crosswise, and nearly horizontally, observ¬ 
ing no other order than that of leaving a 
cavity in the middle. Branches projecting 
inward are cut off with their teeth, and 
thrown among the rest. The houses are not 
of sticks, and then plastered, but of all the 
materials used in the dams — sticks, mud, 
and stones, if the latter can be procured. 
This composition is employed from the 
foundation to the summit. The mud is ob¬ 
tained from the adjacent banks or bottom 
of the stream or pond near the door of the 
hut. The beaver always carries mud or 
stones by holding them between his fore 
paws and throat. Their work is all per¬ 
formed at night, and with much expedition. 
When straw or grass is mingled with the 
mud used in building, it is an accident 
owing to the nature of the spot whence the 
mud is obtained. As soon as any portion 
of the materials is placed, they turn round 
and give it a smart blow with the tail. 
The same sort of blow is struck by them on 
the surface of the water when they are in 
the act of diving. The outside of the hut 
is covered or plastered with mud late in the 
autumn, and after frost has begun to appear. 
By freezing it soon becomes almost as hard 
as stone, effectually excluding their great 
enemy the wolverene during the winter. 
Their habit of walking over the work fre¬ 
quently has led to the absurd idea of their 
using the tail as a trowel. The houses are 
generally from 4 to G feet thick at the apex 
of the cone; some have been found as much 
as 8 feet thick at top. The door or en¬ 
trance is always on the side farthest from 
land, and is near the foundation or a con¬ 
siderable depth under water; this is the 
only opening into the hut. The large houses 
are sometimes found to have projections of 
the main building thrown out, for the bet¬ 
ter support of the roof, and this circum¬ 
stance has led to all the stories of the dif¬ 
ferent apartments in beaver huts. These 
larger edifices, so far from having several 
apartments, are double or treble houses, the 
parts having no communication except by 
water. It is a fact that the muskrat is 
sometimes found to have taken lodgings in 


the huts of the beaver. The otter also oc¬ 
casionally intrudes; he, however, is a dan¬ 
gerous guest, for, should provisions grow 
scarce, it is not uncommon for him to de¬ 
vour his host. All the beavers of a com¬ 
munity do not cooperate in fabricating 
houses for the common use of the whole. 
The only affair in which they have a joint 
interest, and upon which they labor in con¬ 
cert, is the dam. Beavers also make exca¬ 
vations in the adjacent banks, at regular 
distances from each other, which have been 
called “ washes.” These are so enlarged with¬ 
in that the beaver can raise his head above 
water to breathe without being seen, and 
when disturbed at their huts they imme¬ 
diately swim under water to these washes 
for greater security, where they are easily 
taken by the hunters. 

The food of the beaver consists chiefly of 
the bark of the aspen, willow, birch, poplar, 
and occasionally alder; to the pine it rarely 
resorts, unless from severe necessity. They 
provide a stock of wood from the trees first 
mentioned during summer, and place it in 



BEAVER. 


the water opposite the entrance into their 
houses. 

At one time immense numbers of these 
animals were killed for their fur, which 
was largely used in making hats, but in 
more recent times they have suffered less 
persecution on this account, their fur now 
not being held in the same estimation. 

The beaver is about two feet in length; 
its body thick and heavy; the head com¬ 
pressed, and somewhat arched at the front, 
the upper part rather narrow; the 
snout much so. The eyes are placed rather 
high on the head, and the pupils are round¬ 
ed; the ears are short, elliptical, and al¬ 
most concealed by the fur. The skin is 
covered by two sorts of hair, of which one 
is long, rather stiff, elastic, and of a gray 
color for two-thirds of its length next the 
base, and terminated by shining, reddish- 
brown points; the other is short, thick, 
tufted, and soft, being of different shades 
of silver-gray or light lead color. The hair 
is shortest on the head and feet. The hind 






Beaver 


Bebeerine 


legs are longer than the fore, and are com¬ 
pletely webbed. The tail is 10 or 11 inches 
long, and, except the part nearest the body, 
is covered with hexagonal scales. 

Beaver, a city in Beaver Co., Ut.; on the 
Beaver river; 32 miles from Milford, the 
nearest point on che Oregon Short Line 
railroad, and 50 miles S. by W. of Fillmore. 
The city and precinct of the same name 
contain copper and lead, but the chief pro¬ 
ductions are the various cereals and wool. 
Pop. (1900) 1,701. 

Beaver, a borough and county-seat of 
Beaver Co., Pa.; on the Ohio river and the 
Pennsylvania Co.’s and the Pittsburg and 
Lake Erie railroads; 28 miles N. W. of 
Pittsburg. It has natural gas, abundant 
water power, large coal and oil shipping 
interests, a public park, National bank, 
and daily and weekly newspapers, and is 
the seat of Beaver College (M. E.). 

Pop. (1900) 2,348. 

Beaver, James Addams, an American 
military officer and statesman, born in 
lVfillerstown, Pa., Oct. 21, 1837; was gradu¬ 
ated at Jefferson College, Canonsburg, Pa., 
in 1S56; and studied law with H. N. Mc¬ 
Allister, Bellefonte, Pa., whose partner he 
afterward became. On the outbreak of the 
Civil War he was made Lieutenant-Colonel 
of the 45th Pennsylvania Volunteers. Later, 
he was Colonel of the 14th Pennsylvania 
Volunteers. He was wounded in the battle 
of Chancellorsville, and was not able to re¬ 
turn to his command till the battle of Gettys¬ 
burg. He was in active service till, at the bat¬ 
tle of Ream's Station, he was again severely 
wounded and lost a leg; and was retired 
with the rank of Brigadier-General of Vol¬ 
unteers (Dec. 22, 1804). He then resumed 
the practice of law; became Major-General 
of the Pennsylvania State Militia; was de¬ 
feated as Republican candidate for Governor 
in 1882; elected in 1887: President of the 
Board of Trustees of the Pennsylvania State 
College; Vice-Moderator of the Presbyterian 
General Assembly in 1888 and 1895; and 
member of the President’s Commission on 
Investigation of • the War Department in 
1898. 

Beaver, Philip, an English naval offi¬ 
cer; born in Lewknor, Oxfordshire, En¬ 
gland, Feb. 28, 1760. He served during the 
American Revolutionary War in the royal 
navy. After the war he undertook to es¬ 
tablish an agricultural colony on Bulama 
island, on the W. coast of Africa, and on 
April 13, 1792, left England with three 
ships and 275 white colonists, expecting 
that the latter would not only cultivate 
the soil but would do much toward civiliz¬ 
ing the negroes. The enterprise proved a 
failure and he returned to England in 1794. 
Subsequently he distinguished himself in 
the naval service. He died in Table Bay, 
South Africa, April 5, 1813. 


Beaver Falls, a borough in Beaver county. 
Pa., on the Beaver river, near its junction 
with the Ohio, and on several railroads; 7 
miles N. of Beaver, the county-seat. It has 
natural gas; good water power for manu¬ 
facturing; produces steel, iron, wire, glass 
ware, pottery, shovels, etc., and has 2 
National banks, and a property valuation 
of about $5,000,000. It is the seat of Geneva 
College (Reformed Presbyterian). Pop. 
(1900) 10,054; (1910) 12,191. 

Beaver Islands, a group of islands sit¬ 
uated in the N. part of Lake Michigan 
and interesting as the scene of a short¬ 
lived Mormon colony. The largest town, 
St. James, on Big Beaver Island, was set¬ 
tled in 1847 by James J. Strang, a Mor¬ 
mon elder who had been driven away from 
the parent Mormon community because his 
claims conflicted with those of Brigham 
Young. In the little colony which he called 
St. James, after himself, Strang exercised 
the authority of king and high priest, his 
laws being implicitly obeyed. In 1849 he 
introduced polygamy, which did not spread 
rapidly and led to withdrawals and troubles 
with the “ gentiles.” Strang was assassin¬ 
ated in 1850 and the colony dispersed. 

Beaver Rat, a name sometimes given to 
a small species of beaver, castor zibethicus 
(Linnaeus), one of the animals called musk 
rat. It is only the size of a rabbit, and 
inhabits Canada. 

Beaverteen, a cotton twilled cloth in 
which the warp is drawn up into loops, 
forming a pile, thus distinguishing the 
fabric from velvet, in which the pile is cut; 
a kind of fustian made of coarse twilled cot¬ 
ton, shorn after it has been dyed. If shorn 
before being dyed it is called moleskin. 

Bebber, Wilhelm Jakob van, a Prus¬ 
sian meteorologist and writer,born in Grieth- 
am-Niederrhein, July 10, 1841; was edu¬ 
cated at Bonn University, and for several 
years was a teacher. He became rector of 
the High School at Weissenburg-am-Sand 
in 1875. Since 1S79 he has been chief of 
the weather telegraphing department of 
the German Seewarte at Hamburg. Among 
his works are a “Handbook of Practical 
Meteorology” (1885-1880), and a “Manual 
of Meteorology ” (1890). 

Bebeerine, in chemistry, an uncrystalli- 
zable basic substance, C 19 H 21 N0 3 , extracted 
from the bark of the greenheart tree of 
Guiana (nectcndra rodicei ). In pharmacy, 
the sulphate of bebeerine is a very valuable 
medicine, being used like quinine as a tonic 
and febrifuge. It can be given with ad¬ 
vantage to patients who are unable to take 
sulphate of quinine. LTnfortunately, owing 
to the supplies of the bark being very un¬ 
certain, this drug is at times scarce and 
difficult to obtain. 






Bebeeru 


Beche 


Bebeeru, a tree, the nectandra rodicei or 
N. leucantha, variety rodicei, a species be¬ 
longing to the lauracew (laurels). It is 
called also the greenheart tree. It grows 
to about 70 feet high, and has strong, dura¬ 
ble timber, much prized for shipbuilding. 
The bark is a tonic and febrifuge. 

Bebek, a beautiful bay on the European 
side of the Bosphorus, with a palace of the 
Sultan, known as the Humayunabad, and 
built in 1725. Here also are the establish¬ 
ments for baking biscuits for the fleet, an 
American school, and a college of the French 
Order of Lazarists. 

Bebel, Ferdinand August (ba'bel), a 
German Socialist, born in Cologne in 1840. 
In his youth he was an apprentice, and, while 
learning and practicing the turner’s trade, 
he acquired a practical knowledge of the 
difficulties and disabilities of the working¬ 
men. He settled in Leipzic in 1860, joined 
various labor organizations, and became one 
of the editors of the “Volkstaat” and of 
the better known “ Vorwarts.” Membership 
in the North German Reichstag was followed 
by his election to the German Reichstag, of 
which.he was a member from 1871 to 1881, 
and which he entered again in 1S83. He is 
the leader of his party in the Reichstag. 
Bebel’s earnestness, large sympathy, and 
wide range of knowledge impress his hearers, 
although his appearance and manner in the 
Reichstag did not at first win them. These 
qualities are also characteristic of his nu¬ 
merous published books, among which are 
“Our Aims” ( 1874) ; “The German Peas¬ 
ant War ” (1876) ; “ The Life and Theories 
of Charles Fourier” (1888); “Women in 
Socialism, the Christian Point of View in 
the Woman Question” (1893). 

Bebel, Heinrich, a notable German hu¬ 
manist (1472-1518). He was an alumnus 
of Cracow and Basel Universities, and from 
1497 Professor of .Poetry and Rhetoric at 
Tubingen. His fame rests principally on 
his “Facetiae” (1506), a curious collection 
of bits of homely and rather coarse grained 
humor and anecdote, directed mainly against 
the clergy; and on his “ Triumph of Venus,” 
a keen satire on the depravity of his time. 

Bee, a celebrated abbey of France, in 
Normandy, near Brionne, now represented 
only by some ruins. Lanfranc and Anselm 
were both connected with this abbey. 

Becafico (bek-a-fe'ko), the fig eater, 
eylvia hortensis, a small bird of the warbler 
family. It is an inhabitant of the southern 
part of Europe, and principally of the Island 
of Cyprus. It is highly prized by gour¬ 
mands for the delicacy of its flavor. 

Beccafumi, Domenico (bek-a-fo'me), an 
Italian painter, born near Sienna in the lat¬ 
ter half of the 15tli century; enriched the 
churches of Sienna with many noble frescoes 
and other paintings. He drew and colored 


well, and possessed strong inventive powers. 
He died at Sienna in 1551, and was buried 
in its cathedral. 

Beccamoschino (bek-a-mos-ke'no), a lit¬ 
tle bird of the family of warblers, found in 
Italy. It is remarkable for its nest, which 
resembles that of the tailor birds, and is 
usually placed in a bush with long leaves, 
which are neatly sewed together with some 
kind of Vegetable fibre, so as to form roof 
and floor. 

Beccaria, Cesare Bonesana (bek-a-re'a), 
Marquis de, an Italian political philoso¬ 
pher, born at Milan, March 15, 1738. He 
is chiefly known as author of the celebrated 
“ Treatise on Crimes and Punishments,” 
which first 
appeared in 
1764, and ad¬ 
vocated great 
reforms i n 
criminal leg¬ 
islation. It 
passed 
through six 
editions in 
the first two 
years, a n d 
was soon 
read all over 
Europe. It 
brought, how¬ 
ever, a storm 
of persecution marquis de beccaria. 
on the a u- 

thor, who was protected by the Austrian 
governor of Milan, and made Professor of 
Political Philosophy. He died in Milan, 
Nov. 28, 1794. 

Beccaria, Giovanni Battista, an Italian 
natural philosopher, born in Piedmont, Oct. 
3, 1716; was appointed Professor of Experi¬ 
mental Physics at Turin, in 1748; author of 
a treatise on “ Natural and Artificial Elec¬ 
tricity,” “ Letters on Electricity,” etc. He 
contributed several articles to the “ Trans¬ 
actions ” of the Royal Society of London, 
and was commissioned in 1759 to measure 
an arc of the meridian in the neighborhood 
of Turin. He died in Turin, May 27, 1781. 

Becerra, Gaspar (be-thar'a), a Spanish 
painter and sculptor, born in 1520. He 
studied under Michael Angelo at Rome, and 
is credited with the chief share in the estab¬ 
lishment of the fine arts in Spain. He died 
in 1570. 

Beche, Sir Henry de la (bash), an 
English geologist, born in 1796. He founded 
the Geological Survey of Great Britain, 
which was soon undertaken by the Govern¬ 
ment, De la Beche being appointed director 
general. He also founded the Jermyn 
Street Museum of Economic or Practical 
Geology, and the School of Mines. His prin¬ 
cipal works are “ Geology of Jamaica,” 










Becher 


Bechuanaland 


m Classification of European Rocks,” “ Geo¬ 
logical Manual,” “ Researches in Theoretical 
Geology,” “ Geology of Cornwall, Devon, and 
West Somerset/ ; etc. He died in 1855. 

Becher, Johann Joachim (bech'er), a 
German chemist, born in 1G35. He became 
a professor at Mainz; was elected a member 
of the Imperial Council at Vienna, in 1660, 
but fell into disgrace and subsequently re¬ 
sided in various parts of Germany, Holland, 
Italy, Sweden, and Great Britain. His 
chief work, “ Pliysica Subterranea,” con¬ 
taining many of the fanciful theories of the 
alchemists, was published in 1669, and en¬ 
larged in 1681. He died in London, October, 
1682. 

Bechstein, Johann Matthaus (bech'- 
stln), a German naturalist, born in Gotha, 
July 11, 1757; wrote a popular natural his¬ 
tory of Germany, and various works on for¬ 
estry, in which subject his labors were 
highly valuable. In Great Britain he is 
best known bv a treatise on cage birds. He 
died Feb. 23, 1822. 

Bechstein, Ludwig, a German poet and 
novelist (1801-1860), chiefly remembered 
for “ The Legend Treasure and the Legend¬ 
ary Cycles of Thuringia” (1835-1838); 
“ German Fairy-Tale Book ” (1845, 41st ed., 
1893) ; and others. Among his epical poems 
are “The Children of Haymon ” (1830) ; 

“ The Dance of Death ” (1831) : “ New Nat¬ 
ural History of Pet Birds” (1846), a hu¬ 
morous didactic poem; and “Thuringia’s 
Royal House” (1865). Of his numerous 
novels, chiefly historical, the best known is 
“Journeys of a Musician” (1836-1837). 

Bechuanaland. an extensive tract in 
South Africa, inhabited by the Bechuanas, 
extending from 28° S. lat. to the Zam¬ 
besi, and from 20° E. long, to the Trans¬ 
vaal border. Until 1895 Bechuanaland in¬ 
cluded the Crown Colony of British Bechu¬ 
analand and the Bechuanaland Protector¬ 
ate. In that year the Crown Colony -was 
annexed to Cape Colony, and the Pro¬ 
tectorate placed under the administration 
of the British South Africa Company. The 
Protectorate, in 1900, had an area of about 
213,000 square miles, and extended from the 
Molopo river in the S. to the Zambesi, in 
the N., and was bounded on the E. by the 
former South African Republic and Mata- 
Meland, and on the W. by German South¬ 
west Africa. 

Bechuanaland is a portion of an elevated 
plateau 4,000 to 5,000 feet above the level 
of the sea, and though so near the tropics, 
is suitable for the British race. In winter 
there are sharp frosts, and snow falls in 
some years. The rains fall in summer, and 
then only the rivers are full. It is an excel¬ 
lent country for cattle; sheep thrive in some 
parts, and there are extensive tracts avail¬ 
able for corn lands; but it is not a wheat 
country on account of the summer rains. 


Though apparently subject to droughts, it 
is not more so than the Cape Colony, and 
the greater portion will be available for 
farming operations when the necessary dams 
have been constructed. It can be reached 
from Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, Durban, 
Delagoa Bay, and the Zambesi, the railway 
from the former being extended to Kimber¬ 
ley, Vryburg, Mafeking, Palachwe, Tati, and 
Buluwayo. There are extensive forests to 
the N. E., and to the W. the Kalahari Des¬ 
ert, which only requires wells dug to make 
it inhabitable. 

The enormous quantities of buck which 
roam over the land attest the productiveness 
of the soil. Gold has been found near Sit- 
lagoli, and there are indications of gold- 
bearing quartz reefs in many directions. 
Diamondiferous soil is also said to exist in 
several localities; indeed, diamonds were 
discovered at Vryburg in the autumn of 
1887. 

The Province of Stellaland is principally 
inhabited by Boers, and the remainder of 
the country by Bechuanas. The Bechuanas 
are a black race, possessing a language in 
common with the Bantu races of South Af¬ 
rica, extending as far N. as the equator. 
Their ancestors are said to have come from 
the N., and, progressing S. W., met the Hot¬ 
tentots from the Cape of Good Hope jour¬ 
neying N. The Bechuanas have divided up 
within the last 150 years, and comprise the 
Bahurutse, Bamangwato, Bakwena, Bang- 
waketse, Barolongs, Batlapins, and Batlaros. 
Each tribe has an animal as an emblem, or 
heraldic sign, which it is said they hold in 
esteem. They have since 1832 been at en¬ 
mity with the Matabele, and in later years 
the Transvaal Boers have on one pretext or 
another endeavored to occupy their country. 
During the native risings in 1878, the Bech¬ 
uanas invaded Griqualand West, and were 
in turn subdued by British volunteers as far 
as the Molopo. When the British Govern¬ 
ment withdrew from Bechuanaland in 1880, 
the natives, being helpless, were left to the 
mercy of the Boers of the Transvaal, whose 
harsh treatment in 1882 and 1883 led to the 
Bechuanaland expedition in 1884. At the 
beginning of the 19th century, the Bechu 
anas were further in advance in civilization 
than other nations of South Africa, and 
they are still ahead in this respect. The 
system of government among the Bechuanas 
would be termed in Europe, local govern¬ 
ment. All important matters are decided 
in the public assembly of the freemen of the 
town, but matters are previously arranged 
between the chief and headmen. During 
the British-Boer War of 1899-1900, Mafe¬ 
king was the scene of one of the most de¬ 
termined and successful defenses in history, 
for an epitome of which, see Baden-Powell, 
Robert Stevenson Smytii. 



Beck 


Becket 


Beck, James Burnie, an American law¬ 
yer, born in Dumfriesshire, Scotland, Feb. 
13, 1822; came to the United States when a 
youth, and settled in Kentucky; and was 
graduated at the Law School of Transyl¬ 
vania LTniversity in 1846. He practiced law 
in Lexington, Ky., for 20 years. He was 
elected a Democratic Representative to Con¬ 
gress in 1866, 1868, 1870, and 1872; and 
United States Senator in 1876, 1882, and 
1888. He died in Washington, D. C., May 
3, 1800. 

Beck, Karl, an Austrian poet, born at 
Baja, Hungary, May 1, 1817. His poems re¬ 
flect the passionate temperament of his Hun¬ 
garian countrymen in sonorous verses of con¬ 
summate finish. Among his works are 
“ Nights ” (1838 ) ; “ The Poet Errant ” 

(1838); “ Jankd ” (1842), a romance in 
verse; “Songs of the Poor Man” (1847) ; 
“ Jadwiga ” (1863), a tale in verse; “ Mater 
Dolorosa” (1854), a novel. He died in 
Vienna, April 10, 1879. 

Becke, Louis, an Australian author, born 
in Port Macquarrie, Australia, about 1850. 
He went to sea at the age of 14, and has 
spent his life trading in the South Pacific. 
His publications are “ By Reef and Palm ” 
(1895); “South Sea Stories” (1896); 
“ The Ebbing of the Tide ” (1896) ; and with 
W. Jeffrey, “ A First-Fleet Family ” (1896). 

Becker, August, a German poet and nov¬ 
elist (1828-1891) ; author of “Young Frie- 
del, the Minstrel” (1854), a lyrical epic, 
and the novels “ The Rabbi’s Bequest ” 
(1866); “Proscribed” (1868); “The Car¬ 
buncle” (1870); “My Sister” (1876), de¬ 
scriptive of the doings of Lola Montez and 
the events of 1848 in Bavaria; “Painter 
Fairbeard ” (1878) ; “The Sexton of Horst” 
(1889). 

Becker, Christiane Luise Amalie Neu= 

mann, a German actress, born in Krossen, 
Dec. 15, 1778; was the daughter of Johann 
Christian Neumann, the actor. She per¬ 
formed in both tragedy and comedy, and 
was a friend of Goethe, who, after her death, 
made her the theme of his elegy, “ Euphro- 
sine.” She died in Weimar, Sept. 27, 1797. 

Becker, George Ferdinand, an Amer¬ 
ican geologist, born in New York, Jan. 5, 
1847 ; graduated at Harvard University in 
1868; was Instructor of Mining and Metal¬ 
lurgy in the University of California in 
1875-1879; attached to the United States 
Geological Survey since 1879, and Special 
Agent of the 10t'h Census, 1879—1883. He 
was appointed a special agent to examine 
into the mineral resources of the Philippine 
Islands in 1898. His publications include 
‘ Geology of the Comstock Lode,” “ Statis¬ 
tics and Technology of the Precious Metals ” 
(with S. F. Emmons); “ Geology of the 
Quicksilver Deposits of the Pacific Slope,” 
etc. „ 


Becker, Karl Ferdinand, a German 
musician, born in Leipsic, July 17, 1804. 

He wrote “ Systematisch-chronologische 
Darstellung der Musikalischen Literatur ” 
(1836-1839) ; “Die Hausmusik in Deutsch¬ 
land ” (1840), etc. He died in Leipsic, Oct. 
26, 1877. 

Becker, Karl Ferdinand, a German 
philologist, born in Liser, April 14, 1775. 
He was the author of “ Ausfuhrliche 
deutsche Gramma tik,” “ Handbuch der 
deutschen Sprache,” etc. He died in Offen¬ 
bach, Sept. 5, 1849. 

Becker, Karl Friedrich, a German his¬ 
torical writer, born in Berlin, 1777 ; wrote 
various popular works on historical topics, 
the best known being “ The World’s His¬ 
tory for Children and their Teachers” (1801— 
1805), a truly successful undertaking. He 
died in Berlin, March 15, 1806. 

Becker, Nikolaus, a German poet (1800— 
1845), known as the author of the Rhine 
song, “ They Never Shall Obtain It, the 
Free, the German Rhine,” which became im¬ 
mensely popular throughout Germany, and 
provoked Alfred de Musset’s “ We Have Had 
it, Your German Rhine,” and Lamartine’s 
more conciliatory “ Peace-Marseillaise ” 
(1841). 

Becket, Thomas, the most celebrated 
Roman Catholic prelate in the English an¬ 
nals; born in London in 1117 or 1118. He 
was the son of Gilbert, a London merchant. 
His mother is said to have been a Saracen 
lady, to whose father Gilbert was prisoner 
in Jerusalem, having become a captive dur¬ 
ing the Crusades. The lady is said to have 
fallen in love with the prisoner, to have 
assisted him in obtaining his liberty, and 
afterwards to have followed him to London, 
where she found him by repeating the only 
two European words she knew, “ London ” 
and “ Gilbert.” So runs the legend. After 
studying at Oxford and Paris, Becket was 
sent, by the favor of Theobald, Archbishop 
of Canterbury, to study civil law at Bologna 
in Italy, and on his return was made Arch¬ 
deacon of Canterbury and Provost of Bev¬ 
erley. His claim to the good opinion of 
Theobald was founded on his skill in nego¬ 
tiation shown in a matter of the highest 
importance to England — the soliciting 
from the Pope of the prohibitory letters 
against the crowning of Eustace, the son of 
Stephen, by which that design was defeated. 
This service not only raised Becket in the 
esteem of the archbishop, but in that of 
King Henry II., and was the foundation 
of his high fortune. 

In 1158 he was appointed high-chancellor 
and preceptor to Prince Henry, and at this 
time was a complete courtier, conforming in 
every respect to the humor of the king. He 
was, in fact, his prime companion, had the 



Becket 


Becket 


same hours of eating and going to bed, held 
splendid levees, and courted popular ap¬ 
plause. In 1159 he made a campaign with 
the king in Toulouse, having in his own 
pay 700 knights and 1,200 horsemen; and 
it is said he advised Henry to seize the per¬ 
son of louis, King of France, shut up in 
Toulouse without an army. This counsel, 
however ; so indicative of the future martyr, 
being too bold for the lay counsellors of one 
of the boldest monarchs of the age, was de¬ 
clined. In the next year he visited Paris 
to treat of an alliance between the eldest 
daughter of the King of France and Prince 
Henry, and returned with the young prin¬ 
cess to England. He had not enjoyed the 
chancellorship more than four years when 
his patron Theobald died, and King Henry 
was so far mistaken as to raise his favorite 
to the primacy, on the presumption that he 
would aid him in those political views, in 
respect to Church power, which all the sov¬ 
ereigns of the Norman line embraced, and 
which, in fact, caused a continual struggle 
till its termination by Henry VIII. It has 
been asserted that Becket told the king what 
he was to expect from him; but there is 
evidence to prove his eagerness to obtain 
the dignity, and the disgust entertained by 
Henry, at the first symptoms of the real 
temper of the man whom he had been so 
anxious to promote, is against this state¬ 
ment. 

Becket was consecrated archbishop in 
1162, and immediately affected an austerity 
of character which formed a very natural 
prelude to the part which he meant to play. 
Pope Alexander III. held a general council 
at Tours in 1163, at which Becket attended 
and made a formal complaint of the in¬ 
fringements by the laity on the rights and 
immunities of the Church. On his return to 
England he began to act in the spirit of 
this representation, and to prosecute several 
of the nobility and others holding Church 
possessions, whom he also proceeded to ex¬ 
communicate. Henry, an able and politic 
monarch, was anxious to recall certain priv¬ 
ileges of the clergy, which withdrew them 
from the jurisdiction of the civil courts; 
and it was not without a violent struggle, 
and the mediation of the Pope, that Becket 
finally acquiesced. The king soon after 
summoned a convocation or parliament at 
Clarendon, to the celebrated “ constitution ” 
of which, although the archbishop swore 
that he would never assent, he at length 
subscribed, and alleging something like 
force for his excuse, by way of penance sus¬ 
pended himself from his archiepiscopal 
functions till the Pope’s absolution could 
arrive. Finding himself the object of the 
king’s displeasure, he soon after attempted 
to escape to France; but being intercepted, 
Henry, in a Parliament at Northampton, 
charged him with a violation of his alle¬ 
giance, and all his goods were confiscated. 


A suit was also commenced against him for 
money lent him during his chancellorship, 
and for the proceeds of the benefices which 
he had held vacant while in that capacity. 
In this desperate situation he with great 
difficulty and danger made his escape to 
Flanders, and, proceeding to the Pope at 
Sens, humbly resigned his archbishopric, 
which was, however, restored. He then took 
up his abode at the Abbey of Pontigny, in 
Normandy, whence he issued expostulatory 
letters to the king and bishops of England, 
in which he excommunicated all violators 
of the prerogatives of the Church, and in¬ 
cluded in the censure the principal officers 
of the crown. Henry was so exasperated 
that he banished all his relations, and 
obliged the Cistercians to send him away 
from the Abbey of Pontigny; from which he 
removed, on the recommendation of the 
King of France, to the Abbey of Columbe, 
and spent four years there in exile. 

After much negotiation a sort of recon¬ 
ciliation took place in 1170, on the whole to 
the advantage of Becket, who, being restored 
to his see, with all its former privileges, be¬ 
haved on the occasion with excessive 
haughtiness. After a triumphant entry in¬ 
to Canterbury the young Prince Henry, 
crowned during the lifetime of his father, 
transmitted him an order to restore the 
suspended and excommunicated prelates, 
which he refused to do, on the pretence that 
the Pope alone could grant the favor, though 
the latter had lodged the instruments 
of censure in his hands. The prelates 
immediately appealed to Henry in Nor¬ 
mandy, who in a state of extreme exaspera¬ 
tion exclaimed, “ What an unhappy prince 
am I, who have not about me one man of 
spirit enough to rid me of a single insolent 
prelate, the perpetual trouble of my life!” 
These rash and too significant words in¬ 
duced four of the attendant barons, Regi¬ 
nald Fitz-Urse, William de Tracy, Hugh 
de Morville, and Richard Breto, to resolve 
to wipe out the king’s reproach. Having 
laid their plans, they forthwith proceeded 
to Canterbury, and having formally re¬ 
quired the archbishop to restore the sus¬ 
pended prelates, they returned in the even¬ 
ing of the same day (Dec. 29, 1170), and 
placing soldiers in the courtyard, rushed 
with their swords drawn into the cathedral, 
where the archbishop was at vespers, and 
advancing toward him threatened him with 
death if he still disobeyed the orders of 
Henry. Becket, without the least token of 
fear, replied that he was ready to die for 
the rights of the Church; and magnani¬ 
mously added, “ I charge you in thf name of 
the Almighty, not to hurt any other person 
heie, for none of them have been concerned 
in the late transactions.” The confederates 
then strove to drag him out of the church; 
but not being able to do so. on account of his 
resolute deportment, they killed him on the 




Beckford 


Becquer 


spot with repeated wounds, all whioh he 
endured without a groan. 

The conduct of Henry., and the conse¬ 
quences of this assassination, form a part 
of English history wherein the discerning 
student will perceive the policy of the court 
of Rome, which eagerly availed itself of this 
opportunity to advance its general object, 
with a due regard to the power of Henry 
and his strength of character The perpe¬ 
trators of the deed, on taking a voyage to 
Rome, were admitted to penance, and al¬ 
lowed to expiate their enormity in the Holy 
Land. 

Thus perished Thomas Becket in his 52d 
year, a martyr to the cause which he es¬ 
poused, and a man of unquestionable vigor 
of intellect. He was canonized two years 
after his death, and miracles abounded at 
his tomb. In the reign of Henry III. his 
body was taken up and placed in a magnifi¬ 
cent shrine erected by Archbishop Stephen 
Langton; and of the popularity of the pil¬ 
grimages to his tomb the “ Canterbury 
Tales” of Chaucer will prove an enduring 
testimony. 

Beckford, William, a noted English man 
of letters; born in Fonthill, Wiltshire, Sept. 
29, 1759.' Heir to a large fortune, he trav¬ 
eled exten¬ 
sively. While 
in France he 
became ac¬ 
quainted with 
Voltaire. Al- 
though a 
hard student 
and seclusive 
in life, he 
had luxuri¬ 
ous and es¬ 
thetic tastes 
and loved to 
s u r r o u n d 
himself with 
an Oriental 
a t m ospliere. 
His residence 
while in Por¬ 
tugal was regarded as a sort of fairy pal¬ 
ace, and on liis return to England he built 
a costly home at Fonthill, where he amass¬ 
ed many treasures of art and literature. 
The unique character of this dwelling and 
its rare collections, together with the ec¬ 
centric manner of life of its owner appeal¬ 
ed to the imagination of the public and 
excited much interest and curiosity. He 
is famous as the author of “ Vathek,” an 
Oriental romance of great power and lux¬ 
urious imagination, written originally in 
French (1781 or 1782), and translated 
into English by himself, although another 
translation (by Henley) had been published 
anonymously and surreptitiously in 1784 
( ?). Among Beckford’s other writings are 


“ Biographical Memoirs of Extraordinary 
Painters” (1780), a satirical burlesque; 
“ Dreams, Waking Thoughts, and Incidents ” 
(1783), a series of letters from various 
parts of Europe; “Italy, with Sketches of 
Spain and Portugal” (1834). He died at 
Bath, May 2, 1844. 

Beckwith, Sir George, an English mili¬ 
tary ollicer, born in 1753. His scene of ac¬ 
tion was largely in America — in the United 
States, and the West Indies. He fought 
with the English in the American Revolu¬ 
tion in 177G-1782, and was intrusted with 
important diplomatic commissions in 1782- 
1791, as there was then no British Minister 
to the United States. In 1804, he was made 
governor of St. Vincent, and four years 
later governor of Barbadoes. As England 
was then at war with France, he organized 
an expedition and conquered Martinique, for 
which lie obtained the thanks of the House 
of Commons. Later (1810) he conquered 
Guadeloupe, the last possession of the French 
in that part of the world. When he returned 
to England, after nine years’ service in the 
West Indies, a set of silver plate was given 
to him bv the legislature of the Barbadoes, and 
the King conferred upon him armorial dis¬ 
tinction. He died in London, March 20, 1823. 

Beckwith, James Carroll, an American 
genre painter, born in Hannibal, Mo., Sept. 
23, 1852; was a pupil of Carolus Duran, 
and became a member of the National Acad¬ 
emy in 1894. Among his paintings are “ Un¬ 
der the Lilacs ” and “ The Falconer.” 

Beckwith, John Watrus, an American 
Episcopal bishop, born in Raleigh, N. C., 
Feb. 9, 1831; was graduated at Trinity Col¬ 
lege, Hartford, in 1852; ordained priest in 
1855: labored in Mississippi and Alabama 
till after the close of the Civil War; was 
then called to the rectorship of Trinity 
Church, in New Orleans; and while there 
was elected Bishop of Georgia, being conse¬ 
crated in Savannah, April 2, 1868. He was 
an eloquent and powerful preacher, and pub¬ 
lished several sermons and addresses. He 
died in Atlanta, Ga., Nov. 24, 1890. 

Beckx, Pierre Jean (beks), a general 
of the Order of Jesuits, born near Louvain, 
Belgium, Feb. 8, 1795. The success cf the 
Jesuits, especially in non-Catholic countries, 
was greatly due to his tact and energy. He 
died in Rome, March 4, 1887. 

Becque, Henri Francois (bek'), a French 
dramatist, born in Paris, April 9, 1837, the 
pioneer of realism on the Parisian stage, 
where he produced “ The Prodigal Son ” 
(18G8) : “The Abduction” (1871); “The 
Ravens” (1882), etc. He died in'1899. 

Becquer, Gustavo Adolfo (bek'er), a 
Spanish poet and novelist, born in Seville, 
Feb. 17, 1836. His lyrics, chiefly elegiac, 
show much feeling, and his tales and legends 
are among the best creations of modern Span¬ 
ish prose. He died in Madrid, Dec. 22, 1870. 



WILLIAM BECKFORD. 





Becquerel 


Bede 


Becquerel, Antoine Cesar (bek*er--el ') > 
a French physician, and member of the In¬ 
stitute, born in Chatillon-sur^Loittg, March 7, 
1788. In early life he served in the French 
army in Spain as an officer of engineers. In 
1815, he resigned his commission as chef de 
bataillon of the engineers, and devoted him¬ 
self to scientific pursuits. In 1829, Becquerel 
(became Professor of Physics in the Museum 
K>f Natural History. He was a voluminous 
'writer on chemistry and electricity, and bis 
industry in the collecting of facts was re¬ 
markable. His principal Works are “ Traite 
de l’Electricite et du Magnetisme ” (Paris, 
1834-1840); “Traite d’Electro-Chimie,”' 
“ Traite de Physique Appliquee la Chimie 
«t aux Sciences Naturelles,” “ Elements de 
Physique terrestre et de Meteorologie ” 
tl847)> and “Traite de l’Electricite et du 
Magnetisme ” (1855). He invented a new 
jpsychometer in I860. He died in Paris, Jan, 
18, 1878. His son, Alexandre Edmond, 
also an eminent physicist, was born in Paris, 
March 24, 1820; was decorated with the 
cross of the Legion of Honor in 1851; and 
was .appointed Professor of Physics in the 
Conservatoire ties Arts et Metiers, in 1853. 
Besides his conjoint labors with his father, 
he made important researches on the nature 
of light and its chemical effects, on phos¬ 
phorescence, on the conductivity and mag¬ 
netic properties of many substances. He 
wrote “ La Lumi&re, ses Causes et ses Ef- 
fets ” (1868). He died in Paris, May 13, 
1891. 

Bed, in ordinary language, an article of 
domestic furniture to sleep upon. Origin¬ 
ally, a bed was the skin of a beast stretched 
upon the floor; then rushes, heath, and after 
a time straw were substituted. A modern 
bed consists of a large mattress stuffed with 
feathers, hair, or other materials, with bol¬ 
ster, pillow, sheets, blankets, etc., the whole 
raised from the ground on a bedstead. The 
term bed sometimes excludes and sometimes 
includes the bedstead. In India, and other 
Eastern countries, the bed of a native, at 
least on his travels, is simply a mat, a rug, 
or a bit of old carpet; his bed clothes are 
his scarf or plaid. Bed and bed clothes he 
has no difficulty in carrying with him as he 
goes. 

In law, a divorce from bed and board, is 
the divorce of a husband and wife, to the 
extent of separating them for a time, the 
wife receiving support, under the name of 
alimony, during the severance. 

In French history, the bed of justice was 
the throne on which, before the Revolution 
of 1789, the King used to sit when he went 
to Parliament to look after the affairs of 
State, the officers of Parliament attending 
him in scarlet robes. As this interference 
of the King with the Parliament was not 
compatible with free government, sitting 
on the bed of justice came to signify the 
exertion of arbitrary power, 


Ift rheclianics, a bed is the foundation 
piece or portion of anything on which the 
body of it rests, as the bed piece of a steam 
engine; the lower stone of a grinding mill; 
or the box, body, or receptacle of a vehiole. 

Beddoes, Thomas, an English physician 
and author; born April 13, 1760, in Shiffnal, 
Shropshire; was educated by his grand¬ 
father. Hb made great progress hi School 
in classical studies, and distinguished him¬ 
self at Oxford by his knowledge of ancient 
and modern languages and literature. He 
continued his studies with success in Lon¬ 
don and Edinburgh. In his 26th year he 
took his doctor’s degree, afterward visited 
Paris, and formed an acquaintance with 
Lavoisier. On his return he was appointed 
Professor of Chemistry at Oxford. There 
he published some excellent chemical trea* 
tishs, and “ Observations on the Calcllllis/ 
“ Sea-scurvy,” “ Consumption,” “ Catarrh, 
and “ Fever.” But, dazzled by the splendid 
promises of the French Revolution, he 
offended some of his former admirers, and 
excited such a clamor against him by the 
publication of his political opinions, that he 
determined to resign his professorship, and 
retired to the house of his friend Mr. Rey¬ 
nolds, in Shropshire. There he composed 
his “ Observations on the Nature of Dem¬ 
onstrative Evidence,” in which he endeavors 
to prove that mathematical reasoning pro¬ 
ceeds on the evidence of the senses, and that 
geometry is founded on experiment. He 
also published the “ History of Isaac Jen¬ 
kins,” which was intended to impress use¬ 
ful moral lessons on the laboring classes in 
an attractive manner. After he had married, 
in 1794, he formed the plan of a pneu¬ 
matic institution, for curing diseases, par¬ 
ticularly consumption, by means of facti¬ 
tious airs or gases. He succeeded, with the 
assistance of the celebrated Wedgewood, in 
opening this institution in 1798. He en¬ 
gaged as superintendent of the whole, 
young Humphry Davy, the foundation of 
whose future fame was laid here. The 
chief purpose of the institution, however, 
was never realized, and Beddoes’ zeal grad¬ 
ually relaxed, so that he relinquished it a 
year before his death. In the last years of 
his life he acquired the reputation of the 
best medical writer in Great Britain, par¬ 
ticularly by his “ Hygeia,” in three vol¬ 
umes, a popular work which contains 
passages of extraordinary eloquence. His 
political pamphlets from 1795 to 1797 are 
forgotten. He died Dec. 24, 1808. His wife 
was a sister of Maria Edgeworth. 

Bede, or Baeda, generally known as the 
Venerable Bede, the greatest figure in an¬ 
cient English literature, was born near 
Monkwearmouth, Durham, about 673. Left 
an orphan at the age of six, he was edu¬ 
cated in the Benedictine Abbey at Monk- 
wearmouthj entering the monastery^ o£ Jar- 



Bede 


Bedford 


row, where he was ordained priest in his 
30th year. His industry was enormous. 

“ First,” says Green, “ among English schol¬ 
ars, first among English theologians, first 
among English historians, it is in the monk 
of Jarrow that English literature strikes 
its roots. In the GOO scholars who gathered 
around him for instruction, he is the father 
of our national education.” Bede wrote 
homilies, lives of saints, hymns, epigrams, 
works on grammar and chronology, and the 
great “ Ecclesiastical History of England,” 
in five books, gleaned from native chronicles 
and oral tradition. This was translated 
from Latin into Anglo-Saxon by King Al¬ 
fred. The first editions were issued from 
Strasburg in the 15th century. He died in 
the monastery of Jarrow, May 26, 735. 

Bede, Cuthbert, pseudonym of Edward 
Bradley, an English author, born in Kid¬ 
derminster in 1827; graduated at Durham 
University, and was rector of Denton, Stret- 
ton, and finally Lenton from 1883 until his 
death. He contributed to “ Punch ” and 
other London periodicals, and published the 
“ Adventures of Mr. Verdant Green, an Ox¬ 
ford Freshman'’ (London, 1855), a humor¬ 
ous picture of college life. His other works 
include “ Mr. Verdant Green Married and 
Done For” (1856); “The White Wife,” a 
collection of Scottish legends (1864) ; “Lit¬ 
tle Mr. Bouncer and His Friend, Verdant 
Green” (1873-1874); and many books of 
travels. He died in Lenton, Dec. 12, 1889. 

Bedeguar, the gall of the rose, found 
especially on the stem of the Eglantine. It 
is as large as an apple, and is covered with 
long reddish and pinnated filaments. It is 
produced by a puncture of a small hyraen- 
opterous insect, the cynips roses. It has 
been employed in cases of diarrhoea, dysen¬ 
tery, scurvy, stone, and worms. 

Bedell, Gregory Thurston, an Amer¬ 
ican clergyman, born in Hudson, N. Y., 
Aug. 27, 1817; in early life was rector of 
the Protestant Episcopal Church of the 
Ascension, New York city. In 1859 he was 
consecrated Assistant Bishop of Ohio, and 
in 1873 Bishop of that State. He wrote 
“The Divinitv of Christ,” “The Profit of 
Godliness,” “The Age of Indifference,” 
“ Episcopacy — Fact and Law,” “ A Canter¬ 
bury Pilgrimage,” “A Votive Pillar,” 
“ Memorial of Bishop Mcllvaine,” and “ Pas¬ 
toral Theology.” He died in New York 
city, March 11, 1892. 

Bedford, a parliamentary and municipal 
borough of England, the county town of Bed¬ 
fordshire, on the Ouse. The chief buildings 
are the law courts, a range of public schools, 
a large infirmary, County Jail, etc.,. and the 
churches. The town is rich in charities and 
educational institutions, the most prominent 
being the Bedford Charity, embracing gram¬ 
mar and other schools, and richly endowed. 
There is an extensive manufactory of agri¬ 


cultural implements; lace is also made, and 
there is a good trade. John Bunyan was 
born at Elstow, a village near the town, and 
it was at Bedford that he lived, preached, 
and was imprisoned. 

Bedford, Gunning, an American patriot, 
born in Philadelphia, Pa., about 1730; 
was a lieutenant in the French War; en¬ 
tered the Revolutionary army with the rank 
of Major; was wounded at White Plains; 
became Muster-Master-General in 1776; was 
a delegate to the Continental Congress; and 
was elected Governor of Delaware in 1796 
He died in Newcastle, Del., Sept. 30, 1797. 

Bedford, Gunning, an American lawyer, 
born in. Philadelphia, Pa., in 1747; was 
graduated at Princeton in 1771; became a 
lawyer; acted for a time as aide-de-camp to 
General Washington; represented Delaware 
in the Continental Congress in 1783-1786; 
and became Attorney-General of the State, 
and United States Judge for the District of 
Delaware. He died in Wilmington, Del., 
March 30, 1812. 

Bedford, Gunning S.,an American physi¬ 
cian, born in Baltimore, Md., in 1806; was 
graduated at Mount St. Mary’s, Einmetts- 
burg, Md., in 1825; took his medical de¬ 
gree in Rutger’s Medical College in 1829; 
and spent some years in special study in 
Europe. In 1833 he was appointed Profes¬ 
sor in the Medical College at Charleston, 
S. C.; subsequently was called to the Medi¬ 
cal College in Albany, N. Y.; and, in 1836, 
settled in New York city. He made a spe¬ 
cialty of obstetrics; was one of the projectors 
of the University Medical College; and in¬ 
troduced into the United States obstetrical 
clinics for the gratuitous treatment of poor 
women. His principal publications. “ Dis¬ 
eases of Women and Children ” and “ Prin¬ 
ciples and Practice of Obstetrics,” have had 
a large circulation in the United States and 
Europe. He died in New York city, Sept. 5, 
1870. 

Bedford, John Plantagenet, Duke of, 

Regent of France, third son of Henry IV. 
of England, was born June 20, 1389. He 
was created Constable of England in 1403; 
and sent to succor Harfleur in 1416. In 
1422, Charles VI. of France died, and long 
years of war followed between the rival 
claimants for the crown, Charles VII. and 
Henry VI. Bedford secured the alliance of 
the Dukes of Burgundy and Brittany, and 
obtained a long series of military successes. 
The tide turned at the siege of Orleans, 
which was raised by Joan of Arc. The Duke 
of Brittany had previously abandoned the 
English cause; the Duke of Burgundy did 
the same in 1435; and Bedford died at 
Rouen, Sept. 19, 1435. 

Bedford, John Russell, Duke of, dis¬ 
tinguished for his princely patronage of 
letters, the fine arts, and every branch of 
social industry, was born in 1766. He was 





Bedford Level 


Bee 


versed in literature, fond of science, and a 
passionate lover of agriculture; to the im¬ 
provement of which he devoted years of his 
life, and the expenditure of vast sums of 
money. Bedford was the father of the cele¬ 
brated statesman, John Bussell. He died 
in 1839. 

Bedford Level, an eastern district of 
England, comprising about 450,000 acres of 
what is called the “ Fen ” country, in the 
counties of Cambridge (including the whole 
of the Isle of Ely), Suffolk, Norfolk, Hunt¬ 
ingdon, Northampton and Lincoln. It was 
a mere waste of fen and marsh, until the 
time of Charles I., when, in 1634, a charter 
was granted to Francis, Earl of Bedford, 
who undertook to drain the level, on con¬ 
dition of being allowed 95.000 acres of the 
reclaimed land. He accomplished the under¬ 
taking at an enormous expense, and it now 
forms one of the most fertile and grain-pro¬ 
ductive districts in the kingdom. 

Bedivere, Sir, in Arthurian legend, one 
of King Arthur’s most trusted knights. 

Bedlam, a contraction from Bethlehem, 
the English hospital for lunatics described 
below. It again is from Bethlehem, the 
little town, 6 miles S. of Jerusalem, every¬ 
where and forever celebrated as the birth¬ 
place of David and of Jesus Christ. In 
the Hebrew, Beth Lecchhcm means a house 
of bread. The Hospital of St. Mary Bethle¬ 
hem was first a priory, founded in 1247, by 
an ex-sheriff, Simon Fitz Mary. Its or¬ 
iginal site was in Bishopsgate. The Priory 
of St. Mary Bethlehem, like the other Eng¬ 
lish monastic establishments, was dissolved 
at the Reformation, Henry VIII., in 1547, 
granting its revenues to the mayor, the com¬ 
monalty, and the citizens of London. They 
made it a hospital for lunatics. In 1676 the 
original buildings were superseded by those 
of the New Hospital of Bethlehem, erected 
near London Wall, the original one being 
thenceforward known as “ Old Bethlehem.” 
Finally, in 1815, the hospital was trans¬ 
ferred to Lambeth. 

Bedloe’s Island, an island in New York 
harbor; ceded to the United States Govern¬ 
ment, in 1800; the site of Fort Wood, 
erected in 1841 and mounted with 77 guns; 
now the location of Bartholdi’s colossal 
statue of “ Liberty Enlightening the World.” 

Bedmar, Alfonso de la Cueva, Marquis 

de, Cardinal Bishop of Oviedo, a Spanish di¬ 
plomatist, born in 1572. He was sent Am¬ 
bassador to the republic of Venice by Philip 
III., in 1607, and, in 1618, he took part with 
Don Pedro, of Toledo, governor of Milan, 
and the Duke d’Ossuna, then Viceroy ol 
Naples, iii a conspiracy to overthrow the re¬ 
public of Venice, by firing the arsenal, pillag¬ 
ing the mint and the treasury of St. Mark, 
and massacring the Doge and senators. The 
plot failed, and many Frenchmen and Span¬ 
iards were arrested and executed. Bedmar 


was allowed to retire. He was created 
Cardinal in 1622, was afterward Spanish 
governor of the Netherlands, made himself 
detested by the Flemings, and retired to 
Rome, where he died in 1655. 

Bednor, Bednur, or Nagar, a decayed 

city, now a village, of Mysore, India; in the 
midst of a basin in a rugged tableland of 
the Western Ghats, at an elevation of more 
than 4,000 feet above the sea, 150 miles N. 
W. of Seringapatam. It was at one time 
the seat of government of a rajah, and its 
population exceeded 100,000. In 1763, it 
was taken by Hvder Ali, who pillaged it of 
property to the estimated value of £12,- 
000,000, and subsequently established an 
arsenal here. 

Bedouins (bed-6-enz'), a Mohammedan 
people of Arab race, inhabiting chiefly the 
deserts of Arabia, Syria, Egypt and North 
Africa. They lead a nomadic existence in 
tents, huts, caverns and ruins, associating 
in families under sheiks or in tribes under 
emirs. In respect of occupation they are 
only shepherds, herdsmen, and horse breed¬ 
ers, varying the monotony of pastoral life 
by raiding on each other and plundering 
unprotected travelers whom they consider 
trespassers. They are ignorant of writing 
and books, their knowledge being purely tra¬ 
ditional and mainly genealogical. They are 
lax in morals, and unreliable even in re¬ 
spect to the code of honor attributed to them 
in poetry and fiction. In stature they are 
undersized, and, though active, they are not 
strong. The ordinary dress of the men is a 
long shirt girt at the loins, a black or red 
and yellow handkerchief for the head, and 
sandals; of the women, loose drawers, a 
long shirt, and a large dark-blue shawl cov¬ 
ering the head and figure. The lance is the 
favorite weapon. 

Bedstraw, the popular name of the dif¬ 
ferent species of galium, a genus of plants, 
order rubiacece. Of the species found in 
Britain one of the best known is the yellow 
bedstraw or cheese-rennet ( G. verum) , a 
common wayside plant, the flowers and 
roots of which afford yellow and red dyes. 
Goose-grass ( Cr. aparinc) is another well 
known member of the genus. 

Bee, the common name given to a large 
family of hymen- 
opterous or mem¬ 
branous - winged 
insects, of which 
the most impor¬ 
tant is the com¬ 
mon hive or honey 
bee (apis mellifi - 
ca). It belongs to 
the warmer parts 
of the Eastern 
Hemisphere, but 
is now naturalized in the Western. A hive 
commonly consists of one mother or queen. 



A QUEEN BEE. 




Bee 


Bee 




A DRONE BEE. 


from 600 to 800 males or drones, and from 
15,000 to 20,000 working bees, formerly 
termed neuters, but now known to be imper¬ 
fectly developed females. The last men¬ 
tioned, the smallest, have twelve joints to 
their antennae, and six abdominal rings, and 

are provid¬ 
ed with a 
sting; 
there is, on 
the outside 
of the hind 
legs, a 
smooth 
hollow, 
edged with 
hairs, call¬ 
ed the bas¬ 
ket, in which the kneaded pollen or bee bread, 
the food of the larvae, is stored for transit. 
The queen has the same characteristics, but is 
of larger size, especially in the abdomen; she 
has also a sting. The males, or drones, dif¬ 
fer from both the preceding by having 13 

joints to the an¬ 
tennae; a rounded 
head with larger 
eyes, elongated 
and united at the 
summit; and no 
stings. According 
to Iluber the work¬ 
ing bees are them¬ 
selves divisible 
into two classes; one, the cirieres, devoted to 
the collection of provisions, etc., the other, 
smaller and more delicate, employed exclu- 


A WORKER BEE. 


sively within the hive in rearing the young. 
The mouth of the bee is adapted for both 
masticatory and suctorial purposes, the 

honey being con¬ 
veyed thence to 
the anterior stom¬ 
ach or crop, com¬ 
municating with a 
second stomach in 
which alone a di¬ 
gestive process can 
be traced. The 
queen, whose sole 
office is to propa¬ 
gate the species, 
has two large 
ovaries, consisting 
. of a great number 

A worker s mouth. small cavities, 

ft, 


except the first and last, on the abdomen of 
working bees, have each on their inner sur¬ 
face two cavities, where the wax secreted by 
the bee from its saccharine food, is formed in 
layers, and comes out from between the ab¬ 
dominal rings. Respiration takes place by 
means of air tubes which branch out to all 


, f, tongue and ducts; b, each containing 16 
labial palps; c, c, para- or yj eggs. The in- 

fenor half-circles. 


> Iciuiai i 

;lossae ; d, d, first ma: 



parts of the body, the bee being exceedingly 
sensitive to an impure atmosphere. Of thf 
organs of sense the most important are the 
antennse, deprivation of these resulting in a 
species of derangement. The majority of 
entomologists regard their function as in 
the first place auditory, but they n,re exceed¬ 
ingly sensitive to tactual impres¬ 
sions, and are apparently the prin¬ 
cipal means of mutual communica¬ 
tion. Bees undergo perfect meta¬ 
morphosis, the young appearing first 
as larvae, then changing to pup®, 
from which the imagos or perfect 
insects spring. Whether the ofT- 



FEELER. 


spring are to be female or male is 
said to be dependent upon the con¬ 
tact or absence of contact of the egg 
with the impregnating 
fluid received from the 
male and stored in a 
special sac communicat¬ 
ing with the oviduct, un¬ 
fertilized eggs producing males. The further 
question whether the offspring shall be queens 
or workers is resolved by the influence*of en¬ 
vironment upon function. The enlargement 
of a cell to the size of a royal chamber and 
the nourishment of its inmate with a special 
kind of food appears to be sufficient to trans¬ 
form an ordinary working bee larva into a 
fully developed female or queen bee. The 
season of fecundation occurs about the be¬ 
ginning of summer, 
and the laying begins 
immediately after¬ 
ward, and continues 
until autumn; in the 
spring as many as 
12,000 eggs may be 
laid in 24 days. Those 
laid at the com¬ 
mencement of fine 
weather all belong to 
the working sort, and 
hatch at the end of 
four days. The lar¬ 
vae acquire their per¬ 
fect state in about 12 
days, and the cells are 
then immediately fit¬ 
ted up for the recep¬ 
tion of new eggs. The 
eggs for producing 
males are laid two 

months later, and 

those for the females 
immediately after¬ 
war d. This suc¬ 

cession of generations 
forms so many distinct communities, which, 
when increased beyond a certain degree, 

leave the parent hive to found a new colony 

elsew'liere. Thus three or four swarms some¬ 
times leave a hive in a season. A good 
swarm is said to weigh at least six or eight 



a, poison gland; b, b, 
glands: c, c, outer sup¬ 
ports^, poison bag; e, 
poison duct. 

A, sheath in which sting 
works; B, sting proper. 








Bee 


Beecher 


pounds. Besides the common bee (A. mel- 
lifica) there are the A. fasciata, domesti¬ 
cated in Egypt, the A. ligustica, or Ligurian 
bee of Italy and Greece, introduced into 
England, etc. 

The humble-bees, or bumble-bees, of which 
about forty species are found in Great 
Britain and over sixty in North America, 
belong to the genus Bombus, which is al¬ 
most world wide in its distribution. Of 
these species, solitary females which have 
survived the winter commence construct¬ 
ing small nests when the weather begins 
to be warm enough; some of them going 
deep into the earth in dry banks, others 
preferring heaps of stone or gravel, and 
others choosing always some bed of dry 
moss. In the nest the bee collects a mass 
of pollen and in this lays some eggs. The 
cells in these nests are not the work of 
the old bee, but are formed by the young 
insects similarly to the cocoons of silk¬ 
worms: and when the perfect insect is re¬ 
leased from them bv the old bee, which 
gnaws off their tops, they are employed as 
honey-cups. The humble-bees, however, do 
not store honey for the winter, those which 
survive till the cold weather leaving the 
nest and penetrating the earth, or taking 
up some other sheltered position, and re¬ 
maining there till the spring. The first 
brood consists of workers, and successive 
broods are produced during the summer. 
The experiment of domesticating different 
kinds of wild bees has been tried with no 
satisfactory results. Some bees, from their 
manner of nesting, are known as “mason 
bees,” “carpenter bees,” and “upholsterer 
bees.” Some of these bees (genus Osmia) 
cement particles of sand or gravel together 
with a viscid substance in forming their 
nests; others make burrows in wood. The 
leafcutter or upholsterer bee (genus Mega- 
chile) lines its burrow with bits of leaf cut 
out in regular shapes. 

According to the census of 1000, there are 
over 300.000 persons engaged in the culture 
of bees in the United States. The annual 
value of apiarian products exceeds $20,- 
000.000. There are 110 American apiarian 
societies, and eight journals are published 
in the interest of their work. It is esti¬ 
mated that the United States could, with¬ 
out difficulty, increase its annual bee prod¬ 
ucts to $200,000,000. The demand for 
American honey is increasing, England be¬ 
ing the chief buyer. The finest honey for 
export is gathered from hives where white 
clover and basswood are accessible, al¬ 
though golden rod and buckwheat blossoms 
afford an excellent yield. New York, 
Pennsylvania, and Vermont furnish the 
greatest quantity of comb honey, . while 
Arizona and California supply most of the 
extracted or liquid honey. 

Bee-Bird. See Kingbird. 


Beech, a tree, the Fagus sylvatica, or the 
genus Fagus to which it belongs. It is 
ranked under the order Corylacece (mast- 
worts). The nuts are triquetrous, and are 
placed in pairs within the enlarged prickly 
involucre. They are called mast, and are de¬ 
voured in autumn by swine and deer. The 
wood is brittle and not very lasting, yet it 
is used by turners, joiners, and millwrights. 
The fine thin bark is employed for making 
baskets and band-boxes. The country people 
in some parts of France put the elastic 
leaves under mattresses instead of straw. 

Beecher, Catherine Esther, an Ameri¬ 
can author and educator, daughter of Ly¬ 
man, and sister of Henry Ward, Beecher, 
born in Easthampton, L. I., Sept. 6, 1800. 
From 1822 to 1832 she conducted a school in 
Hartford, Conn.; and afterward taught for 
two years in Cincinnati, Ohio. The re¬ 
mainder of her life was devoted to training 
teachers and supplying them to needy fields, 
especially in the Western and Southern 
States. She wrote numerous works on edu¬ 
cation and on the woman question, urging 
the higher education, but opposing woman 
suffrage. She died in Elmira, N. Y., 
May 12, 1878. 

Beecher, Charles, an American clergy¬ 
man and author, brother of Henry Ward 
Beecher, born in Litchfield, Conn., Oct. 7, 
1815. He graduated from Bowdoin College 
in 1834, and had charge of Congrega¬ 
tional and Presbyterian churches, especially 
in Fort Wayne, Ind., Newark, N. J., and 
Georgetown, Mass. Among his published 
works are “David and His Throne” (1855) ; 
“Spiritual Manifestations” (1879); and 
“The Autobiography and Correspondence of 
Lyman Beecher” (1863). He died in Haver¬ 
hill, Mass., April 21, 1900. 

Beecher, Edward, an American clergy¬ 
man and author, brother of Henry Ward 
Beecher, born in Easthampton, N. Y., Aug. 
27, 1803. He graduated at Yale, studied 
theology at Andover and New Haven; was 
pastor of various Congregational churches, 
especially at Park street, Boston (1826- 
1830), and Salem street, Boston (1844- 
1855). He was president of Illinois Col¬ 
lege, Jacksonville (1830-1844),and for some 
years professor of exegesis in the Chicago 
Theological Seminary. He wrote many re¬ 
ligious books, including “The Conflict of 
Ages” (1853) and “The Concord of Ages” 
(1860); in which he explained the exist¬ 
ence of sin and misery in the world as the 
results of a pre-existent state, to be har¬ 
monized at last in an eternal concord of 
good. He died in Brooklvn, N. Y., July 28, 
1895. 

Beecher, Henry Ward, an American 
clergyman, editor, lecturer, orator and 
writer; of wide personal influence in the 



Beecher 


Beechey 


public affairs of his generation. Third son 
of Lyman Beecher and Roxana Foote, 
he was born in Litchfield, Conn., June 
24, 1813; graduated from Amherst in 

1834; studied theology in Lane Seminary, 
near Cincinnati, Ohio (his father being 
president) ; spent ten years in Indiana as 
a Presbyterian pastor, two in Lawrence- 
burg and eight in Indianapolis; and in 
1847 accepted the call of the newly organ¬ 
ized Plymouth Church in Brooklyn, N. ¥., 
where he remained in active pastorate 
until his death. Under his stirring elo¬ 
quence Plymouth Church became famous 
for its great congregation, its liberal giv¬ 
ing, and its advanced stand for reforms, 
especially as to intemperance, slavery and 
political corruption, while he became the 
favorite mouthpiece of the public on most 
important occasions He joined freely in 
the politics of the anti-slavery, Civil War, 
and reconstruction periods, and championed 
the poor, the weak and the oppressed. 
Firmly believing in the divinity of Christ, 
he was yet more liberal in theology than 
most of his clerical colleagues, and is now 
recognized as a large factor in the theologi¬ 
cal changes during and since his day. His 
powers of spiritual guidance and helpful¬ 
ness were extraordinary. His most noted 
oratorical feat was during a visit to 
England in 1863, when he subdued vast 
hostile audiences and effected a marked 
change in British opinion as to our Civil 
War. 

Beecher was always interested in farm¬ 
ing and floriculture. When in Cincin¬ 
nati he worked on an agricultural jour¬ 
nal, and his contributions both to that and 
to later periodicals treated often of such 
matters. In New York he was one of the 
founders of “The Independent” and among 
its most powerful writers before and during 
the Civil War. In 1870 he started “The 
Christian Union” (now “The Outlook”), 
and its circulation reached 136,000. In 
1869 was begun a weekly pamphlet edition 
of his sermons, and as “Plymouth Pulpit” 
it issued nineteen volumes of his discourses 
(afterward published in book-form). A 
two-volume selection of his sermons had 
been put forth in 1868, edited by Lyman 
Abbott, and from 1857 to the time of his 
death there was some form of periodical 
printing of his pulpit utterances. The 
best-known of his published works are: 
“Lectures to Young Men” (1844); “Star 
Papers” (two series, 1855-58) ; “Life 
Thoughts” (ed. by Edna Dean Proctor, 
1859); “Fruits, Flowers and Farming” 
(1864); “Eyes and Ears” (1864); “Free¬ 
dom and War” (1865); “The Plymouth 
Collection of Hymns and Tunes” (the 
pioneer book for congregational singing); 
“Norwood, or Village Life in New England” 
( 1867); “Prayers from Plymouth Pulpit” 
(1867); “Lecture Room talks” (1870); 


“Yale Lectures on Preaching” (three series, 
1872-73-74) ; “The Life of Jesus, the Christ” 
(vol. i., 1871; vol. ii., issued after his 
death, 1888) ; “Morning and Evening De¬ 
votional Exercises” (ed. by Lyman Abbott, 
1870) ; “Comforting Thoughts” (ed. by 
Irene H. Ovington, 1884) ; “Evolution and 
Religion” (1885); “Bible Studies” (ed. 
by John R. Howard, 1886) ; and, since his 
death, “Patriotic Addresses in England and 
America” (ed. by J. R. Howard, 1887), 
and “A Treasury of Illustration” (ed. by 
J. R. Howard and Truman J. Ellinwood, 
1905). He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., March 
8, 1887. 

Beecher, Lyman, an American clergy¬ 
man, born in New Haven, Conn., Oct. 2, 
1775. His ancestors were Puritans. He 
graduated from Yale in 1796, and became 
pastor of the Presbyterian Church in East- 
hampton, L. I.; then of a Congregational 
church in Litchfield, Conn., in 1810; and 
then of the Hanover street Congregational 
Church in Boston, Mass. In 1832 he became 
president of Lane Theological Seminary, 
near Cincinnati, Ohio. His influence 
throughout the country was very great, es¬ 
pecially on the questions of temperance and 
of slavery. His “Six Sermons on Intemper¬ 
ance” had a great effect, and have been 
frequently republished and translated into 
manv languages. His sermon on the death 
of Alexander Hamilton, in 1804, with his 
“Remedy for Dueling” (1809), did much 
toward breaking up the practice in the 
United States. His collected “Sermons and 
Addresses” were published in 1852. He 
died in Brooklyn, N. Y., June 10, 1863. 

Beecher, Thomas Kennicutt, an Ameri¬ 
can clergyman, son of Lyman, born in Litch¬ 
field, Conn., Feb. 10, 1824. He became pastor 
in Brooklyn in 1852, and in Elmira, N. Y., 
in 1854, where he was very influential, being 
several times elected mayor while still 
pastor. He was a very successful lecturer 
and an effective writer on current topics. 
He published in book form “Our Seven 
Churches” (1870). He died in Elmira, 
N. Y., March 14, 1900. 

Beechey, Frederick William, an Eng¬ 
lish naval officer, born in London, Feb. 17, 
1796. He entered the navy early in life, 
and, in 1818-19, took part in the great 
Arctic expeditions under Sir John Franklin 
and Sir Edward Parry. In 1821 he surveyed 
the N. coast of Africa. In 1825 he com¬ 
manded in another polar expedition, and 
the results of this voyage, which lasted three 
years, were published under the title of 
“Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and 
Bering Straits, to Cooperate with the 
Polar Expedition in 1825-28”; and 
largely contributed to the progress of 
geographical enterprise and physical science. 
He became a rear-admiral of the blue in 
1854, and in 1856 was elected president of 



Bee Eater 


Beerbohm=Tree 


the Royal Geographical Society. He died 
in London, Nov. 29, 185G. Beechey Island in 
the Arctic Archipelago was named after 
him. 

Bee Eater, in the singular the English 
name of a genus of birds, merops, and espe¬ 
cially of the M. apiaster, more fully called 
the yellow throated bee eater of Africa. It 
has two long tail feathers projecting behind 
the rest. Its general color above is brownish 
red; the forehead is pale blue; a black band 
crosses the throat, meeting a streak of the 
same color along the side of the head, the 
space thus inclosed being yellow; the lower 
parts, wings, and tail are green. 

In the plural, the English name of the 
family of meropidcc, of which the genus 
merops is the type. Residents in India have 
at times the opportunity of seeing a beauti¬ 
ful green species, M. indicus , darting out 
from among trees, and returning again, 
much as the flv-catehers do. 

Beef, the flesh of the ox or the cow, used 
either fresh or salted. It is the most nu¬ 
tritious of all kinds of meat, and is well 
adapted to the most delicate constitutions. 
It should be well cooked, as it has been 
proved that underdone beef frequently pro¬ 
duce tapeworm. Good beef is known by its 
having a clear, uniform fat, a firm texture, 
a fine open grain, and a rich reddish color. 
Meat which feels damp and clammy should 
be avoided, as it is generally unwholesome. 
Fresh beef loses in boiling 30 per cent, of its 
weight; in roasting it loses about 20 per 
cent. The amount of nitrogenous matter 
found to be present in one pound of good 
beef is about four ounces. In the raw state 
it contains 50 per cent of water. 

Beef Eater, the buphaginece, a sub-fam¬ 
ily of African birds, called also ox-peckers. 
They belong to the family of sturnidee 
(starlings). B. africana, the species 
called by way of pre-eminence the beef-eater, 
perches on the back of cattle, picking from 
tumors on their hide the larvae of bot-flies 
{oestrhlce) , on which it feeds. 

Beef Eater, a name popularly given in 
England to the Yeomen of the Guard, at¬ 
tached to the court of the English sover¬ 
eigns. Differences of opinion exist as to the 
origin of this term; but it is generally be¬ 
lieved to be derived from the French buffe- 
tier, from their ■ waiting at the royal table 
on great occasions. They were first consti¬ 
tuted by Henry VII., in 1485, and have con¬ 
tinued as a royal institution, and with 
nearly the same costume, to the present day. 

Beef Tea, a nourishing beverage for in¬ 
valids, which may be prepared from lean 
beef by chopping it small, putting it with 
some cold water into a saucepan and let¬ 
ting it simmer for two or three hours (or 
more), also skimming off the fat. Beef- 
tea is also easily and now most commonly 


prepared from the extract of beef, which is 
extensively manufactured by the large pack¬ 
ing houses of the United States. 

o 

Beef Wood, the timber of some species 
of Australian trees belonging to the genus 
casuarinci, of a reddish color, hard, and 
close-grained, with dark and whitish streaks, 
chiefly used in fine ornamental work. 

Bee Hawk, a name given to the honey 
buzzard (pernis apivorus) , which preys on 
hymenopterous insects. 

Bee Hawk Moth, the name of two Brit 
ish species of moths (macroglossa bombyli- 
fonnis and M. fuciformis ) having translu¬ 
cent wings and hairy bodies. 

Beehive Houses, the archeological name 
of primitive dwellings of unknown antiquity 
found in Scotland and Ireland. They are 
conical in shape, with a hole at the apex. 
Some of them are ascribed to the Stone Age 
by Lubbock and others, but they are more 
generally assigned to the period from the 
7 th to the 12th century. 

Beelzebub. (1) The fly-god, a god wor¬ 
shipped in the Philistine town of Ekron. 
(II Kings i: 3.) (2) An evil spirit. (3) 

Any person of fiendish cruelty, who is so 
nicknamed by his adversaries, or, in con¬ 
tempt of moral sentiment, appropriates the 
appellation to himself and cherishes it as if 
it were an honorable title. 

Beelzebul, a word used in the New Tes¬ 
tament for the prince of the demons (Matt, 
x: 25; xii: 24, 27; Mark iii: 22; Luke 
xi: 15, 18, 19). Beelzebul, not Beelzebub, 
is the correct reading in those passages, 
probably signifying lord of dung, the dung- 
god. A contemptuous appellation for 
Beelzebub, the god of Ekron, which may, 
moreover, have been, as Hug suggests, a 
dung-rolling scarabams beetle, like that wor¬ 
shipped by the Egyptians. 

Bee Moth, or 
Wax Moth, 

any individual 
of the family 
galleridce; spe¬ 
cifically, gal¬ 
leria mcllonel- 
la, the larva of 

which feeds on bee MOTH, 

wax in hives. 

Beer. See Brewing. 

Beer, Adolf (bar), an Austrian histo¬ 
rian, born in Prossnitz, Moravia, Feb. 27, 
1831. His publications include “ Geschichte 
des Welthandel” (1800-1864); “Holland 
und der osterruchische Erbfolgekrieg ” 
(1871) ; “Die erste Teilung Polens” (1873- 
1874), and other works on Austrian history. 

Beerbohm=Tree, Herbert, an English 
actor, born in London, in 1853; became a 
member of the Irrationals Amateur Dra¬ 
matic Club about 1870, and made his first 






Beers 


Beet 


success in “ The Private Secretary,” at the 

Prince of Wales’ Theater. He then played 
the spy Macari in “ Called Back.” In 1887 
he became manager of the Comedy Theater 
and produced “ The Red Lamp.” In the au¬ 
tumn of 1887, he took the management of 
the Ilaymarket Theater, where he produced 
with large success “ Captain Swift,” “ A 
Man’s Shadow,” “ The Village Priest,” 
“ Hamlet,” “ The Dancing Girl,” “ Hy¬ 
patia,” “ Mr. H. A. Jones,” “ The Tempter ” 
(1893); “A Bunch of Violets,” “John-a- 
Dreams ” (1894); “Trilby” (1895), and 
“ Henry IV.” (1890). In i897 he opened his 
new theater, Her Majesty’s, in the Hay- 
market. 

Beers, Ethel Lynn, an American poet, 
born in Goshen, N. Y., Jan. 13, 1827 ; was 
a descendant of John Eliot, the apostle to 
the Indians. She was author of “All Quiet 
Along the Potomac, and Other Poems ” 
(1879). She died in Orange, N. J., Oct. 10, 
1879. 

Beers, Henry Augustin, an American 
author, born in Buffalo, N. Y., July 2, 1847. 
He graduated from Yale in 1859; became 
tutor there in 1871, and Professor of Eng¬ 
lish Literature in 1880. He has published, 
among other works, “ A Century of Amer¬ 
ican Literature” (1878) ; “The Thankless 
Muse,” poems (188G); “From Chaucer to 
Tennyson” (1890); “Initial Studies in 
American Letters” (1892); “A Suburban 
Pastoral, and Other Tales” (1894); “The 
Ways of Yale” (1895), etc. 

Beers, Jan van, a Flemish poet (1821— 
1888) ; from I860 Professor at the Athen¬ 
aeum in Antwerp. His principal works, full 
of sentiment and melodious quality, are 
“Youth’s Dreams” (1853); “Pictures of 
Life” (1858), and “Sentiment and Life” 
(1869). 

Beers, William George, a Canadian 
dentist, born in Montreal, May 5, 1843; edu¬ 
cated in his native city. Having entered the 
dental profession, he founded the first den¬ 
tal journal in Canada, and remained its 
editor for several years. In 1900, he was 
editor of “ The Dominion Dental Journal ” 
(Toronto), and Dean of the Provincial Den¬ 
tal College, as well as Professor of Dental 
Pathology, Therapeutics, and Materia Med- 
ica, in McGill University. He wrote the 
first book on the game of lacrosse, and is 
regarded as its originator. He organized 
and captained the first lacrosse team that 
visited England in 187G, and also the sec¬ 
ond one in 1883. He is noted as a lecturer 
and public speaker, and since 1862 has been 
a constant contributor to the principal 
American magazines. 

Beersheba (now Bir-es-Seba, “the well 
of the oath”), the place where Abraham 
made a covenant with Abimelech, and in 
common speech, representative of the south- 
51 


ernmost limit of Palestine, near which it i<3 
situated. It is now a mere heap of ruins 
near two large and five smaller wells, 
though it was a place of some importance 
down to the period of the crusades. 

Beet {Beta), a genus of plants belonging 
to the natural order (Jhenopodiacece, distin¬ 
guished by its fruit being inclosed in a 
tough woody or spongy five-lobed enlarged 
calyx. Two species only are of special note, 
namely, the sea beet (B. maritima) and the 
common or garden beet {B. vulgaris). The 
former is a tough-rooted perennial, commoq 
on many parts of the seacoast of Great 
Britain, where it forms a spreading, dark 
green bush, with narrow, oblong, shining, 
rather fleshy, wavy leaves, and a stem about 
three feet high, covered with distant green 
clustered flowers. Its leaves are an excel¬ 
lent substitute for spinach, on which ac¬ 
count this plant is sometimes cultivated in 
gardens. The garden beet, or beet of gen¬ 
eral cultivation, differs from the last in 
being of only biennial duration, and in 
forming a tender fleshy root. It grows wild 
in Sicily and on the coast of Barbary, and 
by some botanists is looked upon as a mere 
variety of the sea beet. Two principal forms 
of it are known to cultivators, the chard 
beet and the common beet. In the chard 
beet the roots are small, white, and rather 
tough, and the leaves are furnished with a 
broad, fleshy midrib, for the sake of which 
the variety is grown in gardens. The leaves 
vary in color, some having white ribs, others 
being brilliantly yellow, red, orange, and 
crimson. Some writers regard this as a 
peculiar species, and call it Beta cicla or 
hortensis. The common beet includes all 
the fleshy-rooted varieties bearing the names 
of red beet, yellow beet, sugar beet, man- 
gold-wurzel, etc. They differ in the size, 
form, color, and proportional sweetness of 
the roots, but in other respects are the 
same, all requiring the same treatment un¬ 
der cultivation. 

For garden purposes the best is the red 
beet of Castelnaudary, so called because it 
is raised chiefly in a place of that name in 
the S. W. of France (La Gironde) ; its roots 
are small, deep crimson, inversely conical, 
and almost wholly formed underground; 
its leaves, too, are deep purple. Other va¬ 
rieties of less moment are the yellow Castel ¬ 
naudary, the white Silesian — very sweet, 
rather too large for gardens, but excellent 
for field culture, and much employed in the 
continental sugar districts — the green- 
topped white, and two round-rooted sorts, 
called Bassano and the round yellow. The 
former is more highly esteemed than any 
other in Italy. All these should be sown in 
the month of May, in drills, where they may 
be set off with the hoe to nine inches or a foot 
apart, according to their size. They require 
a deep, rich, light soil, and should be taken 





Beethoven 


Beet Sugar 


up in the beginning of winter, and packed 
in dry sand, or stored in pits, like potatoes, 
the succulent leaves having been first re¬ 
moved. Ked beet is principally used at 
table, in salad, boiled, and cut into slices, 
as a pickle, and sometimes stewed with 
onions; but if eaten in great quantity it 
is said to be injurious to the stomach. The 
beet may be taken out of the ground for use 
about the end of August, but it does not 
attain its full size and perfection till the 
mouth of October. When good, it is large 
and of a deep red color, and when boiled is 
tender, sweet, and palatable. 

Beethoven, Ludwig von (ba-to'ven, or 
ba'td-ven), one of the greatest musical com¬ 
posers of modern times, was born in Bonn, 
in 1770. His genius was very early dis¬ 
played, and his musical education was be¬ 
gun by his father, and continued by the 
court organist, who introduced him to the 
works of Sebastian Bach and Handel. He 
soon attempted composition, and showed 
wonderful facility in improvisation. About 
1790 he settled at Vienna, where Mozart 
quickly recognized his marvellous powers. 
When about 40 years of age, he was attacked 
with deafness, which became total, and 
lasted through life. He became, gradually, 
the victim of morbid irritability and hope¬ 
less melancholy, ending in confirmed hypo¬ 
chondria, and, finally, dropsy and delirium. 
He continued to compose, however, long after 
he had ceased to hear himself play, and 
received homage and honors from all parts 
of Europe. He died unmarried, in Vienna, 
March 26, 1827. The works of Beethoven 
are very numerous, and in every variety of 
style — orchestral, chamber music, piano¬ 
forte and vocal music. Among the most 
celebrated are the opera of “ Fidelio ”; the 
oratorio of the “ Mount of Olives ”; the 
cantata “Adelaide”; “ Sinfonia Eroica ” 
(“ Heroic Symphony ”) ; “ Sinfonia Pas¬ 

torale” (“Pastoral Symphony”); “Concertoin 
C Minor,” “ Sonata Path6tique,” and the 
“ Sonata with Funeral March,” Vast power, 
intense passion, and infinite tenderness are 
manifested in all his compositions, which 
abound no less in sweetest melodies than in 
grand and complicated harmonies. A statue 
of Beethoven, by Hulmel, was erected at 
Bonn, in 1845. 

Beets, Nicolaus (bats), a Dutch poet and 
writer, born at Haarlem, Sept. 13, 1814; 
studied theology at Leyden. After serving 
at Heemstede, near Haarlem, he was in 
1854 appointed to the pastorate of Utrecht, 
and in 1874 to the Chair of Theology there. 
Ilis poetical works have been collected (4 
vols., 1873-1881), Through the earlier 
pieces runs a strong vein of misanthropic 
sentiment, due probably to Byron, some of 
whose works he translated into Dutch (2 
vols., 1835-18371. Hi3 prose writings in¬ 


clude “Camera Obscura ” (13th ed., 1880), 
a series of tales and sketches of life and 
scenery in Holland, published under the 
pseudonym of Hildebrand; they display 
keen observation and considerable humor. Be¬ 
sides several critical works, he published in 
theology, notes on the life of St. Paul (3d 
ed., 1858), and “ Stichtelijke Uren ” (new 
ed., 8 vols., 1872). He died March 13, 1903. 

Beet Sugar, the sugar obtained Horn the 
beet; similar to cane sugar; but inferior 
in sweetening power. Beet root contains an 
average of about 10 per cent, of saccharine 
matter; sugar cane, 18 per cent. Of the 
varieties, the white Selvig beet is richest. 

In June, 1902, the United States Treasury 
Department issued a statement concerning 
the sugar consumption of the United States, 
showing that the amount had grown from 
1,272,426,342 pounds in 1870 to 5,313,987,- 
840 pounds in 1901, or from 33 to 63 pounds 
per capita in that time. Of the amount 
consumed in 1901, 985,568,640 pounds, or 
more than one-sixth, was produced in the 
United States; 852,205,760 pounds, or about 
another one-sixth, was produced in the insu¬ 
lar possessions, while the remainder, 
amounting to 3,476,213,440 pounds, or about 
two-thirds of the total consumption, repre¬ 
sented imports of the commodity. Of the 
985,568,640 pounds of sugar produced in the 
United States in 1901, about one-third was 
from beets and two-tliirds from cane, and of 
the 599,774,613 pounds of beet sugar im¬ 
ported, 484,344,004 pounds came unrefined. 

The abolition of the European beet sugar 
bounties ultimately must compel those coun¬ 
tries to seek other markets than the United 
States for the sale of their raw products, 
and it seems more than probable that the 
refiners of cane sugar will in time look to 
the culture of beets as an industry on which 
they must figure and in which it will be to 
their benefit to become interested. The an¬ 
nual statement of the American Beet Sugar 
Company furnishes ample proof of the ad¬ 
vance which has been made by the beet 
sugar industry in the United States. In 
1880 the domestic production of beet sugar 
was 357 tons, and in 1901 it had increased 
to 124,859 tons, a gain in 20 years of nearly 
350 per cent. 

In 1901 there were 52 beet sugar factories 
in the United States and Canada, each hav¬ 
ing a daily capacity of from 350 to 3,000 
tons. Of these, 17 were situated in the 
State of Michigan, 15 in the West, 4 in the 
Middle West, 10 in the States bordering on 
the Pacific coast, 2 in New York State, and 
4 in Canada. 

Other companies had been organized by 
1902 with a total capitalization of $49,000,- 
000, which would require annually an addi¬ 
tional working capital of $9,080,000, and 
L would purchase from the farmer annually 
I beets to the amount of $14,700,000, besides 




Beet Sugar 


Beet Sugar 


many other crude materials. The number 
and aggregate capital of these prospective 
plants by States were as follows: 


Arizona . 2 

California . 5 

Colorado . 7 

Indiana . 1 

Iowa . 6 

Idaho . 1 

Michigan .28 

Minnesota . 5 

Montana . 1 

New York . 2 

New Jersey . 1 

North Dakota .2 

Ohio . 3 

Oregon . 1 

Pennsylvania . 1 

South Dakota . 2 

Utah . 3 

Wisconsin .10 

Wyoming .2 


$1,500,000 

3,500,000 

5,000,000 

1,000,000 

3,100,000 

500,000 

14,900,000 

2,400,000 

500,000 

1,500,000 

500,000 

1,000,000 

1,350,000 

500,000 

500,000 

1,000,000 

2,500,000 

3,150,000 

1,500,000 


The West is particularly adapted to the 
growth of the sugar beet, it being about as 
hardy a crop as can be grown, and as the 
beet is made rich in sugar by the chemical 
effects of the rays of the sun on the leaf of 
the beet, one can readily imagine the won¬ 
derful development which can take place in 
this industry as one travels through the 
far West and the miles of arid country in 
New Mexico, Arizona, and Southern Califor¬ 
nia. All this land can be irrigated. Much 
of it is superbly located for irrigation, and 
miles and miles of it can be found where the 
soil is 15 to 20 feet deep and as black as 
ink, without a pebble as large as a pea. Lo¬ 
calities where successful beet sugar factories 
have been erected, are most prosperous. In 
Oxnard and Chino, both in Southern Cali¬ 
fornia, the American Beet Sugar Company 
has large refineries. The Oxnard factory 
has a capacity of working up 2,000 tons of 
beets daily, and the Chino factory a capac¬ 
ity of 1,000 tons. Where these factories 
are located great prosperity is found. They 
have a crop absolutely free from speculative 
influences and which is contracted to be 
sold before the seed is planted. The same 
company also has a large refinery in Rocky 
Ford, Colorado, where the beets are grown 
by some 3,000 farmers under a most perfect 
system of irrigation. The success of these 
three factories has been most remarkable. 

No industry has come to the country 
which has meant so much to our agricul¬ 
tural success as the culture of the beet and 
the manufacture of sugar therefrom. Its 
benefits are felt by all branches of trade — 
the coal mines, the coke ovens, the limestone 
quarries, the manufactories of bags and bar¬ 
rels, the producers of lubricating oils, the 
blacksmith’s shop, the manufacturers of 
chemicals and chemical instruments, the 
railroads, the laborers, and the merchants. 
From the time that the beet seed is planted 
until the standard, granulated sugar is 
produced, the beet sugar industry is of in¬ 
tense interest. In Europe, beet seed is pro¬ 
duced just as carefully as our fine stock in 


this country is bred, and in the near future 
the United States will unquestionably take 
up in a most intelligent way, the growing 
of acclimated seed, which will produce a 
far richer beet than the seed that is now 
imported. In Southern California, the beet 
seed is planted from the first of January 
to the middle of April, so that a factory 
there would be able to commence its cam¬ 
paign about the middle of June and run 
continuously till about the first of Decem¬ 
ber, while in the Middle West, the beets are 
planted from about the first of April up to 
about the middle of May, and the factory 
generally commences its campaign about the 
middle of September, running continuously 
till all the beets are sliced. 

The beets furnished a factory are gener¬ 
ally produced within a radius of between 50 
and 75 miles, those coming by wagon being 
always more desirable than those brought 
in by car, owing to the fact that they are 
fresher, and slice better. The wagons em¬ 
ployed are built large enough to hold sev¬ 
eral tons and are generally drawn by four 
to six horses. Frequently 8 to 10 horses 
are used, bringing in several wagons, one 
trailing behind the other. Before loading, 
the farmer places in the bottom of the 
wagon a large rope net, which he fastens at 
one side. Arriving at the factory, the 
wagons are weighed, then taken to the beet 
shed, where the process of Unloading is ac¬ 
complished in about half a minute. Hooks 
attached to a beam are caught on the loose 
end of the net which hangs over the side of 
the wagon, the net is drawn up and the 
beets go tumbling out on the other side into 
the beet shed. The wagons are then weighed 
again and the net tons of beets delivered by 
the farmer are placed to his credit. As 
these beets tumble out of the farmer’s 
wagon, a boy catches a basketful, which he 
takes to the beet laboratory. This basket 
is weighed to tip the scale exactly at 50 
pounds. Then the beets in the basket are 
dumped into a machine and thoroughly 
washed, and when taken out are examined 
to see if they have been properly topped, and 
if not, a boy tops them correctly. The beets 
are then put back in the basket and weighed 
oh the same scale, and the difference in 
weight is the tare that is charged up to 
the particular load of beets. Five or six of 
the beets are taken out and ground into a 
mash, which is folded in a cloth and put 
under heavy pressure. The juice taken from 
these beets, after being purified, is put into 
a polariscope, which indicates the saccha¬ 
rine contents and purity, so that the farmer 
receives for this particular load, the price 
set as specified in his contract for a load of 
beets of such a test in sugar. The farmer, 
if he desires, may employ an experienced 
tareman to see that the weights and tests 
of the factory are correct. 

The sheds of the larger beet sugar fac- 






















Beet Sugar 


Beet Sugar 


tones axe about 300 feet in length, having 
V-snaped bottoms, with slats on the sides to 
provide perfect ventilation. Underneath is 
a water-tight canal about two and one-half 
ieet wide and two feet deep, which has a 
gradual falx from the farther end of the 
shed to the washdiouse of the factory. 
Movable slats cover the canal, and when it 
is desired to empty the shed and send the 
beets into the factory the water is turned 
on, the slats removed, and the beets are 
floated into the wash-house. After all the 
dirt has been taken otf the beets are thrown 
into an endless chain elevator, which car¬ 
ries them to the top of the house and dumps 
them into an automatic scale, which opens 
and sliuts itself and registers their weight as 
they pass through into the slicer. Here the 
beets are cut up into * cossettes,” which are 
pieces about as long as a lead pencil and cut 
in a V-shape, so as to open up all the little 
octagon cells in the beet, which are full of 
tlie sweet substance going to make sugar. 
From the slicer, the cossettes are carried to 
iron receptacles, somewhat resembling large 
bottles. These receptacles are 14 in number 
and are called the “ diffusion battery.” They 
are arranged either in a circular form or in 
a straight line, and each receptacle is so 
made that it can be opened at both the top 
and the bottom, which is covered with a 
wire sieve. 

After the battery has been filled with cos¬ 
settes, the tops are securely fastened. Pure 
water, which is forced in at the top of the 
first cell, is carried down through the cos¬ 
settes and through the sieve at the bottom, 
where it is forced through a steam coil into 
the top of cell No. 2. Here it goes through 
the same process, and passes through all the 
14 cells into a receiving tank. As cell No. 1 
has had 14 times as much water pass 
through it as the last cell, it is now cut out 
of the battery, the bottom opened, and the 
cossettes allowed to drop out. The cell is 
then closed, filled with new cossettes, and 
now becomes cell No. 14. And so on, night 
and day, these cells open and shut, the idea 
being that the water going through the 
little open cells of the beets, melts and car¬ 
ries with it all of the sweet matter. The 
liquid which goes into the receiving tank is 
about the color of vinegar, and contains not 
only the sugar in a liquid form, but some 
impurities. To get rid of these impurities 
the liquid is carried along to a tank where 
about 10 per cent, of milk of lime is mixed 
with it, carefully stirred, and then carried 
along to a carbonation tank. The milk of 
lime employed is very pure and high in car¬ 
bonate of lime and when mixed causes the 
lime to crystallize. The liquid now is car¬ 
ried into a filter press, which is made up of 
a long series of iron frames operated by hy¬ 
draulic pressure. The lime, which has taken 
up much of the impurities, is removed thus, 
and when discharged has an appearance re¬ 


sembling putty. The liquor, which is ren¬ 
dered clear and transparent, now undergoes 
a second similar operation, except that it is 
mixed with a smaller percentage of milk of 
lime. 

From this point it is carried to what is 
known as the sulphuring station, where sul¬ 
phur is introduced to remove any impurities 
which may still remain. The liquid is now 
sent to concentrators, usually known as 
quadruple effect evaporators. On entering 
the evaporators the juice is thin, containing 
about 14 per cent, of solid matter, and on 
leaving them, is known as thick juice, con¬ 
taining about G2 to 05 per cent, solid mat¬ 
ter. This thick juice is again treated for 
the removel of impurities and is given a 
final filtering through what are called me¬ 
chanical filters before going to the final con¬ 
centration process, wherein it is reduced by 
boiling to a thick mass, containing about 
one-half crystallized sugar and molasses. 
This operation is carried on in a vacuum 
“ pan,” the boiling under vacuum assisting 
in the formation of the crystals. 

This mass, as it comes from the pan is 
ready for the separation of the molasses 
from the crystallized sugar, which is effect¬ 
ed in what is known as a centrifugal ma¬ 
chine which is similar to that used in cream¬ 
eries, for separating the cream from the 
milk, or, to better describe it, is a large 
metal basket, the sieve of which is very 
fine. This basket sets inside of a larger 
iron receptacle. When the raw sugar 
is dropped into this basket the inner 
basket is revolved at the rate of 
1,000 to 1,100 revolutions a minute, which 
permits the sugar to travel at about the 
rate of three miles a minute. By these 
rapid revolutions of the inner basket, the 
mass of raw sugar runs up around the sides 
of this sieve, and the liquid, part of which 
is molasses, forces its way out through the 
little holes, leaving in the inner basket a 
crystallized sugar. After several minutes the 
process of washing takes place, which is 
done while the centrifugal is revolving, by 
allowing water and compressed air, which is 
pushed through a hose pipe, to force out of 
the end of the pipe a moist fog, as it were. 
This washes each of the little crystals, and 
passes out through the little pin holes of the 
sieve and leaves the sugar absolutely white. 
When this operation is finished the sugar is 
damp like snow. The centrifugal is stopped, 
the botjOm of it is opened, and the damp 
sugar is dropped out into a large receptacle 
where it is conducted to a bucket elevator 
and carried up to what is called a drying 
room or granulator. This granulator re¬ 
sembles a big boiler, which is placed in a 
slanting position so that one end, where the 
sugar enters, is a foot higher than the end 
where the sugar is discharged. 

The granulator has in it little ribs, and 
is revolved at about the rate of two revolu* 




Beet Sugar 


Beggars 


tions a minute. The purpose of the ribs in 
the granulator is to permit of carrying the 
damp sugar as the granulator revolves, till 
by its own weight it drops off onto a steam 
cylinder which revolves more rapidly, so 
that the sugar will be immediately thrown 
off of the steam cylinder again and not al¬ 
lowed to be burned. Each time the sugar 
drops off the steam cylinder it is carried 
up again by the ribs and drops on the 
cylinder till it gets down to the lower end 
of the granulator, when it is perfectly dry 
and passes through different meshes of 
sieves, thereby making a fine and a coarse 
granulated sugar. While the granulator is 
revolving, there is a heavy hammer which 
constantly hits the top, preventing any of 
the sugar sticking to the sides. As the 
sugar passes out through the sieve, it is 
caught in 100-pound sacks, when it is ready 
for the market. The operation from the 
time the beets go into the washer till the 
granulated sugar is produced, occupies a pe¬ 
riod of about 3G hours. 

A well conducted beet sugar refinery has 
absolute control over the workings of the 
house by having the beets and the cossettes 
sampled at each different operation. There 
are boys employed to take samples of the 
juice to the laboratory, where chemists are 
continuously testing them, thereby deter¬ 
mining just where sugar is lost. The labo¬ 
ratory in a well managed beet sugar re¬ 
finery is a most interesting place, and the 
entire operation of making sugar from beets 
is one requiring careful study and scientific 
methods of work in every department dur¬ 
ing the entire process. 

The cossettes which are dropped down 
from the iron cells are carried along and 
elevated into a hydraulic press, where they 
are subjected to a great pressu. e. All the 
water is squeezed out and they are dis¬ 
charged into a receptacle, which carries 
them along and deposits them on the outside 
of the factory, where the farmers take them 
away as beet pulp. This pulp makes a most 
desirable fodder for cattle, and can be used 
for feed when fresh, or can be put in silos 
and allowed to ferment, when it takes on 
other chemical properties that make it far 
more valuable as a cattle food than when 
fresh. This is especially so when the fac¬ 
tory is located in a section of the country 
where the weather is cold, as the fermented 
pulp will not freeze and in such state is 
more desirable as feed. Cattle have to learn 
to eat this pulp, but when they do so, they 
are ravenous for it, and take on a good 
quality of flesh very rapidly. The lime cake 
becomes a very valuable fertilizer and is de¬ 
posited outside the factory where the farmers 
may get it and take it away free of charge. 

in the season of 1009-1910 the beet-sugar 
production of the world was estimated at 
0,185,000 long tons. Germany led with 


2,020,000 tons, Austria, Russia, and France 
followed, with 1,269,100, 1,169,150, and 

822,500 tons respectively. The United States 
had 384,010 tons. The cane sugar output 
in 1909-1910 was 8,560,000 tons. Cuba pro- 
duced 1,800,000 tons; Java, 1,150,000; 
Hawaii, 475,000; Brazil, 275,000; Porto 
Rico, 270,000; Louisiana, 330,000; and 
Mauritius, 225,000. The total sugar prod¬ 
uct has been: 


1000-10 1101-02 1000-01 

Beet sugar. 6,185,000 6.825.000 6 046,518 

Cane sugar... 8,560,000 3,580 000 3,100,801 


Totals.14,745,000 10,355,000 9,147,319 


The beet sugar industry was started by 
Marggraf, in Germany, in 1747, who was 
the first to discover that sugar could be ex¬ 
tracted from the common beet. The first 
factory for its manufacture was erected by 
Arcliard, at Kunern, in Silesia, in 1802. 
Napoleon isued an imperial decree in the 
early part of his reign establishing this in¬ 
dustry in France, and in 1812 he ordered 
the building of 10 factories and placed De- 
lessert in charge of their construction. In 
1830 attempts were made in the United 
States to introduce the cultivation of the 
sugar beet. It was not, however, till 1876 
that the first successful beet sugar factory 
was built, being erected in Alvarado, Cal. 
See Sugar. 

Beggar=my=Neighbor, a game at cards, 
usually played by two persons, who share 
the pack, and, laying their shares face down¬ 
ward, turn up a card alternately until an 
honor appears. The honor has to be paid 
for by the less fortunate player at the rate 
of four cards for an ace, three for a king, 
two for a queen, and one for a knave; but 
if in the course of payment another honor 
should be turned up, the late creditor be¬ 
comes himself a debtor to the amount of its 
value. 

Begg, Alexander, a Canadian author, 
born in Quebec, July 19, 1840; educated in 
Aberdeen, Scotland, and in St. John’s, P. Q. 
He was the pioneer of Canada trade (1867), 
in Manitoba, and in the Northwest Terri¬ 
tories. During the rebellion of 1869, he ad¬ 
vocated representative government for the 
people. In 1878-1884 he was deputy treas¬ 
urer of the Province of Manitoba. He was 
commissioner for Manitoba to the Domin¬ 
ion Exhibition in 1879, and had charge of 
the Manitoba exhibits through Ontario, 
Quebec, and the Maritime Provinces in 
1879-1880. His works include “ Dot it 
Down,” “ The Creation of Manitoba,” “ A 
Story of the Saskatchewan,” “ A Practical 
Guide to Manitoba,” “ Ten Years in Win¬ 
nipeg,” “ A History of the Northwest ” (3 
vols.), etc. 

Beggars, a term first applied to the 300 
Protestant deputies under Henri de Breder- 
ode and Louis de Nassau, who protested 
against the establishment of the Inquisition 










Begging the Question 


Beg-Shehr 


in Holland, in April, 15GG. The Dutch pa¬ 
triots assumed this designation when they 
rebelled against Spain in 1572. 

Begging the Question, assuming a prop¬ 
osition which, in reality, involves the con¬ 
clusion. Thus, to say that parallel lines will 
never meet because they are parallel, is 
simply to assume as a fact the very thing 
you profess to prove. The phrase is a trans¬ 
lation of the Latin term, petitio principii, 
and was first used by Aristotle. 

Beghards, Beguards, or Bogards, vari¬ 
ous spellings of a name said by some to be 
derived from their begging favor from God 
in prayer, and to the fact that they were 
religious mendicants. Another opinion is 
that they are named after St. Begghe, whom 
they took for their patroness. Skeat con¬ 
fidently suggests the Namur dialectic word 
beguiaut — a stammer, as the real etymol¬ 
ogy- 

in general Church history, “ the tertia- 
ries” of several monastic orders, Dominicans 
and Franciscans. In a special sense, the ter- 
tiaries of the Franciscans. By the third 
rule of St. Francis, those might have a cer¬ 
tain loose connection with this order, who, 
without forsaking their worldly business, or 
forbearing to marry, yet dressed poorly, 
were continent, prayerful, and grave in man¬ 
ners. In France they were called Beguini, 
and in Italy, Bizochi, and Bocasoti. They 
were greatly persecuted by successive Popes. 

The name was also applied to certain re¬ 
ligious people who associated themselves 
into a kind of monastic lodging house under 
a chief, while they were unmarried, retiring 
when they pleased. As they often supported 
themselves by weaving, they were sometimes 
called “ Brother Weavers.’’ They first at¬ 
tracted notice in the Netherlands in the 13th 
century. They were established at Antwerp 
in 1228, and adopted the third rule of St. 
Francis in 1290. 

Begin, Louis Nazaire, a Canadian cler¬ 
gyman ; educated at the College of St. Mi¬ 
chael de Bellechasse, the Seminary of Que¬ 
bec, Laval University, and the Grand Sem¬ 
inary of Quebec. About the time of his 
graduation from the last institution, its 
trustees decided to found a theological de¬ 
partment in connection with Laval Univer¬ 
sity, and it was their wish that the faculty 
of this theological school should be educated 
in Rome. Therefore, Dr. Begin, who had 
been elected a member of the faculty, was 
sent to Rome in 18G3, and remained abroad 
till 1868. During this time, he traveled ex¬ 
tensively and studied many branches of the¬ 
ology. On his return to Quebec, he was ap¬ 
pointed Professor of Dogmatic Theology and 
Ecclesiastical History in Laval University. 
He held this chair till 1884. He became 
Principal of the Laval Normal School in 
1885; was appointed Bishop of Chicoutimi 
in 1888; Coadjutor to Cardinal Tasehereau, 


with the title of Archbishop of Cyrene, in 
1891; and in 1894 became Administrator of 
the Province of Quebec. His works include 
“ La Primaute et l’lnfaillibite des Souver- 
ains Pontifes,” “La Sainte Ecrituie et la 
Regie de Foi ” (1874); “ Le Culte Cathol- 
ique ” (1875), etc. 

Beglerbeg, the title among the Turks of 
a governor who has under him several begs, 
or beys, agas, etc. 

Begon, Michel, a French administrator, 
born in Blois, France, 1638. He was a naval 
officer, and successively Intendant of the 
French West Indies, of Canada, of Roche¬ 
fort, and La Rochelle. He is celebrated for 
his love of science, and the well known genus 
of plants, begonia, was named in his honor. 
He died in Rochefort, France, March 4, 
1710. 

Begonia, a genus of plants, the typical 
one of the order bcgoniacece (begoniads). 



BEGONIA BEX. 


Several species are cultivated in greenhouses, 
in flower pots, in houses, and in similar 
situations. 

Begoniaceae (Latin), Begoniads (Eng¬ 
lish), an order of plants, classed by Lindley 
under his 24th, or cucurbital, alliance. The 
flowers are unisexual. The sepals superior, 
colored; in the males four, two being within 
the others and smaller than them; in the 
females five, two being smaller than the 
rest. The stamina are indefinite; the ovary 
is inferior, winged, three-celled, with three 
double polyspermous placentae in the axis. 
The fruit is membranous, three-celled, with 
an indefinite number of minute seeds. The 
flowers, which are in cymes, are pink; the 
leaves are alternate, and toothed with scari- 
ous stipules. Genera, 2; species, 159 (Lind¬ 
ley, 1847). Localities, the East and West 
Indies, etc. 

Beg=Sh6hr ( shar), or Kereli Gol, arc 
extensive mountain lake, in Asia Minor, 44 
miles S. W. of Konia, situated almost 3,700 
feet above the sea. It is over 30 miles long, 
and from 5 to 10 miles broad, and contains 
several islands. Its only visible outlet is a 




Beguines 


Behm 


rivulet connecting it with the much smaller 
lake, Soghla Gol, the waters of which oc¬ 
casionally disappear altogether; and it is 
evident that a great part is carried off 
through subterranean channels in the lime¬ 
stone range of the Taurus. On its E. and 
N. shores are the towns of Begshehr and 
Kereli. 

Beguines (beg-en'), Beguins, or Be=* 

guin<e. (1) The females who acted on the 
third rule of St. Francis, and corresponded 
to the Begliards, or Beguins, of the other sex. 
They were called also Beguttae. (2) Asso¬ 
ciations of praying women which arose in 
the Netherlands in the 13th century, the 
first being formed at Nivelles, in Brabant, 
in a. d. 1226, and spread rapidly in the ad¬ 
joining countries. They said they originated 
from a certain St. Begga, Duchess of Bra¬ 
bant, in the 7 th century ; while their en¬ 
emies affirm that they were founded by 
Lambert le Begue, a priest of Liege, in the 
12th century. Mosheim rejects both state¬ 
ments. They used to weave cloth, live to¬ 
gether under a directress, and leave on 
being married, or indeed whenever they 
pleased. They still exist in some of the Bel¬ 
gian towns, notably at Ghent, where they 
are renowned as makers of lace, though un¬ 
der different rules from those formerly ob¬ 
served. 

Beguins (beg-an'), the French name for 
the religious men called by the Germans 
Beghards. Used (1) of the Franciscan ter- 
tiaries; and (2) especially of the praying 
men established in the Netherlands in the 
13th century in imitation of the similar in¬ 
stitution for the other sex commenced by 
the Beguines. 

Begum (a feminine form corresponding 
to beg, or bey), an Indian title of honor 
equivalent to princess, conferred on the 
mothers, sisters, or wives of native rulers. 
The Begum of Ouuh is well known in Indian 
history. 

Behaim, or Behem, Martin, a German 
mathematician and astronomer, born in 
Nuremberg about 1430. He went from Ant¬ 
werp to Lisbon with a high reputation in 
1480, sailed in the fleet of Diego Cam on a 
voyage of discovery (1484—1486), and ex¬ 
plored the islands on the coast of Africa as 
far as the Kongo. He colonized the Island 
of Fayal, where he remained for several 
years, and assisted in the discovery of the 
other Azores; was afterward knighted, and 
returned to his native country, where, in 
1492, he constructed a terrestrial globe, still 
preserved. He died in Lisbon in 150o. 

Beham, Bartel, a German painter and en¬ 
graver, born in Nuremberg in 1496; stud¬ 
ied painting under Albert Diirer and latci 
in Italy, and engraving under Marc Antonia 
Raimondi. Among his paintings are “Christ 
Bearing the Cross,” “ A Woman Raised from 


the Dead by the True Cross,” and “ Marcus 
Curtius Leaping into the Gulf.” Among his 
prints are a portrait of William, Duke of 
Bavaria,” “ Adam, Eve, and Death Before a 
Tree,” “The Virgin Suckling a Child,” 

“ Lucretia,” “ Cleopatra,” “ Apollo Causing 
Marsyas to be Flayed,” and “ Christ Giving 
His Charge to Saint Peter.” He died in 
Rome, Italy, in 1540. 

Beham, Hans Sebald, a German en¬ 
graver, born in Nuremberg, in 1500; studied 
under Bartel Beham, his uncle, and later 
under Albert Diirer. His only oil painting 
represents scenes from the life of David. 
His prints include “ Adam and Eve in Para¬ 
dise,” “ The Virgin Suckling the Child,” 

“ The Death of Dido,” “ Adam and Eve,” 
with a stag behind them; “ Adam and Eve 
in Paradise: the Serpent Presenting the Ap¬ 
ple,” “ Death Seizing a Young Woman,” 
eight prints of the “ Passion of Christ,” and 
“ Triumphal Entry of Charles V. into Mun¬ 
ich.” He died in Frankfort in 1550. 

Behar, a province of Hindustan, in Ben¬ 
gal, area 44,186 square miles. It is gener¬ 
ally flat, and is divided into almost equal 
parts by the Ganges, the chief tributaries of 
which in the province are the Gogra, Gan- 
dak, Kusi, Mahananda, and Soane. There 
is an extensive canal and irrigation system. 
Opium and indigo are largely produced. It 
is the most densely peopled province of In¬ 
dia; pop. (1901) 24.241,305; capital, Patna. 
The town of Behar, in the Patna district, 
contains some ancient mosques and the ruins 
of an old fort; it is a place of large trade. 
Pop. (1901) 44,984. 

Behemoth, the animal described in Job 
xl: 15-24. It is probably the hippopotamus, 
which, in the time of Job, seems to have been 
found in the Nile below the cataracts, 
though now it is said ,to occur only above 
them. A second opinion entertained is that 
Job’s behemoth was the elephant; while a 
few scholars make the less probable conjec¬ 
ture that it was the rhinoceros. 

Behistun, or Bisutun, a mountain near 
a village of the same name in Persian Kur¬ 
distan, celebrated for the sculptures and 
cuneiform inscriptions cut upon one of its 
sides — a r ock rising almost perpendicularly 
to the height of 1,700 feet. These works, 
which stand about 300 feet from the ground, 
were executed by the orders of Darius I., 
King of Persia, and set forth his genealogy 
and ^victories. To receive the inscriptions, 
the rock was carefully polished and coated 
with a hard, siliceous varnish. Their prob¬ 
able date is about 515 b. c. They were first 
copied and deciphered by Rawlinson. 

Behm, Ernst (bam), a German geog¬ 
rapher, born in Gotha, Jan. 4, 1830. In 1856 
he became Dr. Petermann’s chief assistant in 
editing the famous geographical periodical, 
“ Mitteilungen,” to the editorship of which 




Elehmeri 


Bekker 


Tie succeeded on liis chief’s death ill 1878. In 
1872 he commenced, in conjunction with H. 
Wagner, the useful “ Population of the 
Earth” (vol. vii, 1882), intended as a sta¬ 
tistical supplement to the “ Mitteilungen;” 
and from 1876 he undertook the statistical 
department of the “ Ahnanach de Gotha.” 
His more extended writings of this nature 
are marked by fullness, accuracy, and 
marked lucidity of arrangement. He died 
in Gotha, March 15, 1884. 

Behmen. See Boehme, Jakob. 

Behn (ban), Aphra, or Afra, or Aphara, 

an English author, born in Wye, in 1640. 
Early in life she spent several years in the 
West Indies, where she met the Indians, who 
became the model of her famous “Oroonoko.” 
She was the first woman writer in England 
who earned a livelihood by her pen. Her 
dramatic works include “ The Forced Mar¬ 
riage ” (1671); “The Amorous Prince” 

(1671) ; “ The Dutch Lover ” (1673) ; “ Ab- 
delazar ” (1677); “The Rover” (1677); 
“The Debauchee” (1677); “The Town 
Fop ” (1677) ; « The False Count ” (1682). 
She also wrote “Poems” (1684), etc. She 
died in London, April 16, 1689. 

Behring, another spelling of Bering (q. 
v.). 

Beige, a light, woolen fabric, made of 
wool of the natural color; that is, neither 
dyed nor bleached. 

Beilan, a town and pass in the 1ST. of 
Svria, on the Gulf of Iscanderoon. The 
pass has more than once been of military im¬ 
portance, and was in 1832 the scene of a 
battle between Turks and Egyptians. The 
town, 1,584 feet above the Mediterranean, 
has 5,000 inhabitants. 

Beira (ba-e-ra'), a Province of Portugal, 
between Spain and the Atlantic, and bounded 
by the Douro on the N., and by the Tagus 
and Estremadura on the S. Area, 9,248 
square miles. Pop. (1900) 1,518,406. Chief 
town, Coimbra. It is mountainous and well 
watered. The heir apparent of the crown 
is styled Prince of Beira. 

Beirut. See Beyrout. 

Beissel, Johann Conrad, a German mys¬ 
tic, born in Eberbaeli, in 1690. He settled 
in Pennsylvania in 1720, and established the 
German Seventh-Day Baptists, at Ephrata, 
in 1728. He died in Ephrata, in 1768. 

Beitzke, Heinrich Ludwig (blt'ske), a 
German historian, born in Muttrin, Feb. 15, 
1798. His publications include “History of 
the German War for Freedom” (1855); 
“History of the Russian War — Year of 
1812 ” (1856) ; “ History of the Year 1815 ” 
(1865), etc. He died in Berlin, May 10, 
1867. 

Bejapoor, a ruined city of Hindustan, in 
the Bombay Presidency, near the borders of 
the Nizam’s dominions, on an affluent of the 
Krishna. It was one of the largest cities in 


India until its capture by Aurungzebe in 
1686. The ruins, of which some are in the 
richest style of Oriental art, are chiefly Mo¬ 
hammedan, the principal being Mahomet 
Shah’s tomb, with a dome visible for 14 
miles, and a Hindu temple in the earliest 
Brahminical style. Pop. 13,245. 

Beke, Charles Tilstone, an English geog¬ 
rapher, explorer, and author, born in Lon¬ 
don, Oct. 10, 1800. In 1834 he published 
“ Origines Biblicse; or, Researches in Prime¬ 
val History,” one of the first attempts to 
reconstruct history on the principles of the 
young science of geology. His historical and 
geographical studies of the East led him to 
consider the great importance of Abyssinia 
for commercial and other intercourse with 
Central Africa; and he accordingly pro¬ 
ceeded to Shoa, in South Abyssinia, which 
he reached in the beginning of 1851. 
Thence, he went alone into the interior, 
where he explored God jam and the countries 
lying to the W. and S., previously almost 
entirely unknown to Europeans. The result 
of these researches was published in “ A 
Statement of Facts” (1st ed., London, 
1845). On his return to Europe, there ap¬ 
peared, successively, from his pen, “ An Es¬ 
say on the Nile and its Tributaries” (Lon¬ 
don, 1847) ; “On the Sources of the Nile in 
the Mountains of the Moon” (1848) ; “On 
the Sources of the Nile” (1849) ; and “ M6- 
moire Justificatif en Rehabilitation des 
PSres Paez et Lobo ” (Paris, 1848). Among 
his other works are “ On the Geographical 
Distribution of Languages in Abyssinia ” 
(Edinburgh. 1849); and “The Sources of the 
Nile, with the History of Nilotic Discovery ” 
(London, 1860). He left England, in No¬ 
vember, 1865, on a fruitless mission to ob¬ 
tain the release of his fellow countrymen in 
Abyssinia, and published “ The British Cap¬ 
tives in Abyssinia ” in 1867. He died in 
London, July 31, 1874. 

Bekker, Elizabeth, a Dutch novelist, 
born in Vlissingen, July 24, 1738; married 
to Adriaan Wolff, a Reformed Church min¬ 
ister at Beemster, who died in 1777; she 
lived afterward in closest friendship with 
Agathe Deken, who also collaborated in her 
most important works, to wit: “History of 
Sara Burgerhart ” (1782): “History of 
William Leevend ” (1784-1785); “Letters 
of Abraham Blankaart ” (1787-1789); 

“ Cornelia Wildschut ” (1793-1796). She 
died in The Hague, Nov. 5, 1804. 

Bekker, Immanuel, a German scholar 
distinguished by his recensions of the texts 
of Greek classics, born in Berlin, May 21, 
1785; studied in Halle, and, in 1811, became 
Professor of Philology in his native city. 
The results of his researches in the libraries 
of France, Italy, England, and Germany, ap¬ 
pear in his numerous recensions of texts de¬ 
rived solely from MSS., and independently 
of printed editions. The writers included 



Bel 


Belcher 


in these recensions are Plato, the Attic ora- 
tors, Aristotle, Thucydides, Theognis, Aris¬ 
tophanes, as well as Livy and Tacitus. He 
died in Berlin, June 7, 1871. 

Bel, in Accadian, Assyrian and Babylo¬ 
nian mythology, a god; mentioned in Scrip¬ 
ture, in Is. xlvi: 1; Jer. 1: 2, li: 44; 
in the Septuagint, in Baruch vi: 40, and 
in the apocryphal additions to the Book 
of Daniel, as well as by classical authors. 
Much new light has recently been thrown 
on Bel’s characteristics and position in the 
heavenly hierarchy, by the examination of 
the cuneiform tablets and sculptures. It 
has been discovered that, prior to 1G00 B. c., 
the highly interesting Turanian people 
called Accadians, the inventors of the cunei¬ 
form writing, who wielded extensive author¬ 
ity in Western Asia before the Semitic As¬ 
syrians and Babylonians had come into no¬ 
tice, worshipped as their first triad of gods, 
Anu, ruling over the heaven; Elu, Belu, or 
Bel, over the earth; and Ea, over the sea. 
Bel’s three children, or three of his children, 
were Shamas, the sun-god; Sin, the moon- 
god ; and Ishtar, the Accadian Venus. 
Sayce shows that some first born children 
were vicariously offered in sacrifice by fire 
to the sun-god. From the Accadians, human 
sacrifice passed to various Semitic tribes and 
nations. Bel's name Elu identifies him with 
the Phoenician El, who, in a time of trouble, 
offered his first born son, “ the beloved,” on 
a high place, by fire. It is not settled 
whether or not Bel was the same also as the 
Phoenician Baal. To the wrath of Bel the 
deluge was attributed. In Scripture times 
he was known exclusively as a Babylonian 
divinity, being distinguished from both Nebo 
and Merodach. In the later Babylonian 
Empire, however, Merodach came to be gen¬ 
erally identified with Bel, though sometimes 
distinguished from him, being called “ the 
lesser Bel.” 

Bela, the name of four Kings of Hungary 
belonging to the Arpad dynasty. Bela I., 
son of Ladislaf, competed for the crown 
with his brother Andrew, whom he defeated, 
killed, and succeeded in 10G1. He died in 
1063, after introducing many reforms. Bela 
II., the Blind, mounted the throne in 1131, 
and after ruling under the evil guidance of 
his Queen, Helena, died from the effects of 
his vices in 1141. Bela III., crowned 1174, 
corrected abuses, repelled the Bohemians, 
Poles, Austrians, and Venetians, and died 
in 1196. Bela IV. succeeded his father, An¬ 
drew II., in 1235; was shortly after de¬ 
feated by the Tartars and detained prisoner 
for some time in Austria, where he had 
sought refuge. In 1244 he regained his 
throne, with the aid of the Knights of 
Rhodes, and defeated the Austrians, but was 
in turn beaten by the Bohemians. He died 
in 1270. 


Be! and the Dragon, one of the books of 

the Apocrypha, or, more precisely, certain 
apocryphal chapters added to the canonical 
Book of Daniel. The Jews consider them 
as no part of theii Scriptures. They were 
penned probably by an Alexandrian Jew, the 
language used being not Hebrew, nor Ara¬ 
maean, but Greek. The Church of Rome ac¬ 
cepts Bel and the Dragon as part of the 
Holy Scripture; most, if not all, Protestant 
churches reject it. In Roman Catholic wor¬ 
ship it is read on Ash Wednesday, and was 
so in the old lectionary of the English 
Church on the 23d of November. The new 
lectionary has it not either on that or any 
other date. The story of Bel and the 
Dragon tells how Daniel enlightened Cyrus, 
who is represented as having been a devout 
worshiper of Bel, by proving that the im¬ 
mense supplies of food, laid before the idol 
were really consumed, not by it or by the 
inhabiting divinity, but by the priests and 
their families. On Cyrus urging that the 
dragon, also worshiped, was at least a living 
God, Daniel poisoned it, for which he was 
thrown into a lions’ den, where the Prophet 
Habakkuk fed him. Ultimately he was re¬ 
leased, and his persecutors put to death. 

The above narrative must not be con¬ 
founded with one called also “ Bel and the 
Dragon,” translated by Fox Talbot from the 
cuneiform tablets. Mr. Talbot believes that 
the dragon,seven-headed.like the one in Rev¬ 
elation, would, if the tablets were complete, 
prove the same being that seduced some of 
the heavenly “ gods,” or angels, from their 
allegiance (Rev. xii: 4; Jude G), for which 
he was slain by Bel. The resemblance is 
not to the apocryphal book now under con¬ 
sideration. but to the combat between 
Michael and the Dragon in Rev. xii: 7-17. 

Belcher, Sir Edward, an English naval 
officer, born in 1799; entered the navy in 
1812, and, in 1816, took part in the bom¬ 
bardment of Algiers. In 1825 he was ap¬ 
pointed assistant surveyor to the expedi¬ 
tion about to explore Bering Strait under 
Captain Beechey; and from i836 to 1842 he 
commanded the “ Sulphur,” commissioned 
to explore the W. coast of America. 
Knighted in 1843, and for five years em¬ 
ployed on surveying service in the East In¬ 
dies, he was, in 1852, appointed to the com¬ 
mand of the unfortunate expedition sent out 
by the government to search for Sir John 
Franklin. Belcher published “ Narrative of 
a Voyage Round the World in the Sulphur ” 
(1843); “Narrative of a Voyage to the 
East Indies” (1848); “The Last of the 
Arctic Voyages” (1855), etc. In 1861 he 
became Rear-Admiral of the Red, in 1866 
Vice-Admiral, in 1867 K. C. B., and Rear- 
Admiral in 1872. He died March 18, 1877. 
Belcher Channel, an inlet of Jones’ Sound, 
(Baffins Bay) is named from him, its dis¬ 
coverer. 



Befcikovski 


Belfast 


Belcikovski, Adam (bel-che-kov-ske), a 
Polish dramatist, born in Cracow, in 1839. 
Among his numerous historical dramas and 
comedies are “King Don Juan ” (1869); 
“ Hunyadi ” (1870); “Francesca da Ri¬ 

mini” (1873) ; “The Oath” (1878) ; “King 
Boleslav the Bold” (1882). He also wrote 
valuable essays on Polish literature. 

Belem, a town in Portugal, W. of Lisbon; 
noted for a monastery founded in 1500, to 
commemorate the voyage of Vasco da Gama, 
and now used as an orphan asylum. It is 
one of the most florid examples of the 
Pointed Style. The church is divided into 
three aisles by slender and lofty pillars, and 
has a raised choir at the W. end. Here are 
buried Vasco da Gama, Camoens, and many 
Portuguese sovereigns. 

Belemnite, a genus of fossil chambered 
shells, the typical one of the family belem- 
nitidee; held by Von Tressau, Klein, Brey- 
nius, Da Costa, Brander, and Plott to be 
shells, the proper position of which they 
could not determine. Cuvier and Lamarck 
made a great step forward in ranking them 
as cephalopods with an internal shell, a con¬ 
clusion confirmed by Buckland, Owen, and 
others. The last named palaeontologist 
placed the belemnite in the dibranchiate or¬ 
der of cephalopods. 

One essential part of the shell is a plirag- 
mocone or chambered cone, that is, a portion 
conical in form, and divided transversely by 
septa or partitions, like a pile of watch- 
glasses, into shallow chambers, connected 
with each other by a siphuncle or small pipe 
or siphon near the margin of the cone. The 
entire cone is enveloped in a sheath, which 
rises above the chambers and gives support 
to the soft body of the animal (called the 
pro-ostracum) , and this again in a conical 
cavity or alveolus excavated in the base of 
a long, ta.pering body, resembling the head 
of a javelin, and called the guard. It is 
from this fact that the name belemnite has 
arisen. Dr. Buckland and Agassiz discov¬ 
ered in specimens from Lyme Regis, col¬ 
lected by Miss Anning, a fossil ink-bag and 
duct. There have been found also traces of 
the contour of the large sessile eyes, the 
funnel, a great proportion of the muscular 
parts of the mantle, the remains of two lat¬ 
eral fins, eight cephalic arms, each appar¬ 
ently provided with 12 to 20 pairs of slender, 
elongated horny hooks. Owen considers that 
the belemnite combined characters at pres¬ 
ent divided among the three cephalopodous 
genera sepia, onychoteuthis, and sepiola. 

These animals seem to have been gregari¬ 
ous, living in shallow water with a muddy 
bottom rather than one studded with pro¬ 
jecting corals. Owen thinks that they pre¬ 
served a tolerably vertical position when 
swimming, at times rising swiftly and steal¬ 
thily toward the surface, infixing their claws 
in the abdomen of a supernatant fish, and 


dragging it down to the depths to be de¬ 
voured. Belemnites are found all over 
Europe, and also in India. In 1875, Tate 
estimated the known species at more than 
100, ranging from the lias to the chalk. 

Belemnitidae, a family of mollusks be¬ 
longing to the class cephalopoda, the order 
dibranchiata, and the section decapoda. 
The shell consists of a “ pen,” terminating 
posteriorly in a chambered cone, technically 
called a phragmocone, from the Greek frag- 
mos — & hedge, fence, paling, fortification, 
or inclosure, and konos — the mathematical 
figure termed a cone. The phragmocone is 
sometimes invested with a fibrous guard, 
and it has air cells connected by a siphuncle 
piercing the several chambers close to the 
ventral side. Dr. S. O. Woodward arranges 
the bclemnitidce between the teuthidee, or 
calamaries and squids, on the one hand, and 
the sepiadee or sepias on the other. In geo¬ 
logical time they extend from the lias to 
the chalk. The genera are belemnites, bel - 
emnitclla , cci phot cut his, acantlioteuthis, beh 
cmnotcuthis, and conoteuthis. 

Belfast, a seaport and municipal and par¬ 
liamentary borough of Ireland (in 1888 de¬ 
clared a city), principal town of Ulster, and 
county town of Antrim, built on low, allu¬ 
vial land on the left bank of the Lagan, at 
the head of Belfast Lough. Ballymacarret, 
in county Down, on the right bank of the 
Lagan. is a suburb. The streets are spa¬ 
cious and regular, the houses mostly of 
brick. The chief Episcopal churches are 
St. Ann’s, Trinity, and St. George’s, but the 
most magnificent is the Roman Catholic, St, 
Peter’s. The chief educational institutions 
are Queen’s College, with about 20 profes¬ 
sors ; and the theological colleges of the 
Presbyterians and Methodists. Chief public 
buildings include the town hall, the county 
courthouse, the Commercial Buildings and 
Exchange, the White and Brown Linen 
Ilalls, the range of buildings for the cus¬ 
toms, inland revenue and post-office, the 
county jail, the Ulster Hall, the Albert 
memorial clock tower, 143 feet high, the 
theater, etc. In the suburbs are two exten¬ 
sive public parks, a botanic garden of 17 
acres, and the borough cemetery. Belfast 
Lough is about 12 miles long, and 6 miles 
broad at the entrance, gradually narrowing 
as it approaches the town. The harbor and 
dock accommodation is extensive. Belfast 
is the center of the Irish linen trade, and 
has the majority of spinning mills and 
power loom factories in Ireland. Previous 
to about 1830 the cotton manufacture was 
the leading industry of Belfast, but nearly 
all the mills have been converted to flax 
spinning. The iron ship-building trade is 
also of importance, and there are breweries, 
distilleries, flour mills, oil mills, foundries, 
print works, tan yards, chemical works, rope 
works, etc. The commerce is large. An 



Belfast 


Belgium 


tensive direct trade is carried on with Brit¬ 
ish North America, the Mediterranean, 
France, Belgium, Holland, and the Baltic, 
besides the regular traffic with the principal 
ports of the British Islands. Belfast is 
comparatively a modern town. In 1662 
there were not more than 150 houses within 
the walls. Its prosperity dates from the 
introduction of the cotton trade by Robert 
Jay in 1777. In the war between Charles 
1. and Parliament, the citizens at first took 
the side of the people and afterward es¬ 
poused the cause of the king. It has suf¬ 
fered severely at various times from faction 
fights between Catholics and Protestants, 
the more serious having occurred in the 
years 1864, 1872, and 1886. It returns four 
members to Parliament. Pop. (1901) 
348.876. 

Belfast, city, port of entry, and county- 
seat of Waldo co., Me.; at the head of 
Penobscot Bay, and on the Maine Central 
railroad; 30 miles from the ocean, and 132 
miles N. E. of Portland. It has a fine har¬ 
bor, a large domestic trade, and important 
manufactures. The most notable industry 
is ship-building, which was begun here in 
1793. In recent years a number of the fa¬ 
mous 3-master and 4-master barkentines 
and several schooners that have become well 
known in shipping circles, were built here. 
In March, 1900, the ship-buikling firm of 
C. P. Carter & Co., which began work in 
1840, retired from business and was suc¬ 
ceeded by another concern. Belfast was set¬ 
tled in 1770; was invested by the British in 
1815, and was given a citv charter in 1853. 
Pop. (1900) 4,615; (1910) 4,618. 

*BeIgium (French, Belgique; German, 
Belgien), a kingdom of Europe, bounded N. 
by Holland, N. W. by the North Sea, W. 
and S. by France, and E„ by the duchy of 
Luxemburg, Rhenish Prussia, and Dutch 
Limburg; greatest length, N. W. to S. E., 
165 miles; greatest breadth, N. to S., 120 
miles; area, about 11,400 square miles. Bel¬ 
gium, in shape, resembles a triangle, which 
has its vertex in the W.; the base resting 
on Germany on the E., the shorter side fac¬ 
ing Holland and the sea, and the larger 
forming the frontier of France. For admin¬ 
istrative purposes it is divided into nine 
provinces — Antwerp, South Brabant, East 
Flanders, West Flanders, Hainaut, Liege, 
Limburg, Luxemburg, and Namur. These 
provinces do not differ much in area, and 
are so arranged as to form a compact and 
commodious division of the kingdom. South 
Brabant, which from containing Brussels, 
the capital, may be considered the metro¬ 
politan’province, occupies the center, while 
the others cluster round, and, with the ex¬ 
ception of the extreme provinces of Lux¬ 
emburg and West Flanders, actually touch 
it. I 

*For Map. see The Netherlands. 


The following table shows the areas of 
the different provinces, with their popula¬ 
tion, on Dec. 31, 1900: 


Antwerp . 

Brabant . 

Flanders, East 
Flanders, West 

Hainaut . 

Liege . 

Limburg . 

Luxemburg ... 
Namur. 


Area in 

Pop- 

sq. miles. 

ulation. 

. 1,093 

819,000 

. 1,268 

1,263,80 1 

, 1,158 

1,029,971 

. 1,249 

805,236 

. 1,437 

1,142,951 

. 1,117 

820,175 

. 931 

240,796 

, 1,706 

219,200 

. 1,414 

346,512 

11,373 

6,687,051 


Physical Features .— A general idea of 
the surface of the country may be obtained 
by regarding it as an inclined plane, some¬ 
what rugged, and considerably elevated in 
the S. E., from which it slopes, more or less 
gradually, N. and W., till it sinks into low 
plains, only a few feet above the level of 
the sea. The elevated districts are formed 
by ramifications of the Ardennes, which, 
entering Belgium from France, stretch 
along the S. of Namur, occupy the greater 
part of Luxemburg, and attain their cul¬ 
minating point in the S. E. of Liege at 
Stavelot, in the neighborhood of Spa, where 
the height exceeds 2,000 feet. The rocks 
appear to rest on Primary formations; but 
those which reach the surface generally 
consist of slate, old red sandstone, and 
mountain limestone. Proceeding N. W., in 
the direction of the dip, these rocks take 
a cover, and the coal formation becomes 
fully developed. This coal field is a con¬ 
tinuation of that of the N. of France, and 
stretches tnrough Belgium in a N. E. direc¬ 
tion, occupying the greater part of the 
province of Hainaut, and a considerable 
part of that of Liege, and skirting the 
provinces of Namur and Luxemburg. It 
contains numerous workable seams, both of 
coal and iron. N. and W., beyond the lim¬ 
its of this coal field, a more recent forma¬ 
tion is found, covered by deep beds of clay 
and sand, the former prevailing more in 
tiro interior, and the latter near the coast, 
where it has been drifted into hillocks or 
downs, and forms the only barrier against 
the encroachments of the sea. Some of the 
clay in this district is fit for the manufac¬ 
ture of fine pottery; but the greater part 
of it is fit only for coarse ware, or for 
bricks. 

In accordance with the general slope of 
the surface already mentioned, the main 
streams of Belgium have a N. direction; 
and the whole country lies within the basin 
of the German Ocean. In the S. E., where 
the surface is elevated and broken, numer¬ 
ous torrents descend with rapidity; and 
becoming confined within rocky, precipit¬ 
ous, gtnd richly wooded banks, often furnish, 
if not the grandest, the most picturesque 
and enchanting of landscapes. On reach¬ 
ing the lower country their speed is slack- 
















Belgium 


Belgium 


ened, and their augmented volume moves 
along in a slow winding course. Only two 
of them — the Meuse and the Scheldt — 
have a magnitude which entitles them to 
the name of rivers; but so important are 
these two in themselves, and so numerous 
their affluents, that no country in Europe 
is better supplied with water communica¬ 
tion. Besides the Scheldt or Schelde, and 
Meuse or Maas, the navigable streams are 
the Ambleve, Demer, Dender, Darme, Dyle, 
Lys, Great Nethe, Little Nethe, Ourtlie, Ru- 
pel, Sambre, Yperlee, and Yser. The cli¬ 
mate of Belgium bears a considerable resem¬ 
blance to that of the same latitudes in 
England. Though subject to sudden change, 
it is on the whole temperate and agreeable. 
Luxemburg and Namur, where the surface 
is high, and the numerous hills and dales 
which diversify it both cheer the animal 
spirits and freely circulate an air at once 
keen and pure, are most favorable to health 
and longevity. The only parts of the coun¬ 
try which can be considered unhealthy are 
the low llats which prevail in Flanders, and 
the polders or rich alluvial tracts which 
have been gained from the rivers by em¬ 
bankment, chiefly in Antwerp. There agues 
and other diseases engendered by a humid 
and sluggish atmosphere are prevalent. 

Woods and Forests .— Nearly one-fifth of 
the whole surface of the kingdom is occu¬ 
pied by wood. The distribution of it, how¬ 
ever, is by no means equal; and hence, 
while the two Flanders and Antwerp fall 
far below the average amount, Luxemburg 
and Namur rise far above it, and are very 
densely wooded. In these provinces ex¬ 
tensive tracts are covered with natural 
woods, in which the wolf and wild boar still 
have their haunts. These woods are the re¬ 
mains of the ancient forest of Ardennes, 
which Caesar describes as stretching far out 
into France from the banks of the Rhine. 
They consist of hard wood, principally oak, 
which is often of great size, and furnishes 
large quantities of the most valuable tim¬ 
ber. By carefully dressing the stools after 
it is cut, a fine oak copse is raised, the cut¬ 
tings of which annually produce many tons 
of bark, which not only supplies the tan¬ 
neries of the country, but leaves a consider¬ 
able surplus for exportation, chiefly to 
England, while the wood unfit for the 
carpenter is partly employed as fuel and 
partly converted into charcoal for the use 
of the iron works, where the superiority of 
the iron smelted and wrought by it is well 
known. South Brabant also possesses sev¬ 
eral fine forests, among others that of Soig- 
nies, with which the field of Waterloo has 
made us familiar. In the other provinces 
scarcely anything deserving the name of 
forest is seen. Wood is distributed over 
them in occasional patches, and more fre¬ 
quently in the form of hedge-row. The 
timber thus grown is by no means small in 


aggregate amount, and forms a well-known 
feature in the rich rural landscapes which 
the old Flemish masters loved to paint; 
but taking into account the injury which 
the cultivated crops sustain from it, it is 
very questionable whether it ought to be 
regarded as a source of profit either to indi¬ 
vidual proprietors or to the country at large. 
The timber itself, consisting principally of 
various kinds of poplar, is soft and of an 
inferior description. 

Agriculture .— The greater part of the 
country is well adapted for agricultural 
operations, and the inhabitants have so hap¬ 
pily availed themselves of their natural ad¬ 
vantages that they early began, and in 
some respects still deserve, to be regarded 
as the model farmers of Europe. In the 
high lands traversed by the Ardennes the 
climate is ungenial, and the soil so shallow 
and stony as almost to forbid the labor of 
the plow. Here the occupants display 
their skill, not so much by what they do, 
as by what they refrain from attempting. 
Instead of vain endeavors to force the 
growth of corn where it could never yield 
an adequate return, they have been con¬ 
tented to turn the natural pastures of the 
district to the best account by employing 
themselves chiefly in the rearing of stock. 
In particular they produce a hardy breed 
of horses, which, being admirably adapted 
for light cavalry, are largely exported to 
France for that purpose, while vast herds 
of swine are fed almost at no expense on 
the mast of the forests. At the same time 
no part of the surface is allowed to lie 
waste. Y\ here arable land occurs it is care¬ 
fully applied to its proper use. Even the 
vine has not been forgotten, and sunny 
slopes on which little else could have been 
grown have, been made to yield a tolerable 
wine. 

In the opposite extremity of Belgium, 
chiefly in the province of Antwerp, and 
partly in that of Limburg, an extensive 
tract occurs which strikingly contrasts in 
appearance with the hilly districts of the 
S. E., but is perhaps still less adapted for 
the ordinary operations of agriculture. This 
tract, known by the name of Campine, is a 
vast expanse of moorland Avaste of the most 
dreary appearance, a dead monotonous flat 
composed for the most part of barren sand, 
in which the ordinary heaths and lichens 
will scarcely grow. The greater part of 
this tract seems destined to remain forever 
in its natural state, but whenever a patch 
of more promising appearance occurs the 
hand of industry has been at work, and 
corn fields and green pastures have become 
not infrequent even in the Campine. Agri¬ 
cultural colonies, partly free and partly 
compulsory, have been planted in different 
parts of the district. The former consist 
of persons generally in poor circumstances 
vho have voluntarily engaged in reclaiming 



Belgium 


Belgium 


barren tracts as the means of procuring a 
maintenance and saving them from the deg¬ 
radation of pauperism. The latter consist 
of convicts, who, having forfeited their lib¬ 
erty, give compulsory labor as the penalty 
of their offenses. By the united exertions 
of both a wondrous improvement has been 
made, and on parts of this waste some of 
the finest cattle of the country are reared, 
and much dairy produce of excellent qual¬ 
ity is obtained. Still, however, about 300,- 
000 acres remain untouched. 

With the exception of the two districts 
just described, there is no part of Belgium 
in which agriculture does not flourish; but 
the husbandry which has been so much 
lauded is seen in its greatest perfection in 
the two Flanders. Its excellence is owing 
not to any superior knowledge of what may 
be called the theory of agriculture, nor to 
any remarkable ingenuity in the invention 
of implements by which its operations are 
more efficiently or more cheaply performed, 
but chiefly to an innate spirit of economy 
and industry — an economy which carefully 
appropriates every gain, however small, and 
an industry which grudges no labor, how¬ 
ever great, provided it is possible, by the 
applica ion of it, to obtain an additional 
amount of valuable produce. In fact, the 
Flemish husbandry partakes more of the 
nature of garden than of field culture. In 
many of its operations, no doubt, horse la¬ 
bor is employed. The plow and the har¬ 
row are in frequent requisition, but the 
implement on which the greatest depend¬ 
ence is placed is the earliest and simplest 
of all — the spade. To give full scope for 
the use of it, the ground is parcelled out 
into small fields of a square form, which 
have their highest point in the center, and 
slope gently from it in all directions toward 
the sides, where ditches of sufficient size 
carry off the superfluous water as it filters 
into them. To promote this filtration the 
ground is trenched to a uniform depth, so 
that the slope of the subsoil corresponds as 
nearly as possible to that of the surface. 
In performing this trenching a considerable 
degree of skill and ingenuity is displayed. 
The performance of the whole at once 
would be a formidable and not a very effi¬ 
cient process. In a few years a new sub¬ 
soil would be formed, and the trenching 
would require to be renewed. This is ren¬ 
dered unnecessary in the following manner: 
The land is laid out in ridges about five feet 
wide, and when the seed is sown it is not 
covered as usual by the harrow, but by 
earth dug from the furrows to the depth of 
two spits, and spread evenly over the sur¬ 
face. By changing the ridges and throwing 
the furrow of the previous year into the 
ridge of the next, the whole ground be¬ 
comes furrow in the course of five succes¬ 
sive crops, and is consequently trenched to 
the depth of about 18 inches. This process 


of trenching never ceases, and is unques- 
tionably one of the most important charac¬ 
teristics of the Flemish husbandry. 

The only other process particularly de¬ 
serving of notice is the care and skill mani¬ 
fested in securing an adequate supply of 
manure. Every farm is fully stocked, and 
the cattle, instead of being grazed in the 
fields, are fed at home, in winter on tur¬ 
nips and other roots, and in summer on 
green crops carefully arranged, so as to 
come forward in regular succession, and 
yield a full supply of rich, succulent food. 
In addition to this, every homestead has a 
tank, built and generally arched with brick, 
into which all the liquids of the cattle sheds 
are conveyed, and have their fertilizing 
properties increased by the dissolution of 
large quantities of rape cake. This liquid 
manure is of singular efficacy in promoting 
the growth of flax, which enters regularly 
into the Flemish rotation, and is perhaps 
the most valuable crop of all, the produce 
of an acre being not infrequently sold for 
£50. As this crop is one of the most ex¬ 
hausting which can be grown, and requires 
the richest manure, while it yields none, 
the growth of it to any great extent must, 
without the aid of the tank, have been im¬ 
possible. At present, in Flanders alone, the 
value of flax annually raised has been esti¬ 
mated to amount to £1,500,000 sterling. 

About two-thirds of the whole kingdom is 
under cultivation, and nearly eight-ninths 
profitably occupied, leaving only about one- 
ninth waste. Of this last the far greater 
part belongs to the comparatively barren 
districts of the S. E. and N. E., already 
described; and hence, in the more favored 
provinces, particularly those of South Bra¬ 
bant, the two Flanders, and Hainaut, the 
quantity of waste is so very small that the 
whole surface may be regarded as one vast 
garden. It is an error, however, to assert, 
as is sometimes done, that Belgium raises 
more corn than it consumes. For many 
years the import has considerably exceeded 
the export. Considerable attention has 
been paid in Belgium to the rearing of 
stock, and the breeds both of cattle and 
horses are of a superior description. The 
horses of Flanders in particular are admira¬ 
bly adapted for draught, and an infusion 
of their blood has contributed not a little 
to form the magnificent teams of the Lon¬ 
don draymen. In general, however, Bel¬ 
gium stock of all kinds is inferior to that 
of England. 

Mines .— The mineral riches of Belgium 
are great, and, after agriculture, form the 
most important of her national interests. 
They are almost entirely confined to the 
four provinces of Hainaut, Liege, Namur, 
and Luxemburg, and consist of lead, man¬ 
ganese, calamine or zinc, iron, and coal. 
The lead is wrought to some extent at 
Vedrin, in Liege; but the quantity obtained 





Belgium 


Belgium 


forms only a small part of the actual con¬ 
sumption. Manganese, well known for its 
important bleaching properties, is obtained 
both in Liege and Namur. The principal 
field of calamine is at Liege, where it is 
worked to an extent which not only sup¬ 
plies the home demand, but leaves a large 
surplus for export. All these minerals, 
however, are insignificant compared with 
those of iron and coal. The former has its 
seat in the .country between the Sambre 
and the Meuse, and also in the province of 
Liege. At present the largest quantity of 
ore is mined in that of Namur. The coal 
field, already described, has an area of 
above 500 square miles. The export is about 
5,000,000 tons, forming one of the largest 
and most valuable of all the Belgian ex¬ 
ports. Nearly the whole of the coal thus 
exported is taken by France. There can¬ 
not be a doubt that this export adds large¬ 
ly to the national wealth; but a question 
has been raised as to the policy of thus 
lavishly disposing of a raw material which 
is absolutely essential to the existence of 
a manufacturing community, and the quan¬ 
tity of which, though great, is by no means 
inexhaustible. One obvious effect of the 
great foreign demand is to raise the price, 
and thus place some of the most important 
manufacturing interests of the country in 
an unfavorable position for competing suc- 
cesssfully with so formidable a rival as 
Great Britain. Besides minerals, properly 
so called, Belgium is abundantly supplied 
with building stone, pavement, limestone, 
roofing slate, and marble. Of the last, the 
black marble of Dinant is the most cele¬ 
brated. In 1899 the products of 1.601 quar¬ 
ries were valued at 55,448,745 francs; of 
the iron mines, 1,073,100 francs; of 220 
coal mines (22,072,000 tons), 274,444,000 
francs. 

Manufactures .— The industrial products 
of Belgium are very numerous, and the su¬ 
periority of many of them to those of most 
other countries is confessed. The fine linens 
of Flanders, and lace of South Brabant, are 
of European reputation. Scarcely less cele¬ 
brated are the carpets and porcelain of 
Tournay, the cloth of Verviers, the exten¬ 
sive foundries, machine works, and other 
iron and steel establishments of Liege, Se- 
raing, and other places. The cotton and 
woolen manufactures, confined chiefly to 
Flanders and the province of Antwerp, have 
advanced greatly. Other manufactures in¬ 
clude silks, glass and glassware, hosiery, 
paper, beet sugar, beer. There were 17 pig 
iron works in operation in 1899; 46 iron 
manufactories; 15 steel works; 123 sugar 
factories, and 25 refineries; and 240 distil¬ 
leries. 

Trade and Commerce .— The geographical 
position, the admirable facilities of trans¬ 
port, and the indefatigable industry of the 
inhabitants, early combined to place Bel¬ 


gium at the very head of the trading coun¬ 
tries of Europe/ The gradual rise of com¬ 
petitors still more highly favored has 
deprived her of this preeminence, and with 
the limited extent of her seacoast it is not 
to be expected that she can ever take high 
rank as a naval stale; but her trade is still 
of great importance, and within recent 
years has made a rapid advance. He: - coal 
and iron, and the numerous products of her 
manufactures, furnish in themselves the 
materials of extensive traffic; while the pos¬ 
session of one of the best harbors in the 
world (Antwerp), situated on a magnifi¬ 
cent river, which directly, or by canals, 
stretches its arms into every part of the 
kingdom, and now made accessible by a sys¬ 
tem of railways with every kingdom of 
Central Europe, naturally renders Belgium 
the seat of a transit trade even more im¬ 
portant than that which it monopolized dur¬ 
ing the Middle Ages. This she owes chiefly to 
the admirable system of railway communi¬ 
cation which, in the exercise of an enlight¬ 
ened policy, was early established through¬ 
out the kingdom. This system has its center 
at Malines, from which a line proceeds N. 
to Antwerp; another W. to Ostend; an¬ 
other S. W. through Mons, and on to the 
Northern Railway of France, which com¬ 
municates directly with Paris; and another 
S. E. to Liege, and on into Prussia, where 
it first communicates with the Rhine at Co¬ 
logne, and thence by that river and by rail 
gains access both E. and S. to all the coun¬ 
tries of Central Europe. In addition to 
these great trunks, one important branch 
connects Liege with Namur and Mons; and 
another from Antwerp, after crossing the 
W. trunk at Ghent, passes Courtray, and 
proceeds directly toward Lille. The ramifi¬ 
cation is thus complete; and there is not a 
town in Belgium of any importance which 
may not now, with the utmost facility, con¬ 
vey the products of its industry by the 
safest and speediest of all means of trans¬ 
port. The railways have a length of about 
2,900 miles, three-fourths belonging to the 
State. The value of the general commerce 
in 1900 was: Imports, 3,594,425,067 francs, 
and exports, 3,297,509,775 francs; imports 
for home consumption, 2,215,700,000 francs; 
exports of Belgian produce and manufac¬ 
tures, 1,922,900,000 francs; transit trade, 
1,374,600,1)00 francs. 

\ he articles of import for home consump¬ 
tion include grain and flour, raw cotton, 
wool, hides, coffee, tobacco, chemicals, oil¬ 
seeds, yarn, timber, petroleum, etc. The 
exports are principally coal, yarn (chiefly 
linen and woolen), cereals, machinery, flax, 
woolens and cottons, chemicals, steel and 
iron, glass and glassware, sugar (raw and 
refined), zinc, manure, eggs, etc. The trade 
with Great Britain has grown considerably 
of late years; for while in 1869 the exports 
,to Great Britain amounted to £9,391,403, 



Belgium 


Belgium 


and the imports of British produce from 
Great Britain to £4,003,535, these were in 
1898 respectively £21,534,000 and £13,850,- 
900. The chief exports to Great Britain 
are silks, woolen yarn, cottons, flax, glass, 
eggs; the chief imports cottons, woolens, 
raw cotton, metals, and machinery. The 
trade with France is even greater than 
with Great Britain. The external trade is 
chiefly carried on by means of foreign 
(British) vessels, and the great bulk of the 
shipping enters and clears from the port 
of Antwerp. Of the tonnage entered in 
1896 only about 7 per cent, belonged to the 
Belgian flag. The total burden of the Bel¬ 
gian mercantile marine is aver 113,250 tons. 

People .— The Belgian population is the 
densest in Europe, and is composed of two 
distinct races — Flemish, who are of Ger¬ 
man, and Walloons, who are of French ex¬ 
traction. The former, by far the more 
numerous, have their principal locality in 
Flanders; but also prevail throughout 
Antwerp, Limburg, and part of South 
Brabant. The latter are found chiefly 
in Hainaut, Liege, Namur, and part 
of Luxemburg. The language of each 
corresponds with their origin — the Flem¬ 
ings speaking a Germanic dialect, and 
the Walloons a dialect, or rather a 
corruption, of French, with a considerable 
infusion of words and phrases from Span¬ 
ish and other languages. This distinct mix¬ 
ture of races, and the repeated changes of 
masters to which they have been subjected, 
have necessarily been very unfavorable to 
the formation of a national character. Still, 
in some leading features there is a remark¬ 
able uniformity in the population. Though 
the position of the country between France 
and Germany has made it the battlefield 
of Europe, the inhabitants show few war¬ 
like tendencies, and are unwearied in pur¬ 
suing arts of peace. Hostile armies have 
frequently met upon their soil to decide the 
fate of kingdoms, carrying devastation into 
every quarter; but no sooner have they 
withdrawn than the labors of the field and 
the workshop have been quietly resumed, 
and almost all traces of devastation been in 
a few years effaced. The fact bears strong 
testimony to the patient endurance of the 
Belgians, but bespeaks, perhaps, a defi¬ 
ciency of physical and moral courage. 

Almost the entire population belong to 
the Roman Catholic Church. Protestant¬ 
ism is fully tolerated, and even salaried by 
the State, but cannot count above a mere 
fraction (some 10,000) of the population 
among its adherents. An interesting cir¬ 
cumstance connected with this state of mat¬ 
ters is, that Belgium early embraced, and 
at one time seemed on the eve of being 
gained to the Reformation. Persecution of 
the most fearful kind took place, and did 
what perhaps it has never done in any other 
part of the world — not only forced the 


people back to a religion which they had 
given up, but induced them to return to it 
as willing converts. The country is divid¬ 
ed into six dioceses, each of which possesses 
an ecclesiastical seminary. Monks and 
nuns are numerous, especially the latter 
(over 25,000). Education is in a very un¬ 
satisfactory state. At the census of 1890 
nearly 27 per cent, of the population above 
15 years of age could neither read nor 
write. By law each commune must have an 
elementary school, and the expense of pri¬ 
mary instruction falls partly upon the com¬ 
munes, partly upon the State. In all the 
towns colleges and middle-class schools have 
been established, where a superior educa¬ 
tion may be obtained; while a complete 
course for the learned professions is pro¬ 
vided by four universities, two of them, at 
Ghent and Liege respectively, established 
and supported by the State; one at Brus¬ 
sels, called the Free University, reminded by 
voluntary association; and one at Louvain, 
called the Catholic University, controlled 
by the clergy. French is the official lan¬ 
guage of Belgium and in general use among 
the educated classes, and there can scarcely 
be said to be a national literature. Of late, 
however, patriotic feelings, to which the 
Belgians were too long strangers, have ac¬ 
quired new strength; and one of its first 
manifestations has been an eager desire to 
cultivate the vernacular Flemish, which 
differs little from Dutch. 

The population generally is moral, and 
apparently in comfortable circumstances. 
The far larger proportion of it is rural; 
and though landed property is very much 
subdivided, the Belgians, instead of exhibit¬ 
ing the wretchedness so common among the 
small occupiers in Ireland, manage, by a 
happy combination of agricultural with 
other industrial employments, to derive 
from their little holdings all the necessaries 
and not a few of the comforts of life. It 
is not to be denied, however, that in some 
of the provinces, particularly in Flanders, 
population, in so far at least as it can be 
maintained by agricultural resources, has 
reached its limit, and that a deficiency of 
other employment, particularly spinning 
and hand-loom weaving, has placed large 
numbers on, if not within, the verge of pau¬ 
perism. In Flanders and South- Brabant a 
fourth of the people is dependent on total 
or occasional relief; and pauper riots have 
repeatedly occurred. Still the population 
continues to move on, as* if with accelerated 
pace. 

Government .— The Belgian constitution 
combines monarchical with a strong infu¬ 
sion of the democratic principle. The ex¬ 
ecutive power is vested in a hereditary 
king; the legislative in the king and two 
chambers — the Senate and the Chamber 
of Representatives — the former elected for 
eight years, the latter for four, but one* 



Belgium 


Belgium 


half of the former renewable every four 
years, and one-half of the latter every two 
years. The senators are elected partly 
directly, partly indirectly (by the pro¬ 
vincial councils), and must be 40 years 
of age. Their numbers depend on popu¬ 
lation. The deputies or representa¬ 
tives are elected directly, one for every 
40,000 inhabitants at most. All citi¬ 
zens of 25 years of age are electors, and 
according to certain qualifications one 
elector may have three votes. Each deputy 
is allowed 4,000 francs per annum, and a 
free railway pass between his place of resi¬ 
dence and the capital. The army is raised 
by conscription, to which every able man 
who has completed his 19th year is liable, 
and also by voluntary enlistment. The 
peace strength of the army in 1899 amount¬ 
ed to 51,270 officers and men; in time of 
war the total strength is about 140,000 
men. Besides this standing army there is 
a garde civique, numbering about 43,000 
men in time of peace, in addition to which 
there are 90,000 non-active men belonging 
to this force. The navy is confined to a 
few steamers and a small flotilla of gun¬ 
boats. The estimated revenue for 1902, 
chiefly from railways, customs, excise, and 
direct taxation, was 489,040,050 francs; 
the estimated expenditure, 488,344,403 
francs. About one-fourtli of the expendi¬ 
ture is in payment of the interest of the 
national debt, the total of which in 1901 
was 2,650,898,150 francs. The coins, 
weights, and measures are the same, both 
in name and value, as those of France. 

History .— The history of Belgium as a 
separate kingdom, beginning in 1830, when 
it was constituted an independent European 
State, would not truly represent the life 
of the people, or account even for the 
events of the period embraced in it. Sit¬ 
uated between the two leading States of 
Europe, and deeply interested in all the po¬ 
litical agitations resulting alike from their 
rivalries and their alliances, the Belgian 
people often changed masters. Moreover, 
the Belgian territory contained within it¬ 
self one leading element of the dissensions 
which raged around it. The two great races 
of different origin and habits, the Celtic 
and Teutonic, or Latin and German-speak¬ 
ing peoples, whose different policies have 
divided Europe from the time of the Ro¬ 
mans, were combined in its population, the 
Walloon provinces, Hainaut, Namur, Lux¬ 
emburg, being nearly allied to the French, 
while Flanders, Brabant, and Limburg ap¬ 
proximated more in character and language 
to the Germans. Thus not only were the 
great rivalries of Europe represented here 
in miniature, but their compression within 
the narrow limits of what is now one of the 
smallest of European States, has resulted 
in the formation of a distinct national 
character. While, therefore, the chief 


events in which Belgium was interested 
prior to 1830 are matters of European his¬ 
tory, a brief outline of them is needed here 
to give a distinct conception ol the char¬ 
acter of the people which they contributed 
to form. 

The territory anciently known as Belgian 
differed considerably from that which has 
assumed the name in modern times. Ac¬ 
cording to Caesar the territory of the Belgae, 
who were one of the principal tribes of an¬ 
cient Gaul, extended from the right bank 
of the Seine to the left bank of the Rhine, 
and to the ocean. This district continued 
under Roman sway till the decline of the 
empire, and subsequently formed part of 
the kingdom of Clovis, who subdued nearly 
the whole of Gaul from the Rhine to + he 
Mediterranean. The Franks at this time 
did not recognize the law of primogeniture. 
On the death of a monarch his dominions 
were divided among his sons, the more am¬ 
bitious of whom again strove to reunite 
them under their own sway. Thus the 
Frankish kingdoms under the descendants 
of Clovis were subject to continual vicissi¬ 
tudes, in which the Belgian territory 
shared, forming successively a portion of 
the kingdoms of Metz, Soissons, and Aus- 
trasia, till the whole was reunited under 
Charlemagne or Charles the Great. 

This great conqueror and administrator, 
the first who strove to unite the States of 
Europe in a civilized commonwealth, was 
of Belgian extraction. It was at Landen 
and Herstal, on the confines of the forest 
of Ardennes, that his predecessors, the 
great mayors of the palace, held sway, 
while his own capital was established at 
Aix. 

Charlemagne in great measure destroyed 
his own work by adopting the Frankish 
custom of dividing his kingdom among his 
sons at his death. This practice, which 
had proved so disastrous to the dynasty of 
Clovis, was continued for some time in his 
family, but was ultimately abolished in 
France. It long prevailed among the prin¬ 
cipalities of Germany, hindering their 
unity, and contributing to the ascendency 
of France in Europe. Thus Belgium fell to 
Lothaire, the grandson of Charlemagne, 
forming part of the kingdom of Lotharin- 
gia, which was dependent on the German 
empire; but by the treaty of Verdun (843) 
Artois and Flanders were united to France. 

For more than a century this kingdom 
was contended for by the kings of France 
and the emperors of Germany. In 953 it 
was conferred by the Emperors Otto upon 
Bruno, Archbishop of Cologne, who assumed 
the title of archduke, and divided it into 
two duchies: Upper Lorraine, containing 
modern Lorraine, Luxemburg, and the dio” 
ceses of Metz, Toul, Verdun, and the Palat¬ 
inate; and Lower Lorraine, containing 
Brabant, Guelders, the bishoprics of Co* 



Belgium 


Belgium 


iogne, Liege, and Cambray. These duchies 
were temporarily reunited under Gonthelan 
I., Duke of Lower Lorraine, who acquired 
Upper Lorraine in 1033. Among the dukes 
of Lower Lorraine may also be mentioned 
Godfrey of Bouillon, the great Crusade 
leader, who, in 1099, was crowned King of 
Jerusalem. 

The feudal system, which had established 
itself over the greater part of Europe, like¬ 
wise prevailed in the Belgian territory, 
which in the lltli century was divided into 
duchies, counties, and marquisates, under 
the sway of chiefs owing allegiance to the 
empire, or other of the greater princes, but 
exercising an almost absolute dominion 
Dver their own subjects. Thus were formed 
the counties of Holland, Brabant, Zealand, 
Friesland, Namur, Hainaut; the duchies of 
Limburg, Guelders, Juliers, Luxemburg; 
the marquisate of Antwerp, and others. In 
the frequent struggles which took place 
during this period, Luxemburg, Namur, 
Hainaut, and Liege were usually found sid¬ 
ing with France, while Brabant, Holland, 
and Flanders commonly took the side of 
Germany. The princes and the people, how¬ 
ever, particularly of Flanders, were not al¬ 
ways found on the same side. 

«/ m 

The 12th and 13th centuries were distin¬ 
guished by a general uprising of the indus¬ 
trial communities, which had begun to grow 
in importance throughout Europe, against 
the feudal system. This movement was 
very strongly manifested throughout the 
Netherlands, less strongly perhaps in Bel¬ 
gium than in Holland. In both countries 
prosperous municipalities began to arise 
and assert their freedom; but the spirit of 
centralization, more strongly developed 
among the Latin-speaking races, prevailed 
more in the S. provinces, while the love of 
individual liberty, more characteristic of 
the German races, was more strongly mani¬ 
fested in the N. Many of the towns of 
Flanders and Brabant, however, became ex¬ 
tremely democratic. Ghent in particular 
distinguished itself for the violence and 
frequency of its revolts against its rulers. 

From this time the popular and civic ele¬ 
ment began to count for something in polit¬ 
ical combinations. If one potentate se¬ 
cured the alliance of a count, another might 
strengthen himself by secretly encouraging 
insurrection in his towns. The people of 
Flanders often allied themselves with the 
English, with whom their commercial inter¬ 
course and their love of freedom gave them 
many common interests and feelings, and 
both their own counts and the French mon¬ 
archy often felt the effects of this alliance. 

The battle of Courtray in 1302 greatly 
weakened the feudal authority, but the as¬ 
cendency of the popular element led to va¬ 
rious excesses. The organization of popu¬ 
lar power was reserved for a later age, and 
the battle of Rosebeque, 1382, in which the 

o2 


Ghentese under Philip van Artevelde (who 
had offered the crown of France to Richard 
II. of England as the price of his assist¬ 
ance) were totally defeated, restored the 
authority of the nobles. 

In 1384, Flanders and Artois fell to the 
house of Burgundy by the marriage of the 
duke, a scion of the French crown, with 
Margaret, daughter of Louis II., Count of 
Nevers, the last ruler of these provinces. 
By a succession of happy marriages, by 
purchase, or by force, Holland, Zealand, 
Hainaut, Brabant, Limburg, Antwerp, and 
Namur had all by 1430 become the inherit¬ 
ance of the same house. In 1442 the duchy 
of Luxemburg was acquired, and in 1470 
Guelders and Friesland. This extraordinary 
prosperity induced Charles the Bold, who 
succeeded in 1407, to attempt to unite his 
territories by the conquest of Alsace, Lor¬ 
raine, and Liege, and raise his duchy to a 
kingdom. The details of this enterprise, 
which forms one of the most exciting epi¬ 
sodes in European history, belong more 
immediately to the history of France. It 
ended in his defeat and death at the battle 
of Nancy in 1477. 

His daughter Mary, who succeeded him, 
carried the fortunes of her house still higher 
or rather she carried them into a house 
still more fortunate than her own, by her 
union with the Archduke Maximilian, son 
of the Emperor Frederick. Her splendid 
possessions had been coveted by many poten¬ 
tates, and there were five candidates for her 
hand, among whom the most important 
were the dauphin, son of Louis XI., and the 
archduke. 

It now became the part of France to ex¬ 
cite troubles in Flanders. The policy of 
Maximilian, conformably to the traditions 
of the house of Austria, was directed to the 
aggrandizement of his house. He was fre- 
quently at feud with his Netherlandish sub¬ 
jects, whose manners he took little pains to 
understand, and for whose liberties he had 
little respect. Wars and leagues succeeded 
each other, which belong to the history of 
the great states of Europe. The Nether¬ 
lands were by this union again brought un¬ 
der the German empire, and especially un¬ 
der the house of Austria, destined soon to 
become the most powerful in Europe. In 
1512 they were formed into a division of 
the empire, under the title of the circle of 
Burgundy. East Friesland was included in 
the circle of Westphalia. 

On being called to the empire, Maximil¬ 
ian conferred the government of the Nether¬ 
lands on his son Philip the Fair, under 
whom they began to experience the mate¬ 
rial advantages of an alliance with the 
house of Austria. The vast European pos¬ 
sessions of this house opened up to its sub¬ 
jects the greatest facilities of the age for 
commercial intercourse, while the discovery 
of America gave them in addition the 



Belgium 


Belgium 


commerce of a new world. The industrial 
skill and enterprise of the Netherlanders 
fitted them much more than the Spaniards, 
whose haughty disposition made them apt 
to substitute rapacity for industry, to de¬ 
rive permanent benefit from these oppor¬ 
tunities. Margaret, the aunt, and Mary, 
the sister of Charles V., who succeeded to 
the government of the Low Countries, exer¬ 
cised it in many respects wisely and well. 
The former, a patroness of arts and letters, 
kept her court surrounded with poets, ar¬ 
tists, and men of learning. A Council of 
State, consisting of the governors or stadt- 
holders of the 17 provinces, assisted them in 
the administration of affairs, and such was 
the prosperity of the country that more 
than one of the cities of the Netherlands 
rivalled in extent and opulence the capitals 
of the greatest European kingdoms. 

This bright day was too soon clouded. 
The reign of Charles V. is less distinguished 
for the political struggles excited by a too 
prosperous ambition, which shook nearly 
every nation of Europe, than for the reli¬ 
gious dissensions, and the social troubles 
resulting from them, which attended the 
dawn of the Reformation. The reformed 
opinions made great progress in the Nether¬ 
lands; but here again a remarkable illus¬ 
tration was afforded of the strength of 
those differences of race, language, and sen¬ 
timent which divided their populations. In 
Holland, as in Germany, the Reformation 
triumphed. On the Belgian territory, espe¬ 
cially where the Walloon or French element 
of the population prevailed, although these 
opinions spread widely, they yielded at 
length, as in France, to the force of author¬ 
ity, or the sentiment of unity. In 1535 
Mary published at Brussels an edict con¬ 
demning all heretics to death. An insur¬ 
rection excited by persecution was sup¬ 
pressed by Charles V. in 1540, and the 
Netherlands were inseparably united by the 
law of primogeniture with the crown of 
Spain. No union could have been more 
unfortunate. The bigotry of the Spanish 
branch of the Austrian family has become 
proverbial, and a country torn with reli¬ 
gious dissensions could not have found itself 
under a worse rule. 

Charles V., himself a Netherlander, born 
in Ghent, and still more his son Philip II. 
of Spain, strove to extinguish the reformed 
opinions among their Netherland subjects 
in seas of blood. Philip discarded all re¬ 
spect for the liberties of the Netherlands, 
and subjected them under his governors, 
particularly the Duke of Alva, to all the 
horrors of a hostile military rule. Thou¬ 
sands of victims perished by every variety 
of execution which a barbarous cruelty could 
devise, hanging, beheading, burning, drown¬ 
ing, interring alive; to which tortures and 
imprisonments were added in still greater 
number. During this period of desolation, 


great numbers of artisans, abandoning their 
country, carried elsewhere, especially to 
England and Germany, which sympathized 
with their opinions, the arts which had en¬ 
riched their own country, and which now 
acquired through them a wider scope, and 
contributed to the industrial progress of 
Europe. 

William of Orange, the Silent, now made 
himself the champion of the liberties of his 
country. Supported chiefly by the North¬ 
ern States, thwarted by the jealousy of the 
Flemish nobles, and opposed by the Wal¬ 
loon provinces, which remained faithful to 
Spain, and even supplied her with troops, 
he at length succeeded in freeing the seven 
Northern States, and forming them into the 
confederation of the United Provinces, 
whose independence, declared in 1581, was 
ultimately acknowledged by Spain. These 
events belong chiefly to the history of Hol¬ 
land. 

Requesens, the successor of Alva, had 
tried too late a more humane policy. At 
Antwerp and Ghent the Spanish soldiers 
broke out into excesses. The confederates 
assembled in the latter town signed the 
pacification of Ghent, proclaiming liberty 
of conscience, and convoking the Estates- 
General. The Estates called in the aid of 
France, and offered the crown to Henry III., 
who declined to accept it, dreading the 
Catholic league in his own country. It is a 
special feature of the history of those days, 
that while the great rulers, particularly 
those of France and Germany, persecuted 
their reformed subjects, each was ready to 
protect the Protestant subjects of the 
others when opposed to their political 
policy. The success of the revolutionary 
party, consummated in the N., was at 
length checked in the S. provinces by the 
ability of Alexander Faroes, Duke of Par¬ 
ma, the Spanish commander, and by the re¬ 
actionary spirit evoked in the provinces 
themselves, strengthened by the emigration 
of many influential reformers to the North¬ 
ern States, and the Belgian Netherlands re¬ 
mained attached to Spain. 

From 159G to 1633 the Spanish Nether¬ 
lands were transferred to the Austrian 
branch of the family by the marriage of 
Isabella, daughter of Philip II., with the 
Archduke Albert of Austria. On the death 
of Isabella they reverted to Spain. By the 
treaty of Rastadt in 1714 they were again 
placed under the dominion of Austria. Dur 
ing this period they were the subject of con¬ 
tinual intrigues, and frequently of open 
warfare among the European States. Twice 
conquered by Louis XIV., conquered again 
by Marlborough, coveted by Holland, Spain, 
Germany, France, and England, they lay 
continually open to the invasions and the 
struggles of foreign armies, and it was at 
this period especially that thev were as 
I they have been called, the battlefield of Eu- 



Belgium 


Belgium 


rope. Some portions of maritime Flanders, 
Brabant, and Limburg, which had remained 
to Spain, were during this period conquered 
and annexed by Holland, while France ac¬ 
quired Artois and Walloon Flanders, the S. 
of Hainaut, and part of Namur and Luxem¬ 
burg, including the important towns of 
Douai, Lille, Valenciennes, Dunkirk, and 
many others. 

From 1714 Austria was left in undis¬ 
turbed possession of the remainder of the 
Southern Netherlands. Joseph II., styled 
the Philosophical Emperor, excited by his 
reforms a revolt, headed or stimulated by 
the monks of Flanders and Brabant, whom 
he had dispossessed of their convents. The 
Estates of the two provinces refused to vote 
the imposts, and were dissolved. The popu¬ 
lace took to arms. The Virgin was pro¬ 
claimed generalissimo of the patriot army. 
The Austrian army concentrated at Turn- 
hout was totally defeated. After applying 
in vain for assistance to Holland and 
France, neither of which could be expected 
to have much sympathy with their move¬ 
ment, the insurgents were at length sub¬ 
dued, and the Austrians reentered Brussels, 
October, 1790. 

Soon after the whole Netherlands were 
conquered by the revolutionary armies of 
France, and the country was divided into 
French departments, a change which, as 
might be expected, provoked as much resist¬ 
ance as the people were able to offer. When 
Napoleon ruled France, his brother Louis 
became King of Plolland. 

Just before the battle of Waterloo, fought 
on Belgian territory, had once more changed 
the fate of Europe, Belgium was united by 
the Congress of Vienna to Holland, under 
the title of the kingdom of the Netherlands. 
This fusion had much to recommend it. The 
ports and colonies of the N. formed a suit¬ 
able complement to the arts and industry 
of the S. The Flemings and the Dutch 
spoke the same language and had the same 
origin; but there remained outside of this 
harmony the Walloon provinces, French in 
language and extraction. A most injudi¬ 
cious measure of the Dutch government, an 
attempt to assimilate the language of the 
provinces by prohibiting the use of French 
in the courts of justice, excited an opposi¬ 
tion, which, encouraged by the success of 
the French revolution of 1830, broke out 
into revolt. The electoral system, more¬ 
over, gave the preponderance to the N. 
provinces, though inferior in population, 
and the interests of the provinces were dia¬ 
metrically opposed in matters of taxation. 
Belgium was agricultural and manufactur¬ 
ing, Holland commercial; the one wished to 
tax imports and exports, the other property 
and industry. In the chambers three differ¬ 
ent languages were spoken, Dutch, German, 
and French; and the members frequently 
did not understand each other. Nothing 


but the most skillful government could have 
overcome these difficulties, and no statesman 
appeared fitted to grapple with them. The 
revolutionary movement became general in 
the S., and the Dutch troops, at first suc¬ 
cessful before Brussels, were finally re¬ 
pulsed, and compelled by the arrival of 
fresh bands of insurgents from all quarters 
to retire. The Flemings saluted the volun¬ 
teers of Liege, Mons, and Tournay by the 
ancient title of Belgians, and this name, 
which properly distinguished only a section 
of the people of the S. provinces, became 
henceforth recognized as the patriotic desig¬ 
nation of the whole. 

A convention of the great powers assem¬ 
bled in London to determine on the affairs 
of the Netherlands and stop the effusion of 
blood. It favored the separation of the 
provinces, and drew up a treaty to regu¬ 
late it. In the meantime the National Con¬ 
gress of Belgium offered the crown to the 
Duke of Nemours, second son of Louis Phi¬ 
lippe, and, on his declining it, they offered 
it, on the recommendation of England, to 
Leopold, Prince of Saxe-Coburg, who acced¬ 
ed to it under the title of Leopold I., on 
July 21, 1831. In November of the same 
year the five powers guaranteed the crown 
to him by the treaty of London. Some dis¬ 
putes with Holland in regard to the parti¬ 
tion of territories still remained. A con¬ 
vention was concluded between France and 
England to bring these differences to a 
close, and in 1839 Holland acceded to a 
treaty, by which Belgium surrendered to 
her portions of Limburg and Luxemburg, 
which she had retained since 1830. 

During the reign of Leopold, a prosper¬ 
ous period of 34 years, Belgium became a 
united and patriotic community. Arts and 
commerce flourished, and a place was taken 
in the family of nations upon which the 
Belgian people could look with complacency. 
On the outbreak of the French Revolution 
of 1848 Leopold declared his willingness to 
resign the crown if it was contrary to the 
wishes of his subjects that he should re¬ 
tain it. This declaration disarmed the Re¬ 
publican party, and confirmed the stability 
of the monarchy at a critical moment. 
During his reign Belgium concluded vari- 
ous treaties of commerce, with Great Biit- 
ain in 1851 and 1862, and with France in 
1861. Leopold II. succeeded his father in 
1865. In recent years the chief feature of 
Belgian politics has been a keen struggle 
between the clerical and the liberal party. 
At the elections in June, 1878, the liberals 
gained a majority, which they lost in 1884, 
and failed to regain in 1890. Then followed 
a revision of the constitution, and in 1894 
the clericals were returned with a great ma¬ 
jority. Leopold II. became sovereign of the 
Kongo Free State (q.v.) in 1885; died 
Dec. 17, 1909; and was succeeded by his 
nephew, Prince Albert of Flanders. 




Belgrade 


Belize 


Belgrade, a city and capital of Servia, on 
the right bank of the Danube in the angle 
formed by the junction of the Save with 
that river, consists of the citadel or upper 
town, on a rock 100 feet high; and the 
lower town, which partly surrounds it. Of 
late years many modern improvements have 
been introduced and many fine edifices have 
been built. The chief buildings are the 
royal and episcopal palaces, the government 
buildings, the cathedral, barracks, bazars, 
theater, and educational institutions. It 
manufactures carpets, silk stuffs, etc; and 
carries on an active trade. Being the key 
of Hungary, it was long an object of fierce 
contention between the Austrians and the 
Turks, remaining, however, for the most 
part, in the hands of the Turks till its 
evacuation by them in 1867. Since the 
treaty of Berlin (July, 1878) it has been 
the capital of an independent State. Pop. 
(Dec. 31, 1905) 80,747. 

Belief, a term sufficiently definite for 
most ordinary purposes; but it is used 
with some variety in meaning, and psycholo¬ 
gists do not always agree in the tests they 
give for distinguishing belief from other 
states of mind. The word is used to mean 
the acceptance of a proposition, statement, 
or fact as true on the ground of evidence, 
authority, or irresistible mental predispo¬ 
sition; the state of trust in and reliance on 
a person, thing, or principle; as also for the 
fact believed, and sometimes specifically for 
the Apostles’ Creed. Belief is by some dis¬ 
tinguished from knowledge, inasmuch as 
the latter rests on evidence, while belief 
rests on authority. Belief should, some 
say, not to be used of facts such as are occur¬ 
ring in one’s own experience, or principles 
of which the opposite implies absurdity, 
such as the axioms of geometry. These we 
know, and, according to this view, the term 
should be limited to cases where a propo¬ 
sition is accepted without evidence, or 
where such evidence as is available implies 
only probability. On the other hand, the 
psychologists of what is called the intuitive 
school are accustomed to regard as beliefs 
the fundamental data on which reasoning 
rests; and to say that all knowledge rests 
ultimately on belief. Belief, they say, may 
admit of all degrees of confidence, from a 
slight suspicion to full assurance. There 
are many operations of mind in which it 
is an ingredient — consciousness, remem¬ 
brance, perception. Kant defined opinion 
as a judgment which is insufficiently based, 
subjectively as well as objectively; belief, 
as subjectively sufficient but objectively in¬ 
adequate; knowledge, as both subjectively 
and objectively sufficient. The strongest be¬ 
liefs may, of course, be false; beliefs in 
ghosts, astrological prognostications, etc., 
are usually treated as superstitions. Be¬ 


liefs as such rest on grounds regarded as 
sufficient by the person believing, who is 
prepared to act on his belief; but their 
grounds may have absolutely no validity for 
any other person. Such beliefs are, never¬ 
theless, very real. On the other hand, there 
are many propositions accepted tradition¬ 
ally, and spoken of as beliefs, which are 
not real, vital, abiding truths for those who 
nominally accept them; which have no in¬ 
fluence on character or mental tone, and 
on which those who hold them would not 
be prepared to act. Faith is a word used 
in very much the same sense as belief, but 
especially signifies the acceptance of and 
reliance on the truths of religion. 

Belisarius, the great general of the Ro¬ 
man Emperor Justinian, was a native of 
Illyria. He commanded an expedition 
against the King of Persia about 530; sup¬ 
pressed an insurrection at Constantinople; 
conquered Gclimer, King of the Vandals, 
and put an end to their dominion in Africa; 
was recalled and honored with a triumph. 
In 535, Belisarius was sent to Italy to carry 
on war with the Goths, and took Rome in 
537. He was there unsuccessfully besieged 
by Vitiges, whom he soon after besieged in 
turn, and captured at Ravenna, but was 
recalled, through jealousy, before he had 
completed the conquest of Italy. Belisarius 
recovered Rome from Totilus in 547, and 
was recalled the next year. He was after¬ 
ward sent against the Huns. He was 
charged, in 5G3, with conspiracy against 
Justinian, but was acquitted. That he was 
deprived of sight, and reduced to beggary, 
appears to be a fable of late invention. 
Died in 565. 

Belize, or British Honduras, a British 

colonv washed on the E. bv the Bay of 
Honduras, in the Caribbean Sea, and else¬ 
where surrounded by Guatemala and Mex¬ 
ico. It forms the S. E. part of the penin¬ 
sula of Yucatan, and measuring 180 by 60 
miles, has an area of 7.562 square miles. 
The river Belize traverses the middle of the 
country, and the Rio Hondo and the Sars- 
toon form respectively its N. W. and its S. 
boundary. The Cockscomb Mountains 
(4,000 feet) are the highest eminences, the 
land all along the coast being low and 
swampy. The country has a general tropi¬ 
cal fertility; its chief exports are mahog¬ 
any and logwood, besides sugar, coffee, cot¬ 
ton, sarsaparilla, bananas, plantains, and 
india rubber. The yearly value of the im¬ 
ports ranges between £160.000 and £269,- 
000; of the exports, between £124,500 and 
£317,500. The name Belize is probably a 
Spanish corruption of the name Wallis, 
one of the early British settlers; otherwise 
it is usually referred to the French balise, 
a beacon. Those early settlers, buccaneers 
at starting, then logwood cutters, were fre- 



Belknap 


Bell 


quently attacked by the Spaniards; blit 
since 1798, when they repulsed a fleet and 
a land force of 2,000 men, their occupation 
has been formally acquiesced in. Since 1862 
Belize has ranked as a British colony, with 
a lieutenant-governor, whose rank was 
raised, in 1884, to that of governor. Pop. 
(1901), 39,998. Belize, the capital, is a 
depot for British goods for Central Amer¬ 
ica, and has a population of about 6,600. 

Belknap, George Eugene, an American 
naval officer, born in Newport, N. H., Jan. 
22, 1832; was appointed midshipman in the 
navy in 1852; became Lieutenant-Comman¬ 
der in 1862; Commander in 1866; Captain 
in 1872; Commodore in 1885, and Rear- 
Admiral in 1S89; and was retired in 1894. 
He took part in the capture of the Barrier 
Forts on the Canton river, China, in 1856; 
and in the Civil War was present at the 
bombardment of the forts and batteries in 
Charleston harbor, and in both of the at¬ 
tacks on Fort Fisher. In 1873, while en¬ 
gaged in deep sea sounding in the North 
Pacific Ocean, he made discoveries concern¬ 
ing the topography of the bed of the ocean 
that found high favor among scientists. He 
was appointed Superintendent of the United 
States Naval Observatory in 1885, and, 
among other works, published “Deep Sea 
Soundings.” He died April 7, 1903. 

Belknap, Jeremy, an American clergy¬ 
man, born in Boston, Mass., June 4, 1744; 
graduated at Harvard in 1762; was pastor 
of the Congregational Church in Dover, N. 
H., in 1767-1786, and of the Federal Street 
Church in Boston in 1787-1798. The Mas¬ 
sachusetts Historical Society, organized in 
1790, recognizes him as its founder. In 
1792 he became an overseer of Harvard Col¬ 
lege. He was the author of a “ History of 
New Hampshire” (1784-1792); “A Dis¬ 
course Intended to Commemorate the Dis¬ 
covery of America bv Columbus, with Four 
Dissertations” (1792); “An Historical 
Account of Those Persons Who Have Been 
Distinguished in America,” generally known 
as the “ American Biography,” etc. He died 
in Boston, June 20, 1798. 

Belknap, William Worth, an American 
military officer, born in Newburg, N. Y., 
Sept. 22, 1829; graduated at Princeton, and 
read law in Keokuk, la., where he was 
elected to the Legislature in 1857. In 1861 
he entered the Union army as Major of the 
15th Iowa Volunteers and was engaged at 
Shiloh, Corinth, and Vicksburg; but became 
most prominent in Sherman’s Atlanta cam¬ 
paign. He was promoted to Brigadier- 
General, July 30, 1864, and Major-General, 
March 13, 1865. He was collector of in¬ 
ternal revenue in Iowa from 1865 to Oct. 
13, 1869, when he was appointed Secretary 
of War, which office he occupied till March 
7 , 1876. He resigned in consequence of 


I accusations of official corruption. Subse¬ 
quently he was tried and acquitted. He 
died in Washington, D. C., Oct. 12, 1890. 

Bell, a hollow, sounding instrument of 
metal. The metal from which bells are 
usually made (by founding), is an alloy, 
called bell-metal, commonly composed of 
80 parts of copper and 20 of tin. The pro¬ 
portion of tin varies, however, from one- 
third to one-fifth of the weight of the cop¬ 
per, according to the sound required, the 
size of the bell, and the impulse to be given. 
The clearness and richness of the tone 
depend upon the metal used, the perfection 
of its casting, and also upon its shape; it 
having been shown by a number of experi¬ 
ments that the well known shape with a 
thick lip is the best adapted to give a 
perfect sound. The depth of the tone of a 
bell increases in proportion to its size. A 
bell is divided into the body or barrel, the 
ear or cannon, and the clapper or tongue. 
The lip or sound bow is that part where 
the bell is struck by the clapper. 

Bells were used very early in the form 
of cymbals and hand bells in religious ser¬ 
vices. In Hgvpt the feast of Osiris was an¬ 
nounced through the ringing of bells. 
Bronze bells have been found in Assyria. 
Bells of gold were worn by Aaron and the 
high priests of the Jews on the border of 
their robes, and in Athens the priests of 
C.ybele used them in their offerings. The 
Romans also used bells which they called 
tintinabula, to announce the public assem¬ 
blies, and. according to Suetonius, Augustus 
had a bell suspended before the temple of 
Jupiter. In the Christian churches a sim¬ 
ilar custom early came into use, though it 
is not known that in the first Christian 
churches divine service was announced by 
any such method. They were used, how¬ 
ever, in the early monasteries to announce 
the hours of prayer. Generally they were 
made of tubes struck with a hammer. They 
are said to have been first introduced into 
Christian churches about 400 a. n., by 
Paulinus, Bishop of Nola in Campania 
(whence campana end nola as old names 
of bells) ; although their adoption on a 
wide scale does not become apparent until 
after the year 550, when they were intro¬ 
duced into France. Benedict Biscop, ab¬ 
bot of Wearmouth, seems to have imported 
bells from Italy to England in 680, but 
their use in Ireland and Scotland is prob¬ 
ably of earlier date. The oldest of those 
existing in Great Britain and Ireland, such 
as the “ bell of St. Patrick’s well ” and St. 
Ninian’s bell, are quadrangular and made 
of thin iron plates hammered and riveted 
together. 

Until the 13th century they were of 
comparatively small size, but after the 
casting of the Jacqueline of Paris (6^4 



Bell 


Bell 


tons) in 1400, their weight rapidly in¬ 
creased. Among the more famous bells are 
the bell of Cologne, 11 tons, 1448; of 
Dantzic, G tons, 1453; of Kalberstadt, 7*4, 
1457; of Rouen, 16, 1501; of Breslau, 11, 
1507; of Lucerne, 714, 1630; of Oxford, 7*4, 
1680; of Paris, 12 4/5, 1680; of Bruges, 
10%, 1680; of Vienna, 17%, 1711; of Mos¬ 
cow (the monarch of all bells), 193, 1736; 
three other bells at Moscow, ranging from 
16 to 31 tons, and a fourth of 80 tons, cast 
in 1819; the bell of Lincoln (Great Tom), 
5%, 1834; of York Minster (Great Peter), 
10%, 1845; of Montreal, 13%, 1847; of 
Westminster (Big Ben), 15%, 1856; (St. 
Stephen), 1314, 1858; the great bell of St. 
Paul’s, 17*4, 1882. Others are the bells of 
Ghent (5), Gorlitz (10%), St. Peter’s, 
Rome (8), Antwerp (7%), Olmutz (18), 
Brussels (7), Novgorod (31), Pekin (53%). 
See Bell, Liberty. 

Besides their use in churches bells are 
employed for various purposes, the most 
common use being to summon attendants 
or domestics in private houses, hotels, etc. 
Bells for this purpose are of small size and 
may be held in the hand and rung, but 
most commonly are rung by means of wires 
stretched from the various apartments to 
the place where the bells are hung. Bells 
rung by electricity have now become com¬ 
mon in hotels and other establishments. 

Bells, as the term is used on shipboard, 
are the strokes of the ship’s bell that pro¬ 
claim the hours. Eight bells, the highest 
number, are rung at noon and every fourth 
hour afterwards, i. e., at 4, 8, 12 o’clock, 
and so on. The intermediary periods are 
indicated thus: 12:30, 1 bell; 1 o’clock, 
2 bells; 1:30, 3 bells, etc., until the eight 
bells announce 4 o’clock, when the series 
recommences 4:30, 1 bell; 5 o’clock, 2 

bells, etc. The even numbers of strikes 
thus always announce hours, the odd num¬ 
bers half hours. 

Bell, Acton. See Bronte, Anne. 

Bell, Alexander Graham, inventor of the 
telephone, was born in Edinburgh, March 
3, 1847; son of Alexander Melville Bell. 
He was educated at Edinburgh and in Ger¬ 
many, and settled in Canada in 1870. In 
1872 he went to the United States and in¬ 
troduced for the education of deaf mutes 
the system of visible speech contrived by 
his father. He became Professor of Vocal 
Physiology in Boston University, and at 
the Philadelphia Exhibition, in 1876, ex¬ 
hibited his telephone, designed and partly 
constructed some years before. He was also 
the inventor of the photophone in 1880, 
of the graphophone in 1887, and of kindred 
instruments. 

Bell, Alexander Melville, a Scotch elo¬ 
cutionist, born at Edinburgh in 1819; in 
1865 he removed to London to act as a 


lecturer in University College; in 1870 
went to Canada and became connected with 
Queen’s College, Kingston; and subsequently 
settled in Washington, L). C. He is inventor 
of the system of visible speech, in which all 
the possible articulations of the human 
voice have corresponding characters de¬ 
signed to represent the respective positions 
of the vocal organs. This system has been 
successfully employed in teaching the deaf 
and dumb to speak. Besides this subject he 
wrote on elocution, stenography, and the 
like. He died Aug. 7, 1905. 

Bell, Andrew, a Scotch benefactor, 
founder of the “ Madras System of Educa¬ 
tion,” was born at St. Andrews, March 27, 
1753, and educated at the university of 
that place. After acting as a tutor in Vir¬ 
ginia (1774-1781), he "took orders in the 
Church of England, sailed for India in 1787, 
and within two years was appointed to 
eight army chaplainships, all of which he 
managed to hold simultaneously. In 1789 
he became Superintendent of the Madras 
Orphanage for the sons of soldiers. Finding 
it impossible to obtain the services of prop¬ 
erly qualified masters, he, at length, re¬ 
sorted to the expedient of conducting the 
school by the aid of the scholars themselves. 
Hence originated the far famed monitorial 
system. The state of his health forced him 
to return to England, where, in 1797, he 
was pensioned by the East India Company. 
His pamphlet entitled “ An Experiment in 
Education, Made at the Male Asylum of 
Madras” (1797), attracted little attention, 
until a Quaker commenced to work upon 
the system, and succeeded in obtaining for 
it a large measure of public recognition. 
Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey, who 
all had faith in the system, encouraged 
Bell; but it was found that, although pow¬ 
erful service had been rendered to educa¬ 
tion by its aid, many evils, such as 
ignorance and inefficiency on the part of 
teachers, had also resulted from the svstem. 
Rector of Swanage till 1809, Bell then was 
made master of Sherburn Hospital, Dur¬ 
ham, and in 1818-1819 a prebendary of 
Hereford and of Westminster. He died at 
Cheltenham, Jan. 27, 1832, bequeathing 

£120.000 for the purpose of founding educa¬ 
tional institutions. 

Bell, Andrew James, a Canadian edu¬ 
cator, born in Ottawa, May 12, 1856; edu¬ 
cated at the University of Toronto, and at 
Breslau University; became Professor of 
Latin and Literature in Victoria University, 
in 1889. He is an active member of the 
Canadian Institute, and has contributed 
some important papers to its “ Transac¬ 
tions.” 

Bell, Benjamin Taylor A., a Scotch- 
Canadian mining expert, born in Edinburgh, 
July 2, 1863; was educated in Edinburgh; 



Bell 


Bell 


went to Canada in 1882, and became editor 
of the “ Canada Mining Review,” and of 
the “ Canada Mining, Iron and Steel Man¬ 
ual.” In 1890 he was appointed by the 
Dominion Government, with Dr. Selwyn, to 
conduct the excursions through the mining 
and industrial centers of Canada of the 
Iron and Steel Institute of Great Britain, 
and the Verein Deutscher Eisenhiitten-- 
leute. The same year he organized the Gen¬ 
eral Mining Association of the Province, and 
in 1892 he was instrumental in uniting: the 
coal, gold, and other mineral interests of 
Nova Scotia into a like organization. 

Bell, Sir Charles, a Scotch anatomist, 
and Professor of Surgery in the University 
of Edinburgh, where lie was born in Novem¬ 
ber, 1774. In 1804, he settled in London, 
where he speedily made a high reputation. 
He was the author of many professional 
works of the highest authority, but he is 
chiefly celebrated for his discoveries in con¬ 
nection with the nervous system, which 
gained for him an European name. He died 
April 28, 1842. 

Bell, Currer. See Bronte, Charlotte. 

Bell, Ellis. See Bronte, Emily Jane. 

Bell, George Joseph, a Scotch lawyer, 
a brother of Sir Charles and John Bell, born 
in Edinburgh in 1770. He was the author of 
several standard law books, the most im¬ 
portant of which is “ The Principles of the 
Law of Scotland,” which has gone through 
several editions. He died in 1843. 

Bell, Henry, a Scotch engineer, born in 
Linlithgowshire in 1707. He was appren¬ 
ticed as a millwright, and afterward served 
under several engineers, including Rennie. 
He settled in Glasgow in 1790, and subse¬ 
quently in Helensburgh. In 1798 he turned 
his attention especially to the steamboat, the 
practicability of steam navigation having 
been already demonstrated. In 1812 the 
“ Comet,” a small 30-ton vessel built at 
Glasgow under Bell’s directions, and driven 
by a three horse-power engine made by him¬ 
self, commenced to ply between Glasgow and 
Greenock, and continued to run till she was 
wrecked in 1820. This was the beginning 
of steam navigation in Europe. Bell is also 
credited with the invention of the “ dis¬ 
charging machine ” used by calico printers. 
He died in Helensburgh, in 1830. A monu¬ 
ment has been erected to his memory at 
Dunglass Point on the Clyde. 

Bell, Henry, Haywood, an American 
naval officer, born in North Carolina, about 
1808; was appointed a midshipman from 
that State in 1823; served on die “Gram¬ 
pus” when she was engaged in clearing the 
coast of Cuba of pirates. For many years 
he served with the East Indian squadron, 
and commanded one of the vessels of the 
squadron which, in November, 1850, de¬ 
stroyed four forts near Canton, China. 


Shortly after the outbreak of the Civil War, 
he became Fleet Captain of the Western 
Gulf Squadron. He commanded one of the 
three divisions of the fleet which captured 
New Orleans, and was sent to raise the 
United States flag over the custom house 
and the city hall. In 1865 he took command 
of the East India squadron with the rank 
of Commodore; in 1800 was promoted to 
Rear-Admiral; and, in 1807, retired. He 
was drowned at the mouth of the Osaka 
river, Japan, Jan. 11, 1808. 

Bell, Isaac, an American philanthropist, 
born in New York city, Aug. 4, 1814; began 
his business life in a banking house when 
14 years old, and, in 1836, became inter¬ 
ested in large financial and other concerns. 
About this time he began to devote himself 
to the work of benevolent institutions, and 
was president of the Department of Chari¬ 
ties and Correction from 1857 till 1873. It 
was principally through his efforts that the 
Bellevue Hospital, and also the Bellevue 
Hospital Medical College, were founded. In 
connection with the first institution he es¬ 
tablished the system of ambulance service. 
He was also largely instrumental in the es¬ 
tablishment of the Normal College, and was 
responsible for the schoolship “ Mercury,” 
which came under the control of the De¬ 
partment of Charities and Correction, and 
of the “ St. Mary’s,” as well, loaned by the 
Navy Department to the Department of Ed¬ 
ucation, of which he was also for a long 
time a member. During the Civil War he 
was active in raising and disbursing money 
for the benefit of New York Volunteers, and 
in aiding soldiers’ wives, widows, and or¬ 
phans. He died in New York city, Sept. 30, 
1897. 

Bell, James, a Canadian physician, born 
in North Gower, Ont., Oct. 10, 1852; gradu¬ 
ated at McGill LTniversity in 1877 ; became 
house surgeon of the Montreal General Hos¬ 
pital the same year, and Medical Superin¬ 
tendent of it in 1881. In 1885 he became 
a member of the hospital staff as assistant 
surgeon, and, in 18S6, full surgeon. In 
1894 he was made Consulting Surgeon to 
the General Hospital, Surgeon of the Royal 
Victoria Hospital of Montreal, and Profes¬ 
sor of Clinical Surgery in McGill University. 

Bell, James Franklin, an American mili¬ 
tary officer, born in Kentucky; was gradu¬ 
ated at the United States Military Acad¬ 
emy; commissioned 2d Lieutenant, 9th Cav¬ 
alry, 1879; promoted to 1st Lieutenant, 7th 
Cavalry, Dec. 29, 1890, Captain, March 2, 
1899, and Brigadier-General, Feb. 19, 1901. 
On July 5, 1899, he was commissioned 
Colonel of the 36th Infantry, and, in an 
action with the Filipino insurgents near 
Porac, Luzon, Sept. 9, following, he so sig¬ 
nally distinguished himself that President 
McKinley directed that a Congressional 
medal of honor be presented to him. General 



Bell had much to do with the establishment 
of the United States War School for Cav¬ 
alry and Light Artillery at Fort Riley, 
Kan.; commanded the Staff College; and 
became Chief of Staff in 1906 and Major- 
General in 1907. 

Bell, John, an English sculptor, born in 
Norfolk in 1811. His best known works are 
the “Eagle Slayer,’’ “Una and the Lion,” 
“The Maid of Saragossa,” “Imogen,” “An¬ 
dromeda,” statues of Lord Falkland, Sir 
Robert Walpole, Newton, Cromwell, and the 
Wellington Memorial in Guildhall. He was 
one of the sculptors of the Guards’ Monu¬ 
ment in Waterloo Place, London, and the 
Prince Consort Memorial in Hyde Park. He 
was the author of several professional treat¬ 
ises, and of a drama, “Ivan: A Day and a 
Night in Russia.” He died in March, 1895. 

Bell, John, a Scotch surgeon, born in 
Edinburgh, in 1703; elder brother of Sir 
Charles Bell. After completing his profes¬ 
sional education he traveled for a short time 
in Russia and the N. of Europe; and, on 
his return to Edinburgh, began to deliver 
extra-mural lectures on surgery and mid¬ 
wifery. These lectures, which lie delivered 
between the years 1786 and 1796, were very 
highly esteemed, and speedily brought him 
into an extensive practice as a consulting 
and operating surgeon. His principal works 
are “ The Anatomy of the Human Body,” 
“ Discourses on the Nature and Cure of 
Wounds,” “ The Principles of Surgery,” and 
“ Letters on Professional Character.” He 
died in Rome in 1820. 

Bell, John, an American statesman, born 
near Nashville, Tenn., Feb. 18, 1797; was 
admitted to the bar in 1816; member of 
Congress from 1827 to 1841; Speaker in 
1834,and Secretary of War in 1841. During 
this period he became from an ardent free 
trader, a protectionist and supporter of the 
Whigs, and favored the reception of peti¬ 
tions for the abolition of slavery in the Dis¬ 
trict of Columbia; afterward (1S5S) he 
vigorously opposed the admission of Kansas 
as a slave State. He sat in the United 
States Senate from 1847 to 1859, and, in 
1860, was nominated for the Presidency by 
the “ Constitutional Union ” Party, but re¬ 
ceived onlv 39 electoral votes, cast by the 
States of Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. 
He afterward took no active share in poli-. 
tics, and died at Cumberland Ironworks, 
Sept. 10, 1869. 

Bell, Liberty, a famous bell which was 
rung when the Continental Congress de¬ 
clared the independence of the United States 
in 1776. The order for founding it was given 
in 1751. The State House of Pennsylvania, in 
Philadelphia, work on which had been sus¬ 
pended for a number of years, was then ap¬ 
proaching completion. The lower floors were 
already occupied bv the Supreme Court in the 
Chamber, while in the other assembled the 


Freemen of the Province of Pennsylvania, 
then consisting of one body. A committee 
was appointed by the Freemen, with Peter 
Norris as chairman, and empowered to have 
a new bell cast for the building. The com¬ 
mission for the bell was, in the same year, 
awarded to Robert Charles, of London, tin 
specification being that the bell should 
weigh 2,000 pounds and cost £100 sterling. 
It was to be made by the best workmen, to 
be examined carefully before being shipped, 
and to contain, in well shaped letters around 
it, the inscription: “By order of the Prov¬ 
ince of Pennsylvania, for the State House 
in the City of Philadelphia, 1752.” An or¬ 
der was given to place underneath this the 
prophetic words from Leviticus xxv: 10: 
“ Proclaim liberty throughout the land and 
to all the inhabitants thereof.” The reason 
for the selection of this text has been a sub¬ 
ject of much conjecture, but the true reason 
is apparent when the full text is read. It 
is as follows: “And ye shall hallow the 
50th year and proclaim liberty throughout 
the land and to all the inhabitants thereof.” 
In selecting the text the Quakers had in 
memory the arrival of William Penn and 
their forefathers more than half a century 
before. In August, 1752, the bell arrived, 
but though in apparent good order, it was 
cracked by a stroke of the clapper while be¬ 
ing tested. It could not be sent back, as 
the captain of the vessel who had brought it 
over could not take it on board. Two skil¬ 
ful men undertook to recast the bell, which, 
on being opened, revealed a bell which 
pleased very much. But it was also found 
to be defective. The original bell was con¬ 
sidered too high, and a quantity of copper 
was added to the composition, but too much 
copper was added. There were a great 
many witticisms on account of the sound 
failure, and the ingenious workmen under¬ 
took to recast the bell, which they success¬ 
fully did, and it was placed in condition in 
June, 1753. On Monday, the 8th of July 
(not the 4tli), at noon, true to its motto, 
it rang out the memorable message of “ Lib¬ 
erty throughout the land and to all the in¬ 
habitants thereof.” For 50 years the bell 
continued to be rung on every festival and 
anniversary, until it eventually cracked. 
An ineffectual attempt was made to cause 
it to continue serviceable by enlarging the 
cause of its dissonance and chipping the 
edges. It was removed from its position in 
the tower to a lower story, and only used 
on occasions of public sorrow. Subse¬ 
quently, it was plated on the original tim¬ 
bers in the vestibule of the State House, 
and, in 1873, it was suspended in a promi¬ 
nent position immediately beneath where a 
larger bell, presented to' the city in 1866, 
now proclaims the passing hours. In 1893 
it was taken to Chicago and placed on ex¬ 
hibition at the World’s Columbian Exposi¬ 
tion. 



Bell 


Bellamy 


Bell, Lilian, an American novelist, born 
in Kentucky in 1807. She has written 
“ The Love Affairs of an Old Maid,” and 
“ A Little Sister to the Wilderness.” 

Bell, Robert, an Irish author and editor, 
born in Cork, Jan. 10, 1800; educated at 
Trinity College. Dublin, and went to London 
in 1828. He became editor of magazines 
and useful editions of books. He is best 
known for his annotated edition of “ Eng¬ 
lish Poets, from Chaucer to Cowper ” (24 
vols., 1854-1857). He wrote “History of 
Russia” (3 vois., London 1830); “Life of 
Canning” (1840); “Wayside Pictures 
Through France, Belgium, and Holland ” 
(1849) ; two novels; three comedies; and a 
collection of “Early Ballads” (1804). He 
died in London, April 12, 1807. 

Bell, Robert, a Canadian geologist, born 
in the township of Toronto, Ont., June 3, 
1841; educated at McGill and Queen’s Uni¬ 
versities. In 1807 he joined the Canada 
Geological Survey, and in 1900 was an as¬ 
sistant director of it. In 18G1 he was 
elected a member of the American Institute 
of Mining Engineers; in 1881 became a Fel¬ 
low of the Royal Society of Canada; and 
in 1888-1889 was a member of the Ontario 
Commission, which reported on the mineral 
resources of that province. During his 39 
years’ connection with the geological sur¬ 
vey, he made more extensive explorations 
throughout the Dominion than any other 
man. He was the author of about 130 re¬ 
ports and papers, a list of which is found 
in the “ Biblio of the Royal Society.” 

Bell, Samuel Dana, an American jurist, 
born in Francestown, N. H., Oct. 9, 1798; 
graduated at Harvard in 181G; studied law 
in Exeter; and began practice in Meredith. 
He became a member of the Legislature 
about 1825, and was the clerk of that body 
for several years. In 1830, 1842, and 18G7, 
he was a member of the commissions ap¬ 
pointed to revise the State “ Statutes.” In 
1855 he was appointed Justice of the Su¬ 
preme Court of New Hampshire, and in 
1859, became Chief Justice of the court, 
which office he held till 1804. He joined the 
New Hampshire Historical Society soon af¬ 
ter its organization, and the Manchester 
Public Library was founded largely through 
his efforts. He died in Winchester, N. H., 
July 31, 1808. 

Belladonna, a European plant, atropa 
belladonna , or deadly nightshade, natural 
order solanacccc. It is native in Great Brit¬ 
ain. All parts of the plant are poisonous, 
and the incautious eating of the berries has 
often produced death. The inspissated juice 
is commonly known by the name of extract 
of belladonna. It is narcotic and poisonous, 
but is of great value in medicine, especially 
in nervous ailments. It has the property 
of causing the pupil of the eye to dilate. 
The fruit of the plant is a dark, brownish- 


black shining berry. The name signifies 
beautiful lady, and is said to ha v e been given 
from the use of the plant as a cosmetic. 

Belladonna Lily, so called on account of 

its beauty, a species of amaryllis (A. bella¬ 
donna), with delicate blushing flowers clus¬ 
tered at the top of a leafless flowering stem. 
It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope and 
of the West Indies. 

Bellaire, a city in Belmont county, O.; on 
the Ohio river, and several railroads; 5 
miles S. of Wheeling, W. Ya. The river is 
here crossed by a costly iron railroad bridge. 
Bellaire is the center of a region rich in 
coal, iron, cement, brick, clay, and lime¬ 
stone, and has manufactories of stoves, 
glass, carriages, boilers, and foundry and 
machine shop products. The city has a 
National bank, high grade educational in¬ 
stitutions, daily and weekly newspapers, and 
an assessed property valuation of over 
$3,000,000. Pop. (1900) 9,912; (1910) 12.940. 

Bellamy, Edward, an American writer, 
born in Chicopee Falls, Mass., March 29, 
1850. He was educated in Germany; admit* 
ted to the 
bar; was on 
the staff of 
the “Evening 
Post” of New 
York in 1871- 
1872; and on 
his r e t u rn 
fro m the 
Sandwich Isl- 
lands in 1877. 
he founded 
the Spring- 
field “ News.” 

He is best 
known by his 
novel “ Look- 

i n g B a c k- 
ward” (1888), edwagd Bellamy. 

a socialistic 

work, of which an immense number of copies 
were sold in two years. His other books are 
“Six to One: a Nantucket Idyl” (1878); “Dr. 
Heidenhoff’s Process” (1880) ; “‘Miss Lud- 
ington’s Sister” (1884); and “Equality” 
(1897). He died in Chicopee Falls, Mass., 
May 22, 1898. 

Bellamy, Mrs. Elizabeth Whitfield 

(Croom), an American novelist, writing 
under the pseudonym Kamba Thorpe, born 
at Quincy, Fla., 1839. She has written 
“ Four Oaks ” (18G7) ; “ Little Joanna ” 
(1870) ; “Old Man Gilbert” (1888) ; “The 
Luck of the Pendennings.” Died in 1900. 

Bellamy, George Anne, an English 
actress, born most likely at Lisbon, in 1727, 
was the natural daughter of a Quaker school 
girl and Lord Tyrawley, by whom she was 
educated. Having forfeited his favor by 
going to live with her mother, she secured 
an engagement at Covent Garden in 1744, 










Bellamy 


Belle-Isle 


and appeared with Quin as Monimia in 
“ The Orphan.” Mrs. Bellamy’s professional 
career was brilliant; but her extravagance 
and profligacy were notorious. In 1785, af¬ 
ter manv alternations of fortune, a free 
benefit released her from the debtors’ prison, 
and in the same year she published an 
“Apology” for her life (G vols.). She died 
in 1788. 

Bellamy, Jacobus, a Dutch poet, born at 
Vlissingen, Nov. 12, 1757. First known 
through his Anacreontic “ Songs of My 
Youth ” (1782), which were followed by the 
inspired “Patriotic Songs” (1783), he is 
now chiefly remembered for his poetical ro¬ 
mance “Roosje” (1784), which in touching 
simplicity and ardent feeling is unequaled 
in Dutch literature. He died in Utrecht, 
March 11, 178G. 

Bellamy, Joseph, an American clergy¬ 
man and educator, born in Cheshire, Conn., 
in 1719; graduated at Yale in 1735; in 
1740 became pastor of the church in Bethle¬ 
hem, where he remained until his death. 
About 1742 he established a divinity school,, 
in which many celebrated clergymen were 
trained. Among his iiublished works, be¬ 
sides his “ Sermons,” are “ True Religion 
Delineated” (1750); “The Nature and 
Gloiw of the Gospel” (1762), and “The 
Half-Way Covenant” (1769). He died in 
Bethlehem, Conn., March 6, 1790. 

Bellarmino, Roberto (bel-ar-me-no), an 
Italian cardinal, born in Montepulciano, 
Tuscany, Oct. 4, 1542; noted as a theologian 
and controversialist. He was Professor in 
the Roman College, and in Louvain, and also 
Archbishop of Capua. His publications in¬ 
clude “ Disputations on Controversies, Faith, 
etc.” (1581) ; “On the Pope’s Temporal Sov¬ 
ereignty,” “Christian Doctrine” (1603). 
He died in Rome, Sept. 17, 1621. 

Bellay, Joachim du, a French poet and 
prose writer, born at the Chateau de Lire, 
near Angers, about 1524; next to Ronsard, 
the most prominent member of the famous 
“ PRiade.” He had few of the advantages 
of a school education, but by his own in¬ 
dustry became acquainted with the poets of 
antiquity and of France. His first volume 
of poems was a collection of his “ Sonnets 
to Olive.” His “ Antiquities of Rome ” was 
done into English verse by Edmund Spenser, 
“The Ruins of Rome” (1591). His prin¬ 
cipal work is a “ Defense and Illustration of 
the French Language ” (1549), in which he 
depreciates the old forms of French poetry 
and sets up the classic poets of antiquity as 
models. After his death were published more 
of his sonnets, also odes, and some transla¬ 
tions. He died in Paris, Jan. 1, 1560. 

Bell Bird, a bird, called also the arapunga 
(arapunga alba), belonging to the family 
ampelidce, and the sub-family gymnoderince 

(fruit crows). It is pure white in color, 


about a foot in length, and has a voice like 
the tolling of a bell. It inhabits Guiana. 

Belleau, R6my (bel-lo'), a French poet, 
born at Nogent-le-Rotrou, in 1528; one of 
the “ Pleiade,” and ranked by some as its 
best poet, in preference to Bellay. His 
poems are graceful and melodious, and show 
less affectation of sentiment than those of 
many of his contemporaries. He made an 
elegant and spirited translation of “ The 
Odes of Anacreon ” (1576). His “ Ber- 
gerie” (1572), a compound of prose and 
verse, is of unequal merit; but it contains 
some passages — c. g., the “ April ”— which 
are of consummate beauty. A curious work 
is his fanciful “ Loves and New Exchanges 
of Precious Stones” (1566) ; it is perhaps 
his best performance. He died in Paris, 
March 16, 1577. 

Belle de Nuit (-nwe'), a name sometimes 
given to the Marvel of Peru ( mirabilis jal- 
apa) , sometimes also to certain tropical 
American and West Indian species of con- 
volvulacece, with extremely beautiful and 
fragrant flowers, which open only during 
the night. 

Bellefontaine, village and county-seat of 
Logan co., O.; on the Cleveland, Cincinnati, 
Chicago and St. Louis railroad; 57 miles N. 
E. of Dayton. It occupies the highest ele¬ 
vation in the State; and is surrounded by 
an agricultural region containing the ex¬ 
tensive car shops, round house, switch yard, 
etc., of the “ Big Four ” railroad. It has 
2 National banks; daily and weekly news¬ 
papers; an assessed property valuation of 
#2,250,000; a total debt of about $200,000. 
Pop. (1900) 6,649; (1910) 8,238. 

Bellegarde (bel-gard'), Henri, Comte 
de, a French writer, born in Pirise, Aug. 
30, 1648; member of the community of 
priests of St. Francis de Sales, and the rec¬ 
ognized author of the “ Universal History 
of Vovages ” (1707). He died in Paris, in 
1707. 

Belle=lsle (bel-el), or Belle=Isle=en= 
Mer, a French island in the Bay of Biscay, 
Department of Morbihan, 8 miles S. of Qui- 
beron Point; length, 11 miles; greatest 
breadth, 6 miles. Pop. about 10,000, largely 
engaged in the pilchard fishing. The capital 
is Le Palais, on the N. E. coast. 

Belle=lsle, a rocky island 9 miles long, 
at the E. entrance to the Strait of 
Belle-Isle, the channel, 17 miles wide, be¬ 
tween Newfoundland and the coast of Lab¬ 
rador. Steamers from Glasgow and Liver¬ 
pool to Quebec around the N. of Ireland 
commonly go by this channel in summer as 
being the shortest route. 

Belle=Isle, Charles Louis Auguste 
Fouquet, Duke of, a Marshal of France, 
born in 1684. He distinguished himself in 
the war of the Spanish Succession, became 
Lieutenant-General in 1732, took part in 



Bellerophon 


Belli 


the siege of Philipsburg, and procured the 
cession of Lorraine to France. Created 
marshal of France about 1740, lie com¬ 
manded in Germany against the Imperial¬ 
ists, took Prague, was sent as Ambassador 
to the Diet at Frankfort, and procured the 
election of Charles VII. Being taken by 
the English, he was conveyed to England, 
where he was confined some months. He 
was afterward created duke and peer, ad¬ 
mitted to the French Academy, and made 
Minister of War in 1757. He died in 17G1. 

Bellerophon, a son of Glaucus, King of 
Ephyre, by Eurymede, was at first called 
Ilipponous. The murder of his brother, 
whom some call Alcimenus and Bellerus, 
procured him the name of Bellerophon, or 
murderer of Bellerus. After this murder, 



Bellerophon fled to the court of Proetus, 
King of Argos, whose wife became enamored 
of him; and because lie slighted her pas¬ 
sion, she sought to destroy him. He, how¬ 
ever, escaped her machinations, was intro¬ 
duced to the court of Jobates, King of Lycia, 
and, after a number of adventures, in one of 
which he conquered the Chimaera, he mar¬ 
ried the daughter of Jobates, and succeeded 
to the throne of Lycia. 

Bellerophon, a genus of gasteropodous 
mollusks, belonging to the family atlantidce. 
The species have symmetrically convoluted 
globular, or discoidal shells, some of them 
whorled, and with a deeply notched aper¬ 
ture. In 1875, Tate estimated the known 
species at 128, ranging from the Lower Silu¬ 
rian to the Carboniferous rocks. 

Belles Lettres (bel-let'r), polite, or ele¬ 
gant literature: a word of somewhat vague 
signification. Rhetoric, poetry, fiction, his¬ 
tory, and criticism, with the languages in 
which the standard works in these depart¬ 
ments are written, are generally understood 
to come under the head of belles lettres. 


Belleville, city and county-seat of St. 
Clair co., Ill.; on several railroads; 14 miles 
E. of St. Louis, Mo. It is in the midst of 
very productive coal mines; has a large 
trade in flour, and general produce; and is 
chiefly engaged in the manufacture of glass, 
stoves, flour, nails, and machinery. The city 
has trolley lines to St. Louis, a public li¬ 
brary, St. Peter’s Cathedral (Roman Catho¬ 
lic), convent, National bank, and an as¬ 
sessed property valuation of over $2,250,000. 
Pop. (1900) 17,484; (1910) 21,122. 

Belleville, town, port of entry, and 
county-seat of Hastings co., Ont., Canada; 
on the Bay of Quinte, at the mouth of the 
Moira river; and on the Grand Trunk and 
Midland railways; 00 miles W. of Kingston. 
It has an excellent harbor, and abundant 
water power; is in direct steamboat com¬ 
munication with many United States and 
Canadian points; is principally engaged in 
manufacturing and commerce; and is a pop¬ 
ular summer resort. Belleville is the seat 
of Albert University (Methodist Episcopal), 
which comprises Albert College for men, and 
Alexandra College for women; and in the 
suburbs is a large deaf and dumb asylum. 
The city has agencies for the principal banks 
of Canada; about a dozen churches, con¬ 
vent, and daily and weekly newspapers. 
Pop. (1891) 9,916; (1900) 9,117. 

Bellevue, the name of a castle near Sevres, 
built by Madame Pompadour, and destroyed 
during the French revolution; also of a fa¬ 
mous castle near Cassel, Germany, possess¬ 
ing a picture gallery, rich in old masters. 

Bell Flower, the English name of the 
great genus campanula. It is so called be¬ 
cause the corollas have a close resemblance 
to a bell. There are many species of this 
genus, the most common being campanula 
rotundifolia, the round-leaved bell-flower, or 
harebell: and after it C. trachelium, or net¬ 
tle-leaved bell-flower; and C. hederacea, or 
ivy-leaved bell-flower. The finest species is 
the giant bell-flower ( campanula latifolia). 

Belli, Giuseppe Gioachino (bel'le), a 
Roman humorist and satirical poet, born in 
1791. He wrote in the popular dialect of the 
Trastevere; and in early life scourged with 
stinging, irreverent, and often vulgar satire, 
the tyranny of the Popes and the scandalous 
lives of the clergy. Becoming afterward a 
zealous convert to the faith of the Roman 
Church, he endeavored to call in and de¬ 
stroy the wicked indiscretions of his youth. 
In his last years, he published a beautiful 
translation of the Roman Breviary. His 
published sonnets amount to more than 
2,000; his other published Italian verses fill 
four considerable volumes; while two-thirds 
of his vast remains have never been gath¬ 
ered and edited. Of this last, much is 
clothed in language too coarse to bear the 
light of modern culture. He died in 1863. 













Belliard 


Bellingham 


Belliard (bel-yar'), Augustin Daniel, 
Comte, a French military officer of phe¬ 
nomenal courage, who played an active part 
in all the wars of Napoleon I.; born in Fon- 
tenay-le-Comte, March 25, 1769. For his ser¬ 
vices in the Egyptian campaign he was made 
governor of Cairo, but, on account of in¬ 
sufficient stores, was obliged to surrender 
that city to the English, June 27, 1801. Made 
governor of Madrid in 1808, minister ex¬ 
traordinary during the Hundred Days, and 
ambassador to Belgium (1831), he signed 
the decisive peace treaty which made that 
country independent of Holland. A statue 
has been erected in his honor at his birth¬ 
place. He died in Brussels, Jan. 28, 1832. 

Belligerent, a nation or a large section 
of a nation engaged in carrying on war. 
When a revolted party of great numerical 
strength are able to form a regular govern¬ 
ment and rule over the whole or part of 
the territory which they claim, humanity 
dictates that they should not be treated as 
rebels guilty of treason, but should, if cap¬ 
tured, be regarded as prisoners of war. To 
attain this result, it is needful for those 
who have risen in arms against the govern¬ 
ment to make every effort to obtain for their 
party the position of belligerents. In the 
contest between the Federals and Confed¬ 
erates, in the war of 1861-65, the latter 
section of the American people, at the very 
commencement of the struggle, claimed the 
privileges of belligerents. Their demand was 
promptly acceded to by the British govern¬ 
ment, on which the Federal authorities took 
umbrage, contending that the recognition 
had been premature, while the British main¬ 
tained that it could not have been refused 
or delayed. 

The rules of belligerency have occupied a 
prominent place in history. Recognized 
belligerents in civilized usage are those who 
have publicly declared war against an en¬ 
emy. In the earlier ages of the Roman re¬ 
public such a declaration was solemnly made 
to the foreign state by the feciales or priests, 
who acted as guardians of public faith. So 
now, in order to constitute an enemy, in the 
sense understood in international law, there 
must be a public declaration of war made by 
an organized state or government. Many 
questions concerning belligerent rights of na¬ 
tions and the incidental interests of indi¬ 
viduals, private property, etc., still remain 
unsettled. In modern times, however, the 
usual practice has been to respect the prop¬ 
erty of individuals on the outbreak of war. 
Repeated endeavors to regulate these and 
other matters pertaining to belligerency have 
been made by the Court of Arbitration at 
The Hague {q. v .). For many years after 
the rise of modern international law the con¬ 
duct of warfare was discussed only with 
reference to belligerents, and no intermedi¬ 
ate relation between an ally and an enemy 
was recognized, but since the middle of the 


eighteenth century the conditions of neu¬ 
trality ( q. v.) have been progressively de¬ 
termined, and systematic efforts have been 
made by nations to regulate the relations 
thereby involved and to define reciprocal 
rights and duties. See Blockade ; Contra¬ 
band oe War; Enemy; International 
Law ; etc. 

Beilin, Jacques Nicolas (bel-aiT), the 
first hydrographic engineer in the marine 
service of France, and the author of several 
excellent geographical works. Among his 
publications are an “Account of the Maps 
of the Coasts of North America” (1755) ; 
“French Hydrography” (1756); a “Small 
Maritime Atlas” (1764); and a “Descrip¬ 
tion of the Gulf of Venice and of the Morea” 
(1771). He died in Versailles, March 21, 
1772. 

Bellingham, a city of Washington, 
county-seat of Whatcom co.; situated near 
the N. E. corner of the State, 48 miles S. of 
Vancouver, B. C., 80 miles N. of Seattle, and 
760 miles N. by E. of San Francisco, on the 
E. shore of Bellingham bay, the practically 
land-hemmed N. branch of Puget Sound, 
forming a good harbor about 10 miles long 
and 5 miles wide. The city is the Puget 
Sound terminus of 3 transcontinental rail¬ 
roads, the Great Northern, Northern Pacific, 
and Canadian Pacific, and the headquarters 
of the Bellingham Bay and British Columbia 
railroad. Its public buildings include a city 
hall, a court house, State Normal School, 
and 2 Carnegie Library buildings. The 
Normal School has 300 students, a museum, 
and a library. There are 38 churches, a 
Y. M. C. A. building, 2 public hospitals, and 
12 public schools, including 2 high schools; 
a free industrial school, 2 commercial 
schools, a Lutheran parochial school, and a 
Japanese school; 3 daily and 4 weekly 
newspapers; 2 theaters, the Beck having a 
seating capacity of 2,200; 2 men’s and 2 
women’s social clubs and a yacht club, with 
well-equipped club houses, a chamber of 
commerce, merchants’ and grocers’ associa¬ 
tions, etc. 

Industries and Commerce .—The indus¬ 
trial interests of the city include saw r and 
shingle mills, a tin can factory, salmon can¬ 
neries, a cold storage plant, a beer brewery, 
brickyards, etc. Near the city are valuable 
deposits of clay and of sandstone. Oyster 
culture along Bellingham bay is now an 
important industry. According to the 
United States Census of Manufactures of 
1905, which was limited to industries car¬ 
ried on under the factory system, to the 
exclusion of neighborhood industries and 
hand trades, there were in the city 73 manu¬ 
facturing establishments, with $2,981,000 of 
capital, employing 1,314 wage-earners (ex¬ 
clusive of salaried officials and clerks), who 
received $858,000 in wages, used materials 
valued at $1,651,000, and turned out prod¬ 
ucts valued at $3,294,000. According to 



Bellingham 


Bellman 


local information, the industries of the city 
had in 1906 5,267 employees, with an out¬ 
put of $7,751,000. Bellingham is a sub-port 
of entry and tlie shipping handled at the 
port was valued at $9,991,000 in 190G. In 
the same year there were 2 National banks, 
with a capital of $200,000; surplus and 
profits, $94,000; and total resources and 
liabilities, $2,838,000. There are also 2 
State banks, and the deposits in the 4 banks 
aggregated over $3,500,000 in 1907. 

Administration and Public Interests .— 
The government is vested in a mayor, chosen 
biennially, and a unicameral council. The 
administrative officers include a treasurer, 
comptroller, corporation counsel, boards of 
public works, health, parks, etc. The board 
of education is distinct from the general 
municipal government. The city owns its 
water works, costing about $1,000,000, the 
supply being drawn from Whatcom lake, 
2% miles E. of the city, than which it is 318 
feet higher. South Bellingham is served 
by a private water company. An expendi¬ 
ture of over $600,000 on street improve¬ 
ments was authorized for 1907. The city 
charter limits the number of saloons to 1 
for each 1,000 inhabitants. The electric 
street railroad has over 17 miles of track, 
reaching all parts of the city, and as far as 
Whatcom falls and Whatcom lake. An in- 
terurban electric railway, to cost over 
$1,500,000, was building in 1907, to con¬ 
nect the city with Sedro Woolley, 18 miles 
S. E., and Burlington and Mount Vernon, 
18 miles and 23 miles respectively S. by E. 

History and Population .—The city of 
Bellingham came into existence Dec. 28, 
1903, when the cities of Whatcom and Fair- 
haven were consolidated. The first settle¬ 
ment in Whatcom was made in 1852, .when 
a sawmill was erected on Whatcom creek. 
Whatcom was consolidated with New What¬ 
com in 1891. Fairhaven was platted in 
1883, and incorporated as a city in 1890, 
when the adjoining town of Bellingham was 
annexed. Bellingham bay, from which the 
present city derives its name, was named 
bv Vancouver in 1792. The population of 
Whatcom was 4,827 in 1890, and 6,834 in 
1900; of Fairhaven, 4,076 in 1890, and 4,228 
in 1900. An official local census in 1904 
gave the population of Bellingham as 22,- 
632, and in 1910 it was 24,298. 

Bellingham, Richard, an English colon¬ 
ial governor; born in 1592; arrived in Bos¬ 
ton in 1634, and in the following year be¬ 
came deputy governor of Massachusetts. 
In 1641 he was candidate for governor 
against Winthrop, and was elected; was re¬ 
elected in 1654 and 1665; and held the gov¬ 
ernorship at the time of his death. In 1664 
he refused to go to England at the command 
of the king, to defend his administration 
He became major-general in the same year. 
Ho died Dec. 7, 1672. 

. Bellini (bel-le'ne), the name of a Vene¬ 


tian family which produced several remark¬ 
able painters. The earliest was Jacopo Bel¬ 
lini, who died in 1470. He was a pupil 
of the celebrated Gentile da Fabriano, and 
one of the first who painted in oil. His eld¬ 
est son, Gentile Bellini, born in 1421, 
died in 1501, was distinguished as a portrait 
painter, and also as a medailleur. Along 
with his brother, he was commissioned to 
decorate the council chamber of the Venetian 
senate. Mohammed II., having by accident 

seen some of his 
works, invited 
Gentile to Con¬ 
stantinople, em¬ 
ployed him to ex¬ 
ecute various his¬ 
torical works, and 
dismissed him 
laden with pres¬ 
ents. The “Preach¬ 
ing of St. Mark” is 
his most famous 
piece. His more 
celebrated brother, 
Giovanni Bellini, 
born in 1426, died 
in 1512, was the 
founder of the old¬ 
er Venetian school of painting, and con¬ 
tributed greatly to its progress. His works 
are marked by naivete, warmth, and in- ' 
.tensity of coloring. His best works are 
altar pieces. His picture of the “Infant 
Jesus” slumbering in the lap of the Ma¬ 
donna, and attended by angels, is full of 
beauty and lively expression. His “Holy 
Virgin,” “Baptism of the Lord,” and 
“Christ and the Woman of Samaria” are 
also much admired. 

Bellini, Vincenzo, a. musical composer, 
born in Catania, Sicily, in 1802. He was 
educated at Naples, under Zingarelli, and 
before he had completed his twentieth year- 
lie had produced “Bianca and Fernando” at 
the Theater St. Carlo. This was succeeded 
by various other operas, of which “II 
Pirata,” “La Sonnambula,” “Norma,” and 
“I Puritani” (1827-34) are the best, and 
have gained for him an undying celebrity. 
His moral character stood high, and his 
manners and compositions were in harmoni¬ 
ous accordance—agreeable, tender, and ele¬ 
gant. He died near Paris, Sept. 23, 1835. 

Bellinzona, a town of Switzerland, cap¬ 
ital of the canton of Ticino; charmingly 
situated on the left bank of the Ticino, 
about 5 miles from its embouchure in the 
N. end of Lago Maggiore. It occupies a 
position of great military importance. 

Beilis, the genus to which the daisy be¬ 
longs. 

Bellman, Carl flichael, a Swedish poet; 
born in Stockholm. Feb. 4, 1740. His poems 
were often improvisations, and the airs of 
his songs were largely of his own composi¬ 
tion. As singer of the rollicking life of a 






Bello 


Bellows 


capital city, he is unsurpassed. A colossal 
bronze bust of Bellman, by Bystrbm, was 
erected in the Zoological Garden at Stock¬ 
holm in 1829, and there a popular festival 
is held yearly in his honor. He died in 
Stockholm, Feb. 11, 1795. 

Bello, Andres, a Spanish-American dip¬ 
lomatist and author, born in Caracas, Vene¬ 
zuela, Nov. 30, 1780. From 1810 to 1828 
he represented Venezuela in London; in 
1829, became an official of the Bureau of 
Finance; in 1834, Minister of Foreign Af¬ 
fairs for Chile; in 1842, the first rector of 
Santiago University. He was the author 
of “ Principles of International Law ” 
(1832), and his entire works were printed 
after his death at the expense of the State. 
He died in Santiago, Chile, Oct. 15, 18G5. 

Bellona, the goddess of war, and sister 
or wife, or sister-wife and charioteer of 
Mars. The Romans paid great adoration to 
her. The Temple of Bellona in Rome, stood 
in the Circus Flaminius, near the Porta 
Carmentalis, and was the place where for¬ 
eign ambassadors and generals returning 
from their campaigns were received by the 
Senate. Before its gates was raised a 
column, called Columna Bellica, against 
which a javelin was hurled as one of the 
previous forms in the declaration of war. 
Her priests were named after her, Bello- 
narii. Lactantius (i: 21) describes them 
as cutting their flesh most ferociously in 
her worship; and Tertullian adds that, 
having collected the blood which flowed 
from these gashes, in the palms of their 
hands, they pledged the neophytes who were 
initiated into their mysteries, and then 
broke out into the ravings of vaticination. 

Bellot, Joseph Ren£, a French naval af- 
ficer, born in Paris in 1820. In 1851 he 
joined the expedition to the Polar regions 
in search of Sir John Franklin, and took 
part in several explorations. He was 
drowned in an attempt to carry despatches 
to Sir Edward Belcher over the ice, in 
1853. His diary was published in 1855. 

Bellotti, Bernardo, an Italian painter 
and engraver, born in Venice, in 1724; 
studied under his uncle, Antonio Canal ; 
painted perspective and architectural views. 
He passed much time in Germany and was a 
member of the Academy of Dresden, where 
many of his pictures are exhibited. He 
etched, from his own designs, views of 
Vienna, Dresden and Warsaw. His pictures 
are called by the name of Canaletto, which 
he assumed. He died in Warsaw, in 1780. 

Bellot Strait, the passage on the N. 
coast of North America, which separates 
North Somerset from Boothia Felix, and 
connects Prince Regent Inlet with Franklin 
Channel. Its E. entrance was discovered 
in 1852 by Lieut. Joseph Rene Bellot. 
After four unsuccessful attempts, it was 


explored for the first time by MUlintock on 
his crowning voyage. It is about 20 miles 
long, and, at its narrowest part, about 1 
mile wide, running pretty nearly on the 
parallel of 72°, between granite shored 
which, everywhere high, rise here and there 
to 1,500 or 1,000 feet. Through this funnel 
both the winds and the waters have full 
play; the latter, permanent currents and 
flood tides alike, coming from the W. A 
point on the S. shore, 71° 55' N., 95 ° W., 
is the most northerly point of the North 
American continent. 

Bellows, literally, an instrument for 
blowing the fire in manufactories, forges or 
private houses. Its. sides are so formed and 
worked that the upper one alternately rises 
and falls, with the effect of compelling the 
chest or bladder-like instrument first to ex¬ 
pand and then to contract; the former proc¬ 
ess causing the air to enter the interior, 
and the latter one to leave it by means of a 
pipe or tube designed to conduct it to the 
portion of a fire which it is to blow. In 
a hand bellows there are handles to be 
grasped ; in a larger instrument designed 
for a manufactory, and called a blowing ma¬ 
chine, the propulsive power is obtained by 
machinery. A pair of bellows, worked 
chiefly by the feet, is figured on an Egyptian 
monument attributed to the time of Thoth- 
mes III., b. c. about 1490, and one is 
mentioned in Jer. vi: 29; both of these 
were used for smelting metals. The repre¬ 
sentation of a bellows for the hand, and 
presumably for domestic use, is found on an 
old Roman lamp; it is exactly of the modern 
type. 

In hydrostatics, an instrument designed as 
a toy rather than for use. It is, however, 
of some utility as illustrating what is 
called the hydrostatic paradox. Two hori¬ 
zontal, flat boards, united by leather folded 
at the sides so as to be capable of expan¬ 
sion, constitute a chamber, into which water 
is introduced from a long, narrow pipe ris¬ 
ing vertically. By hydrostatical law this 
water will act with such pressure on the in¬ 
terior of the chamber that it will force the 
upper board to rise as far as the leather 
will permit, even if heavy weights be put 
upon it to keep it down. 

Bellows, Albert F., an American painter 
born in Milford, Mass., Nov. 20, 1829; was 
one of the first to succeed with water colors. 
He studied in Antwerp, Paris and England, 
becoming a National Academician (1801), 
and an honorary member of the Royal Bel¬ 
gian Water Color Society (1808). He died 
in Auburndale, Mass., Nov. 24, 1883. 

Bellows, Henry Whitney, an American 
Unitarian clergyman and writer, born at 
Walpole, N. H., June 11, 1814; became 
pastor of All Souls Church, New York. 
1839; was chief founder and long editor of 



Bellows Fish 


Belmont 


tha “Christian Inquirer” (1846) ; chief or¬ 
iginator of the United States Sanitary Com¬ 
mission, and its President during the Civil 
War (1861-1865). He wrote “Public Life 
of Washington ” (1866) ; “ Relation of Pub¬ 
lic Amusements to Public Morality; ” “ The 
Old World in its New Face” (2 vols., 1868- 
1869), a record of travel in Europe. He 
was an effective preacher and public speaker. 
He died in New York, Jan. 30, 1882. 

Bellows Fish, an acanthopterygious fish 
of the genus centriscus (C. scolopax) ; 
called also the trumpet fish or sea snipe. It 
is not uncommon in the Mediterranean, but 
rare in the British seas. It is 4 or 5 
inches long, and has an oblong, oval body 
and a tubular elongated snout, which is 
adapted for drawing from among sea-weed 
and mud the minute Crustacea on which it 
feeds. 

Belloy, Pierre Laurent de~ properly 
Buirette,a French dramatist, born in 1727; 
won success with the tragedies The Siege 
of Calais” (1765) and “Gaston and Bay¬ 
ard” (1771), and was elected to the Acad¬ 
emy in 1771. He died in 1775. 

Bell Rock, or Inch Cape, a dangerous 
reef surmounted by a lighthouse, situated 
in the German Ocean, about 12 miles from 
Arbroath, nearly opposite the mouth of the 
river Tay. It is said that in former ages 
the monks of Aberbrothoek caused a bell to 
be fixed on this reef, which was rung by the 
waves, and warned the mariners of this 
highly dangerous place. Tradition also says 
that the bell was wantonly cut away by a 
pirate, and that a year after he perished 
on the rock himself with ship and plunder. 
Southey has a well-known poem on this sub¬ 
ject. The lighthouse was erected in 1808- 
1811 by Robert Stevenson from Rennie’s 
plan at a cost of upward of £60,000. It 
arises to a height of 120 feet; has a revolv¬ 
ing light showing alternatelv red and white 
every minute, and visible for upward of 
15 miles. It also contains two bells which 
are rung during thick weather. The reef is 
partly uncovered at ebb tides. 

BelLSmith, Frederic Marlett, an Eng¬ 
lish artist, born in London, Sept. 26, 1846; 
went to Canada in 1866. He was for seven 
years Art Director at Alma College, St. 
Thomas, and teacher of drawing in the pub¬ 
lic schools of London, Ont. About 1888 he 
became a portrait and figure painter; but 
he is best known as a painter of landscapes. 
In 1894 he produced “ Lights of a City 
Street,” his greatest achievement up to that 
year, and later, two canvases depicting in¬ 
cidents connected with the death of Sir 
John Thompson. 

Belmont, a town in the E. part of Cape 
Colony, midway between Orange River Junc¬ 
tion and Kimberley. It was the scene of one 
of the earliest engagements in the war of 


1899-1900, between the Boers and the Brit¬ 
ish under Gen. Lord Methuen. The town 
was attacked by the British on Nov. 23, 
1899, while on the march to the relief of 
Kimberley, and the battle resulted in a 
victory for them. Two days later Lord Me¬ 
thuen took Graas Pan, 10* miles N. of Bel¬ 
mont, after again defeating the Boers. 

Belmont, August, an American banker, 
born in Alzey, Germany; educated at Frank¬ 
fort, and was apprenticed to the Rothschild’s 
banking house in that city when 14 years 
old. In 1837 he went to Havana to take 
charge of the firm’s interests, and soon af¬ 
terward was sent to New York city, where 
he established himself in the banking busi¬ 
ness and as the representative of the Roths¬ 
childs. He was Consul-General of Austria, 
in 1844-1850; became Charge d’Affaires at 
The Hague in 1853; and was Minister-Resi¬ 
dent there in 1854-1858. He was a delegate 
to the Democratic National Convention in 
1860, and when a portion of the delegates 
withdrew and organized the convention in 
Baltimore, he was active in that body, and 
through it became Chairman of the National 
Democratic Committee an office he held till 
1872. He was an act've worker in the party 
till 1876, when he closed his political ca¬ 
reer. He died in New York city, Nov. 24, 
1890. 

Belmont, August, an American banker, 
born in New York city, Feb. 18, 1853; son 
of the preceding. He was graduated at 
Harvard University in 1875; at once en¬ 
tered his father’s banking house, and on the 
death of his father became head of the firm 
of August Belmont & Co., also representing 
the European banking firm of the Roths¬ 
childs. In February, 1900, he organized 
the Rapid Transit Subway Construction 
Company to back John B. McDonald, who 
had been awarded the $35,000,000 contract 
for the construction of a rapid transit sys¬ 
tem in New York city. The banking house 
also deposited with the comptroller of the 
city a certified check for $1,000,000. The 
house, under the management of the son, has 
continued to exert the large influence in the 
financial and railroad affairs of the city 
and country that it gained under its 
founder. 

Belmont, Perry, an American lawyer, 
born in New York, Dec. 28, 1851; son of 
August Belmont; graduated at Harvard 
University in 1872, and at Columbia Col¬ 
lege Law School in 1876; was admitted to 
the bar and practiced in New York till 1881, 
when he was elected as a Democrat to 
Congress, and served till 1887, being a mem¬ 
ber of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, 
and in that capacity in his first term in 
Congress came into notice by his cross-ex¬ 
amination of Hon. James G. Blaine, then ex- 
Secretary of State, as to his relations with 
a syndicate of American capitalists inter- 



Belmontet 


Beltane 


ested in Peruvian guano. In 1885 he was 
appointed Chairman of the Committee on 
Foreign Affairs; 1887-1888 was United 
States Minister to Spain. In 1889 he was a 
commissioner to the Universal Exposition 
in Paris, and for his services received from 
the President of France, in 1890, the dec¬ 
oration of Commander of the Legion of 
Honor. He was one of the principals in 
the execution of the great contract for the 
construction of a rapid transit system in 
New York city, in February, 1900, becom¬ 
ing bondsman for the 50-year continuing 
bond for $1,000,000. 

Belmontet, Louis (bel-mon-ta/), a French 
poet and publicist, born in Montauban, 
March 20, 1799; studied and practiced law 
in Toulouse, until involved in difficulties 
with the magistracy on account of some 
satirical poems, when he went to Paris and 
there produced his principal works: “The 
Sad Ones” (1824), a cycle of elegies; “The 
Supper of Augustus” (1828); and with 
Soumet, “A Festival of Nero” (1829), a 
tragedy which exceeded 100 performances. 
Subsequently he became an ardent partisan 
of Bonapartism, pleading its cause as a 
journalist and poetically extolling the Na¬ 
poleonic dynasty in many enthusiastic odes. 
He died in Paris, Oct. 14, 1879. 

Beloe, William, an English clergyman 
and writer, born in 1756. He was educated 
at Cambridge, and latterly was presented to 
the rectory of All-hallows, London Wall, and 
subsequently to stalls in Lincoln Cathedral 
and St. Paul’s. In 1803 he became keeper 
of the printed books in the British Museum. 
His chief publications are “Anecdotes of 
Literature and Scarce Books ” (6 vols., 

1806-1812) ; a translation of Herodotus 
with a commentary; and the “Sexagen¬ 
arian, or Memoirs of a Literary Life ” 
(1817). He died in 1817. 

Beloit, a city in Rock county, Wis.; on 
the Rock river, and the Chicago and North¬ 
western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee and 
St. Paul railroads; 85 miles S. W. of Mil¬ 
waukee. The city derives fine power for man¬ 
ufacturing from the river; and has the sec¬ 
ond largest wood-working machinery plant 
in the world, beside manufactories of gas- 
engines, windmills, iron, paper-mill machin¬ 
ery, ploughs, paper, rye flour (oldest mill 
of its kind in the country), and bicycles. 
The city is widely known as the seat of 
Beloit College (g. v.). Pop. (1910) 15,125. 

Beloit College, a co-educational (non¬ 
sectarian) institution in Beloit, Wis.; or¬ 
ganized in 1847 by t-he Congregational and 
Presbyterian churches; has grounds and 
buildings valued at over $495,000; endow¬ 
ment, $1,145,000; scientific apparatus, $78,- 
000; volumes in the library, over 42,000; 
professors and instructors, about 35; stu¬ 


dents, 460; and graduates since opening, 
over 1,000. 

Belomancy, divination by means of ar¬ 
rows or other missiles. It is alluded to 
in Scripture in Ezek. xxi: 21 (in Heb.. 
ver. 26), where Nebuchadnezzar, standing 
at the divergence of two roads, in uncer¬ 
tainty as to whether he should first go 
against Rabbah or Jerusalem, had recourse 
to divination, and, according to our version, 
“ made his arrows bright.” Gesenius ren¬ 
ders the words “ moved about his arrows ” 
or “ shook together his arrows.” Perhaps, 
as some think, he inscribed the name of 
a citv on each arrow, shook them all to- 
gether, and then drew one out at random, 
resolved to attack the city whose name came 
first forth. 

Belot, Adolphe (be-lo'), a French novelist 
and dramatist, born in Pointe-a-Patre, Nov. 
6, 1829; traveled extensively and settled at 
Nancy as a lawyer. He won reputation with 
a witty comedy, “ The Testament of Cesar 
Girodot ” (1859, with Villetard) ; and being 
less successful with his following dramatic 
efforts, devoted himself to fiction. Of his 
novels may be mentioned “ The Venus of 
Gordes ” (1867, Avith Ernest Daudet) ; “ The 
Drama of the Rue de la Paix ” (1868); 
“Article 47” (1870); all of which were 
dramatized. Ho died in Paris, Dec. 17, 
1890. 

Belshazzar, the last of the Babylonian 
kings, who reigned conjointly with his fa¬ 
ther, Nabonadius. He perished b. c. 538, 
during the successful storming of Babylon 
by Cyrus. This event is recorded in the 
book of Daniel; but it is difficult to bring 
the particulars there given into harmony 
with the cuneiform inscriptions. 

Belt. in astronomy, a varying number of 
dusky, belt-like bands or zones encircling 
the planet Jupiter parallel to his equator, 
ns if the clouds of his atmosphere had been 
forced into a series of parallels through the 
rapidity of his rotation, and tin dark body 
of the planet was seen through the compara¬ 
tively clear spaces between. 

In physical geography, two passages or 
straits connecting the Baltic with the Ger¬ 
man Ocean, viz. (a) the Great Belt, be¬ 
tween the islands of Seeland and Laland on 
the N. and Fiihnen and Langeland, on the 
W. (b) The Little Belt, between the main- 
in nd of Denmark on the W., and the island 
of Fiihnen on the E. 

Beltane, a superstitious observance now 
or formerly practiced among the Scottish 
and Irish Celts, as well as in Cumberland 
and Lancashire. The Scotch observe the 
Beltane festival chiefly on the 1st of May 
(old style), though in the W. of that coun¬ 
try St. Peter’s Day, June 29, was preferred. 
Tn Ireland there were two Beltanes, one on 
the 1st of May, and the other on the 21st of 




Beluchistan 


Bembex 


June. The ceremonies varied in different 
places, but one essential part of them every¬ 
where was to light a fire. At Callander, in 
Perthshire, the boys went to the moors, cut 
a table out of sods, sat round it, lit a fire, 
cooked and ate a custard, baked an oatmeal 
cake, divided it into equal segments, black¬ 
ened one of these, drew lots, and then com¬ 
pelled the boy who drew out the Wackened 
piece to leap three times through the fire, 
with the view of obtaining for the district 
a year of prosperity. In Ireland, cattle 
were driven through the fire. The name 
given suggests that the actual worship of 
Baal, as the sun, which could easily have 
come from the Phoenicians, existed in Great 
Britain in pre-Christian times. Originally 
human sacrifices may have been offered, and 
then, as primitive society began to discern 
the cruelty of this practice, it may have 
been deemed enough for the victim to pass 
through the fire in place of being burnt to 
death. Finally, cattle would tend to be 
substituted for human beings. Merry-mak¬ 
ings came at length to attend the Beltane 
festival. 

Beluchistan. See Baluchistan. 

Beluga, a species of fish — the great or 
Hausen, sturgeon, the cicipenser huso. It is 
sometimes 12 to 15 feet in length, and 
weighs 1.200 pounds, oi in rare cases even 
3,000. The best isinglass is made from its 
swimming bladder. Its flesh, though some¬ 
times eaten, is occasionally unwholesome. 
It is found in the Caspian and Black Seas 
and the large rivers which flow into them. 
The word is also applied to a cetacean, del- 
phinapterus leucas. It is called also the 
white whale. It belongs to the family 
dclphinida ?. It is from 18 to 21 feet in 
length, and inhabits Davis Straits and the 
other portions of the Northern Seas, and 
sometimes ascends rivers. 

Belus, the Homan name of the Assyrian 
and Babylonian divinity called Bel in 
Isaiah xlvi: 1. 

Belus, a Phoenician river at the base of 
Mt. Carmel. Its fine sand, according to tra¬ 
dition, first led the Phoenicians to the in¬ 
vention of glass. 

Belus, Temple of, an enormous temple 
in ancient Babylon, rebuilt by Nebuchadnez¬ 
zar, about 604 B. c. Its site is thought, by 
some authorities, to be the modern Bers- 
Nimrud, and by others, Babil, both situated 
near Hillah. 

Belvedere, or Belvidere, a room built 
above the roof of an edifice, for the purpose 
of viewing the surrounding country. In 
France the term belvedere is used occasion¬ 
ally for a summer house in a park or 
garden. 

Belvidere, city and county-seat of Boone 
co., Ill.; on the Kishwaukee river, and the 
Chicago and Northwestern railroad; 78 

53 


miles N. W. of Chicago. It is an important 
farming and dairying trade center; and con¬ 
tains railroad shops, one of the largest sew¬ 
ing machine and bicycle works in the coun¬ 
try, manufactory of sewing machine supplies, 
flour mills, creamery, and other industries; 
and has 2 National banks, several daily 
and weekly periodicals, and a property valu¬ 
ation of about $2,000,000. Pop. (1890) 
3,867; (1900) 6,937; (1910) 7,253. 

Belzu, Manuel Isodoro, a Bolivian revo¬ 
lutionist who led the revolutions of 1847 
and 1848, born in La Paz, in 1808; was 
killed in a street battle there while lead¬ 
ing a revolt against Melgarijo, in March, 
1866. 

Belzoni, Giovanni Battistr, an Italian 

traveler, whose researches in Egypt have 
been of great service to those engaged in 
the study of its antiquities, was born in 
Padua, in 1778. He went to England in 
1803; and, becoming involved in pecuniary 
difficulties, while residing in London, he ob¬ 
tained a livelihood by the display of feats 
of strength and activity at Astley’s amphi¬ 
theater, for which his colossal stature and 
extraordinary muscular powers eminently 
qualified him. At length he left England 
and entered on his travels through Egypt, 
in 1815. In 1816 he sent the busts of Ju¬ 
piter, Memnon, etc., to the British Museum ; 
published a narrative of his operations in 
1820; and in the following year exhibited a 
model of the splendid tomb which he had 
discovered near Thebes. But, while making 
preparations for passing from Benin to 
Iloussa and Timbuctoo, he was attacked by 
dysentery, and died at Gato in 1823. 

Bern, Joseph, a Polish general, born in 
Galicia in 1795. His first experience was in 
the French expedition against Russia in 
1812. He was afterward professor in the 
School of Artillery, at Warsaw; took part 
in the insurrection of 1830, and, in 1848, 
joined the Hungarian army. He obtained 
several successes against the Austrians and 
Russians in the following year, but, after the 
defeat at Temesvar, he retired into Turkey, 
and was made a pasha. He died in 1850. 

Bembatoka, Bay of, a safe and commo¬ 
dious bay on the N. W. coast of Madagascar, 
lying in 16° S. lat. and 46° E. long. The 
river Betsiboka, with the Ikiopa, drain into 
the bay; the former, which is about 300 
miles long, is navigable for small steamers 
for about 90 miles. Mojanga, on the N. 
side of the bay, is the second town in the 
island, with about 14,000 inhabitants, Bem¬ 
batoka being but a village. 

Bembex, a genus of hymenopterous in¬ 
sects, the typical one of the family hem- 
bicidce. The species, which have a certain 
resemblance to wasps, are solitary burrow- 
ers; they store up flies for the support of their 
larvae. They are found in hot countries. 




Bembicidie 


Benares 


Bembicidae., a family of insects belong¬ 
ing to the order hymenoptera, the tribe 
aculeata, and the sub-tribe fossoria. Type, 
bembex. 

Bembidiidae, a family of beetles belong¬ 
ing to the tribe geodephagci (feeders on 
land). It consists of minute predatory 
beetles, generally bright blue or green, with 
yellow spots and a metallic luster. They 
frequent damp places. Typical genus, bem- 
bidium. 

Bembidium, a genus of foreign beetles, 
the typical one of the family bembidiidce. 
They have large eyes and an ovate body. 

Bembo, Pietro, an Italian scholar, born 
at Venice in 1470. He became one of a 
famous society of scholars which had been 
established in the house of the printer Al¬ 
dus Manutius. In 1512 ho became secretary 
to Leo X., after whose death he retired to 
Padua. He was next appointed histori¬ 
ographer to the Republic of Venice and li¬ 
brarian of the library of St. Mark. Pope 

Paul III. con¬ 
ferred on him, in 
1539, the hat of 
a cardinal, and 
soon after the 
bishoprics of 
Gubbio and Ber¬ 
gamo. The most 
important of his 
works are “ His¬ 
tory of Venice 
from 1487 to 
1513,” written 
both in Latin 
and Italian; “ Le 
Prose,” dialogues 
in which the 
rules of the Ital¬ 
ian language are 
laid down; “ Gli Asolani,” dialogues on 
the nature of love; and “ Le Rime,” a col¬ 
lection of sonnets and canzonets. He died 
in 1547. 

Bemis, Edward Webster, an American 
economist, born in Springfield, Mass., April 
7. 18G0; graduated at Amherst College in 
1880; was a pioneer lecturer in the Univer¬ 
sity Extension System, 1887-1888; Profes¬ 
sor of Economics and History, Vanderbilt 
University, 1889-1892; and Associate Pro¬ 
fessor of Economics, University of Chicago, 
1892-1895. In 1897-1899 he was Professor of 
Economical Science in the Kansas State Ag¬ 
ricultural College. He published “ History 
of Cooperation in the United States ” 
(1888); “Municipal Ownership of Gas” 
(1891) ; “Local Government for the South 
and Southwest ” (1893); “ Popular Election 
of United States Senators” (1893); “Re¬ 
lation of Labor Organizations to the Am¬ 
erican Boy and to Trade Instruction ” 
(1894), etc. 


Bemis (incorrectly Bemus) Heights, a 

village in Saratoga county, N. Y., on the 
Hudson river, famous as the scene of the 
first battle of Stillwater, Sept. 19, 1777. 

Ben (Hebrew, “son”), a prepositive syl¬ 
lable signifying in composition “ son of,” 
found in many Jewish names, as Bendavid, 
Benasser, etc. Beni, the plural, occurs in 
several modern names, and in the names of 
many Arabian tribes. 

Ben, a Gaelic word signifying mountain, 
prefixed to the names of many mountains 
in Scotland N. of the Firths of Clyde and 
Forth; as, Ben Nevis, Ben MacDhui, etc. 

Ben, Oil of, the expressed oil of the ben- 
nut, the seed of moringa ptcrygosperma, 
the ben or horse radish tree of India. The 
oil is inodorous, d'oes not become rancid for 
many years, and is used by perfumers and 
watchmakers. 

Benaiah, the name of 12 different per¬ 
sons mentioned in the Bible, the one chiefly 
important being a son of Jehoida, a chief 
priest. He figures as a mighty and valiant 
warrior who overcame two Moabite cham¬ 
pions, slew an Egj^ptian giant with the 
giant’s own spear, went down into a dry 
cistern and slew a lion that had fallen in 
while it was covered with snow, and killed 
the rebels Adonijah and Joab. He was 
made commander-in-chief in Joab’s place by 
Solomon. 

Benalcazor (ben-al-lca-thar'T, Belalsa=» 
zor, or Velalcazor, Sebastian de, the 

name given to Sebastian Movano from his 
native town; a Spanish soldier who figured 
in the Spanish conquests in South Amer¬ 
ica. His gallant conduct attracted the at¬ 
tention of Pizarro, who promoted him. He 
took the city of Quito, made an expedition 
into Colombia and reduced Popayan, and 
was appointed governor of that part of the 
country in 1538. He was forced to resign 
this office in consequence of legal compli¬ 
cations and died when about to return to 
Spain, in 1550. 

Benares, a town in Hindustan, new 
United Provinces, administrative headquar¬ 
ters of a district and division of the same 
name, on the left bank of the Ganges, from 
which it rises like an amphitheater, present¬ 
ing a splendid panorama of temples, mosques, 
palaces, and other buildings, with their 
domes, minarets, etc. Fine ghauts lead 
down to the river. It is one of the most 
sacred places of pilgrimage in all India, be¬ 
ing the headquarters of the Hindu religion. 
The principal temple is dedicated to Siva, 
whose sacred symbol it contains. It is also 
the seat of government and other colleges, 
and of the missions of various societies. 
Benares carries on a large trade in the pro¬ 
duce of the district and in English goods, 
and manufactures silks, shawls, embroid¬ 
ered cloth, jewelry, etc. The population, in- 





Benavente 


Bender 


eluding' the neighboring cantonments at Sik- 
raul (Secrole), in 1901, was 209,331. The 
commissionership or division has an area of 
18,337 square miles, and a population of 
9,820,728, of whom 70.53 per cent, depend 
on agriculture. The district has an area of 
998 square miles, and a population of 
892,694. 

Benavente, a town of Spain, in the Prov¬ 
ince of Zamora, on the western bank of the 
Esla, 34 miles N. from Zamora. It is over¬ 
looked by a huge, half-ruined castle, and is 
now a dull and poverty stricken place, built 
chiefly of mud cottages. It was here that 
Moore’s retreat commenced, Dec. 28, 1808. 

Benavides y Navarrete (ben-a-ve'das e 
nav-ar-a'te), Francisco de Paola, a Span¬ 
ish priest, born in Baeza, May 14, 1810; was 
made Bishop of Siguenza in i857 ; Patriarch 
of the Indies in 1877; and Archbishop and 
Cardinal of Saragossa in 1881. He died in 
Saragossa, March 30, 1895. 

Benbow, John, an English admiral, born 
in 1050 at Shrewsbury. His skill and valor, 
displayed during an action with a Barbary 
pirate at the head of a superior force, gained 
him the confidence of the nation, and he was 
made a captain in the Royal navy by James 
II. Rear-Admiral in 1700, he had his leg 
carried away by a chain-shot during an en¬ 
gagement with the French Commodore, Du 
Casse, in 1702, and he died in Jamaica, in 
1702. 

Bench, in law, the seat which judges or 
magistrates occupy officially in a court of 
justice; also the judges or magistrates sit¬ 
ting together to try cases. The Court of 
King’s Bench (named, when a female sov¬ 
ereign is on the throne, the Court of Queen’s 
Bench) formerly was one of the three chief 
courts in England. It grew up rather than 
was created in the early Norman times. 
The judicial business of the Great Council 
of the nation coming to be transacted in 
the King’s palace, the court which attended 
to it was called that of the Aula Regis, viz., 
of the King’s palace. It gradually separated 
into three — the Courts of King’s Bench, 
of Common Pleas, and of the Exchequer. 
The first of these exercised control over the 
inferior courts, and took special cognizance 
of trespasses against the King’s peace. From 
its very outset it was a court of record. 
Its separate existence was abolished by the 
judicature act of 1873, and now it is the 
King’s Bench Division of the High Court 
of Judicature. 

In engineering, a bench is a horizontal 
ledge on the side of a cutting; an embank¬ 
ment or parapet, a berme, a banquette. 

Benchers, in England, senior members of 
the Inns of Court, who have the entire man¬ 
agement of their respective inns, the power 
of punishing barristers guilty of misconduct, 
and the right to admit or reject candidates 
to the bar. 


Bench Warrant, a warrant issued by the 
court before which an indictment has been 
found to arrest the accused, that he may ap¬ 
pear and find bail for his appearance at the 
trial. It is used extensively in the United 
States to bring into court persons who have 
neglected to obey an order of court, such 
as delinquent jurymen. 

Bencoolen, a seaport on the W. coast of 
Sumatra Island, Dutch East Indies; capital 
of a Residency of the same name. It was 
founded in 1685 by the English and ceded 
to the Dutch in 1824. Area of Residency, 
9,090 square miles; pop. of Residency, 140,- 
126; of town, 5,000. 

Bend, in heraldry, one of the nine honor¬ 
able ordinaries, containing a third part of 
the field when charged, and a fifth when 
plain, made by two lines drawn diagonally 
across the shield from the dexter chief to 
the sinister base point. The bend sinister 
differs only by crossing in the opposite di¬ 
rection, diagonally from the sinister chief 
to the dexter base. It indicates illegitimacy. 

Benda, Georg, the most distinguished of 
a notable musical familv, born at Jung- 
bunzlau, in Bohemia, in 1721, and distin¬ 
guished as a pianist, violinist, and composer; 
died at Kostritz in 1795. He was band¬ 
master to the Duke of Gotha (1748-1787), 
and in this period produced several operas 
and cantatas, such as “Ariadne auf Naxos” 
and “ Medea.” 

Bendemann, Eduard, a German painter, 
born in Berlin, Dec. 3, 1811; studied under 
Schadow. As early as 1832 his great pic¬ 
ture of the “ Captive Jews ” was exhibited 
at Berlin, and in 1837 he gained the gold 
medal at Paris. In 1838 he was appointed 
Professor of the Academy of Art at Dres¬ 
den. Here he was intrusted with the exe¬ 
cution of the larger frescoes in the palace, 
and on these his fame chiefly depends. In 
1858 he succeeded his father-in-law as di¬ 
rector of the Diisseldorf Academy, a post 
which he held until 1867. He afterward 
produced several large canvases and fres¬ 
coes, some of which are among his best 
works. He died in Diisseldorf, Dec. 27, 
1889. 

Bender, Louis Prosper, a Canadian- 
American physician and author, born in 
Quebec, July 30, 1844; graduated at Mc¬ 
Gill University in 1S65, after having inter¬ 
rupted his studies by a service in the med¬ 
ical department of the Union army during 
a portion of the American Civil War. In 
1884 he settled in Boston, Mass., where he es¬ 
tablished himself in homoeopathic practice. 
His writings include “ Literary Sheaves,” 
or “ La Litterature au Canada-Francais ” 
(1881); “Old and New Canada, 1753- 
1844,” “Historic Scenes and Social Pictures, 
or the Life of Joseph Francois Perrault” 
(1882), etc. He has also frequentlv con¬ 
tributed to American magazines. 



Bendire 


Benedict 


Bendire, Charles Emil, a German-Amer¬ 
ican military ollicer and ornithologist, born 
in Darmstadt, Germany, April 27, 1836, 
came to the United States in 1852, and 
entered the army in 1854. He served 
through the Civil War, becoming a Cap¬ 
tain in the 1st Cavalry. After the war 
he was transferred to the West, and was 
retired April 24, 1886. During his stay in 
the West he applied himself to the study of 
ornithology, and collected a vast amount of 
material in various branches of natural his¬ 
tory. In 1870 he began to collect the eggs 
of North American birds, which finally num¬ 
bered more than 8,000 specimens, and this 
collection he presented to the United States 
National Museum. He was the author of 
“ The Life Histories of North American 
Birds, with Special Reference to their Breed¬ 
ing Habits and Eggs.” He died Feb. 4, 1897. 

Benedek, Ludwig von, an Austrian mili¬ 
tary officer, born in Odenburg, Hungary, 
July 14, 1804; fought against the Italians 
in 1848, and afterward against the Hunga¬ 
rian patriots. He distinguished himself at 
Solferino in the campaign of 1859; and in 
the war with Prussia in 1S66 he commanded 
the Austrian army till after his defeat at 
Sadowa, when he was superseded. He died 
in Gratz, April 27, 1881. 

Benedetti, Vincent, Comte de, a French 
diplomatist of Italian extraction, born in 
Bastia, Corsica, April 29 1817; was edu¬ 
cated for public service, held consulates in 
Cairo, Palermo, Malta, and Tunis; and was 
Secretary of the Congress of Paris in 1S56, 
and drew up the protocols of the treaty then 
agreed upon. In 1861 he was appointed Am¬ 
bassador to Italy, and in 1864 to Prussia. 
In 1870 great excitement was aroused 
throughout Europe by the publication in the 
London “Times” of the alleged draft of a 
secret treaty between France and Prussia. 
The authenticity of the document was not 
denied. The French Government declared 
that although Benedetti had written the 
document, he had done so at the dictation 
of Bismarck. This declaration served to in¬ 
crease the excitement. At the same time 
Benedetti was under orders to protest 
against the candidature of Prince Leopold 
of the house of Hohenzollern for the crown 
of Spain. He became so importunate in try¬ 
ing to carrv out these orders that he was 
forbidden to seek further interviews with 
King William. The Ambassador had reit¬ 
erated the demands of his government to the 
King while the latter was taking a walk on 
the promenade at Ems, thus committing a 
breach of court etiquette, and abusing his 
privileges as an ambassador. The refusal 
of the King to again receive Benedetti gave 
great offense in France, and was made a 
pretext for declaring war within a few days. 
After the fall of the Empire, Benedetti with¬ 
drew from public life. In 1871 he published 


a pamphlet charging Bismarck with the 
whole responsibility of the secret treaty, to 
which the latter made a vigorous reply. 
Benedetti was author of “ Studies in Di¬ 
plomacy,” an English translation of which 
appeared in 1895. Fie died in Paris, March 
28, 1900. 

Benedetto da Majjano. an Italian archi¬ 
tect and sculptor, born in Florence in 1442; 
began his career as a worker in wooden mo¬ 
saic. With his brothers, Giovanni and Gi- 
uliana, he executed the “ Madonna dell 
Ulivo.” His own work, represented in the 
“ Madonna,” far excels the work of his 
brothers. His most celebrated work as an 
architect was the Palazzo Strozzi, began in 
1489. In 1490, he carved the busts of Giotto 
and Squareilupo, in the Duomo at Florence. 
In 1491, the monument to Filippo Strozzi 
was erected in Santa Maria Novella, a work 
which Strozzi had commissioned Benedetto 
to make before his death. It is the chef- 
d'oeuvre of the sculptor, and one of the most 
notable sculptures of the 15th century. He 
died in Florence in 1498. 

Benedicite (Lord bless ye), the canticle 
in the “ Book of Common Prayer ” in the 
morning service, also called the “ Song of 
the Three Holy Children: ” “ O, all ye works 
of the Lord, bless ye the Lord.” It is as 
old as the time of St. Chrysostom. 

Benedict, a married man; from the Latin 
benedictus (a happy man), and a skit on 
the order of St. Benedict, famous for their 
ascetic habits, and, of course, rigidly bound 
to celibacy. Shakespeare, in “ Much Ado 
About Nothing,” avails himself of this joke 
in making Benedick, the young lord of 
Padua, “ rail against marriage,” but after¬ 
ward marry Beatrice, with whom he falls 
in love. 

Benedict I., Pope, succeeded John III., 

575; died in 578, and was himself succeeded 
by Pelagius II. 

Benedict II. succeeded Leo II., 684; died 
in 685, and was succeeded by John V. 

Benedict III. succeeded Leo IV., 855. 
During his pontificate, the Saracens were 
ravaging Apulia and Campania. He died 
in 858, and was succeeded by Nicholas I. 

Benedict IV. succeeded John IX., about 
900. He crowned Louis, son of Boson, Em¬ 
peror and King of Italy. He died in 9103, 
and was succeeded by Leo V. 

Benedict V. succeeded John XII. in 964, 
and was appointed by the Romans in oppo¬ 
sition to Leo VIII. The Emperor Otho, sup¬ 
porter of Leo, appeared before Rome with 
an army, reduced the city to famine, and a 
new assembly of the clergy declared to be 
null the election of Benedict, who was ex¬ 
iled. He died in 965. 

Benedict VI. succeeded John XIII. in 
972. After the death of the Emperor Otho 
I., the Romans imprisoned Benedict, who 



Benedict 


Benedict, St. 


waa strangled in the castle of St. Angelo, in 
974. We know nothing of Donus II., men¬ 
tioned as the next Pope, except that he died 
after a few months, and was succeeded by 

Benedict VII., of' the family of Conti, 
elected in 975. During his pontificate, the 
Emperor Otho II. came repeatedly to Pome, 
where he died in 984. Benedict died about 
the same time, and was succeeded by John 
XIV. 

Benedict VIII. of the same family, suc¬ 
ceeded Sergius IV., in 1012. In 1016, the 
Saracens from Sardinia having landed on 
the coast of Tuscany, Benedict attacked and 
defeated them. He crowned the Emperor 
Henry II., and his wife, in the Church of St. 
Peter. He died in 1024, and was succeeded 
by his brother, John XIX. 

Benedict IX. a relative of the two pre¬ 
ceding Popes, succeeded John XIX. in 1034. 
He was then very young, some say only 10 
years old. He was distinguished by his li¬ 
centiousness and profligacy, and by the state 
of anarchy in which Rome was plunged dur¬ 
ing his pontificate. He was deposed in 1048, 
and died in a convent in 1054, being suc¬ 
ceeded by Leo IX. 

Benedict X. was elected by a faction af¬ 
ter the death of Stephen IX., in 1058; but 
the Council of Siena nominated Nicholas 
II. Benedict did not submit till the follow¬ 
ing year, when Nicholas made his entrance 
into Rome. He died in 1059. 

Benedict XI. a Dominican, succeeded 
Boniface VIII., in 1303. Contemporary 
historians speak highly of his character 
and virtues. He died in 1304, and was suc¬ 
ceeded by Clement V. 

Benedict XII., Jacques Fournier, a na¬ 
tive of France, succeeded John XXII., in 
1334, the Popes residing then at Avignon. 
His strictness in enforcing discipline among 
the monastic orders excited many enemies 
against him, who endeavored to cast asper¬ 
sions upon his character. He died in 1342, 
and was succeeded by Clement VI. 

Benedict XIII., Cardinal Orsini, suc¬ 
ceeded Innocent XIII., in 1724, but it was 
with difficulty that he could be made to ac¬ 
cept the pontificate. Benedict lived with 
the greatest frugality, and has been called 
more a monk than a Pope. His great fault 
was his implicit confidence in Cardinal Cos- 
cia, to whom he left the entire management 
of his government, and who much abused it. 
He died in February, 1731. His works were 
published in 1728, in three volumes folio. 
He was succeeded by Clement XII. 

Benedict XIV. was born at Bologna in 
1675, of the noble family of Lambertini. In 
1728 he received a cardinal’s hat; and in 
1731 was nominated Archbishop of Bologna. 
On the death of Clement XTT. (1740), the 
cardinals were a long time deliberating on 
the choice of a successor. Lambertini, by 


way of quickening them, said, “ Why do you 
waste your time in discussions? If you wish 
for a saint, elect Gotti; a politician, choose 
Aldrovandus; a good companion, take me.” 
This sally pleased them so much, that they 
elected him at once. He reformed abuses, 
introduced good regulations, cultivated let¬ 
ters, encouraged men of learning, and was 
a patron of the fine arts. His tolerance is 
well known, and it exposed him to the cen¬ 
sure of the rigorists among the College of 
Cardinals. Without exhibiting anything 
like indifference to the doctrines of the 
Church of which he was the head, he showed 
urbanity and friendliness toward all Chris- 
t i a n s, of 
whatever 
d enom illa¬ 
tion, wheth¬ 
er Kings or 
ordinary 
travelers 
who visited 
his capital. 

His corres¬ 
pond o n c e 
with Fred¬ 
erick the 
Great, con¬ 
cerning the 
ecclesias¬ 
tical af¬ 
fairs of the 
Province of 
Silesia, 
which that sovereign had conquered from 
Austria was carried on by him in the most 
conciliatory and liberal spirit. The Protes¬ 
tants of Germany revered Benedict. With re¬ 
gard to France, he carefully avoided every¬ 
thing that could in the least encourage the 
fanatical party in that country in reviving 
the persecution against the Protestants of 
Languedoc. Seeing France distracted by quar¬ 
rels between the Jesuits and the Jansenists, 
the court and the Parliament, the priests and 
the philosophers, and lamenting amid all 
this the licentiousness of Louis XV. and his 
courtiers, and the weakness and incapacity 
of the ministers he used to exclaim, that 
“ France ought indeed to be the best gov¬ 
erned country in tne world, for its govern¬ 
ment seemed to be left entirely to the care 
of Providence.” (Botta’s “ Storia d’ltalia,” 
lib. 46). Benedict was learned, not only 
in theology, but in history and literature, 
and had also a taste for the fine arts. His 
works were published at Rome, in 12 vol¬ 
umes quarto. He died in 1758, and was suc¬ 
ceeded by Clement XIII. 

Benedict, St., the founder of the Order 
of the Benedictine Monks, was born at Nur- 
sia, in the Dukedom of Spoleto, in Italy, in 
480 A. D. He was sent to Rome when very 
young, and there received the first part of 
his education; when 14 years of age, he re- 





Benedict Biscop 


Benedictine 


moved to Subiaco, a desert place about 40 
miles distant, where he was concealed in a 
cavern; his place of retirement, for a con¬ 
siderable time, being known only to his 
friend St. Romanus, who is said to have de¬ 
scended to him by a rope, and supplied him 
daily with provisions. The monks of a 
neighboring monastery subsequently chose 
him for their abbot; their manners, how¬ 
ever, not agreeing with those of Benedict, 
he returned to his solitude, whither many 
persons followed him and put themselves 
under his direction, and in a short time he 
was enabled to build no fewer than 12 mon¬ 
asteries. About 528 he retired to Monte 
Cassino, where idolatry was still prevalent, 
and where a temple to Apollo yet existed. 
Having converted the people of the adjacent 
country to the true faith, he broke the statue 
of Apollo, overthrew the altar, and built 
two oratories on the mountain, one dedi¬ 
cated to St. Martin, the other to St. John. 
Here St. Benedict also founded a monastery, 
and instituted the Order of his name, which 
in time became so famous and extended all 
over Europe. It was here, too, that he com¬ 
posed his “ Regula Monachorum,” which 
does not. however, seem to have been con¬ 
firmed till 52 years after his death, when 
Pope Gregory the Great gave his sanction to 
it. Authors are not agreed upon the place 
where St. Benedict died; some say at Monte 
Cassino; others affirm it to have been at 
Borne, whither he had been sent by Pope 
Boniface. Stevens, in the “ Continuation of 
Dugdale’s Monasticon,” places his death 
about the year 543, others in 547; the day, 
however, stands in the calendar fixed to 
March 21. Gregory the Great, in the second 
“Book of his Dialogues,” has written a “Life 
of St. Benedict,” and given a long detail of 
his supposed miracles. 

Benedict Biscop, an Anglo-Saxon monk, 
born of a noble Northumbrian family, in 
628 or 629. At the age of 25, he accom¬ 
panied Wilfrid on a pilgrimage to Rome. 
Here he lived for more than 10 years, when 
he returned to England; but not very long 
after he again went to Rome on a mission 
from the King of Northumbria. On his way 
back, he entered the Benedictine monastery 
of Lerins, in Provence, where he took the 
tonsure, and remained some time. On a 
third visit to Rome, he was commissioned 
to return to England as assistant and inter¬ 
preter to Theodoric, Archbishop of Canter¬ 
bury. In 674 he founded a monastery at 
the mouth of the Wear, and endowed it with 
numerous books, pictures, and relics ob¬ 
tained by him on his various journeys to 
Rome. He founded, in 682, a second monas¬ 
tery at Jarrow, dependent on that of Wear- 
mouth. His great pupil, the Venerable Bede, 
who was made a monk in the monastery of 
Jarrow, and who wrote his life, was un¬ 
doubtedly much indebted to the collections 


made by Benedict for the learning he ac¬ 
quired. He died in the monastery of Wear- 
mouth in 1690. 

Benedict, David, a Baptist clergyman 
and historian, born at Norwalk, Conn., in 
1779; was pastor at Pawtucket, R. I., for 
25 years, and preached till over 90 years of 
age. Among his chief works were “ History 
of All Religions,” “ Fifty Years Among the 
Baptists,” “ History of the Donatists,” etc. 
He died in 1874. 

Benedict, Frank Lee, an American nov¬ 
elist and poet, born in New York in 1834. 
Among his numerous novels are “John 
Worthington’s Name,” “ Miss Van Kort- 
land ” (1870); “Her Friend Lawrence” 

(1879); “The Price She Paid ” (1883). 

Benedict, Sir Julius, pianist and com¬ 
poser, born at Stuttgart, Nov. 27, 1804. He 
took up his residence in England in 1835, 
and was knighted in 1871. Principal works: 
the operas of “ The Gipsy’s Warning,” “ Un¬ 
dine,” “ St. Cecilia,” “ Lily of Killarney,” 
and “ Graziella.” He died at London, June 
5, 1885. 

Benedictine, a liquor prepared by the 
Benedictine monks of the abbey of Fecamp, 
in Normandy, consisting of spirit (fine 
brandy) containing an infusion of the juices 
of plants, and said to possess digestive, anti- 
spasmodic, and other virtues, and to have 
prophylactic efficacy in epidemics. It has 
been made in the same way since 1510. 

Benedictine, a follower of St. Benedict 
(q. v.). In 529 he removed to Mt. Cas¬ 
sino, where, converting some pagan wor¬ 
shippers of Apollo, he transformed their 
temple into a monastery and became its ab¬ 
bot. He composed rules for its management, 
making every monk pledge himself to per¬ 
fect chastity, absolute poverty, and implicit 
obedience in all respects to his superiors. 
He was to live in the monastery subject to 
his abbot. These vows were irrevocable, 
whereas up to that time the monks had been 
allowed to alter the regulations of their 
founder at their pleasure. The rule here 
instituted was adopted at an early period 
by various other monastic communities; it 
was confirmed, about 52 years after the 
death of its founder, by Pope Gregory the 
Great, and was ultimately accepted with 
more or less enthusiasm by nearly all the 
monkish communities of the West, though 
its pristine severity became modified with 
the lapse of time. 

As long as the Benedictines remained 
poor, they were a blessing to the countries 
in which they lived, and especially to Ger¬ 
many, spending, as they did, several hours 
a day in gardening, agriculture, and me¬ 
chanical labor, and another portion of their 
time in reading, besides keeping school out¬ 
side the walls of their convents. Science 
and literature are also indebted to them for 
having copied many of the classical authors 



Benediction 


Benedlx 


and preserved such knowledge as existed in 
their age. When at length their merits had 
drawn much wealth to their order (indi¬ 
vidually they were not allowed to retain 
property), luxury and indolence sapped 
their virtues and diminished their influence 
for good. Afterward becoming reformed, es¬ 
pecially in France, in the 17th century, the 
Benedictines again rendered service by the 
issue of an excellent edition of the 
“ Fathers.” The Benedictine habit seems to 
have been introduced after the age of St. 
Benedict. It consisted of a loose, black 
coat, or a gown, reaching to their feet, and 
having large, wide sleeves. Under it was a 
flannel habit, white in color and of the same 
size, while over all was a scapular. The 
head-dress was a hood, or cowl, pointed at 
the tip, and boots were worn upon the feet. 
From the predominantly black color of their 
attire, they were sometimes called Black 
Monks. They must not be confounded with 
the Black Friars, who were Dominicans. 

There were Benedictine nuns as well as 
monks. When they originated is uncertain. 
There were first and last many branches of 
Benedictines, as the Carthusians, Cister¬ 
cians, Celestines, Grandmontensians, Prre- 
monstratensians, Cluniacensians, Camaldu- 
lensians, etc. 

Benediction (from the Latin benedicere, 
literally, “ to speak well of; ” “ to com¬ 

mend ”), a solemn invocation of the Divine 
blessing upon men or things. The ceremony 
in its simplest form may be considered al¬ 
most coeval with the earliest expressions of 
religious feeling. The Sabbath is said to 
have been blessed. Jacob blessed his two 
grandsons. Christ “ took bread and blessed 
it,” and “ lifting up His hands,” blessed His 
disciples. In the primitive Church the cus¬ 
tom gradually developed itself in various 
liturgical forms. In Protestant churches a 
form of benediction is used at the close of 
religious services. In the Roman Church a 
priestly benediction has been defined as a 
formula of imperative prayer, which, in ad¬ 
dition to the desire which it expresses, trans¬ 
mits a certain grace or virtue to the object 
over which it is pronounced. Such ecclesi¬ 
astical benedictions are generally accom¬ 
panied with the sprinkling of holy water 
and the use of incense, and universally with 
the sign of the cross. Prescribed forms may 
be gathered from the missal, breviary, and 
pontifical, or may be found collected in the 
“ Benedictionale Romanum.” Certain bless¬ 
ings form part of the liturgical services which 
only occur at stated seasons, as the blessing 
of the candles on Candlemas Day, of the 
ashes on Ash Wednesday, and of the palms, 
the sacred fire, the incense grains, the pas¬ 
chal candle, font and baptismal water, dur¬ 
ing Holy Week. Many ancient and curious 
ceremonies are used at the blessing of altars 
or of church bell-s by the bishop. Other ob¬ 


jects for which special blessings are provided 
in the “Benedictionale” are fields, houses, 
ships, cattle, noxious animals, articles of 
food, and even railroads and telegraphs. 
Water mingled with blessed salt for the de¬ 
votional use of the faithful in church or at 
home is, as a rule, prepared every week. 
This aqua benedicta or holy water in turn 
conveys a blessing to persons or objects as¬ 
persed with it. Priests having special fac¬ 
ulties for the purpose may bless crosses and 
rosaries, which only, when so blessed, impart 
the papal indulgence to those who use them. 
So great was the importance attached by 
Roman Catholics to this delegated papal 
blessing, that, in 1571, the English Parlia¬ 
ment, in retaliation against the Pope for at¬ 
tempting to depose Elizabeth, imposed the 
penalties of praemunire on anyone who 
should bring into the realm an Agnus Dei 
(a medal of wax), crosses, pictures, or beads 
consecrated or hallowed by the Bishop of 
Rome, or by authority derived from him. 
The papal benediction conveyed to a dying 
person carries with it a plenary indulgence. 
On certain occasions (as on Easter Sunday 
after mass), the Pope pronounces a solemn 
benediction urbi et orbi (on the city and 
the world). 

Benediction is also the name given in 
some countries (in French, Le Salut) to a 
brief and popular service of comparatively 
modern origin in the Roman Church. It 
consists of certain canticles and antiphons 
sung in presence of the Sacred Host, which 
is exposed for the occasion on a “ throne ” 
above the altar. The service is concluded 
by the priest, wrapped in a veil, taking the 
monstrance which contains the Host, and 
therewith making the sign of the cross over 
the people, and giving to them in silence 
the benediction of the most holy sacrament. 

Benedictoff, Vladimir Grigorjevich, a, 

Russian poet (1810-1873), whose lyrics 
excel in deep sentiment and ideal enthusi¬ 
asm ; some, like “ Two Apparitions,” “ The 
Lake,” “ The Mountain Peaks,” may be 
ranked with the finest of any literature. 

Benedictus, the name given to the hymn 
of Zacharias (Luke i: G8), used as a canti¬ 
cle in the morning service of the Church 
of England to follow the lessons. This po¬ 
sition it has occupied from very ancient 
times. It is also used in the Church of 
Rome. The word is also applied to a por¬ 
tion of the mass service in the Church of 
Rome commencing “ Benedictus qui venit 
following the “ Sanctus.” 

Benedix, Julius Roderick, a German ac¬ 
tor, manager, and play writer, born in Leip- 
sic in 1811. Of his numerous pieces, the 
best are his comedies, most of which are 
favorites in Germany, for their humorous, 
intricate plot, constant change of incident 
and scene, and natural, but witty, dialogue. 



Benefice 


Benezet 


His dramatic works fill 27 volumes (1846- 
1874). He died in Leipsic, Sept. 26, 1873. 

Benefice, under the feudal system, an es¬ 
tate held by feudal tenure, the name being 
given because it was assumed that such pos¬ 
sessions were originally gratuitous dona¬ 
tions, ex mero beneficio of the donor. At 
first they were for life only, but afterward 
they became hereditary, receiving the name 
of feuds, and giving that of benefices over 
to church livings. 

Formerly, and even sometimes yet, the 
word was applied to an ecclesiastical living 
of any kind, any church endowed with a reve¬ 
nue, whether a dignity or not. More gener¬ 
ally, however, the term is reserved for par¬ 
sonages, vicarages and donatives, while 
bishoprics, deaneries, archdeaconries, and 
prebendaries are called dignities. In the 
opinion of Blackstone a close parallel existed 
between the procedure of the Popes when 
they were in the plenitude of their power, 
and that of the contemporary feudal lords. 
The former copied from the latter, even to 
the adoption of the feudal word benefice for 
an ecclesiastical living. , 

Benefit ot Clergy, the advantage derived 
from the preferment of the plea “ I am a 
clergyman.” When in medieval times, a 
clergyman was arraigned on certain charges 
he was permitted to put forth the plea that, 
with respect to the offense of which he was 
accused, he was not under the jurisdiction 
of the civil courts, but, being a clergyman, 
was entitled to be tried by his spiritual su¬ 
periors. In such cases the bishop or ordi¬ 
nary was wont to demand that his clerks 
should be remitted to him out of the King’s 
courts as soon as they were indicted; though 
at length the custom became increasingly 
prevalent of deferring the plea of being a 
clergyman till after conviction, when it was 
brought forward in arrest of judgment. The 
cases in which the benefit of clergy might be 
urged were such as affected the life or limbs 
of the offender, high treason, however, ex¬ 
cepted. In these circumstances laymen of¬ 
ten attempted to pass themselves off as 
clergymen, when the practice was to bring 
a book and ask the accused person to read 
a passage. If he could do so, his plea of be¬ 
ing a clergyman was admitted; if he failed, 
it was rejected. The practical effect of this 
was to give the bishop the power, if he felt 
so disposed, of removing every reader from 
the jurisdiction of the courts. 

In 1480, Henry VII. restricted the privi¬ 
lege. A layman able to read who pleaded 
his “ clergy ” could henceforth do so only 
once: and in order that he might be identi¬ 
fied if he attempted it again, he was burned 
in the hand. Henry VIII., in 1512, abol¬ 
ished benefit of clergy with regard to mur¬ 
derers and other great criminals. The prac¬ 
tice of requiring the accused person to read 
was put an end to in 1706; but it was not 


till 1827 that the 7 and 8 George IV., chap¬ 
ter 28, known as Peel’s Acts, swept the bene¬ 
fit of clergy itself away. 

By the act of the American Congress of 
April 30, 1790, it is provided that the bene¬ 
fit of clergy shall not be used or allowed 
upon conviction of any crime, for which, by 
any statute of the United States, the pun* 
ishment is, or shall be, declared to be death. 

Benet, Stephen Vincent, an American 
military officer, born in St. Augustine, Fla., 
Jan. 22, 1827. He was graduated at the 
United States Military Academy in 1849, 
and assigned to the Ordnance Department; 
was Assistant Professor of Ethics and Law 
at the Military Academy in 1859-1861; in¬ 
structor of Ordnance in 1861-1864; became 
Brigadier-General and Chief of Ordnance 
in 1874; and was retired in 1891. He was 
author of “ Military Law and The Practice 
of Courts Martial” (1862); “Electro-Bal¬ 
listic Machines and the Schultze Chrono- 
scope ” (1866) ; and a translation from the 
French of Jomini’s “ The Campaign of 
Waterloo.” He died in Washington, D. C., 
Jan. 22, 1895. 

Benevento (ancient Beneventum), a city 
of Southern Italy, capital of a province of 
same name, between and near the conflu¬ 
ence of the Calore and Sabato, 32 miles N. 
E. of Naples. The modern town is almost 
entirely constructed out of the ruins of the 
ancient; and, in fact, hardly any Italian 
town can boast of so many remains of an¬ 
tiquity as Benevento. Of these, the most 
perfect is the Arch of Trajan, erected about 
a. d. 114. Near Benevento, in 1266, was 
fought the great battle between Charles of 
Anjou and his rival, Manfred, in which the 
latter was killed, and his army totally de¬ 
feated. During the reign of Napoleon I., 
Benevento was formed into a principality 
conferred on Talleyrand. In 1815, it again 
reverted to the Pope. In 1860, it was an¬ 
nexed to the kingdom of Italy. Pop. (1901) 
province, 256,504; city, 24,647. 

Benevolence, in the history of the law of 
England, was a species of forced loan or 
contribution, levied by kings without legal 
authority. It was first so called in 1473, 
when asked from his subjects by Edward 
IV. as a mark of good will toward his rule, 
but similar compulsory free will offerings 
had not been uncommon in former reigns. 
Under Richard III., in 1484, an act of Par¬ 
liament abolished benevolences as new and 
unlawful inventions, but, spite of this, they 
continued to be exacted by Richard himself 
and by Henry VII. In 1614 James I. tried, 
but with little success, to raise money by 
this expedient, and it was never again at¬ 
tempted by the crown : Charles I. expressly 
declining to have recourse to it. 

Benezet, Anthony, a French-American 
philanthropist, was born in St. Quentin’s, 




Benfey 


Bengal 


France, Jan. 31, 1713; lived from infancy 
in England and the United States. The 
greater part of his writings were in the 
form of tracts against the slave trade and 
in favor of the American Indians. He also 
wrote about the Friends, of whose so¬ 
ciety both he and his parents were members. 
It is said that his writings on the slave 
trade first awakened the interest of Wilber- 
force on the subject. He died in Philadel¬ 
phia, Pa., May 3, 1784. 

Benfey, Theodor, a German Orientalist 
and comparative philogist, born of Jewish 
parents near Gottingen, Jan. 28, 1809. He 
studied in Gottingen, Munich, Frankfort, 
and Heidelberg, devoting himself especially 
to classical and comparative philology. In 
1862 he was appointed to the chair of Sans¬ 
krit and Comparative Philology in the Uni¬ 
versity of Gottingen, which he held till his 
death, June 26, 1881. One of his earliest lit¬ 
erary efforts was a translation of “ Terence ” 
(Stuttgart, 1837); after this, however, he 
turned his attention almost exclusively to 
comparative philology, Oriental languages, 
especially Sanskrit, and mythology. In his 
50 years devoted, with rare enthusiasm and 
persistency, to linguistic studies, he did 
more than any other scholar to enlarge the 
boundaries of Sanskrit philology. In com¬ 
parative philology, though an adherent of 
B"»pp, he deviated from his master in de¬ 
riving all Indo-European words from mono¬ 
syllabic primitive verbs. This conception 
depends on his theory of the origin of stem 
suffixes. These, he holds, are almost all 
derived from a fundamental form, ant, 
which appears in the present participle of 
verbs. To support this view he assumes the 
most violent permutations of sounds, which 
set all phonetic laws at defiance. For his 
theory, see his “ Lexicon of Greek Foots ” 
(Berlin, 1839); “ Short Sanskrit Gram¬ 
mar ” (London, 1868), and numerous es¬ 
says. In Sanskrit he laid a foundation for 
the true study of the Veda by editing the 
“ Sama Veda ” (Leipsic, 1848), with glos¬ 
sary and translation; and this work he 
continued by a scholarly translation of the 
first mandala of the Big Veda in his maga¬ 
zine, “ Orient und Occident” (Gottingen, 
1863-1864). His Vedic grammar, for which 
he had been collecting materials for many 
years, was left unfinished. He also pub¬ 
lished a “ Complete Sanskrit Grammar, 
Crestomathy and Glossary” (Leipsic, 1854), 
and a “ Sanskrit-English Dictionary” (Lon¬ 
don, 1866). In comparative folk lore his 
principal work is a translation of the “ Pan- 
chatantra,” published at Leipsic in two 
volumes in 1859. It is accompanied with 
elaborate notes, and the first volume con¬ 
sists entirely of an introduction in which 
he traces the course of these Indian stories 
in their wanderings and transformations 
both in eastern and western literatures. 


Benga, an African tribe, living on the 
Spanish island, Corisco, off the W. coast, 
having moved from the interior within a 
few generations. The American Presbyte¬ 
rian Board of Missions have Christianized 
many of the Bengas and translated books 
into their language, which closely resembles 
the Kamerun and Dualla. 

Bengal. In the widest application the 
name presidency of Bengal is extended to 
the whole of British India, except what is 
under the governors of Madras and Bom¬ 
bay; so that it includes the provinces of 
Ajmir and Meirwara, Coorg, and Berar, 
which are under the direct administration 
of the governor-general; the lieutenant-gov¬ 
ernorships of Bengal, the United Provinces 
of Agra and Oudh, and the Punjab; the chief 
commissionerships of Assam, and the Cen¬ 
tral Provinces, besides various native States, 
etc. But the name is now usually restrict¬ 
ed to that portion which is under the lieu- 
tenant-governor of Bengal, and which oc¬ 
cupies the N. E. of India, comprising the 
following divisions: 


Area Population 

Divisions. No. of dists. in sq. m. in 1891. 

Burdwan . 6 13,855 

Presidency . 5 12,029 16,145,310 

Rajshahi . 7 17,428 8,003,740 

Dacca . 4 15,000 

Chittagong . 4 12,118 13,965,230 

Patna . 7 23,647 

Bhagalpur . 5 20,492 24,284,370 

Orissa . 5 9,053 3,865,020 

Chota Nagpur. 4 26,966 4,645,590 


Total .47 150,588 70,909,260 


The total population in 1901 amounted to 
74,744,866. 

The district composed of the first five of 
the above divisions forms the province of 
Bengal proper; Patna and Bhagalpur form 
the province of Behar. Besides these the 
lieutenant-generalship includes four native 
states under British protection, namely 
Cooch Behar, Hill Tipperah, Chota Nagpur 
(part of), and Orissa (part of), having a 
total area of 38,652 square miles, and a 
population in 1901 of 3,748,544. 

The general physical character of Bengal 
is that of a practically level country, 
though it is surrounded with lofty chains 
of mountains; the N. part rests on the ter¬ 
races of the Himalaya mountains, the E. is 
bounded by the Garos or Garrows chain, 
and the W. is ribbed with offsets of the 
Vindhya mountains. It is intersected in 
all directions by rivers, the principal of 
which are the Ganges and Brahmaputra, 
whose annual inundations render the soil 
which they reach extremely fertile. In 
those tracts where this advantage is not 
enjoyed the soil is thin, seldom exceeding 
a few inches in depth. The most inhos¬ 
pitable part of Bengal is what is called the 
Sunderbunds (from being covered with the 
soondru or sunder tree), that portion of the 
country through which the numerous 















Bengal 


Bengal 


branches of the Ganges seek the sea, or the 
space lying between the Hoogly river and 
Chittagong, about 150 miles from E. to W., 
and about 160 from N. to S. This district 
is infested with tigers, is traversed in all 
directions by water-courses or nullahs, and 
interspersed with numerous sheets of stag¬ 
nant water called jheels, which abound with 
fish and water-fowl, and are much resorted 
to by crocodiles. 

Geology and Minerals .— In the N. part 
of Bengal, at the foot of the Himalayas, is 
a band of Tertiary formation; S. from 
which, and along the course of the Ganges, 
more especially E. from that river, and in¬ 
cluding the greater part of its delta and 
that of the Bra imaputra, the country is 
wholly composed of alluvium or modern 
detritus. Calcutta, stands upon strata of 
the transition series, which stretch W. into 
Bahar, and are flanked N. and S. by tracts 
of crystalline formation. In the Garos 
hills coal, iron, and limestone are found; 
and niter effloresces on the surface round 
Calcutta and elsewhere. Mineral springs 
are not numerous. 

Rivers .— The principal rivers, besides the 
Ganges and Brahmaputra, the latter of 
which enters the province at its N. E. ex¬ 
tremity, and falls into the Bay of Bengal 
near the principal embouchre of the Ganges, 
are the Soobunreka, which falls into the 
Bay of Bengal, in lat. 21° 35' N., S. S. W. 
of the Hoogly; the Cosi or Coosee, which 
rises near Khatamandoo in Nepal, and falls 
into the Ganges near Bhagalpur, in lat. 25° 
20' N.; and the Dumooda, which, rising in 
Bahar, falls into the Hoogly about 22 miles 
below Calcutta. There are numerous other 
streams of less note, mostly tributaries of 
the Ganges and Brahmaputra, or their 
larger affluents. 

Climate .— There is more regularity in the 
changes of the seasons in Bengal than per¬ 
haps in any other part of India; but it is 
subject to great extremes of heat, which, 
added to the humidity of its surface and 
the heavy dews that fall, render it gener¬ 
ally unhealthy to Europeans. The preva¬ 
lence of hot winds, which are sometimes 
loaded with sandy particles, is another 
source of disease. The seasons are dis¬ 
tinguished by the terms hot, cold, and rainy. 
The hot season continues from the beginning 
of March to the end of May, within which 
period the thermometer frequently rises to 
100°, sometimes to 110°. The month of Sep¬ 
tember is also often intensely hot, and when 
so is the most unhealthy period of the year 
to natives as well as Europeans, owing to 
the profuse exhalations from stagnant wa¬ 
ters left by the inundations, and from a 
rank decaying vegetation. The rainy sea¬ 
son commences in June, and lasts till Octo¬ 
ber. During the first two months of this 
period the rain is frequently so heavy that 
five inches of water have fallen in one day, 


the annual average being from 70 to 80 
inches. It is in this season that the inun¬ 
dations take place, and that the Ganges 
overflows its delta, covering the land with 
its waters for more than 100 miles. The 
cold season, the most grateful and healthy 
of any to Europeans, continues from No¬ 
vember to February, during which period N. 
winds prevail, with a clear sky. 

Forests .— In Bengal, as in India general¬ 
ly, great attention has been paid of late to 
the management of forests. Great destruc¬ 
tion is caused among forests by fires, which 
are sometimes the result of accident, but 
more frequently made purposely by the na¬ 
tives in pursuance of a system of jungle 
cultivation that appears to prevail through¬ 
out India. This consists in cutting down and 
burning a patch of forest, and raising a 
crop in the open space, no plowing or 
digging being necessary. The next year this 
patch is abandoned, and another treated in 
the same way. Another cause of destruc¬ 
tion is the wastefulness of those who use 
the timber. The sunder trees, for example, 
which furnish the best wood for the boats 
which are built in great numbers through¬ 
out Eastern Bengal, have been cut down 
in so reckless a manner that the W. 
parts of the Sunderbunds have already 
been to a large extent exhausted. In or¬ 
der to limit the destruction that goes on by 
such proceedings certain portions of the In¬ 
dian forests are reserved and placed under 
the entire control of the government, and 
additions are made to these reserves every 
year. Of the total 11,669 square miles of 
forest in Bengal, in 1896 5,877 were re¬ 
served and 3,437 protected. 

Animals .— Among the wild animals are 
tigers, elephants, boars, bears, wolves, foxes, 
jackals, hyenas, leopards, panthers, lynxes, 
hares, deer, buffaloes, antelopes, and mon¬ 
keys. The most formidable of all these ani¬ 
mals (and more so even than the lion) m 
the tiger, which here attains its utmost 
size, and perhaps also its greatest ferocity. 
The domestic animals include native horses, 
thin, ill-shaped animals, and not well 
adapted for any kind of labor; cattle, of a 
very inferior breed, being extremely small 
and miserable looking; sheep, likewise of 
diminutive size, with very coarse hairy 
wool, but when well fed their flesh is ex¬ 
cellent. Hogs and goats are also plentiful, 
and buffaloes are domesticated for the sake 
of their milk. Reptiles are numerous and 
formidable, including gavials, a kind of 
crocodile, with which the larger rivers are 
infested; and among the serpent tribe, 
many of which are highly poisonous, the 
deadly cobra-de-capello. Turtles, frogs, and 
lizards also abound, with swarms of mosqui¬ 
toes. The turtle are chiefly procured from 
the island of Cheduba, in the Bay of Bengal. 
Fish are so exceedingly plentiful as to be 
within the reach of almost eveiy class of in- 




Bengal 


Bengal 


habitants. Game, poultry, and water-fowl 
of all descriptions abound in Bengal, par¬ 
ticularly ducks, of which there is a great 
variety, and most of them of a superior 
kind. The gigantic crane, commonly called 
the adjutant, from the stately air with 
which he struts about, frequents the towns 
in considerable numbers, performing the 
office of scavenger by clearing the streets 
of garbage, in consideration of which duty 
he enjoys an entire immunity from all dis¬ 
turbance; his principal food is offal, toads, 
lizards, serpents, and insects. Crows, kites, 
sparrows, and other small birds are nu¬ 
merous. 

Agriculture .— The staple crop of Bengal 
is rice, which is cultivated so as to produce 
three harvests in the year — spring rice, 
autumn rice, and winter rice. The last of 
these harvests is by far the most impor¬ 
tant. Besides sufficing for the wants of the 
population the rice crop leaves a large sur¬ 
plus for exportation. Oil seeds are also 
largely cultivated, chiefly mustard, sesa- 
mum, and linseed. The jute plant {pat) 
has long been cultivated, and in recent times 
the cultivation of it has greatly extended. 
It will grow on almost any description of 
land. Part of this crop is cultivated by 
those who use or manufacture it, almost 
all the Hindu farmers weaving cloth from 
it. It is now manufactured also in large 
mills under European management, and 
jute goods are now an export of some im¬ 
portance, though not nearly so much so as 
jute in the raw state for manufacture in 
Europe. The sunn plant, a plant somewhat 
resembling the Spanish broom, is now quite 
extensively cultivated and exported to 
Great Britain, affording excellent material 
for both sails and cordage, and being made 
into fishing nets by the natives. Cotton is 
grown over all India, but the best of the 
herbaceous kind is raised in Bengal and on 
the Coromandel coast; the finest grows on 
light rocky soil. The cotton of India is gen¬ 
erally inferior to that of the United States; 
but this is believed to be wholly owing to 
careless cultivation, and to the slovenly 
manner in which it is prepared for the mar¬ 
ket. The cultivation of the date palm and 
the manufacture of date sugar are carried 
on to a considerable extent, forming a 
profitable business for the cultivator. This 
kind of sugar forms an article of export. 
The sugar cane is cultivated, but not nearly 
to such an extent as might be expected. 
There are two kinds of sugar cane, the one 
a yellow hard cane, about the thickness of 
a 'finger; the other is much thicker and 
deeply stained with purple. The latter is 
the most productive, but the most trouble¬ 
some to cultivate, and therefore avoided by 
the most indolent farmers. Tobacco, which 
requires a light soil, is grown in three dif¬ 
ferent situations — in rich spots of land 
contiguous to the farmer’s house — in high 


land suitable for the growth of sugar cane 
— and on the banks of rivers. The betel 
leaf, famous for its intoxicating quality 
and largely used over all India on that 
account, is cultivated in what is called a 
voroj or fort, and is carefully protected 
from the sun and wind. Indigo being one 
of the principal articles of foreign com¬ 
merce with Bengal, is extensively cultivated 
in that province. The opium production of 
Bengal was a government monopoly undei 
Mohammedan rule, and has been retained as 
such by the British. All the juice of the 
opium poppy must be sold to the govern¬ 
ment at a fixed price. This cultivation is 
carried on in the W. of Bengal in the di¬ 
visions of Chota Nagpur and Patna. Or¬ 
chards of mango trees are to be found in 
every part of Bengal, the fruit being in gen¬ 
eral demand during the hot months. The 
cinchona tree and the tea plent have both 
in recent times been added to the agricul¬ 
tural products of Bengal; the former in the 
native State of Sikkim, the latter especially 
in Cooch Behar (Darjiling), Chittagong, 
and Chota Nagpur. 

The luxuriance of vegetation in Bengal is 
perhaps unequaled in any other part of the 
world. The cultivation of the land requires 
little effort, and large crops are obtained 
without the application of any other ma¬ 
nure than the sediment or mud de¬ 
posited by the inundations. It is doubt¬ 
ful, however, how far this facility is 
good, since it seems to have had the effect 
of preventing all attempts at improvement 
either in the science of agriculture itself 
or in the implements used in its prac¬ 
tice. The Indian plow is of wretched con¬ 
struction, having neither colter nor mold- 
board, and in some districts it wants even 
the share, while the animals by which it is 
dragged, two oxen or cows, are miserable 
half-starved creatures. The reaping hook 
( kastya ) is a most inefficient implement — 
the curved or cutting part of the blade is G 
inches long by iy 2 broad, with teeth like a 
saw — the handle is about 4% inches long. 
The dengki, by which the husks are separat¬ 
ed from the grain, is anothr • wretched im¬ 
plement, and so ill adapted to its purposes 
that one-fifth part of the whole grain is sac¬ 
rificed in the operation. Nearly all tho 
other implements in use arc of an equally 
rude and imperfect description. Rotation 
of crops and the use of fallows are unknown 
to the farmers of India; the land is general¬ 
ly in an exhausted condition, and the in¬ 
closures everywhere bad. Grain is trodden 
out by oxen, and stacking corn is unusual, 
the corn being often left exposed to the 
weather. Irrigation, however, is well under¬ 
stood — necessity giving rise to invention —• 
and is accomplished by the most ingenious 
and efficient means. 

Manufactures .— The principal manufac¬ 
ture of Bengal is that of cotton goods, in- 




Bengal 


Bengal 


eluding cotton piece goods of various de¬ 
scriptions, calicoes, thread, and sail-cloth. 
Muslins of the most beautiful and delicate 
texture were formerly made at Dacca, a 
city in this province, but the manufacture 
is almost extinct. “ Some of these fabrics,” 
says Tavernier, “ were so fine that they 
could hardly be felt in the hand, and the 
thread when spun was scarce discernible.” 
In Ward’s “ History” of the Hindus this 
character in the muslin of Dacca is con¬ 
firmed; though perhaps in both cases it is 
a little exaggerated. “ When this muslin is 
laid on the grass,” says the latter, “ and 
the dew has fallen on it, it is no longer 
discernible.” The extraordinary fineness 
and beauty of India muslins, manufactured 
under the disadvantages of rude machinery 
and ill-prepared material, is attributed to 
the exquisitely fine sense of touch pos¬ 
sessed by the Hindus, and to the hereditary 
continuance of a particular species of manu¬ 
facture in families through many genera¬ 
tions. 

The modern decay of the muslin manufac¬ 
ture of India has been owing in a great 
measure to the successful competition of 
Great Britain, and to the circumstance of 
British fabrics being subject to no duty in 
Bengal, while high duties were levied on 
the fabrics of Bengal in Great Britain. 
These duties are now abolished. Large 
quantities of a coarse cloth, manufactured 
from jute, are made in various districts of 
Bengal. Sericulture is carried on more 
largely in Bengal than in any other part 
of India, and silk-weaving is still a lead¬ 
ing industry in many of the districts; but of 
late years there has been a serious decline. 
One branch of this industry, however, seems 
more flourishing than some others, namely, 
the cultivation of tasar or wild silk, the 
worm that produces it feeding upon the 
leaves of the sal and other forest trees. On 
the other hand, various new manufactures, 
carried on by machinery, are rising up. 
The most important of these ; re the in¬ 
dustries connected with jute, cotton, and 
sugar. These are already affording em¬ 
ployment to many thousands, and the natives 
are said to show great aptitude for factory 
work. The jute mills alone employ nearly 
40,000 hands. 

Commerce .— The commerce of Bengal, 
both internal and external, is very large. 
Multitudes of native boats and other craft 
navigate the rivers. The imports to Cal¬ 
cutta from the interior have been valued at 
over £26,000,000, consisting of rice, tea, 
jute, indigo, linseed, mustard seed, wheat, 
etc. The foreign trade is large and increas¬ 
ing. Almost the whole of it passes through 
Calcutta, and the value of it annually is 
over £55,000,000, over £34,000,000 being ex¬ 
ports. The most important exports are 
opium, jute, indigo, oil seeds, tea, hides and 
skins, and rice; the chief import is cotton 


piece goods. The foreign trade is chiefly 
with Great Britain, China, the Straits Set¬ 
tlements, France, the United States, and 
Ceylon. 

Finance .— The total revenue of the lieu¬ 
tenant-governorship of Bengal in the year 
ending March 31, 1898, was (calling the 
rupee 2s.) £20,288,493, and the total ex¬ 
penditure £10,324,105. The surplus goes to 
meet the expenses of the general govern¬ 
ment of India. The principal sources of 
revenue are land (amounting in 1897-1898 
to £3,978,219), salt (£2,451,364), opium 
(£1,824,840), excise (£1,274,775), stamps 
(£1,775,941), and customs, assessed taxes, 
etc. 

Education, Social and Domestic Condi¬ 
tions, etc .— It is one of the consequences of 
the extreme poverty of the bulk of the 
population of Bengal, that education should 
be there at a very low ebb. The propor¬ 
tion of boys of school-going age attending 
school is only about 28.6 per cent., of girls 
2 per cent. The first rudiments of educa¬ 
tion are often given in small schools called 
pdthsalas, in which the fees are extremely 
low, and in which only reading, writing, and 
arithmetic are taught. The greater num¬ 
ber of these, although private establish¬ 
ments, receive aid from government. In 
the primary schools the principle of keep¬ 
ing the standard of instruction as low as 
possible is adhered to; and this is intended 
to be done till the whole of the poorest 
classes shall have been brought under some 
kind of instruction. In the meanwhile, all 
who have time or means for learning more 
are encouraged to resort to schools of a 
better class. YV ith this view a system of 
intermediate schools was established in 1875 
between the primary and what are called 
the middle schools, and this step has been 
rewarded with a satisfactory measure of 
success. 

In addition to the schools already men¬ 
tioned there are various educational insti¬ 
tutions of a higher kind connected with 
government. The highest of these institu¬ 
tions is the Calcutta University, with the 
four faculties of arts, law, medicine, and 
engineering. Affiliated to the university 
are a number of general and professional 
colleges, in one of which all who have 
passed the university entrance examination 
and wish to proceed to a degree must en¬ 
roll themselves. The majority of educated 
Bengal youths, according to official infor¬ 
mation, resort to two professions, the pub¬ 
lic service and the law, in consequence of 
which many cannot obtain employment. 
With a view to open out other lines of em¬ 
ployment the government is endeavoring to 
establish technical and industrial schools of 
a superior kind in many places. A healthy 
ambition is said to exist among the natives 
of Bengal to raise themselves by education. 
Almost every Bengalee youth who can af- 



Bengal 


Bengal Light 


ford the means aspires to an English edu¬ 
cation as one of the main objects of his life. 
One result of the Prince of Wales’s visit to 
Bengal at the end of 1875 was that the 
wealthier natives raised subscriptions to 
commemorate the event by founding educa¬ 
tional institutions. The secondary schools 
are generally divided into “ English ” and 
vernacular. Those in which English forms 
part of the regular course of study of all 
the scholars, or at least of all in the higher 
classes, are reckoned as English; if English 
is optional only, they are reckoned as ver¬ 
nacular. In the common languages of the 
country there were till lately almost no 
books to be had; but the Bible, or parts 
of it, has now been printed in the various 
languages and widely circulated, as well as 
a number of other works. 

The private houses of Bengal are huts, 
with pentroofs constructed of two sloping 
sides which meet in a ridge. One hut of 
this kind serves the poor man for himself, 
family, and cattle; wealthy men increase 
the number of houses without altering the 
plan, and without having any communica¬ 
tion between the different apartments. The 
walls are generally made of mud, and the 
floor is raised a foot or two above the level 
of the plain, to prevent its being flooded in 
the rainy season, which, however, is not al¬ 
ways accomplished. The frames of the 
houses consist of bamboos tied together — 
wooden posts and beams being used in the 
construction of the houses of the wealthy 
only. The huts collectively sufficient foi 
the accommodation of a family are usually 
surrounded by a common fence. Farmers 
have in general larger and better houses 
than people living in towns. A rich farmer 
will sometimes have as many as 12 or 14 
huts within his enclosure. The food of the 
class just above the rank of common labor¬ 
ers consists chiefly of rice, wlieaten flour, 
fish, vegetables, and butter, with various 
condiments and seasonings. In the case of 
the laborer there is neither flour, fish, vege¬ 
tables, nor butter, the chief food of that 
class being a coarse description of rice. 

History .—The English first got a firm 
footing in Bengal about 1644, when, through 
the influence of an English medical man 
named Boughton, a favorite of the Emperor 
of Delhi, the East India Company obtained 
permission to locate themselves at Hugli 
or Hoogly, some 28 miles above Calcutta. 
In 1686 the company’s factors, having had 
a rupture with the Moslem commander at 
the place where they were located, removed 
to Calcutta, then the village of Chuttanut- 
ty, where they continued to carry on then- 
trade. In 1700 the Viceroy of Bengal, be¬ 
ing in want of money to dispute the succes¬ 
sion to the Mogul throne, obtained a large 
sum from the company for the township on 
which their factory stood at Calcutta, and 
some adjacent lands. 8even years after¬ 


ward, namely in 1707, Calcutta was erected 
into a presidency, and the foundation of 
British power in India laid — presenting a 
striking proof of the energy of the British 
character, there having been settlements in 
India by the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and 
Danes, previous to, and contemporary with, 
the location of the English in that quarter 
of the world; but the mighty achievement 
of obtaining the supremacy in that vast em¬ 
pire could, it appears, be accomplished only 
by the British. For nearly half a century 
the company pursued a peaceful and profit¬ 
able commerce; but at the expiration of that 
period, 1756, Calcutta was attacked and 
taken by the Soubahdar of Bengal, who 
threw the Englishmen he found there, 147 
in number, into a dungeon, the well-known 
“ black hole ” of Calcutta, where 123 of 
them perished in 11 hours. In the ensuing 
year Calcutta was retaken by Lord Clive — 
an event which was followed by a series 
of victories on the part of the British, that 
terminated in the entire conquest of India. 
In consequence of unprecedented drought 
great scarcity of food prevailed in 1873 and 
1S74, but the prompt measures of the gov¬ 
ernment were sufficient to prevent any wide¬ 
spread mortality. A bill conferring upon 
agricultural tenants a transferable interest 
in their holdings and protecting them 
against eviction was passed in 1885. 

Bengal, Bay of, that portion of the In¬ 
dian Ocean which lies between Hindustan 
and Farther India, or Burma, Siam, and 
Malacca, and may be regarded as extending 
S. to Ceylon and Sumatra. It receives the 
Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Irrawadi. Cal¬ 
cutta, Rangoon, and Madras are the most 
important towns on or near its coasts. On 
the W. coast there are no good harbors, but 
the E. coast has a considerable number, 
among them being Aracan, Cheduba, Ne- 
grais, Mataban and Syriam. On account of 
the extreme heat the rate of evaporation is 
very high, sometimes amounting to an inch 
per day. The tide sometimes rises to the 
height of 70 feet. In summer the N. E. 
monsoon prevails, and in winter the S. W. 
monsoon. 

Bengalee Era, The, one of the chronologi¬ 
cal eras of the Hindus, supposed to have 
been derived from the Hegira. The Hindus, 
however, use the sidereal year, and the Mo¬ 
hammedans the lunar, hence the Mohamme¬ 
dan epoch is at present some nine years in 
advance of the Bengalee. 

Bengal, or Bengola, Light, a kind of 
firework, giving a vivid and sustained blue 
light. It is used for signals at sea. it h 
composed of six parts of niter, two of sul¬ 
phur, and one of antimony tersulphide. 
These are finely pulverized and incorpo¬ 
rated together/ and the composition is 
pressed into earthen bowls or similar shal¬ 
low vessels. 




Bengel 


Benicia 


Bengel, Johann Albrecht, a Gorman 
theologian and philologist, born in 1G87. 
He studied at Stuttgart and Tubingen, and 
became pastor and head of a school at Den- 
kendorf. He especially applied himself to 
the critical study of the Greek Testament; 
of which he published an edition in 1723. 
Among his other works are “Apparatus 
Criticus Novi Testamenti,” a work of great 
value for its suggestive condensed com¬ 
ments, which first appeared in 1742, and 
has been several times reprinted, etc. An 
attempt has been made to adapt his 
“ Gnomen ” to English readers in the “Criti¬ 
cal English Testament,” by Blackley and 
Hawes, published in 1866. He died in 1752. 

Benger, Elizabeth Ogilvy, an English 
author, born in Wells, in 1778; is known 
chiefly for her memoirs, “ Memoirs of Eliza¬ 
beth Hamilton” (2 vols., 1818) ; “Memoirs 
of John Tobin” (1820) ; “Memoirs of Anne 
Boleyn ” (2 vols., 1821); “Memoirs of Mary, 
Queen of Scots” (1823), and “Memoirs of 
Elizabeth of Bohemia ” (2 vols., 1825). She, 
however, wrote poems, one “ On the Slave 
Trade,” of 850 lines, and novels, “ Marian ” 
and “ The Heart and the Fancy,” and, al¬ 
though struggling from first to last with 
poverty, was the loved friend of many of her 
literary contemporaries. Miss Aiken wrote 
a memoir of her most interesting life which 
has been prefixed to the second edition of 
“Anne Boleyn” (1827). She died in Lon¬ 
don, Jan. 9, 1827. 

Bengough, John Wilson, a Canadian 
poet, born in Toronto, April 5, 1851; stud¬ 
ied in the Whitley District and Grammar 
School. In 1873 he established the “Grip,” 
a humorous weekly, in Toronto. His politi¬ 
cal cartoons in this paper were highly ar¬ 
tistic. He is also widely known as a 
lecturer and a poet. His publications in¬ 
clude “Ontario, Ontario” (a famous elec¬ 
tion song); “Grip’s Cartoons” (1875); 
“ Popular Readings, Original and Selected ” 
(1882); “Caricature History of Canadian 
Politics” (1886); “Motley: Verses Grave 
and Gay” (1895); “The Up to Date 
Primer: A First Book of Lessons for Little 
Political Economists” (1896), etc. 

Benguela (ben-ga'la), a district belong¬ 
ing to the Portuguese on the W. coast of 
South Africa; bounded N. by Angola, and 
S. by the Cunene river, which may be said 
to constitute also the uncertain E. fron¬ 
tier; area, perhaps 150,000 square miles. 
The country is mountainous in the interior, 
and thickly intersected by rivers and 
streams. Its vegetation is luxuriant, in¬ 
cluding every description of tropical prod¬ 
uce, and animal life is equally abundant. 
Copper, silver, iron, salt, sulphur, pe¬ 
troleum, and other minerals are found. 
The natives are mostly rude and barbarous. 
Population estimated at 2,000,000. The 
capital, also called Benguela, or San Felipe 


de Benguela, is situated on the coast, on a 
bay of the Atlantic, in a charming, but very 
unhealthful, valley. It was founded by the 
Portuguese in 1617, and was formerly an 
important center of the slave trade, but 
has now only a spasmodic trade in ivory, 
wax, gum, copal, etc. Pop. about 3,000. 

Ben=Hadad, or Benhaddad, the name 

of three Kings of Syria. The first was 
a contemporary of Asa, King of Judah, 
(929-873 b. c.), I Kings, xv. The sec¬ 
ond (860-824 b. c.) of the time of 
Ahab, King of Israel, I Kings, xx. The 
third at the time of Jehoahaz, King of 
Israel (856-839 b. c.), II Kings, xiii. 

Benham, Andrew Ellicott Kennedy, 

an American naval officer, born in New 
York, April 10, 1832; entered the navy in 
1847; served in the East India and the 
Home Squadrons in 1847-1852; attended 
the United States Naval Academy in 1852- 
1853; was commissioned Lieutenant in 
1855; Lieutenant-Commander in 1862; 
Commander, 1866; Captain, 1875; Commo¬ 
dore, 1885; and Rear-Admiral in 1890, and 
was retired in 1894. During the Civil War 
he served in the South Atlantic and West 
Gulf Blockading Squadrons. In April, 
1893, he commanded one of the divisions 
in the great naval display at New York; 
in 1894, as commander of a squadron at 
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, he forced the com¬ 
mander of the insurgents’ squadron to raise 
the blockade of the city and to discontinue 
firing on American merchant vessels; and 
in 1898 was naval prize commissioner in 
Savannah, Ga. He died Aug. 11, 1905. 

Benham, Henry W., an American mili¬ 
tary engineer, born in Cheshire, Conn., in 
1816; was graduated at the United States 
Military Academy in 1837; and became 
Colonel of the United States Engineers, and 
Brevet Major-General, United States army. 
He commanded the engineer brigade and 
laid several pontoon bridges under fire dur¬ 
ing the Chancellorsville battles; constructed 
and commanded the defenses at City Point; 
devised the picket shovel; and made many 
improvements in the construction of pontoon 
bridges, in which he was a recognized ex¬ 
pert. He died in New York, June 1, 1884. 

Beni, a river of Bolivia, South America; 
formed by the union of all the streams flow¬ 
ing down the Eastern Cordillera. It unites 
with the Mamore on the Brazilian frontier 
to form the Madeira. Its course is N. to N. 
E.; length, about 850 miles. 

Beni, one of the nine departments of Bo¬ 
livia, South America. It is in the N. E. 
part; area, 100,580 square miles; pop. 26,- 
750; chief town, Trinidad. 

Benicia, a city in Solano co., Cal.; at the 
mouth of the Sacramento and San Joaquin 
rivers, and on the Southern Pacific rail¬ 
road; 30 miles N. E. of San Francisco. It 



Beni-Hassan 


Benjamin 


contains a United States arsenal and bar¬ 
racks; St. Augustine College (Roman Catho¬ 
lic) ; St. Catherine's Convent (Roman Cath¬ 
olic) ; extensive shipyards, and large agri¬ 
cultural, tanning, cement and meat-packing 
plants. The city was once the capital of 
the State, and is now the seat of the Pro¬ 
testant Episcopal Missionary Bishop of 
Northern California. Pop. (1910) 2,360. 

Beni=Siassan, a village of Middle Egypt, 
on the E. bank of the Nile, remarkable for 
the grottoes or catacombs in the neighbor¬ 
hood, supposed to have formed a necropolis 
for the chief families of a city, Hermopolis, 
on the opposite bank, and exhibiting inter¬ 
esting paintings, etc. 

Beni=Israel, a race in the W. of India 
(the Konkan sea board, Bombay, etc.) who 
keep a tradition of Jewish origin, and whose 
religion is a modified Judaism; supposed to 
be a remnant of the ten tribes. 

Beni=Khaibir ( sons of Keber), an Ara¬ 
bic tribe supposed to be a remnant of the 
Ascetic tribe of Recliabites. 

BenUMzab, a race or tribe of Berbers 
that dwell in the Sahara near its N. border 
and recognize the supremacy of the French. 
They number about 60,000, of whom 15,000 
are in the town Ghardaya. They are of 
peaceful habits, and numbers of them are 
employed in Algiers in various occupations. 

Benin, a former negro kingdom of West 
Africa, on the Bight of Benin, extending 
along the coast on both sides of the Benin 
river, W. of the lower Niger, and to some 
distance inland. The chief town is Benin 
(pop. 15,000), situated on the river Benin, 
one of the mouths of the Niger. The coun¬ 
try, which gradually rises as it recedes 
from the coast, is well wooded and watered, 
and rich in vegetable productions. Cotton 
is indigenous, and woven into cloth by the 
women, and sugar cane, rice, yams, etc., are 
grown. The religion is fetich ism, and hu¬ 
man sacrifices were formerly numerous. 
There is a considerable trade in palm oil. 
The name Benin formerly extended over a 
much larger territory. 

In February, 1897, the Benin country 
was included within the Niger Coast Pro¬ 
tectorate, and a British Resident was in¬ 
stalled in the chief town. The whole terri¬ 
tory was then between 3,000 and 4,000 
square miles in extent, contained about 400 
towns and villages, and had a population 
of which no trustworthy estimate could be 
formed. 

Benin, Bight of, pait of the Gulf of 
Guinea, West Africa, which extends into 
the land between the mouth of the river 
Volta and that of the Nun. 

Benish Days, The, days on which the 
modern Egyptians relax their religious du¬ 
ties, and engage in pleasures. These days 


1 are Mondays, Wednesdays and Saturdays. 
In these days the people don the benish, 
or ordinary garment, and they are accord¬ 
ingly styled Benish Days. 

Beni Suef, a town of Egypt; on the left 
bank of the Nile, about 65 miles S. of Cairo. 
It has the residence of the governor, and 
manufactures of stuffs, linen and carpets. 
The province of Beni Suef, of which it is 
the capital, has a population of 185,000. 

Benjamin, the youngest son of Jacob and 
Rachel (Gen. xxxv: 16-18). Rachel died 
immediately after he was born, and with 
her last breath named him Ben-oni, the “ son 
of my sorrow; ” but Jacob called him Ben¬ 
jamin, “ son of my right hand/' He was a 
great comfort to his father, who saw in him 
the image of the beloved wife he had buried, 
and of Joseph, whose loss he also mourned. 
He could hardly be persuaded to let him 
go with his brethren to Egypt. The tribe 
of Benjamin, small at first, was almost ex¬ 
terminated in the days of the Judges, but 
afterward it greatly increased. On the re¬ 
volt of the ten tribes, Benjamin adhered to 
the camp of Judah; and the two tribes ever 
afterward closely united. King Saul and 
Saul of Tarsus were both Benjamites. 

Benjamin, Judah Philip, an American 
lawyer, born in St. Croix, West Indies, 
Aug. 11, 1811; was of English parentage 
and of Jewish faith. He was educated at 
Yale College; admitted to the bar in New 
Orleans, in 1832; and elected to the United 
States Senate in 1852 and 1858. At the be¬ 
ginning of the Civil War, he resigned from 
the Senate and declared his adhesion to the 
State of Louisiana. In 1861 he accepted 
the office of Attorney-General in the Cabi¬ 
net of Jefferson Davis, and afterward be¬ 
came successively Confederate Secretary of 
War and Secretary of State. After the 
war he went to London, England, where he 
was admitted to the bar in 1866. He gained 
a successful practice, and in 1872 was for¬ 
mally presented with a silk gown. He wrote 
a “ Treatise on the Law of Sale of Personal 
Property” (1868). He died in Paris, May 
7, 1884." 

Benjamin, Park, an American journal¬ 
ist, poet, and lecturer, born at Demerara, 
British Guiana, Aug. 14, 1809. He studied 
law originally. His poems, of a high order 
of merit, have never been collected. “ The 
Contemplation of Nature,” read on taking 
his degree at Washington College, Hartford. 
1829; the satires “Poetry” (1843); “In¬ 
fatuation” (1849); “The Nautilus,” “To 
One Beloved,” and “ The Old Sexton,” are 
among his works. He was associated edi¬ 
torially with Epes Sargent and Rufus W. 
Griswold. He died in New York, Sept. 12, 
1864. 

Benjamin, Park, an American lawyer, 
editor, and miscellaneous writer, son of the 



Benjamin 


Bennett 


preceding, born in New York, May 11, 1849. 
A graduate of the United States Naval 
Academy (1807), he served on Admiral 
Farragut’s flagship, but resigned in 1869. 
As a lawyer he has been a patent expert. 
He edited the “ Scientific American ” (1872— 
1878). He has written “Shakings: Etch¬ 
ings from the Naval Academy” (18G7); 
“The Age of Electricity” (1886); “The 
Intellectual Rise in Electricity, a History,” 
“ The United States Naval Academy ” 
(1900), etc. 

Benjamin, Samuel Green Wheeler, an 

American traveler, artist, and miscellaneous 
writer, born at Argos, Greece, Feb. 13, 1837. 
He was United States Minister to Persia 
(1883-1885). Among his numerous works, 
both in prose and verse, are “ Art in Amer¬ 
ica,” “ Contemporary Art in Europe ” 
(1877); “Constantinople” (1860); “Per¬ 
sia and the Persians ” (1886) ; “ The Choice 
of Paris ” (1870), a romance; “Sea Spray” 
(1887), a book for yachtsmen; etc. 

Benjamin of Tudela, one of the earliest 
travelers of the Middle Ages, who visited 
the central regions of Asia; he was author 
of a Hebrew work of travels, which, though 
interesting and romantic, is remarkable 
chiefly for its misrepresentations. The last 
translation into English is by Asher, Lon¬ 
don, 1841. Benjamin of Tudela was born in 
Navarre, Spain, and died in 1173. 

Benjowsky (ben-yov'ske), Moritz Au¬ 
gust, Count von, a noted Hungarian ad¬ 
venturer; born in Verbo in 1741. In 1769, 
while aiding the Confederate Poles as a 
general of cavalry, he was taken prisoner 
by the Russians and exiled to Kamchatka. 
He conceived a plot to effect the escape of 
himself and a number of his companions. 
In 1774 the French cabinet of Versailles 
entrusted him with the mission of founding 
a colony at Madagascar, and, for this pur¬ 
pose, gave him a regiment of infantry; 
which mission he fulfilled with some suc¬ 
cess. When he returned to France, he 
found so much bickering on the part of the 
government, that he determined to serve 
the Austrians. Later he set out for Eng¬ 
land and for America, with the thought of 
collecting a body of partisans who would 
enter upon the conquest of Madagascar. He 
went to that island at the head of an ex¬ 
pedition, encountered the French troops, 
and was killed, May 23, 1786. 

Ben Lawers, a mountain in Perthshire, 
Scotland, flanking the N. W. shore of Loch 
Tay. Easy of ascent, it is rich in Alpine 
plants, and there is a magnificent view from 
its summit, which is 3,984 feet high, or 
with the cairn at the top (rebuilt in 1878), 
4,004. 

Ben Ledi, a mountain (2,875 feet) of 
Perthshire, Scotland, 4y 2 miles W. by N. of 


Callander. A jubilee cairn was erected on 
it in 1887. 

Ben Lomond, a mountain of Scotland in 
Stirlingshire, on the E. shore of Loch Lo¬ 
mond, rising to a height of 3,192 feet and 
giving a magnificent prospect of the vale 
of Stirlingshire, the Lothians, the Clyde, 
Ayrshire, Isle of Man, hills of Antrim, 
etc. 

Ben Mac=Dhui (-de-i), or Ben Muich- 
Dhui, the second highest mountain in Scot¬ 
land, situated in the S. W. of Aberdeen¬ 
shire, on the borders of Banffshire, form¬ 
ing one of a cluster of lofty mountains, 
among which are Brae-riach, Carintoul, and 
Cairngorm. Height, 4,296 feet. 

Benne Oil, a valuable oil expressed from 
the seeds of sesamum or lent die and >8. in- 
dXcum , much cultivated in India, Egypt, 
etc., and used for similar purposes with 
olive oil. Also called sesamum oil and gin- 
gelly oil. 

Bennett, Charles Wesley, an American 
Methodist clergyman and educator, born at 
East Bethany, N. Y., July 18, 1828; was 
Principal of Genesee Wesleyan Seminary 
(1869-1871), Professor of History and 
Logic at Syracuse University (1871-1885), 
Profosor of Historical Theology at Garrett 
Biblical Institute/Evanston (1885-1891). 
He wrote “ National Education in Italy, 
France, Germany, England, and Wales ” 

( 1878); and “Christian Art and Archaeol¬ 
ogy of the First Six Centuries” (1888). He 
died at Evanston, Ill., April 17, 1891. 

Bennett, Edmund Hatch, an American 
lawyer, born in Manchester, Vt., April 6, 
1824; was graduated at the University of 
Vermont in 1843, and admitted to the bar 
in 1847. He practiced for many years in 
Taunton, Mass., and was Mayor of that 
city in 1865-1867, and Judge of Probate 
and Insolvency of Bristol county in 1858- 
1883. He was Lecturer at Harvard Law 
School in 1865-1871, and afterward Pro' 
fessor and Dean at the Law School of Bos 
ton University. His works include 30 vol¬ 
umes of “ English Law and Equity Re 
ports,” “ Cushing’s Massachusetts Reports ” 
(vols. ix, x, xi, and xii) ; “Massachusetts 
Digest,” “ Brigham on Infantry,” “ Black 
well on Tax Titles,” “ Leading Criminal 
Cases ” (2 vols.) ; “ Goddard on Easements,” 
“ Benjamin on Sales,” “ Pomeroy’s Consti¬ 
tutional Law,” “ Indermaur’s Principles of 
Common Law,” and “ Fire Insurance Cases ” 
(5 vols.). He has also made frequent con¬ 
tributions to professional journals, and has 
been co-editor of the “ American Law Regis¬ 
ter.” He died Jan. 2, 1898. 

Bennett, James Gordon, a Scotch-Am- 
erican journalist; founder and proprietor of 
the New York “ Herald,” born in Newmill, 
Keith, Sept. 1, 1795. Trained for the Ro¬ 
man Catholic priesthood, he emigrated to 



Bennett 


Bennett 


the United States in 1819, where he became 
in turn teacher, proof reader, journalist, 
and lecturer. He had acted as casual re¬ 
porter and writer in connection with sev¬ 
eral journals, and had failed in one or two 
journalistic ventures, previous to the issue 
of the first number of the New York “ Her¬ 
ald,” as an independent newspaper, May 6, 
1835, price one cent. He spared no effort 
and expense in securing news, and laid the 
foundation of its after enormous suc¬ 
cess. It was the first newspaper to publish 
the stock lists and a daily money article. 
He died in New York, June 1, 1872. 

Bennett, James Gordon, an American 
journalist, born in New York city, May 10, 
1841; son of James Gordon Bennett, founder 
of the New York “ Herald,” of which he 
became managing editor in 1SGG, and from 
that time largely controlling, and becoming 
proprietor on the death of his father in 
1872. In 1870 he sent Henry M. Stanley on 
the exploring expedition which resulted in 
the finding of Dr. Livingstone, and, in con¬ 
junction with the London “ Daily Tele¬ 
graph,” supplied the means for his journey 
across Africa by way of the Kongo in 
1874-1878. He organized a system of storm 
prognostications of value to shipping mas¬ 
ters; fitted out the “Jeannette” Polar ex¬ 
pedition; and, in 1883, was associated with 
John W. Mackay in organizing the new 
Commercial Cable Company. He founded 
the “ Evening Telegram ” in New York, and 
established dailv editions of the “ Herald ” 
in Paris and London. He early gave much 
attention to yachting, in 18GG taking part 
in an ocean yacht race from Sandy Hook to 
the Needles, Isle of Wight, which was won 
by his schooner, “ Henrietta,” against two 
competing yachts, in 13 days, 21 hours and 
55 minutes. In 1870 he raced in his yacht 
“ Dauntless ” from Queenstown to Sandv 
Hook, but was beaten bv the “ Cambria ” by 
two hours. He resides mainly in Paris, 
collecting foreign news, and directing by 
telegraph the management and policy of his 
newspapers. The New York “ Herald ” was 
incorporated in 1899. 

Bennett, John Hughes, an English phy¬ 
sician, born in London, Aug. 31, 1812; 
graduated at Edinburgh in 1837; and, after 
four years’ study in Paris and Germany, 
settled in Edinburgh as an extra-mural 
lecturer. A work published in 1841, in 
which he recommended cod liver oil in all 
consumptive diseases, first brought him 
into notice, and in 1848 he was made Pro¬ 
fessor of the Institutes of Medicine in Edin¬ 
burgh University — a post which he held 
until 1874. His health gave way in 1871, 
and most of his last years were spent 
abroad. He died in Norwich, Sept. 25, 1875. 

Bennett, Joseph H., an American phil¬ 
anthropist, born in Juliustown, N. J., Aug. 

54 


1G, 181G. He engaged in the clothing busi* 
ness in Philadelphia, Pa., when 16 years old. 
In 1880 he gave 40 acres of ground in what 
is now Fairmount Park, valued at $400,000, 
for a Methodist Orphanage, to the support 
of which he afterward largely contributed, 
lie also established the Hays Home, and 
gave valuable properties to the Deaf and 
Dumb Institute, the University of Pennsyl¬ 
vania, and the Methodist deaconesses. His 
property was said to be worth $3,000,000, 
and it is estimated that he gave $1,000,000 
to charity. He bequeathed $500,000 to the 
University of Pennsylvania for its proposed 
college for women. He died in Philadelphia, 
Sept. 29, 1898. 

Bennett. Sanford Fillmore, an Amer¬ 
ican hymnologist, born in Eden, N. Y., in 
183G. He settled in Elkhorn, Wis., in 18G0, 
and became editor of the “ Independent.” 
Resigning this place, he entered the 40th 
Wisconsin Volunteers and served with them 
throughout the war. In 18G7 he aided J. 
P. Webster, the composer, in preparing 
“ The Signet Ring,” a Sunday School hymn 
book, to which he contributed about 100 
hymns. “The Sweet Bye and Bve ” was 
one of the first of these. Many of Mr. 
Bennett’s hymns and songs have been pub¬ 
lished in sheets. He died in Richmond, Ill., 
June 12, 1898. 

Bennett, William Cox, an English song 
writer, born in Greenwich, Oct. 14, 1S20. 
He suggested that the bust of Longfellow be 
placed in Westminster Abbey, and formed 
a committee of 500, with tli° Prince of Wales 
at the head, to effect it. He was author of 
“ Poems ” (1850) ; “ The Trial for Salamis ” 
(1850); “Endowed Parish Schools and 
High Church Vicars” (1853) ; “Queen El¬ 
eanor’s Vengeance, and Other Poems ” 
(185G) ; “War Songs” (1857) ; “Songs by 
a Song Writer” (1858) ; “Baby May, and 
Other Poems ” (1859); “ Our Glory Roll, 
and Other National Poems” (18G7) ; “Con¬ 
tributions to a Ballad History of England, 
etc.” (1SG9) ; “School Book of Poetry” 
(1870); “Songs for Sailors” (1872); 
“Narrative Poems and Ballads” (1879); 
“Songs of a Song Writer” (187G): and 
“Sea' Songs” (1878). He died in Black- 
heath, March 4, 1895. 

Bennett, Sir William Sterndale, Eng¬ 
lish composer, born in 1816, at Sheffield, 
where his father was organist; became pupil 
of the Royal Academy in 182G, studying 
under Cipriani rotter, Crotch, and Lucas, 
and afterward, Moscheles. By the advice of 
Mendelsshohn, whose friendship he had 
gained, he studied in Leipsic from 183G to 
1838, and his performances and compositions 
were held in high esteem by the younger 
German musicians, and especially by Schu¬ 
mann. After a period spent in teaching, 
conducting, and composing, he was ap¬ 
pointed Professor of Music at Cambridge in 



Ben Nevis 


Benson 


1856, and he was knighted in 1871. He was 
too entirely dominated by Mendelssohn's in¬ 
fluence to do great original work. He is 
best known by liis overtures, the “ Naiads ” 
and “ Parisina; ” his cantatas, the “ May 
Queen ” and “ Woman of Samaria,” and his 
little musical sketches, “ Lake,” “ Mill- 
stream,” and “ Fountain.” He died in 1875. 

Ben Nevis, the most lofty mountain in 
Great Britain, in Inverness-shire, immedi¬ 
ately E. of Fort William and the opening 
of the Caledonian canal, at the S. W. ex¬ 
tremity of Glenmore. It rises to the height 
of 4,406 feet, and in clear weather yields a 
most extensive prospect. An observatory 
was established on its summit in May, 1881, 
by the Scottish Meteorological Society. 

Benningsen, or Bennigsen, Levin Au= 
gust, Baron, a Bussian general, born in 
Hanover in 1745. He entered the service of 
Catherine II., and distinguished himself by 
great gallantry, in the war against Poland. 
He w r as commander-in-chief at the battle 
of Eylau. In 1813 he led a Bussian army 
into Saxony, took part in the battle of 
Leipsic, and beleaguered Hamburg. He died 
in 1826. 

Bennington, town and county-seat of 
Bennington co., Vt.; on the Bennington and 
Butland and the Lebanon Springs railroads; 
36 miles E. of Troy, N. Y. It contains 
the villages of Bennington, North Benning¬ 
ton and Bennington Center; and has large 
woolen and knit goods factories; a Soldiers’ 
Home, a Memorial Battle monument, dedi¬ 
cated on the centennial of the admission of 
the State into the Union, Aug. 19, 1891, 2 
National banks, and graded public schools. 
There are valuable deposits of brown hema¬ 
tite ore in the town. Bennington is histori¬ 
cally famous on account of the battle fought 
Aug. 16, 1777, when General Stark with his 
“ Green Mountain Boys ” defeated a large 
British detachment sent from General Bur- 
goyne’s army to capture the public stores 
near North Bennington. Pop. (1910) 6,211. 

Bennington, The, a twin-screw, steel 
gunboat of the United States navy; 1,710 
tons displacement; length, 230 feet; breadth, 
36 feet; mean draft, 14 feet; horse-power, 
3,436; main battery, six 6-inch, breech¬ 
loading rifles; secondary battery, two 
6-pounder and two 3-pounder rapid-fire guns, 
two 37-millimeter Hotchkiss revolving can¬ 
nons and two Gatlings; speed, 17.5 knots; 
crew, 16 officers and 181 men; cost, $555,- 
875.55. 

Ben Nut, the seed of moringa pterygo- 
sperma, the ben tree of India, yielding the 
valuable oil of ben. 

Benoit (be-nwa'), Pierre Leopold Leon= 
ard, a Flemish musician and composer, 
born in Harelbeke, Belgium, Aug. 17, 1834; 
a pupil of Fetis. He had held the position of 
.Director of the Flemish School of Music in 


Antwerp since 1867; and had written a 
number of oratorios, cantatas, and operas, 
among the first of which “ Lucifer,” “ The 
Drama of Christ,” and “The War " should 
be mentioned. He died March 5, 1901. 

Benoit de Sainte=Maure (be-nwa' de 
sant-mor), a French trouvere and chronicler 
of the 12th century, born in Touraine. He 
wrote in about 42,000 octosyllabic verses a 
“ Chronicle of the Dukes of Normandy ” to 
the year 1135. To him is usually ascribed 
the “ Bomance of Troy,” founded on the 
story of the siege of Troy, as written by 
Dictys Cretensis and Dares; it was trans¬ 
lated into the languages of Western Europe. 
Boccaccio, Chaucer, and Shakespeare would 
seem to be indebted to Benoit for the story 
of the loves of Troilus and Briseis (Cryseyde 
or Cressida being originally called Briseida). 

Bensel, James Berry, a well known 
American poet and novelist, born in New 
York, Aug. 2, 1856; lived the most of his 
life at Lynn, Mass., and was a contributor 
to magazines. He wrote “ King Kophetua’s 
Wife” (1884), a novel; “In the King’s 
Garden and Other Poems” (1886). He 
died in New York, Feb. 3, 1886. 

Benson, Edward Frederic, an English 
author, born in Wellington College, July 24, 
1867; educated at King’s College, Cam¬ 
bridge; w r orked at Athens for the British 
Archaeological School in 1892-1895, and in 
Egypt, for the Hellenic Society, in 1895; 
traveled in Algiers, Egypt, Greece, and Italy. 
His writings include “Dodo” (1893), a 
novel of London society; “ Bubicon ” (1894); 
“ Judgment Books ” ( i895) ; “ Limitations ” 

(1896 ) ; « The Babe ” (1897) ; “ Vintage ” 
(1898) ; '“The Capsina ” (1899), etc. 

Benson, Edward White, Archbishop of 
Canterbury, born near Birmingham in 1829; 
graduated at Cambridge in 1852 as a first- 
class and senior optime, and was for some 
time a master at Bugby. He held the head- 
mastership of Wellington College from its 
opening in 1858 to 1872, when he was made 
a Canon and Chancellor of Lincoln Cathe¬ 
dral. In 1875 he was appointed Chaplain 
in Ordinary to the Queen, and, in December, 
1876, was nominated to the newly erected 
Bishopric of Truro. Here he began the 
building of a cathedral (1880-1887), most 
of the first cost, £110,000, having been gath¬ 
ered by his own energy. In 1882 he was 
translated to Canterbury to succeed Dr. Tait 
as Primate of all England. A High Church¬ 
man, Dr. Benson was frequently select 
preacher at both universities, and published 
several volumes of sermons, a small work 
on “ Cathedrals,” and a valuable article on 
“ St. Cyprian.” A distinguished ecclesiasti¬ 
cal lawyer and diplomatist, he gave the im¬ 
portant judgment in the Lincoln case on 
ritual. He died at Hawarden, Oct. 11, 1896. 

Benson, Egbert, an American jurist and 
politician, born in New York city, June 21, 



Benson 


Bentham 


1746; graduated at Columbia College in 
1765; was a member of Congress in 1784- 
1788, 1789-1793, and 1813—1815; Judge of 
the Supreme Court of New York in 1794- 
1801 ; and became a Judge of the United 
States Circuit Court. He wrote a “ Vindi¬ 
cation of the Captors of Major Andre ” and 
“ Memoir on Dutch Names of Places.” He 
died in Jamaica, N. Y., Aug. 24, 1833. 

Benson, Eisgene, an American artist and 
miscellaneous writer, born at Hyde Park, 
N. Y., in 1840. Residing in Rome, Italy, 
lie contributed to American magazines, and 
wrote “ Gaspara Stampa,” a biography, with 
selections from her sonnets; “Art and Na¬ 
ture in Italy.” He died Feb. 28, 1908. 

Benson, Frank Weston, an American 
painter, born in Salem, Mass., March 24, 
1862; was educated at the Museum of Fine 
Arts, Boston, and in Paris; became a mem¬ 
ber of the Society of American Artists in 
1888. He won the Hallgarten and the 
Clarke prizes at the National Academy of 
Design in 1889 and 1891; has done much in 
figure work with outdoor effects, but is best 
known for his portraits. 

Bensserade, Isaac de (bans-rad), a French 
poet (1613-1691), chielly remembered as au¬ 
thor of the ballets, much in vogue then, in 
which the King and his courtiers took part; 
also by his dainty lyrics, especially the 
sonnet on “Job,” which, in rivalry with Voi- 
ture’s sonnet to “ Urania,” incited a literary 
feud in 1651. 

Bent, James Theodore, an English 
traveler, born in Liverpool, March 30, 1852; 
graduated at Oxford University in 1875; 
managed excavations in Greece for the Brit¬ 
ish Museum and the Hellenic Society. His 
publications include “ A Freak of Freedom, 
or the Republic of San Marino” (1879); 
“Genoa: How the Republic Rose and Fell” 
(1880); “Life of Guiseppe Garibaldi” 
(1881) ; “The Cyclades, or Life Among the 
Insular Greeks” (1885). He died in Lon¬ 
don, May 6, 1897. 

Benteen, Frederick William, an Amer¬ 
ican military officer, born in Petersburg, 
Va., Aug. 24, 1834; was educated in his na¬ 
tive State; and at the outbreak of the Civil 
War went to Missouri and organized a com¬ 
pany of Union volunteers. He became First 
Lieutenant of the 10tli Missouri Cavalry, 
Sept. 1, 1861; promoted Captain, Oct. 1, 
1861; Major, Dec. 18, 1862; Lieutenant- 
Colonel, Feb. 27, 1864; and Colonel of the 
138th United States Colored Infantry, July 
15, 1865 ; mustered out of volunteer service 
Jan. 6, 1866. On July 28, 1866, he was com¬ 
missioned a Captain in the 7th Cavalry; 
promoted Major of the 9th Cavalry, Dec. 17, 
1882; and retired, July 7, 1888. His most 
brilliant service after the war was in his 
campaigns against the Indians. He died in 
Atlanta, Ga., June 22, 1898. 


Bent Grass, a genius of grasses, distin¬ 
guished by a loose panicle of small, one 
flowered, laterally compressed spikelets; the 
glumes unequal, awnless, and longer than 
the palete, which are also unequal, and of 
which the inner one is sometimes wanting, 
and the outer sometimes has and sometimes 
has not, an awn; the seed free. The species 
are numerous and are found in almost all 
countries and climates. All are grasses of 
a slender and delicate appearance. Some are 
very useful as pasture grasses and for hay, 
on account of their adaptation to certain 
kinds of soil, although none of them is re¬ 
garded as being very nutritious. The common 
bent grass (agrostis vulgaris) forms a prin¬ 
cipal part of the pasture in almost all the 
elevated districts of Great Britain, and is 
abundant in many parts of the continent of 
Europe and the United States. It resists 
droughts better titan almost any other grass, 
but is sown by agriculturists only on soils 
unsuitable for the more luxuriant grasses. 
It is also regarded as very suitable for 
lawns; but in light, dry, cultivated grounds 
it is often a troublesome weed, known as 
black squitch, or quitch grass, and frequent 
harrowing is resorted to for the removal of 
its creeping perennial roots. It is as fre¬ 
quent on wet as on dry soils, and varies 
much in size and appearance. The marsh 
bent grass (A. alba), forming a large part 
of natural pasture in many moist situations, 
is very similar to the species just described, 
but generally taller and stouter. A variety, 
so little different as* scarcely to deserve the 
name, but with somewhat broader leaves 
and more luxuriant habit of growth, was at 
one time much celebrated among agricultur¬ 
ists, under the name of florin grass, or 
agrostis stolonifera. It is a useful grass 
in moist grounds, newly reclaimed bogs, or 
land liable to inundation. 

Bentham, George, an English botanist, 
nephew of Jeremy Bentham, born in Ports¬ 
mouth, Sept. 22, 1800. He was privately 
educated, early attached himself to botany, 
and, having resided in Southern France 
(where his father had an estate) in 1814- 
1826 he published in French (1826) a work 
on “ The Plants of the Pyrenees and Lower 
Languedoc.” Having returned to England 
he studied law, and on this subject, as well 
as logic, he developed original views. Fin¬ 
ally, however, he devoted himself almost en¬ 
tirely to botany, was long connected with 
the Horticultural Society and the Linnaean 
Society, and, from 1861 onward, was in al¬ 
most daily attendance at Ivew (except for 
a few weeks occasionally), working at de¬ 
scriptive botany as a labor of love. With 
Sir J. D. Hooker he produced the great work 
of descriptive botany, “ Genera Plantarum;” 
another great work of his was the “ Flora 
Australiensis ” (in 7 vols.). His “Hand- 



Bentham 


Bentley 


book of the British Flora ” is well known. 
He died in London* Sept. 10, 1884. 

Bentham, Jeremy, an English jurist, 
born in London, Feb. 15, 1748; educated at 
Westminster and Oxford; entered Lincoln's 
Inn, in 1763. He was called to the bar, but 
did not practice, and, having private means, 
devoted himself to the reform of civil and 
criminal legislation. A criticism on a pass¬ 
age in Blackstone’s “ Commentaries,” pub¬ 
lished under the title, “ A Fragment on Gov¬ 
ernment ” ( 1776), brought him into notice, 
and it was followed by a long list of works, 
of which the more important were “ The 
Hard Labor Bill” (1778); “Principle; of 
Morals and Legislation (1780), “A De¬ 
fense of Usury” (1787); “Introduction to 
the Principles of Morals and Legislation ” 
(1789); “Discourses on Civil and Penal 
Legislation” (1802) ; “Treatise on Judicial 
Evidence” (1813); “Paper Belative to 
Codification and Public Instruction ” (1817) ; 
and the “Book of Fallacies” (1824). His 
mind, though at once subtle and comprehen- 

s i v e, was 
characterized 
by something 
of the Coler- 
idgean defect 
in respect of 
method and 
sense of pro¬ 
portion ; and, 
he is, there¬ 
fore, seen at 
his best in 
works that 
underwent re¬ 
vision at the 
hands of his 
disciples. Of 
these, M. Du¬ 
mont, by his 
excellent French translations and rearrange¬ 
ments, secured for Bentham at an early date 
a European reputation and influence, and his 
editions are still the most satisfactory. In 
England, James Mill, Bomilly, John Stuart 
Mill, Burton, and others of independent ge¬ 
nius, have been among his exponents. In 
ethics he must be regarded as the founder of 
modern utilitarianism; in polity and criminal 
law he anticipated or suggested many practi¬ 
cal reforms; and his whole influence was stim¬ 
ulating and humanizing. He was a man of 
primitive and genial manners, leading a 
quiet and unblemished life, in which, per¬ 
haps, the chief troubles were the refusal of 
his hand by Lord Holland's sister, Miss Car¬ 
oline Fox, and the refusal of his ready made 
codes of law by Russia, the United States 
and Spain. He died in London, June 6, 
1832, leaving his body for dissection. His 
remains are to be seen at University College, 
London. 


Bentley, Richard, a celebrated English 
divine and classical scholar, distinguished as 
a polemical writer; born near Wakefield, in 
Yorkshire, Jan. 27, 1662. His father is said 
to have been a blacksmith. To his mother, 
who was a woman of strong natural abili¬ 
ties, he was indebted for the first rudiments 
of his education. At the age of 14 he en¬ 
tered St. John’s College, Cambridge. In 
1682 he left the university, and became 
usher of a school at Spalding; and this sit¬ 
uation he relinquished in the following year 
for that of tutor to the son of Dr. Stilling- 
fleet, dean of St. Paul's. He accompanied 
his pupil to Oxford, where he availed him¬ 
self of the literary treasures of the Bodleian 
Library in the prosecution of his studies. 
In 1684 he took the degree of A. M. at Cam¬ 
bridge, and in 1689 obtained the same honor 
at the sister university. His first published 
work was a Latin epistle to Dr. John Mill, 
on an edition of the “ Chronicle of John 
Malela,” which appeared in 1691. It con¬ 
tained observations on the writings of that 
Greek historian, and displayed so much pro¬ 
found learning and critical acumen as ex¬ 
cited the sanguine anticipacions of classical 
scholars from the future labors of the au¬ 
thor. Dr. Stillingfleet, having been raised 
to the bishopric of Worcester, made Bent¬ 
ley his chaplain, and in 1692 collated him 
to a prebend in his cathedral. The recom¬ 
mendation of his patron, and of Bishop 
Lloyd, procured him the honor of being 
chosen the first preacher of the lecture insti¬ 
tuted by the celebrated Robert Boyle for the 
defense of Christianity. The discourses 
against atheism which he delivered on this 
occasion were published in 1694; they have 
since been often reprinted. 

In 1693 he was appointed keeper of the 
royal library at St. James’—a circumstance 
which incidentally led to his famous con¬ 
troversy with Charles Boyle, afterward Earl 
of Orrery, relative to the genuineness of the 
Greek Epistles of Phalaris, an edition of 
which was published by the latter, then a 
student at Christ Church, Oxford. In this 
dispute Bentley was completely victorious, 
though opposed by the greatest wits and 
critics of the age, including Pope, Swift, 
Garth, Atterbury, Aldrich, Dodwell, and 
Conyers Middleton, who advocated the opin¬ 
ion of Boyle with extraordinary illiberality. 
In 1699 Bentley published his “ Disserta¬ 
tion on the Epistles of Phalaris,” in which 
he satisfactorily proved that they were not 
the compositions of the tyrant of Agrigen- 
tum, more than five centuries before the 
Christian era, but were by some sophist un¬ 
der the borrowed name of Phalaris, in the 
declining age of Greek literature. 

Soon after this publication, Dr. Bentley 
was presented by the crown to the master¬ 
ship of Trinity College, Cambridge, worth 



wm 

Jill '--M 

JEREMY BENTHAM, 





Benton 


Benzoic Acid 


nearly £1,000 a year. He now resigned the 
prebend of Worcester, and in 1701 was col¬ 
lated to the archdeaconry of Ely. His con¬ 
duct as' head of the college gave rise to ac¬ 
cusations charging him, among various of¬ 
fenses, with embezzling college money. The 
contest gave rise to a lawsuit lasting more 
than 20 years. It was decided against 
him, but the sentence depriving him of his 
mastership was never carried out owing to 
Bentley’s superior skill and mastery of legal 
forms. In 1711 he published an edition of 
Horace, and in 1713, his remarks on “ Col¬ 
lins’ Discourse on Free-thinking,” under the 
form of a “ Letter to F. H. (Francis Hare), 
D. D., by Phileleutherus Lipsiensis.” He 
was appointed regius Professor of Divinity 
in 171G, and in the same year issued pro¬ 
posals for a new edition of the Greek Tes¬ 
tament, an undertaking which Middleton 
prevented his executing. In 1726 he pub¬ 
lished an edition of Terence and Phsedrus; 
and his notes on the comedies of the former 
involved him in a dispute with Bishop Hare. 
The last work of Dr. Bentley was an edition 
of Milton’s “ Paradise Lost,” with conjec¬ 
tural emendations, which appeared in 1732. 
He died at the master’s lodge at Trinity, 
July 14, 1742, and was interred in the 
college chapel. As a scholar and a critic 
Bentley holds the highest position. The best 
informed of his opponents respected his 
talents while loading him with classical 
abuse. Now that prejudices have subsided, 
his preeminence in that species of literature 
which he cultivated is widely acknowledged. 

Benton, Thomas Hart, an American 
statesman, born near Hillsboro, N. C., March 
14, 1782; settled in Tennessee, where he stu¬ 
died law, and was elected to the Legislature, 



In 18 12 he 
raised a regi¬ 
ment of volun¬ 
teers, and also 
served on Gen¬ 
eral Jackson's 
staff. After 
the war, he 
started a news¬ 
paper in St. 

Louis, by which 
he became in¬ 
volved in sev¬ 
eral duels. On 
the admission 
of Missouri as 
a State, he was 
chosen United 
States Senator tiiomas h. benton. 
in 1820, and, 

in this post, during 30 years’ con¬ 
tinuous service, took a leading part 
in public affairs. A determined oppo¬ 
nent of Calhoun’s nullification scheme, he 
afterward supported JacKson in his war on 
the United States bank, and earned the sob¬ 
riquet of “ Old Bullion ” by his opposition 


to the paper currency. He published “ A 
Thirty Years’ View, or a History of the 
Working of the American Government from 
1820 to 1850” (2 vols., 1854-185G) and 
“ An Abridgment of the Debates of Congress 
from 1789 to 185G ” (15 vols., 1857).' He 
died in Washington, April 10, 1858. 

^ Bentzel=Sternau, Count Karl Christian 
Ernst von, a German novelist, born in 
Mentz, April 9, 17G7. Ho is esteemed as a hu¬ 
morist after the manner of Jean Paul; and 
his satirical romances, “The Golden Calf” 
(1802-1803); “The Stone Guest ” (1808); 
“Old Adam” (1819-1820); “The Master 
of the Chair,” together form a series. He 
died at Marialialden, Switzerland, Aug. 13, 
1843. 

Bentzon, Therese. See Blanc. 

Benue, or Binue (ben-wa/), a river of 
Africa, the greatest tributary of the Niger, 
which it enters from the E. about 250 miles 
above its mouth. Dr. Barth came upon the 
river in 1851, and its course was partly 
traced by Dr. W. Balfour Baikie, but its 
source was only reached (by Flegel) in 1883. 

Benzene, an aromatic hydrocarbon, also 
called benzol, or phenyl hydride, discovered 
in 1825 by Faraday in the liquid condensed 
during the compression of oil gas; it was 
called by him bicarburet of hydrogen. In 
1849, it was found in coal tar by C. B. 
Mansfield, who lost his life while experi¬ 
menting with it on Feb. 25, 1855. Aniline 
is produced from it, which again is the 
source of the celebrated modern dyes, mauve, 
magenta, etc. It is obtained from the more 
volatile portion of coal tar oil. It is also 
formed by distilling benzoic acid with lime. 
Benzene is a thin, colorless, strongly re¬ 
fracting liquid: it boils at 82°. It dissolves 
fats, resins, iodine, sulphur, and phosphorus; 
sp. gr., 0.885. Benzene is formed when 
acetylene is passed through a tube heated to 
dull redness. Many substitutional products 
of benzene have been formed. Benzene unites 
with chlorine, or bromine, in direct sun¬ 
light, forming additive compounds, C 0 H u Cl c . 

Benzoic Add, (C 7 II G 0 2 ), exists, ready 
formed in certain balsams, as of Peru and 
Tolu, in gum benzoin, and in the urine of 
man and herbivorous animals, and it is, be¬ 
sides, the product of a number of chemical 
reactions. Its taste is quite pungent and 
bitter. It is easily obtained from gum 
benzoin, by heating it for some hours in a 
pot covered with a paper cap. The acid 
sublimes, and the cap on removal is found 
encrusted with light brilliant white prisms, 
which are almost pure, except a trace of 
volatile oil, which gives the acid its ordi¬ 
nary odor. The acid can also be extracted 
in the wet way. When pure it forms crys¬ 
tals, sparingly soluble in cold water, more 
soluble in hot, and very volatile in aque¬ 
ous vapor. It sublimes readily; when 



Benzoin 


B6ranger 


heated in the air it burns with a bright 
smoky flame. It forms the salts called 
benzoates. 

Benzoin, a solid, fragile, vegetable sub¬ 
stance, of a reddish-brown color. In com¬ 
merce several varieties are distinguished, of 
which the yellow, the Siam, and the amyg- 
daloidal — the latter containing whitish 
tears of an almond shape diffused through 
its substance — and Sumatra firsts are the 
finest. It is imported from Siam, Singa¬ 
pore, Bombay, and occasionally also from 
Calcutta, and is found also in South Amer¬ 
ica. Benzoin is obtained from the tree 
called Styrax benzoin, and perhaps from 
some others. On making incisions into the 
bark, it flows out in the form of a balsamic 
juice, having a pungent taste and an agree¬ 
able odor. The pure balsam consists of 
two principal substances, viz., a resin and 
a peculiar acid termed benzoic, which is 
procured from the mass by sublimation. 
Benzoin is not soluble in water, but is 
readily dissolved in alcohol, by the aid of a 
gentle heat. The tincture thus made is used 
in pharmacy. A small quantity of this 
tincture dropped into water, forms a white, 
milky fluid, which is used in France as a 
cosmetic, under the name of lait virginal. 
The gum is a principal ingredient of the 
common court plaster. The acid, as well as 
the gum, is employed in medicine: they are 
stimulating, and act more particularly on 
the pulmonary system; hence they are used 
in asthma and chronic catarrh. It is large¬ 
ly used in the ceremonies of the Greek and 
Roman Catholic churches. 

Benzoni, Girolamo, an Italian traveler; 
born in Milan, in 1519; went to Spanish 
America in 1542, visited the principal places 
then known, and frequently joined the 
Spaniards in raids on Indian settlements; 
and after returning to Italy (1556) pub¬ 
lished a narrative of his adventures, “ His¬ 
tory of the New World” (Venice, 1565). 
He died after 1566. 

Beothukan (red man, or Indian), a lin¬ 
guistic stock of North American Indians, 
habitats of the region of the Exploits river 
in Northern Newfoundland, and believed to 
have been limited to a single tribe, the last 
known survivor of which died in 1829. The 
Beotliuks painted their bodies and their 
property with red oclire, and from this cir¬ 
cumstance their stock and tribal name was 
derived. They were also known as the Good- 
Night Indians, from the incorrect transla¬ 
tion of a Micmac word that sounded like 
Beothuk. It is not known whether the 
Beothuks became extinct by reason of wars 
and famine or by absorption among other 
tribes. 

Beowulf (ba'o-wolf), an Anglo-Saxon epic, 
the only manuscript of which belongs to the 
8th or 9th century, and is in the Cottonian 


Library (British Museum). From internal 
evidence it is concluded that the poem in its 
essentials existed prior to the Anglo-Saxon 
colonization of Britain, and that it must be 
regarded either as brought to Britain by 
the Teutonic invaders, or as an early Anglo- 
Saxon translation of a Danish legend. From 
the allusions in it to Christianity, however, 
it must have received considerable modifi¬ 
cations from its original form. It recounts 
the adventures of the hero Beowulf, es- 
pecially his delivery of the Danish kingdom 
from the monster Grendel and his equally 
formidable mother, and, lastly, the slaughter 
by Beowulf of a fiery dragon, and his death 
from wounds received in the conflict. The 
character of the hero is attractive through 
its noble simplicity and disregard of self. 
The poem, which is the longest and most im¬ 
portant in Anglo-Saxon literature, is in 
many points obscure, and the manuscript is 
somewhat imperfect. 

Beranger, Pierre Jean de, the national 
poet of France; born in Paris, Aug. 19, 
1780. His father was a restless and schem¬ 
ing man, and young Beranger, left in a great 
measure to himself, ran a great chance of 
spending his life as a gamin and vagabond 
in the streets of Paris. A few days after the 
destruction of the Bastille he was conveyed 
to Peronne and placed under the charge oi 
an aunt who kept a tavern, and to whom foi 
a time he acted as waiter. At the age of 
14 he was apprenticed to a M. Laisnez, a 
printer in Peronne, but after remaining in 
that employment for some time was sud¬ 
denly summoned to Paris by his father, who 
wished his coadjutorship in the monetary 
traffic by which he gained his subsistence. 
A miserable scrambling existence was now 
that of the young man, who loathed both 
the business in which he found himself en¬ 
gaged and the chicanery and intrigue with 
which it was conducted. The improvidence 
and prodigality of his father were constantly 
involving them in difficulties, and Beranger, 
with as yet no settled vocation in life, was 
enduring all the hardships and privation 
which men of genius in a similar position to 
himself have frequently had to encounter 
before the recognition of their talents by 
the world. 

At one time he thought of accompanying 
the French army to Egypt, but was dis¬ 
suaded from doing so by a friend, and con¬ 
tinued to occupy his garret in Paris, where, 
as he informs us, he often lived without a 
fire, and had his bed wet with rain and 
snow through holes in the roof. He had 
now, besides making an unsuccessful at¬ 
tempt in the drama, produced a number 
of poems, including his “ Roger Bon- 
temps,” “ Lo Grenier,” “ Les Gueux,” 
and “ Le Vieil Habit.” Some of these 
were sent by him in 1804 to Lucien 
Bonaparte, in the hope thereby of obtaining 




B6ranger 


Berbera 


some patronage or assistance. In this, 
probably the only application he ever made 
for aid in the course of a long life, Beranger 
was not disappointed. Lucien sent for 
him, encouraged him to proceed in his 
poetical career, and as a means of support 
made over to him his own income to which 
lie was entitled as member of the French 
Institute. He was afterward employed in 
editing the “ Annales du Musee,” and in 
1809 received an appointment as clerk in 
the office of the secretary to the university. 
Many of his songs had now become extreme¬ 
ly popular, and in 1815 the first collection 
of them was published. A second collection 
was published in 1821, but Beranger had 
made himself extremely obnoxious to the 
Bourbon government by his satires on the 
established order of things; and in addi¬ 
tion to being dismissed from his office in 
the university, he was prosecuted and sen¬ 
tenced to three months’ imprisonment and 
a fine of 500 francs. A third collection 
appeared in 1825, and a fourth in 1828, 
which last publication subjected him to a 
second State prosecution, an imprisonment 
of nine months, and a fine of 10,000 francs. 
Nothing, however, could daunt the poet’s 
indomitable spirit, and in prison he still 
continued to busy himself in the composi¬ 
tion of his songs and lyrical satires upon 
government. In 1833 lie published his 
fifth and last collection, which contains 
some of the most powerful effusions of his 
genius. Shortly after the revolution of 
February, 1848, he was elected representa¬ 
tive of the department of the Seine in the 
Constituent Assembly, but sent in his re¬ 
signation in the month of May of same year. 
The concluding years of his life were spent 
in a dignified retirement and the enjoyment 
of the society of a few literary and cher¬ 
ished friends. He died in Paris, July 16, 
1857, and received the honor of a public 
funeral, at which the most eminent men in 
France, both of the world of literature and 
politics, attended. 

The great attraction of Beranger’s songs 
is the unequaled grace and sprightliness 
which they display, combined with great 
descriptive powers, much comic humor, and 
occasional bursts of indignation and invec¬ 
tive when some social or political grievance 
is denounced. They are sometimes also, it 
must be admitted, marked by a tendency to 
levity and looseness of morals, but in this 
respect they partake eminently of the French 
character. No one, indeed, was more thor¬ 
oughly French than Beranger, and the glory 
of his beloved patrie, as paramount to all 
other considerations, appears constantly as 
the inspiring genius of his poetry. The in¬ 
tense nationality of his songs constitutes 
one of their principal charms, and in this 
respect he bears some resemblance to Thomas 
Moore. He has sometimes been called the 
Burns of France, but though like him essen¬ 


tially a poet of the people, he falls far be¬ 
neath the pathos and depth of feeling dis¬ 
played by the Ayrshire bard in depicting 
the passion of love. In private life Beran¬ 
ger was the most amiable and benevolent of 
men, beloved by his friends alike for his 
social qualities and kindliness of heart, 
while his charities were so numerous and 
extensive as often to exceed the bounds of 
prudence. 

Berar, otherwise known as the Haidara- 
bad Assigned Districts, a province of India, 
in the Deccan, under the British Resident at 
Haidarabad; area, 17,718 square miles, con¬ 
sisting chiefly of an elevated valley at the 
head of a chain of ghauts. It is watered 
by several affluents of the Godavari, and by 
the Tapti, and has a fertile soil, producing 
some of the best cotton, millet, and wheat 
crops in India. The two principal towns of 
Berar are Amraoti (pop. 23,550), and Kham- 
gaon (pop. 12,390). Coal and iron ore are 
both found in the province, the pop. of which 
was (1901) 2,754,016. Exports, £3,456,348; 
imports, £2,100,903. Berar was assigned 
by the Nizam to the British Government in 
1853, as security for arrears due. 

Berat, a town of Albania, in European 
Turkey; on the Ergent river, here bridged; 
30 miles N. E. of Aulona. It is the seat of 
a Greek archbishop, and has a cathedral, 
a number of mosques, and several Greek 
churches. A majority of the population, es¬ 
timated at 12,000, are Greeks. 

B£raud, Jean (be-ro), a painter of great 
power, born in St. Petersburg, of French 
parentage, in 1845. His subjects are usually 
chosen from Parisian life. His latest works 
have been modernized scenes from the New 
Testament. “ La Madeleine ” represents a 
Parisian harlot at the feet of Christ in a 
Paris restaurant; the scene of the “ Descent 
from the Cross,” is Montmartre overlook' 
ing Paris, with a group of working men and 
women. 

Berber, a town of Nubia, on the right 
bank of the Nile, below the confluence of 
the Atbara. It is a station on the route 
from Khartum to Cairo, and a point to 
which caravans go from Suakin on the Red 
Sea. In the course of General Graham’s 
operations against Osman Digna in 1885, a 
railway was projected from Suakin to Ber¬ 
ber, and the work was actually begun, but 
was ultimately abandoned when military 
protection was taken away. The pop. is 
about 8,000. 

Berbera, a seaport of British Somaliland, 
Eastern Africa, with a good harbor, on a 
bay of the Gulf of Aden. It was conquered 
by Egypt in 1875, but in July, 1884, the 
British Government took possession of it, 
and a small Indian force is now stationed 
here. It is the scene of a large annual fair, 
which brings over 30,000 people together 




Berberidaceae 


Bere 


from all quarters in the East. Coffee, 
grains, ghee, gold dust, ivory, gums, cattle, 
ostrich feathers, etc., are brought hither 
from the interior, and exchanged for cotton, 
rice, iron, Indian piece goods, etc. 

Berberidaceae, Berberidese, or Berber^ 
ids, an order of plants, the typical one of 
the alliance berberales. The sepals are three, 
four, or six in a double row, and surrounded 
by petaloid scales. The petals are equal in 
number to the sepals, or there are twice as 
many. The stamens are equal in number to 
the petals, and opposite to them; the anther 
valves are recurved. There is a solitary, 
free, one celled carpel, with sutural placentas. 
Seeds, many or two. Fruit, berried or cap¬ 
sular. Leaves, alternate. Compound shrubs 
or perennial herbs found in the United 
States, Europe, and India. The species 
known in 1840 numbered 110. Their pre¬ 
vailing quality is astringency or slight acid¬ 
ity. The order is divided into two sections, 
berberidece, and nandincce. 

Berberine (C 2 iH ia N0 5 ), a feeble base, 
slightly soluble in water, extracted from the 
root of berberis vulgaris . It crystallizes in 
yellow needles. It is a bitter powder, and 
lias been used in India in the treatment of 
fevers, as a substitute for quinine. It is, 
however, inferior to quinine in its effects. 

Berberis, a genus of plants, the typical 
one of the order berberidacece (berberids). 
The sepals, petals, and stamina are each six 
in number, and the berry is two and 
three seeded. B. vulgaris is the common 
barberry. B. aristata, ilicifo lia, emargi- 
nata, and fascicularis are cultivated species 
more or less ornamental in their aspect. An 
extract of the root, stem, and branches of 
the Indian, or ophthalmic barberry, B. ly- 
cium, of Royle, Greek lukion indicon of 
Dioscorides, is of use in ophthalmia. The 
fruits of B. Asiatica are dried in the sun 
like raisins. 

Berbers, a people spread over nearly the 
whole of Northern Africa, from whom the 
name Barbary is derived. The chief 
branches into which the Berbers are divided 
are, first, the Amazirgh, or Amazigh, of 
Northern Morocco, numbering from 2,000,000 
to 2,500,000. They are for the most part 
quite independent of the Sultan of Morocco, 
and live partly under chieftains and heredi¬ 
tary princes and partly in small republican 
communities. Second, the Shuluh, Shillooh, 
or Shellakah, who number about 1,450,000, 
and inhabit Southern Morocco. They are 
more highly civilized than the Amazirgh. 
Third, the Kabyles in Algeria and Tunis, 
who are said to number 960,000; and fourth, 
the Berbers of the Sahara, who inhabit the 
oases. Among the Sahara Berbers the most 
remarkable are the Beni-Mzfib and the 
Tuaregs. To these might be added the 
Guanches of the Canary Islands, now ex¬ 


tinct, but undoubtedly of the same race. 
The Berbers generally are about the middle 
height; their complexion is brown, and some¬ 
times almost black, with brown and glossy 
hair. They are sparely built, but robust 
and graceful; the features approach the 
European type. Their language has affin¬ 
ities to the Semitic group, but Arabic is 
spoken along the coast. They are believed 
to represent the ancient Mauritanians, Nu- 
midians, Gsetulians, etc. The Berbers live 
in huts or houses, and practice various in¬ 
dustries. Thus they smelt iron, copper, and 
lead: manufacture gun barrels, implements 
of husbandry, etc., knives, swords, gun¬ 
powder, and a species of black soap. Some 
of the tribes breed mules, asses, and stock in 
considerable numbers, but many of the Ber¬ 
bers live by plunder. 

Berbice, a district of British Guiana, ex¬ 
tending along the coast and up the Berbice 
river : principal town, New Amsterdam. 

Berbice, a river of British Guiana; flow? 
generally N. E. into the Atlantic. It is 
navigable for small vessels for 165 miles 
from its mouth, but beyond that the rapids 
are numerous and dangerous. 

Berchem, or Berghem, Nicholas, a 

Dutch painter, born at Haarlem, in 1620. 
Having studied under his father and Van 
Goyen, Weenix the elder, and other masters, 
he spent several years in Italy, where he 
soon acquired an extraordinary facility of 
execution. His industry -was naturally 
great, and his innumerable landscapes now 
decorate the best collections of Europe. The 
leading features of Berchem’s works, besides 
the general happiness of the compositions, 
are warmth and coloring, a skilful handling 
of lights, and a mastery'of perspective. His 
etchings are also highly esteemed. He died 
in 1683. 

Berchta (berch'ta), in the folk lore of 
Southern Germany, a sort of female hob¬ 
goblin, of whom naughty children are much 
afraid. Her name is connected with the 
word bright, and originally she was regarded 
as a goddess of benign influence. 

Berditchef, a town of Russia, 108 miles 
W. S. W. of Kiev by rail, famous for its five 
annual fairs. At these, cattle, corn, wine, 
honey, leather, etc., are disposed of. The 
average annual value of the sales is £600,- 
00C. Pop. (1897) 53,728. I 

Bere, the name given in Scotland to hor- 
deum hexastichum, a cereal with six rows 
of seeds on its spike, hence called six-rowed 
barley. It is cultivated in the N. of Scot¬ 
land and Ireland, being valued for its hardy 
properties, and is used in malting, and for 
the manufacture of spirits. Bere is a 
coarser and less nutritious grain than bar¬ 
ley, but thrives in the poorest soil. It is 
also called bigg. 





Berea 


Berenice 


Berea, a village in Cuyahoga co., O.; on 
several railroads; 13 miles S. W. of Cleve¬ 
land, with which, and Elyria and Oberlin, it 
is connected by trolley lines. It was founded 
m 1829; is lighted by natural gas and 
electricity; has extensive quarries of sand¬ 
stone; and is the seat of Baldwin Univer¬ 
sity, German Wallace College (both Metho¬ 
dist Episcopal), and a German orphan asy¬ 
lum. Pop. (1900) 2,510; (1910) 2,009. 

Berea College, a co-educational (non-sec¬ 
tarian) institution, in Berea. Ky.; organized 
in 1855; has grounds and buildings valued 
at over $490,000; endowment, $450,000; sci¬ 
entific apparatus, $85,000; volumes in the 
library, about 24,000; income, about $130,- 
000; professors and instructors, 70; stu¬ 
dents, over 1,200; preparatory, collegiate, 
normal, musical, and industrial departments. 

Berea Grit, a variety of sandstone, great 
deposits of which are found at Berea, Ohio. 
It is widely famous for its purity of texture, 
evenness of color, and exemption from the 
impurities that would deteriorate its mar¬ 
ketable value. 

Berean, a Scottish religious sect founded 
by the Rev. J. Barclay in 1773, on which 
account they were called also Barclayans. 
Their aim was to become entitled to the 
commendation bestowed by St. Luke on the 
inhabitants of Bercea (Acts xvii: 11, 12). 
The Bereans do not figure now, by that 
name at least, in the Registrar-General’s 
list of Scottish or English sects. 

Berengar I., a King of Italy, who suc¬ 
ceeded at his father’s death to the duke¬ 
dom of Friuli. After the deposition of 
Charles the Fat in 887, he was crowned 
King of Italy, but he soon irritated the 
nobles by condescending to hold his terri¬ 
tory in fief from Arnulf, King of Germany; 
and Guido, Duke of Spoleto, was persuaded 
to contest the throne. With the help of 
Arnulf, however, Berengar ultimately pre¬ 
vailed. After Guido’s death in 894, his son, 
Lambert, compelled the King to share with 
him the sovereignty of North Italy until 
898, when Lambert was assassinated. Be- 
rengar’s influence quickly sank, since he 
could not check the plundering incursions 
of the Magyars and Arabs, and many years 
were spent in struggles to maintain his 
position. In 915 he was crowned Emperor 
by Pope John X.; but the nobles again 
revolted, and, under Rudolf of Burgundy, 
completely overthrew him in 923. In his 
extremity, Berengar called in the Hunga¬ 
rians to his aid. which unpatriotic act 
alienated the minds of all Italians from 
him, and cost him his life, for he was as¬ 
sassinated in 924. 

Berengar II., grandson of the preceding, 
succeeded his father as Count of Ivrea in 
925, and married Willa, niece of Hugo, King 
of Italy, in 934. For a conspiracy against 


Hugo, he was compelled to flee to Germany, 
where he was kindly received by the Em¬ 
peror, Otto I. In 945 lie recrossed the Alps 
at the head of an army, and placed the 
weak Lothaire, the son of Hugo, on the 
throne. On the death of this prince, who 
was probably poisoned by Willa, Berengar 
allowed himself to be crowned along with 
his son, Adalbert, in 950. His tyranny 
induced his subjects to call in the aid of the 
Emperor, who marched into Italy in 901, 
and took possession of the country. After 
three years’ refuge in a mountain fortress, 
Berengar surrendered, and was sent as a 
prisoner to Bamberg, in Bavaria, where he 
died in 966. 

Berengarius of Tours, a theologian of 
the 11th century. He was born at Tours in 
998, long held an ecclesiastical office there, 
and was afterward archdeacon of Angers. 
He was thoroughly versed in the philosophy 
of his age, and did not hesitate to apply 
reason to the interpretation of the Bible. 
He denied the dogma of transubstantiation, 
and no less than seven councils were held 
respecting him, at three of which he was 
condemned, and at four he was prevailed on 
to make retractions more or less complete. 
Though failing thus in courage in the pres¬ 
ence of his persecutors, he, nevertheless, 
continued to teach what he believed. He 
died in 1088. 

Berenger, or Berengario, Jacopo, an 

Italian anatomist and physician of the 16th 
century, born in Carpi. He made several 
important anatomical discoveries, and is 
said to have been the first who used mer¬ 
cury in syphilitic diseases. He died in 
Ferrara, in 1550. 

Berenice, an ancient city of Egypt, on a 
deep bay of the Red Sea, 20 miles S. W. of 
Ras-Bernass. The world is indebted to Bel- 
zoni for the resuscitation -of this long lost 
city, from which have been exhumed many 
interesting antiquities. 

Berenice, the common name of the fe¬ 
male branch of the Egyptian Ptolemies; 
but from the practice, common with the 
Persians and Egyptians, of family inter¬ 
marriages, and the union of brother and 
sister, the lives of most of the princesses 
who bear this name are a record of vice 
and immorality. The most celebrated of 
these women was Berenice, the daughter of 
the renowned Ptolemy Philadelphus, the 
founder of the Alexandrian Library, and she 
married her reigning brother, Evergetes, 
for whose sake, while absent on an expe¬ 
dition, as a mark of sorrow and humilia¬ 
tion, she cut off all her hair, and offered it 
up as a propitiatory sacrifice to the gods. 
The hair was stolen, or else the priests flung 
it away, and then Conon of Samos allayed 
the annoyance of the king at its disappear¬ 
ance, and made religious capital for the 



Berenice 


Berg 


temple, by proclaiming that it had been 
taken up to the sky and placed among the 
seven stars in the tail of Leo. Berenice’s 
hair is now the English rendering of the 
words Coma Berenices, one of the nine con¬ 
stellations introduced by Hevelius. It is 
in the northern hemisphere, and consists of 
indistinct stars between Bootes and the tail 
of Leo. She was ultimately put to death 
by her own father, about 220 years B. c. 

Berenice, a daughter of Herod Agrippa 
I., who was the son of Aristobulus, who was 
the son of Herod the Great (Acts xii; Mat¬ 
thew ii). She was the sister of Herodes 
Agrippa II., before whom Paul preached A. 
D. 63 (Acts xxv: 13), and the wife of Hero¬ 
des of Chalcis, who seems to have been her 
uncle, and left her a young widow. Titus, 

the son of Vespasian, 
fell in love with Bere¬ 
nice, who had taken an 
active part at the time 
when Syria declared in 
favor of Vespasian 
against Vitellius. Bere¬ 
nice was then a young 
and very handsome wo¬ 
man. After the capture 
of Jerusalem she went 
to Rome (a. d. 75), 
and Titus is said to have 
been so much attached to 
her that he promised 
to marry her; but on the death of his fa¬ 
ther he sent Berenice from Rome, much 
against his will and hers, when he found 
that the proposed match was disagreeable to 
the people. Juvenal appears to allude to 
this Berenice and her brother Agrippa. Ra¬ 
cine has written a tragedy on the subject 
of Titus and Berenice. 



Beresford, Lord Charles de la Poer, 

an English naval officer, born in Ireland, 
Feb. 10, 1846; became a Cadet in 1857; 
Lieutenant, 1868; Captain, 1882; and Rear- 
Admiral, 1897. In 1882 he commanded the 
“ Condor ” in the bombardment of Alexan¬ 
dria, and was especially mentioned and hon¬ 
ored for his gallantry. After the bombard¬ 
ment he instituted an efficient police sys¬ 
tem in the city. In 1884-1885 he served on 
Lord Wolseley’s staff in the Nile Expedi¬ 
tion ; and subsequently commanded the 
naval brigade in the battles of Abu Klea, 
Abu Kru, and Metemmeh. He commanded 
the expedition which rescued Sir Charles 
Wilson’s party in “ Saha,” and was com¬ 
mended for his gallantry in both Houses of 
Parliament. He received the thanks of the 
French Government for assisting the 
grounded “ Seignalay.” In 1893-1896, he 
was in command of the naval reserve at 
Chatham, and in December, 1899, was ap¬ 
pointed the second in command of the Brit¬ 
ish squadron mobilized in the Mediterranean 
Sea. Lord Beresford accompanied the 


Prince of Wales on his visit to India in 
1875-1876, as naval aide-de-camp, and held 
the same relation to the Qaeen in 1896-1897. 
He has served several terms in Parliament. 
Besides the numerous honors for gallantry 
as an officer he has received three medals for 
saving life at sea under trying circum¬ 
stances. In 1898 he visited China at the 
requect of the Associated Chambers of Com¬ 
merce of Great Britain to make a study of 
the complicated commercial conditions ex¬ 
isting there; and on his return, in 1899, 
he passed through the United States, and 
was received with distinguished honors by 
official and commercial bodies. He has done 
much to promote the “ open door ” policy 
as a condition of international commerce in 
China. His publications include “ Life of 
Nelson and His Times; ” “ The Break-Up of 
China” (1899), and many essays and spe¬ 
cial articles. 

Beresford, William Carr, Viscount, a 

British military officer; a natural son of the 
first Marquis of Waterford; born in 1768. 
He entered the army, lost an eye at Nova 
Scotia, served at Toulon, and in Corsica, 
the West Indies, and Egypt. In 1806, as 
Brigadier-General, he commanded the land 
force in the expedition of Buenos Ayres; 
and, in 1808, remodeled the Portuguese 
army, receiving in return the titles of Mar¬ 
shal of Portugal, Duke of Elvas, and Mar¬ 
quis of Santo Campo. He was subse¬ 
quently engaged at Badajoz, Salamanca, 
Vittoria, and Bayonne, and for his bravery 
at the battle of Toulouse was raised to the 
peerage with the title of Baron (Viscount, 
1823) Beresford. He died in 1854. 

Beresina, or Berezina, a river of Russia 
in Europe; rises in the District of Dissna, 
Government of Minsk, which it traverses 
from N. to S.; after receiving various afflu¬ 
ents, and being joined by a canal with the 
Don, it falls into the Dnieper, near Ritch- 
itza, after a course of 200 miles. This river 
has been rendered famous on account of its 
disastrous passage by the French army dur¬ 
ing the retreat of Napoleon I. from Russia, 
in 1812. 

Berezovsk, a village in the Russian prov¬ 
ince of Perm, near Ekaterinburg, gives name 
to a famous gold field, wrought since 1744. 
The mines are on the eastern slopes of the 
middle Ural chain, and the field is above 
5 miles long. The washings on the Bere- 
zovka river are also very productive. 

Berg, a former duchy of Germany, on the 
right bank of the Rhine, now incorporated 
with the Prussian dominions, between Diis- 
seldorf and Cologne. It is a densely popu¬ 
lated manufacturing country. After various 
vicissitudes, the duchy was merged in the 
Electorate of Bavaria, and in 1806 Bavaria 
ceded it to France. Napoleon erected it into 
a grand duchy, constituting his brother-in- 







Berg 


Berghaus 


law, Murat, its sovereign; and two years af¬ 
terward Napoleon’s nephew, then Crown 
Prince of Holland, was made Grand Duke. 
The peace of 1815 gave Berg to Prussia. 

Berg, Frederick William Rambert, a 

Russian general, chiefly notorious for the 
severity with which he treated the unfortu¬ 
nate population of Poland during the insur¬ 
rection of 18G3, and which excited the hor¬ 
ror and indignation of the civilized world. 

Bergamo, a town of North Italy, capital 
of the Province of Bergamo (1,028 square 
miles, pop. [1901] 457,983), consists of two 
parts, the old town, situated on hills and 
having quite an ancient appearance, and the 
new town, almost detached and on the plain*. 
It has a cathedral, an interesting church of 
the 12th century, a school of art, picture gal¬ 
lery, etc. It trades largely in silk, silk 
goods, corn, etc., has the largest annual fair 
in North Italy, and extensive manufactures. 
The comic characters in the Italian masked 
comedy are Bergamese, or affect the Berga- 
mese dialect. Pop. (1901) 45,785. 

Bergamot, a fruit tree, a variety or spe¬ 
cies of the genus citrus, variously classed 
with the orange, citrus aurantium, the lime, 
atrus limetta, or made a distinct species as 
citrus bergamia It is probably of Eastern 
origin, though now grown in Southern 
Europe, and bears a pale yellow, pear shaped 
fruit with a fragrant and slightly acid pulp. 
Its essential oil is in high esteem as a per¬ 
fume. Bergamot is also a name given to a 
number of different pears. 

Bergen, a seaport on the W. coast of 
Norway, the second town of the kingdom, 
about 25 miles from the open sea, on a bay 
of the Byfiord, which forms a safe harbor, 
shut in by hills which encircle the town on 
the land side, and promote perpetual rains. 
The town is well built, but has many nar¬ 
row streets, and houses mostly of wood; 
with cathedral, museum, etc. The trade is 
large, timber, tar, train oil, cod liver oil, 
hides, and particularly dried fish (stock 
fish) being exported in return for corn, 
wine, brandy, coffee, cotton, woolens, and 
sugar. In 1445 a factory was established 
here by the Hanseatic cities of Germany. 
Pop. (1900) 72,251. 

Bergerac (berzh-rac'), a town in the 
French Department of Dordogne, on the Dor¬ 
dogne, 60 miles E. of Bordeaux by rail. 
Most of its inhabitants are employed in the 
surrounding iron works and paper mills. 
The wines of the district, both white and 
red, are esteemed. During the wars with 
the English, Bergerac was a fortress and an 
entrepot of trade; but after siding with the 
Calvinists, and, consequently, suffering 
greatly in the religious wars, the place was 
dismantled by Louis XIII. in 1621, while 
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes drove 


many of its citizens into exile. Pop. (1896) 
15,642. 

Bergerac, Savinien Cyrano de, a 

French author, born in Paris in 1619, dis¬ 
tinguished for his courage in the field, and 
for the number of his duels, more than a 
thousand, most of them fought on account 
of his monstrously large nose. He died in 
1655. His writings, which are often crude, 
but full of invention, vigor, and wit, in¬ 
clude a tragedy, “ Agrippina,” and a comedy, 
“ The Pedant Tricked,” from which Cor¬ 
neille and Moliere have freely borrowed 
ideas; and his “Comical History of the 
States and Empires of the Sun and the 
Moon ” probably suggested “ Micromegas ” 
to Voltaire, and “ Gulliver ” to Swift. His 
works have been frequently republished. He 
was made the hero of a drama bearing his 
name, written by Edmond Rostand, the 
French playwright, which had a phenomenal 
success in the United States in 1899-1900, 
and was the occasion of a suit for plagiar¬ 
ism. See Rostand, Edmond. 

Bergerat, Auguste Emilo (berzh-ra'), a 

French journalist, playwright and novelist, 
born in Paris, April 29, 1845, son-in-law of 
Theophile Gautier, and since 1884 particu¬ 
larly known as the amusing chronicler of 
the “ Figaro ” under the pseudonym of 
“ Caliban.” His feuilletons for that paper 
were published collectively as “ Life and Ad¬ 
ventures of Sieur Caliban” (1886); “The 
Book of Caliban” (1887); “Caliban’s 
Laughter” (1890), etc. He also wrote two 
novels, “ Faublas in Spite of Himself ” 
(1884); “The Rape” (1886); besides two 
volumes to the memory of his father-in-law, 
“Theophile Gautier, Painter” (1877), and 
“ Th. Gautier, Conversations, Souvenirs, and 
Correspondence ” (1879). 

Bergh, Henry, an American philanthro¬ 
pist, born in New York in 1823; was founder 
and President of the American Society for 
the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (1C66), 
founder of the American Society for the Pre¬ 
vention of Cruelty to Children (1881), Sec¬ 
retary of Legation and acting Vice-Consul 
at St. Petersburg (1862-1864). He wrote 
“ Love’s Alternatives ” (1881), a play; 

“Married Off” (1859), a poem; “The 
Streets of New York, ” “The Ocean Para¬ 
gon,” etc. He died in New York city, March 
12, 1888. 

Bergh, Pieter Theodoor Helvetius van 
den, a Dutch dramatist and poet, born in 
1799; attracted attention with his comedy 
“The Nephew” (1837), considered one jf 
the best in modern Dutch literature, but 
did not justify expectations by his subse¬ 
quent dramatic efforts. He also published 
a collection, “ Prose and Poetry ” (3d ed., 
1863). He died in 1873. 

Berghaus, Heinrich, a German geogra¬ 
pher, born in Cleves, Prussia, May 3, 1797. 



Bergk 


Beriberi 


He served in 1S15 in the German army 
in France, and was from 131G to 1821 em¬ 
ployed in trigonometrical survey of Prussia 
under the War Department. From 1S24 
to 1855 he was Professor of Applied Mathe¬ 
matics in the Berlin Academy of Architec¬ 
ture. Besides his various maps and his 
“ Great Physical Atlas,” he published 
“ Lands and Peoples,” “ Peoples of the 
Earth ” and other similar works. He died 
in Stettin, Feb. 17, 1884. 

Bergk, Theodor, a German classical 
philologist, born in Leipsic, May 22, 1812. 
He became an indisputable authority on 
Hellenic poetry, producing two works of 
surpassing importance in that department 
of scholarship: “Greek Lyric Poets” (4th 
ed. 1878-1S82), and “History of Greek Lit¬ 
erature” (1872) ; the latter not quite com¬ 
pleted at his death, but brought to perfec¬ 
tion with the aid of his posthumous papers. 
He contributed much of value, likewise, to 
our knowledge of special departments of 
classical learning. He died at Ptagaz, Swit¬ 
zerland, July 20, 1881. 

Bergman, Ernest von, a German sur¬ 
geon, born in Biga, Dec. 10, 1830; educated 
at Vienna, Dorpat and Berlin. He served 
in the Prussian army during 186G-1870; 
was Professor of Surgery in the University 
of Wiirtzburg in 1878—1882; and was ap¬ 
pointed Director of the Surgical Clinic at 
the University of Berlin in 1882. He wrote 
“ The Putrid Poison,” “ The Embolism of 
Fatty Tissues,” “The Poison,” “ Instruction 
Concerning the Putrid Intoxication,” etc. 

Bergman, Torbern Olof, a Swedish phy¬ 
sicist and chemist, born in Catherineberg, 
March 20, 1735; studied under Linnaeus at 
Upsala; in 1758 became Doctor of Philoso¬ 
phy and Professor of Physics there; and, 
in 17G7, became Professor of Chemistry. He 
succeeded in the preparation of artificial 
mineral waters, discovered the sulphuretted 
hydrogen gas of mineral springs, and pub¬ 
lished a classification of minerals on the 
basis of their chemical character and crys¬ 
talline forms. His theory of chemical affini¬ 
ties greatly influenced the subsequent de¬ 
velopment of chemistry. He died July 8, 
1784. 

Bergmann, Carl, a German musician, 
born in Ebersbach, Saxony, April 11, 1821. 
Being implicated in the Revolution of 1848, 
he left Germany for the United States in 
1849. At first leader of the Germania So¬ 
ciety, in New York, he also conducted there 
the Philharmonic, the Arion, from 1855, sev¬ 
eral choral unions, and the operas produced 
at the Academy of Music in 1865. An en¬ 
thusiastic Wagnerite, he was himself the 
composer of an opera, a symphony and many 
concert pieces. He died in New York city r , 
in August, 1876. 


Bergmehl (berg-mal'), a whitish earth, 
consisting almost entirely of the flinty 
shields of microscopic plant growths. It oc¬ 
curs in bog and ancient lake deposits in 
many parts of Northern Europe, and, dur¬ 
ing times of great scarcity, it has been, 
when mixed with flour, eaten as food. 
Some writers assert that hundreds of car¬ 
loads are consumed every year by the in¬ 
habitants of Northern Sweden. From analy¬ 
sis, it does not appear to contain any posi¬ 
tive nutriment. 

Bergsoe, Jorgen Vilhelm (berg'se), a 

Danish novelist, poet and naturalist, born 
in Copenhagen, Feb. 8, 1835. While suf¬ 
fering partial blindness, caused by excessive 
use of the microscope in his memorable bio¬ 
logical researches at Messina, he turned to 
literary composition; and soon appeared the 
first of a cycle of novels, “ From the Piazza 
del Popolo” (18GG), which had an extra¬ 
ordinary success. The following year he 
published his first volume of poems, “ Now 
and Then.” Of his many novels, the one 
which excels for fineness of touch is “Who 
Was He?” All his stories are character¬ 
ized by rich imagination, fine observation, 
and great originality; his poetry is inferior 
in these respects to his prose. 

Bergues (ber-ga'), a town in the De¬ 
partment of Nord, France, on the Colme 
river; 5 miles S. E. of Dunquerque. It is 
a handsome, well built town; is strongly 
fortified: and contains an imposing clock 
tower. Vauban, the illustrious military en¬ 
gineer. superintended the construction of 
the defenses of the place. The architecture 
here is noteworthy for its Gothic features. 

Bergylt, the name given a fish (the se- 
bastes norvegicus of Cuvier, the perca mar¬ 
ina of Linnaeus), belonging to the order 
acanthopterygii and the family “ With hard 
cheeks.” It is called also the Norway had¬ 
dock, but has no real affinity to the haddock 
proper. It is an Arctic fish, but is found 
occasionally on the coasts of Scotland. 

Berhampur, the name of two Indian 
towns: (1) A town and military station 

in the N. E. portion of Madras Presidency, 
the headquarters of Gan jam district, with 
a trade in sugar and manufactures of silks. 
Pop. 23,599. (2) A municipal town and the 

administrative headquarters of Murshida- 
bad district, Bengal, formerly a military 
station, and having still large barracks. It 
was the scene of the first overt act of mu¬ 
tiny in 1S57. Pop. 23,G05. 

Beriberi, Beriberia, Berriberri, or Bar= 

biers, an acute disease characterized by op¬ 
pression of breathing, by general oedema, by 
paralytic weakness, and by numbness of the 
lower extremities. It is generally fatal. 
It occurs frequently in Ceylon among the 
colored troops, and on some portions of the 
Indian coast. Earlier authorities consider 




Bering 


Bering Sea 



Aleutian group, and here himself and many 
of his crew perished, in December, 1741. 

Bering Island, the larger of the two 
Kommandor Islands; 115 miles from the E. 
coast of Kamchatka, crossed by 55° 10' N.; 
contains the tomb of Bering, who died here 
after being shipwrecked in December, 1741. 
It is an important resort of seal hunters. 

. Bering Sea, that part of the North Pa¬ 
cific Ocean between the Aleutian Islands, in 
55°, and Bering Strait, in 6G° N., by which 
latter it communicates with the Arctic 
Ocean. It has on its W. side Kamchatka and 

the Chukchi country, with 
the Gulf of Anadyr, and 
on its E. the territory of 
Alaska, with Norton 
Sound and Bristol Bay; 
contains several islands, 
and receives the Yukon 
river from North America 
and the Anadvr river from 

•s 

Asia. Fogs -are almost 
perpetual in this sea. Ice 
is formed and melted in the 
sea every year, the north¬ 
ern part becoming closed 
to navigation about the 
beginning of November. 
Tack ice gradually extends 
southward to a little be¬ 
low the latitude of St. 
Matthews Island (GOYs°), 
beyond which ice is found 
in Hoes. The S. limit of 
the ice usually extends 
from Bristol Bay, Alaska, 
to about 35 miles S. of 
Pribilof Island, though in 
exceptionally severe win¬ 
ters it reaches as far S. as 
Unimak Pass. It usually 
leaves Pribilof Island about 
May 1st, and vessels fol¬ 
lowing in its wake may 
reach Bering Strait be¬ 
tween about the 15th and 
25th of June. A strong and 
comparatively warm cur¬ 
rent sets northward at 
about two to three knots 
an hour, through Bering 
Strait, and after following the Siberian 
shore turns N. toward Herald Island. 
A cold current also passes out through 
the strait. The United States having 
claimed the exclusive right of seal fish¬ 
ing in the Bering Sea in virtue of the 
purchase of Alaska from Bussia, and this 
right having been disputed by the British, it 
was decided in August, 1803, by an arbitra¬ 
tion tribunal, to which the question was re¬ 
ferred, that no such right existed, but at 
the same time regulations for the protection 
of the fur seal were drawn up and agreed to 


beriberi and barbiers distinct, but more re¬ 
cent medical observers regard them as iden¬ 
tical. 

Bering, or Behring, Vitus, a Danish 
explorer, born in Jutland, in 1680. After 
making several voyages to the East and 
West Indies, he entered the service of Bus- 
sia while still young; became a captain- 
commander in 1722; and was sent by the 
Empress Catharine in charge of an expedi¬ 
tion (planned by Peter the Great before his 
death), whose object was to determine 
whether Asia and America were united. 


BERGTTES CLOCK TOWER. 

Crossing Siberia he sailed from the river of 
Kamchatka in July, 1728; and reached 
lat. G7° 18' N., having passed through 
the strait since called after him, without 
knowing it. Discovering that the land 
trended greatly to the W. he concluded that 
the continents were not united, and re¬ 
turned; without, however, seeing America. 
In another voyage, in 1741, he touched upon 
the American coast, in lat. 58° 21' N.; 
and gave name to Mount St. Elias. In re¬ 
turning, his ship was cast upon an island, 
since named after him, an outlier of the 























































Bering Strait 


Berkeley 


between the two powers, the chief being the 
prohibition of seal fishery within the zone 
of 60 miles round the Pribilof Islands, in¬ 
clusive of the territorial waters, and the es¬ 
tablishment of a close season for the fur 
seal from May 1 to July 31 inclusive, apply¬ 
ing to the part of the Pacific and Bering 
Sea N. of 35° N. and E. of the 180th meri¬ 
dian from Greenwich. 

In 1894 laws were enacted by both the 
United States and Great Britain to carry 
into effect the award of the Bering Sea ar¬ 
bitration of 1893, fixing penalties for illegal 
sealing, and authorizing, with certain limi¬ 
tations, the search and seizure of sealers 
of one of the nations by the naval and rev¬ 
enue forces of the other nation. There still 
awaited adjudication the compensation due 
to sealers whose vessels had been illegally 
seized by United States cutters prior to 
the establishment of a close season in 1890. 

On Jan. 14, 1898, President McKinley sub¬ 
mitted to Congress the awards and report of 
the commission appointed under the terms 
of a treaty to adjust the claims referred to. 
In his letter of transmittal the President 
said that he cordially coincided with the 
recommendation of the Secretary of State, 
and that the treaty obligations demanded 
prompt and favorable action by Congress, 
which he urgently hoped might be taken to 
the end that the long pending questions 
might be finally and satisfactorily settled. 
The principal of the claims allowed to the 
owners of the vessels amounted to $264,- 
188.91, with accrued interest of $149,790.36, 
a total of $413,979.27. The difference be¬ 
tween this and $415,157.26 was for personal 
claims. The bill for the payment was intro¬ 
duced in Congress on April 19, and was 
passed by the House on June 13, and by the 
Senate on June 14. It was promptly ap¬ 
proved by the President, and the money was 
paid to Sir Julian Pauncefote, British Am¬ 
bassador to the United States, on June 16. 

Bering Strait, the channel which sepa¬ 
rates Asia and America at their nearest ap¬ 
proach to each other, and connects the 
Arctic with the Pacific Ocean (Bering Sea). 
Between East Cape (Asia), and Cape 
Prince of Wales (America), it is 36 miles 
wide, and generally of slight depth. The 
shores rocky, bare, and greatly indented. It 
was discovered by Bering in 1728, and first 
explored by Cook in 1788. 

Beriot, Charles Auguste de (ber-yo'), 
a Belgian violinist, born in Louvain, Feb. 
20, 1802; studied with Robbrecht and Tiby, 
and, in Paris, with Baillot; and became a 
professor in the Conservatory in Brussels in 
1842. He published a “Violin Method” 
(1858.) He died in Louvain, April 20, 1870. 

Berkeley, a town in Alameda co., Cal.; 
on the Southern Pacific railroad; 8 miles N. 
E. of San Francisco. It is the seat of the 


State University of California; the State 
Agricultural College; the State Institution 
for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind; and six 
college preparatory schools. The town is 
well equipped with electric light and street 
railroads; and has soap works, iron found¬ 
ries and machine shops, furniture factory, 
and other industries. Pop. (1910) 40,434. 

Berkeley Sound, next to Stanley Sound 
the most frequented inlet of the East Falk¬ 
land Island, near its N. E. extremity. 
Though it is difficult to enter, it contains 
several excellent harbors. 

Berkeley Springs, town and county-seat 
of Morgan co., W. Va.; 2 miles S. of the 
Potomac and 77 miles N. W. of Washington; 
on a branch of the Baltimore and Ohio rail¬ 
road. It is in an agricultural region, and 
has been widely known and popular for 
more than a century because of its mineral 
springs. The site of the town was a part 
of the vast estate of Lord Fairfax, and 
Washington owned considerable property 
here. It is the oldest pleasure resort in the 
South, and as far back as the colonial days 
the gentry of Virginia came here in warm 
weather and lived in log huts in order to 
enjoy or be benefited by the baths and swim¬ 
ming pools. 

Berkeley, George, Bishop of Cloyne; 
born in Kilcrin, Ireland, in 1684; became 
fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, in 1707; 
traveled in Italy as far as Leghorn in 1713 
and 1714; and at a later period accompanied 
Mr. Ashe, son of the Bishop of Clogher, on 
a tour through Italy, Sicily, and France. 
In 1721 he was appointed chaplain to the 
Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, the Duke of 
Grafton. He appeared with much applause 
as an author before he was 20 years old. 
His works on philosophy and mathematics 
(among which his “ Theory of Vision,” pub¬ 
lished in 1709, is the most brilliant proof 
of the author’s acuteness) procured him a 
widespread fame. By a legacy of Miss 
Vanhomrigh, the celebrated Vanessa, who 
has become so generally known through her 
love to Swift, his fortune was considerably 
increased. In 1724 he was promoted to the 
deanery of Derry and resigned his fellow¬ 
ship. He now published his “ Proposals for 
the Conversion of the American Savages to 
Christianity by the Establishment of a Col¬ 
lege in the Bermuda Islands.” 

The project was very favorably received, 
and persons of the first rank raised consid¬ 
erable sums by subscription to aid it; and 
Berkeley having resigned his preferment set 
sail for Rhone Island, with several other 
pei sons of similar views, to make arrange 
ments for carrying on his college. The as¬ 
sistance of Parliament, which had been 
promised, not being afforded, his undertak- 
ing miscarried after he had spent seven 
years and a considerable part of his fortune 
in his efforts to accomplish it. He after- 



Berkeley 


Berlin 


ward wrote numerous philosophical, relig¬ 
ious, and politico-economical works. Toward 
his GOth year he was attacked by a nervous 
colic, which he attempted to cure by the 
use of tar-water, whereby he was induced to 
publish two treatises on the utility of this 
water. He died suddenly in Oxford in 1753. 
Berkeley is said to have been acquainted 
with almost all branches of human knowl¬ 
edge. His character commanded the respect 
and love of all who knew him. His most 
celebrated philosophical works are: “ Trea¬ 

tise on the Principles of Human Knowl¬ 
edge ” (London, 1710); “Three’ Dia¬ 
logues between Hylas and Philonous ” 
(London, 1713) ; “ Alciphron, or the Minute 
Philosopher” (London, 1732). His works 
appeared in London, 1784, two vols. 4to 
preceded by a biography written by Arbuth- 
not. A new edition of his works, in three 
vols. 8vo., by Professor Fraser of Edin¬ 
burgh, was published in 1871, together with 
his “ Life and Letters ” in one volume. As 
a philosopher he maintains that the belief 
in the existence of an exterior material 
world is fMse and inconsistent with itself; 
that those tnings which are called sensible 
material objects are not external but exist 
in the mind, and are merely impressions 
made on our minds by the immediate act of 
God, according to certain rules termed laws 
of nature, from which He never deviates; 
and that the steady adherence of the Su¬ 
preme Spirit to these rules is what consti¬ 
tutes the reality of things to His creatures; 
and so effectually distinguishes the ideas 
perceived by sense from such as are the 
work of the mind itself or oi dreams, that 
there is no more danger of confounding 
them together on this hypothesis than on 
that of the existence of matter. 

Berkeley, Sir John, one of the proprie¬ 
tors of New Jersey, born in 1607. He was 
a prominent Loyalist during the contest of 
Charles I. with Parliament. Charles II. 
granted him, with Sir George Carteret, a 
proprietary interest in New Jersey and 
Carolina. He died Aug. 28, 1678. 

Berkeley, Sir William, an English col¬ 
onial Governor, born near London, about 
1610. In 1632 he was a Commissioner of 
Canada, and in 1641 became Governor of 
Virginia. He opposed the party of Crom¬ 
well and was forced to resign; but at the 
Pestoration was reappointed Governor. In 
1676 he resigned and returned to England. 
He was author of “ The Lost Lady, a Tragi¬ 
comedy ” (1638). He died in England, 
July 13, 1677. See Bacon’s Rebellion. 

Berkley, Sir George, an English en¬ 
gineer, born in London, April 26, 1821. In 
1835 he began experimenting with methods 
for operating atmospheric railways. In 
1841 he associated himself with Robert 
Stephenson and continued his experiments. 


On Stephenson’s death he became engineer 
of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway. 
In 1892 he was made President of the Insti¬ 
tute of Civil Engineers. He wrote papers 
on atmospheric railways and on the strength 
of iron and steel ; and was knighted in 1893. 
He died in London, Dec. 20, 1893. 

Berkshires, The, or Berkshire Hills, a 

range of mountains in the N. W. of Massa¬ 
chusetts; in Berkshire county; stretching 16 
miles N. and S., on the E. of the valley of 
the Upper Hoosic river. They are a favorite 
summer and autumn resort. 

Berlichingen, Goetz von, surnamed the 
“ Iron Hand,” a brave and turbulent Ger¬ 
man noble; born in Jaxthausen, Wiirtem- 
berg, in 1480. He was almost constantly at 
war, was put under the ban of the empire 
by Maximilian, and was killed during the 
siege of a fortress in which he had taken 
refuge, in 1562. His story was dramatized 
by Goethe. 

Berlin (anciently Berle — uncultivated 
land), the capital of the Prussian dominions 
and of the German empire, the residence 
of the Emperor of Germany and foreign 
ambassadors; in the province of Bran¬ 
denburg; lat. (new observatory) 52° 30' 
16" N.; Ion. 13° 23' 53" E.; the largest 
city in Germany, and, for the beauty and 
size of its buildings, the regularity of its 
streets, the importance of its institutions 
of science and art, and its activity, indus¬ 
try, and trade, one of the first in Europe. 
It is situated on a dreary sandy plain, 
about 126 feet above the level of the sea, 
on both sides of the Spree, a sluggish 
stream, here about 200 feet broad, which 
winds through the city from S. E. to N. 
W., and divides into several branches and 
canals. The main stream and its branches 
are spanned by a large number of bridges. 
The city has water communication to the 
North Sea by the Spree, which flows into 
the Havel, one of the principal tributaries 
of the Elbe, and to tlie Baltic by canals 
connecting with the Oder. The oldest por¬ 
tion of the city lies on an island in the 
Spree and on the right bank of the river, 
and is in part irregularly built, with nar¬ 
row crooked streets and indifferent houses. 
A newer portion, on the other or left bank, 
rose up as if by magic at the orders of 
Frederick the Great; the site, according to 
his plan, being covered with straight and 
spacious streets, running at right angles to 
each other, and being lined by handsome 
houses of uniform appearance. These por¬ 
tions, however, form a comparatively small 
part of the present city, which has extended 
itself on every side, its growth since about 
1860 having been very rapid. 

The houses are mostly of white free¬ 
stone, or of brick covered with a coating of 
plaster or cement. The drainage of the 




Berlin 


Berlin 


city, owing to the flatness of the ground on 
which it stands and to the sluggishness of 
the Spree, is defective, though much im¬ 
provement has been made on it in recent 
years. The streets are well paved and 
lighted. The houses generally are heated 
with stoves. Of the numerous bridges, the 
finest is the Castle Bridge, connecting the 
great street Unter den Linden with the 
Spree island, about 104 feet wide, and hav¬ 
ing its eight piers surmounted by coloss; id 
groups of sculpture in marble. Another 
fine bridge is that of Kaiser Wilhelm, from 
the island to the other side of the Spree. 
The principal and most frequented street, 
the Unter den Linden (“ under the lime 
trees”)? is in some respects unsurpassed. 
It is situated on the left side of the river 
and runs in a direction nearly from E. to 
W. It is about two-thirds of a mile in 
length, and of remarkable width (160 
feet), the center being occupied by a double 
avenue of lime trees, which give it its name 
and form a fine shady promenade; while 
on either side of the trees is a carriage-way, 
and beyond each carriage-way, in front of 
the houses, a spacious foot pavement. At 
or near the E. end of this street, and also 
round the Lustgarten, a square with which 
it is connected by the Castle Bridge, are 
clustered a number of the principal public 
buildings of the city; such as the royal and 
imperial palace (Schloss), the palace of the 
Emperor William I., the palace of the Em¬ 
peror Frederick III., the arsenal, the uni¬ 
versity, the museums, the cathedral, royal 
academy, opera house, etc., while at the W. 
end it terminates magnificently with the 
Brandenburg Gate, a noble structure, mod¬ 
eled on a grand scale after the Propylseum 
of Athens, and regarded as one of the finest 
portals in existence. The gateway is sur¬ 
mounted by a colossal Victory in bronze, 
mounted in a car drawn by four horses. 
Immediately beyond this portal is the 
Thiergarten (“zoological garden”), an ex¬ 
tensive and well-wooded park, interspersed 
with ponds, shrubberies, and trees, and con¬ 
taining the palace of Bellevue, as well as 
elegant villas and places of public amuse¬ 
ment. There are also several other public 
parks. Running partly along the E. side 
of the Thiergarten and taking a bend to 
the S. E. is the new street or boulevard 
called the Koniggratzerstrasse, longer than 
the Unter den Linden but not so wide; and 
running transversely to the Unter den Lin¬ 
den are several good streets, including the 
Wilhelmstrasse, a long straight street on 
either side of which are various public 
buildings, palaces, etc. In or in the close 
vicinity of the Unter den Linden are to be 
found clustered together perhaps a larger 
number of fine buildings than any other city 
can show in the same area. 

Among the principal public buildings de¬ 
serving more particular notice the first is 


the royal and imperial palace or Schloss, a 
vast rectangular pile, extended and altered 
at various times., more remarkable for a 
certain air of grandeur than architectural 
beauty. To it belongs a large and richly 
decorated chapel, whose lofty dome forms 
the most striking external feature of the 
building. On the opposite side of the 
square or garden (Lustgarten) from the 
Schloss is the museum, a fine building in 
pure Grecian taste, with an extensive 
collection of sculpture and painting; and be¬ 
hind it the new museum, containing exten¬ 
sive collections of Egyptian and other an¬ 
tiquities, and also the celebrated mural 
paintings by Kaulbach. Of the numerous 
churches (the great majority of which are 
Protestant) only four belong to the Middle 
Ages. Many of those recently erected are 
fine structures, the most important being 
the Cathedral (not yet completed), an elab¬ 
orate domed structure in the Italian Renais¬ 
sance style situated on the E. side of the 
Lustgarten; estimated cost, £500,000. The 
royal theater is a fine Grecian edifice, one 
of the most important works of the emi¬ 
nent architect Schinkel. The arsenal 
(Zeugliaus) is an excellent building in the 
Renaissance style (1695-1706), containing 
a vast collection of objects illustrating the 
history and operations of warfare, many of 
them of great antiquity. The university, 
the exchange, the opera house, the principal 
Jewish synagogue, the town hall (cost 
£500,000), and the architectural academy, 
are all beautiful structures. There are 
various public monuments, such as the one 
in memory of the soldiers who fell in the 
wars of 1864, 1866, and 1870-1871, and sev¬ 
eral others; but the most remarkable is 
that erected in 1851 to Frederick the Great 
in the Unter den Linden — the chef d’oeuvre 
of Rauch and his pupils. The colossal 
statue of the king on horseback is placed 
on a lofty pedestal, around which are 
grouped bronze figures representing his 
principal generals, ministers, and eminent 
men of his time — in all 31 portrait statues 
the size of life, those at the four corners 
being on horseback. In front of the arsenal 
are statues in bronze of Bliicher, and of 
Generals York and Gneisen — the former by 
Rauch and the two latter by Freibel. There 
are marble statues by Rauch of Billow and 
Scharnhorst, an equestrian statue m bronze 
of the great elector, Frederick William, and 
another (colossal) of the Emperor William 
L There are also monuments to Luther, 
Schiller, Goethe, Chamisso, Lessing, Alex¬ 
ander and William von Humboldt, etc. 

The literary institutions of the city are 
numerous and excellent. They include the 
university, the academy of sciences; the 
technical high school, the mining academy, 
the high school of agriculture, the academy 
of arts, the school of music, the seminary 
for Oriental languages, the military academy 



Berlin 


Berlin 


and school of engineering, many gymnasia 
and real-schools; an institution for in¬ 
structing the deaf and dumb, etc. The chief 
libraries are the royal library, founded in 
1659, and now containing 900,000 volumes 
and 25,000 manuscripts; and the university 
library, with about 300,000 volumes. The 
public museums and picture galleries are on 
a scale adequate to the importance of the 
city. 

Berlin is the literary and scientific me¬ 
tropolis of Germany, and in the various 
walks of literature, philosophy, science, and 
art, can show a galaxy of names such as 
few cities can equal. Since the time of 
Frederick the Great it has been the policy 
of the Prussian kings to attract to their 
capital, either through professorships in the 
university or otherwise, learned men in 
every department of knowledge. Conse¬ 
quently, though but a city almost of yes¬ 
terday, the number of eminent men who 
have labored, or who still labor, within the 
walls of Berlin is very great. Of those who 
are world-renowned may be named Leibnitz, 
who founded the Academy of Sciences, and 
became its first president; the philosophers 
Fichte, Schleiermacher and Hegel; the 
theologians Neander, He Wette, and Hengs- 
tenberg; the historians Ranke, Von Rau- 
mer, and Mommsen; the philologists Bopp 
and the brothers Grimm. In the natural 
sciences Alexander von Humboldt, and after 
him many brilliant names, down to those of 
Virchow and Koch. It may suffice, further, 
to name the poets Tieck and Riickert, the 
famous sculptors Rauch and Schadow, and 
the composers Felix Mendelssohn and Mey¬ 
erbeer. Berlin being the capital of Ger¬ 
many, government officials, people of wealth 
and education, etc.,, form an important ele¬ 
ment of the population. Music is exten¬ 
sively and successfully cultivated by the 
Berlinese. The performance of sacred vocal 
music, in particular, has attained extraor¬ 
dinary perfection. The opera and thea¬ 
ters are on the most flourishing footing and 
are liberally encouraged, the taste for such 
entertainments pervading all classes. 

The manufactures of Berlin are various 
and extensive. The most important branch 
of manufacturing industry is that of steam 
engines and other machinery (employing 
over 15,000 hands). Brass-founding, the mak¬ 
ing of lamps and other articles of metal, 
are also largely carried on; while next in 
order come such industries as printing and 
the kindred arts, spinning and weaving, the 
making of sewing machines, paper, tobacco 
and cigars, pottery and porcelain, pianos 
and harmoniums, artificial flowers, brew¬ 
ing, etc. A considerable quantity of the 
manufactures are exported. In the royal 
iron-foundry busts, statues, bas-reliefs, etc., 
are cast, together with a great variety of 
ornaments of unrivaled delicacy of work¬ 
manship. 

55 


Berlin is well supplied with city and oth¬ 
er railways. It has tramways on which 
the motive power is partly horses, partly 
steam, and partly electricity. There are 
elevated and other city lines, including an 
elevated electric line, and a circular line. 
Berlin is an important railway center, not 
only for Germany but for a great part of 
Europe, being on the main routes from Paris 
and London to St. Petersburg and Moscow, 
and on those from Northern Europe to 
Vienna, Constantinople, and Italy. 

History .— The oldest parts of the city 
are Kolln and Berlin proper, which were 
originally poor villages inhabited by fisher¬ 
men, and first rose to some importance un¬ 
der Margrave Albert (1206-1220), the 
grandson of Albert the Bear. The Elector 
Frederick II. with the Iron Teeth built a 
castle at Kolln on the banks of the Spree 
in 1442; and from the time of John Cicero 
the town became the permanent residence of 
the electors. About two centuries ago Ber¬ 
lin was still a place of little importance. 
It was confined to the immediate bank of 
the Spree and the island which divides its 
channel, and consisted of a series of vil¬ 
lages which gradually merged into each 
other and gave their names to different 
quarters. The first important improvement 
was made by the great Elector Frederick 
William, who planted the Unter den Linden, 
and otherwise enlarged and beautified the 
town; so that in his time it already num¬ 
bered 20,000 inhabitants. He may be con¬ 
sidered the second founder of the city. His 
successor, King Frederick I., seconded his 
efforts; but Berlin never assumed the ap¬ 
pearance of a capital till the time of Fred¬ 
erick the Great, who, determined to make 
it worthy of his extended dominions, in¬ 
closed a large space within the walls and 
proceeded to build upon it, to supply the 
wants, not so much of actual, as of an an¬ 
ticipated population. He was twice inter¬ 
rupted in the work, and almost driven from 
his purpose, when in 1757 the city fell into 
the hands of the Austrians, and in 1760 into 
those of the Austrians and Russians. But 
he soon repaired the damage; and his suc¬ 
cessors having followed in his steps, Berlin 
has rapidly risen to be the first city in 
Germany in respect of population, archi¬ 
tecture, and political influence. Pop. 
(1900) 1,888,326; (1910) 2,180,000. 

Berlin, town and county-seat of Water¬ 
loo co., Ont., Canada; on the Grand river, 
and the Grand Trunk railway, 62 miles W. 
of Toronto. It has manufactories of fur¬ 
niture, leather, boots and shoes, pianos and 
organs, buttons, gloves, etc.; excellent sew¬ 
erage system, water works, street railway, 
and gas and electric light plants; a Roman 
Catholic college, 15 churches, and several 
daily, weekly, and monthly periodicals. Pop. 
(1901) 9,747. 



Berlin 


Bermuda Hundred 


Berlin, Treaty of, a treaty signed Juiy 
13, 1878, at the close of the Berlin Congress, 
which was constituted by the representatives 
of the six Great Powers and Turkey. The 
treaty of San Stefano, previously concluded 
between Turkey and Russia, was modified by 
the Berlin Treaty, which resulted in the di¬ 
vision of Bulgaria into two parts, Bulgaria 
proper and Eastern Rumelia, the cession of 
parts of Armenia to Russia and Persia, the 
independence of Rumania, Servia, and Mon¬ 
tenegro, the transference of Bosnia and 
Herzegovina to Austrian administration, and 
the retrocession of Bessarabia to Russia. 
Greece was also to have an accession of ter¬ 
ritory. The British representatives were 
Lords Beaconsfield, Salisbury, and Odo Rus¬ 
sell. By a separate arrangement previously 
made between Great Britain and Turkey, 
the former got Cyprus to administer. 

Berlin, University of, a celebrated in¬ 
stitution of learning in Berlin, Germany. 
It is, with the exception of Bonn, the young¬ 
est of the German universities, but is prob¬ 
ably the most famous of them all. It was 
founded in 1810, when the Napoleonic vic¬ 
tories had left Prussia apparently crushed 
and had even transferred her great Univer¬ 
sity of Halle to the newly formed kingdom 
of Westphalia. Wilhelm von Humboldt was 
Minister of Education at the time, and 
Prussia’s debt to him for organizing her 
national school system with the University 
of Berlin at its head, during that period of 
national defeat and disaster, is certainly 
very great. It should be borne in mind, too, 
that Humboldt was ably seconded by Fichte 
and Schleiermacher. The first rector of the 
university was Schmalz; the first deans of 
its faculties were Schleiermacher, Biener, 
Hufeland, and Fichte; and before it was 10 
years old it had for professors such men 
as Niebuhr, Wolff, Bockh, Bekker, and 
Hegel. In more recent years, Ranke, Momm¬ 
sen, Helmholtz, Virchow, and other famous 
scholars have upheld the reputation which 
the university won for itself at the very 
start. There are four faculties, theology, 
medicine, jurisprudence, and philosophy, 
with a total of 494 professors and teachers. 
At the satisfactory completion of the course, 
the doctor’s degree is conferred. The num¬ 
ber of students in 1910 was 9,242, besides a, 
large number of non-matriculated ones. . 

Berlioz, Hector (ber-le-os'), a French 
composer, born in La Cote St. Andre, Dec. 
11, 1803. He forsook medicine to study mu¬ 
sic at the Paris Conservatoire, where he 
gained the first prize in 1830 with his can¬ 
tata, “ Sardanapale.” For about two years 
he studied in Italy, and, when on his return 
he began to produce his larger works, he 
found himself compelled to take up the pen 
both in defense of his principles and for his 
own better maintenance. As critic of the 
** Journal des Debats,” and feuilletonist , he 


“ Les Soirees d’Or- 
“ A travers Chant ” 


displayed scarcely less originality than in 
his music, his chief literary works being the 
“ Traite d’lnstrumentation ” (1844) ; “ Voy¬ 
age Musical” (1845) 
cliestre ” (1853) ; and 
(1802). His musical works belong to the 
Romantic school, and are especially note¬ 
worthy for 
the resource 
they display 
in orchestral 
coloring. The 
more import¬ 
ant are “Har¬ 
old en Italie,” 

“ Episode de 
la Vie d’un 
Artiste,” and 
“ Le Retour 
a la Vie; ” 

“ Romeo and 
J uliette” 

(1834); “Dam¬ 
nation de 
Faust”(1846); 
the operas 
Benvenuto Cellini,” 
diet,” and “ Les Troyens,” 

Christ,” and the “ Requiem 



HECTOR BERLIOZ. 

“ Beatrice et Bene- 
“ L’Enfance du 
” He married 


an English actress, Miss Smithson, but lat¬ 
terly lived apart from her. He died in 
Paris, March 9, 18G9. After his death ap¬ 
peared “ Memoires,” written by himself. 

Berm, or Berme, in fortification, a nar¬ 
row, level space at the foot of the exterior 
slope of a parapet, to keep the crumbling ma¬ 
terials of the parapet from falling into the 
ditch. 

In engineering, a ledge or bench on the 
side or at the foot of a bank, parapet, or cut¬ 
ting, to catch earth that may roll down the 
slope or to strengthen the bank. In canals, 
it is a ledge on the opposite side to the tow- 
path, at the foot of a talus or slope, to keep 
earth which may roll down the bank from 
falling into the water. Slopes in successive 
benches have a berme at each notch, or, when 
a change of slope occurs, on reaching a dif¬ 
ferent soil. 


Bermuda Cedar, a species of cedar which 
covers the Bermuda Islands. The timber is 
made into ships, boats and pencils. The 
wood of juniperus barbadensis, the Barba- 
does cedar, is sometimes imported with it 
under the same name. 

Bermuda Grass, a species of grass, called 
in Bermuda, devil grass. It grows in the 
American Southern States and in Southern 
Europe. It is much esteemed for pasture. 

Bermuda Hundred, a locality in Chester¬ 
field county, Va.; the scene of a battle in the 
Civil War between the Federal troops under 
General Butler, and the Confederates under 
General Beauregard. The battle was fought 
May 16, 1864, and resulted in a defeat for 
Butler. 




Bermudas 


Bern 


Bermudas, The, or Somers Islands, a 

group of small islands, about 300 in num¬ 
ber, in the North Atlantic Ocean, belonging 
to Great Britain, stretching N. E. by E. 
and S. W. by W. about 20 miles, the light¬ 
house on Gibb’s Hill being situated in lat. 
32° 14' 54" N., long. G4° 53' W., 580 miles 
S. E. of Cape Hatteras; area, about 30 
square miles. When viewed from the sea, 
the elevation of these islands is trifling, the 
highest land scarcely attaining to a height 
of 200 feet. Their general aspect is sim¬ 
ilar to the West India Islands, and they are 
almost everywhere surrounded by extensive 
coral reefs, the channels through which are 
extremely intricate, and can only be safely 
navigated by native pilots. The principal 
islands are those of Bermuda, St. George, 
Ireland, and Somerset. The protection af¬ 
forded to shipping by their numerous bays, 
and their position in the track of the home¬ 
ward bound West India vessels, have led 
to the conversion of the Bermudas into a 
maritime rendezvous, and likewise, into a 
British naval station for West Indian fleets. 
The harbor of St. George’s Island has been 
greatly improved, is fortified, protected by a 
brealnvater, and has water and space enough 
to float the largest fleet. The principal pro¬ 
ductions are fruits, vegetables, maize, and 
tobacco. Pineapples are very abundant and 
largely exported. The climate is mild and 
salubrious; almost realizing the idea of a 
perpetual spring. Fish abounds, and forms 
a profitable source of industry to the inhab¬ 
itants. Breadstuffs, etc., are imported from 
the United States, and manufactured goods 
from England. Hamilton, on Bermuda Isl¬ 
and, is the seat of the colonial government. 
Pop. (1901) 17,535. These islands were dis¬ 
covered by Bermudez, a Spaniard, in 1522, 
and settled by the English in 1607, and are 
supposed to be the “ still vexed Bermoothes,” 
mentioned in Shakespeare’s “ Tempest.” 
Pulmonary invalids are occasionally sent to 
Bermuda from the United States. It affords 
a good winter retreat, provided due care be 
taken in selecting a locality sheltered from 
the strong winter winds. Hamilton has been 
recommended with this view. 

Bermudez (ber-mii'dath), a State in the 
N. E. of Venezuela, between the Orinoco and 
the Caribbean Sea, formed in 1881 from the 
former States and present sections of Bar¬ 
celona, Cumana, and Maturin. Area, 32,243 
square miles; pop. (1905) 364,158. 

Bermudez, Remigio Morales, a Peru¬ 
vian statesman, born in Tarapaca Province, 
Sept. 30,*1836; began business in the nitrate 
trade in his native province. In 1854, as a 
lieutenant, he joined the revolutionary 
army, which finally overthrew General 
Echinique’s government. In 1864 he joined 
the revolution against President Castilla. 
In the war with Chile, he led the force that 
marched to Arica. When Caceres was 


elected President, in 1886, Bermudez was 
chosen Vice-President, and was elected Pres¬ 
ident in 1890. He died in Lima, March 31, 
1894. 

Bern, or Berne, a Swiss canton, bounded 
on the N. by France. It is the most popu¬ 
lous, and next to the Grisons, the most ex¬ 
tensive canton of Switzerland; its area being 
nearly 2,650 square miles, and its pop. 
(1908) 624,641, more than one-sixth of the 
Swiss people. The fertile valleys of the Aar 
and the Emmen divide the mountainous Al¬ 
pine region in the S. from the Jura Moun¬ 
tains in the N. The Bernese Oberland, or 
Highlands, comprises the peaks of the Jung¬ 
frau, Munch, Eiger, Schreckhorn, Finster- 
aarhorn, etc., and the valleys of Hasli, Laut- 
erbrunnen, etc. The Lakes of Thun, Brienz, 
Neuchfitel, and Bienne are in the canton, 
which is watered by the Aar and its sev¬ 
eral tributaries. The climate is generally 
healthy. The plains of the Aar and the 
Emmen are the most fruitful, producing corn 
and fruits of various kinds, and affording 
excellent pasturage for cattle, which, with 
dairy produce, form the chief agricultural 
wealth of Bern. The vine grows in some 
districts. The horses of the Emmenthal are 
much prized. The lakes abound with salmon 
and trout. Iron mines are worked, and a 
little gold is found, and quarries of sand¬ 
stone, granite, and marble are abundant. 
Its manufactures, which are not extensive, 
consist chiefly of linen, coarse woolens, 
leather, iron, and copper wares, articles of 
wood, and watches. Bern entered the Swiss 
Confederation, in which it now holds the 
second rank, in 1352. In the 15th and 16th 
centuries, it added to its possessions Aargau 
and Vaud, which it lost during the wars of 
the first Napoleon; but it received in return 
Bienne and its territory, and the greater 
part of the bishopric of Basel. The present 
constitution of the canton, proclaimed in 
1874, but based on the laws of 1848, is one 
of representative democracy. 

Bern, the chief city of the above canton, 
was, by the decision of the Council of the 
Confederation, in 1848, declared to be the 
political capital of the Commonwealth. It 
is a fine, clean, well built town, on the Aar, 
23 miles S. of Basel, and possesses many fine 
public edifices, more notably, the Cathedral, 
erected 1421—1502. The most remarkable 
feature in the town arc the arcades, running 
in front of the houses down both sides of the 
two chief streets. The inhabitants are seri¬ 
ous and reserved, and proud of the ancient 
glory of their city. The aristocracy, or 
patricians, as the old families were called, 
lived secluded from the other classes. The 
town has bears for its arms; and some of 
these animals are maintained in a place 
called Biirengraben (“bear’s ditch”), on 
funds appropriated to that special purpose. 
The principal manufactures are watches, 



Bernadette 


Bernard 


wooden clocks, and toys, linen, woolen, and 
silk fabrics. Pop. (1909) 78,500. Bern was 
founded by Duke Berthold V., of Zahringen, 
in 1191, and was made a free and imperial 
city by a charter from the Emperor Fred¬ 
erick II., dated May, 1218. 

Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules (ber- 

na-dot'), a French general, afterward 
raised to the Swedish throne, was the son 
of an advocate of Pau, born Jan. 20, 1764. 
He enlisted at 17, became sergeant-major 
in 1789, and subaltern in 1790. In 1794 
he was appointed a General of Division, and 
distinguished himself greatly in the cam¬ 
paign in Germany, and on the Rhine. In 
1798 he married Mademoiselle Clary, sister- 
in-law of Joseph Bonaparte. The following 
year he became for a short time Minister of 
War, and on the establishment of the Em¬ 
pire was raised to the dignity of Marshal 
of France, and the title of Prince of I'onte- 
Corvo. On the death of the Prince of Hol- 
stein-Augustenburg, the heir apparency to 
the Swedish crown was offered to the Prince 



of Ponte-Corvo, who accepted with the con¬ 
sent of the Emperor, went to Sweden, ab¬ 
jured Catholicism, and took the title of 
Prince Charles John. In the maintenance 
of the interests of Sweden, a serious rupture 
occurred between him and Bonaparte, fol¬ 
lowed by his accession, in 1812, to the coali¬ 
tion of sovereigns against Napoleon. At the 
battle of Leipsic, he contributed effectually 
to the victory of the allies. At the close of 
the war strenuous attempts were made by 
the Emperor of Austria and other sovereigns 
to restore the family of Gustavus IV. to 
the crown; but Bernadotte, retaining his po¬ 
sition as Crown Prince, became King of 
Sweden on the death of Charles XIII . in 
1818, under the title of Charles XIV. Dur¬ 
ing his reign agriculture and commerce made 
great advances, and many important pub¬ 


lic works were completed. He died March 
8, 1844, and was succeeded by his son Oscar, 

Bernard, Charles de (ber-nar') [prop¬ 
erly Bernard du Grail de La Villette], a 
French novelist, born in Besangon, Feb. 25, 
1804. He was a disciple of Balzac, whom 
he resembles in his power of realistic de¬ 
scription and psychological analysis; but 
he possesses a purer and more nervous style, 
and above all is content with a less minute 
elaboration of story and characters. His 
first piece, “ The Gerfalcon,” made a hit 
with its clever description of the literary 
cliques. Everywhere he evinces clear in¬ 
sight into the foibles of society. Of his nov¬ 
els, the following may be named as only sec¬ 
ond in rank to his masterpiece, “ The Ger¬ 
falcon,” “A Magistrate’s Adventure,” “The 
Gordian Knot,” “ Wings of Icarus,” “ The 
Lion’s Skin,” “ The Country Gentleman.” 
He died in Neuilly, March 6, 1850. 

Bernard. Claude, a French physiologist, 
born in 1813; studied at Paris; held, in 
succession, the chairs of physiology in the 
Faculty of Sciences, the College of France, 
and the Museum. Among his many works 
are “ Researches on the Functions of the 
Pancreas” (1849); “Sympathetic Sys¬ 
tems” (1852); “Experimental Physiology 
in Its Relation to Medicine” (1855-1856) ; 
“ On the Physiological Properties and Patho¬ 
logical Alterations of the Various Liquids 
of the Organism” (1859), and “Nutrition 
and Development” (1860). He died in 
Paris in 1878. 

Bernard, Sir Francis, an English admin¬ 
istrator, born in Nettleham, in 1714; was 
Governor of New Jersey in 1758-1760, and 
of Massachusetts Bay in 1760-1769. He 
did a great deal toward precipitating the 
Revolution by his aggressive attempts to 
strengthen the royal authority. He was 
finally recalled on account of the unpopu¬ 
larity resultant on his bringing troops into 
Boston. He died in Aylesbury, England, 
June 16, 1779. 

Bernard, Mountague, an English law¬ 
yer, born in Gloucestershire, Jan. 28, 1820; 
was Professor of International Law at Ox¬ 
ford in 1859-1874. In 1871 he was one of 
the High Commissioners who signed the 
Treaty of Washington, and on his return 
home was made a Privy Councillor. In 
1872 he assisted Sir Roundell Palmer in 
preparing the British case for the Geneva 
Arbitration Tribunal. He died at Overross, 
Sent. 2, 1S82. 

Bernard, Pierre Joseph, or Gentil Ber= 
nard, as he is commonly called after Vol¬ 
taire, a French poet, born in Grenoble in 
1710. He showed, at an early age, a great 
taste for poesy, and was at first only an 
attorney’s clerk, but, afterward, became 
secretary to Marshal de Coigny, who had 
command of the army of Italy. After the 







Bernard 


Bernard, St« 


Marshal’s death, he obtained a lucrative 
appointment, and was then able to indulge 
his poetic faculties. He wrote an opera, 
“ Castor and Pollux,” which met with great 
success; the “ Art of Loving,” and a num¬ 
ber of odes, songs, etc. His works were 
collected and reprinted in 1803. He died 
in 1775. 

Bernard, Great St., a celebrated pass of 
the Pennine Alps in Switzerland in the 
canton Valais, on the mountain road leading 
from Martigny to Aosta in Piedmont. On 
the E. side of the pass is Mount Velan, and 
on the W. the Pointe de Dronaz; there is no 
mountain known by the name of St. Ber¬ 
nard. Almost on the very crest of the pass 
is the famous Hospice, among the highest 
permanently inhabited spots in Europe, 
8,200 feet above the level of the sea. There 
is a massive stone building, capable of ac¬ 
commodating 70 or 80 travelers with beds 
and sheltering 300. As many as 500 or 600 
have received assistance in one day. It is 
situated on the highest point of the pass, 
exposed to tremendous storms from the N. 
E. and S. W., and is tenanted by 10 or 12 
brethren of the Order of St. Augustine, who 
have devoted themselves by vow to aid 
travelers crossing the mountains. The cli¬ 
mate of this high region is necessarily rig¬ 
orous. There is a lake on the summit, a 
short distance from the Hospice, on which 
ice has frequently remained throughout the 
whole year. The severest cold recorded is 
29° below zero, F., but it has often been 
18° and 20° below zero; the greatest sum¬ 
mer heat recorded is 68° F. From the dif¬ 
ficulty of respiration in so elevated a lo¬ 
cality, and the severity of the climate, few 
of the monks survive the time of their vow, 
15 years from the age of 18, when they are 
devoted to this service. 

The dogs kept at St. Bernard to assist 
the brethren in their humane labors are 
well known. In the midst of tempests 
and snowstorms the monks, accom¬ 
panied by some of these dogs, set out 
for the purpose of tracking those who 
have lost their way. If they find the 
body of a traveler who has perished they 
carry it into the vault of the dead, where 
it is wrapped in linen, and remains lying on 
a table till another victim occupies the 
place. It is then set up against the wall 
among the other bodies, which,* on ac¬ 
count of the cold, decay so slowly that they 
are often recognized by their friends after 
the lapse of years. Adjoining this vault 
is a kind of burying ground, where the 
bones are deposited when they accumulate 
too much in the vault. It is impossible to 
bury them, because there is nothing around 
the'Hospice but naked rocks. The institu¬ 
tion is supported partly by its own rev¬ 
enues, partly by subscriptions and dona¬ 
tions. The Pass of St. Bernard appears to 


have been known at a very early period; 
and a Roman road led down the Pied¬ 
montese side of the mountains. The 
remains of a massive pavement are still 
visible and the cabinet of the Hospice 
contains votive tablets, bronze figures, and 
other antiquities found in the vicinity. The 
Hospice was founded in 962 by St. Ber¬ 
nard of Menthon, an Italian ecclesiastic, for 
the benefit of tlios. who performed pil¬ 
grimages to Rome. In May, 1800, Napoleon 
led an army of 30,000 men, with its artil¬ 
lery and cavalry, into Italy by this pass. 

Bernard, Little St., a mountain of Italy, 
belonging to what are called the Graian 
Alps, about 10 miles S. of Mont Blanc. It 
stands between Savoy and Piedmont, having 
the valley of the Isere, in the former, on the 
W., and that of the Doire, in the latter, on 
the E. The pass across it is one of the 
easiest in the Alps, and is supposed by many 
to be that which Hannibal used. The Hos¬ 
pice at the summit of the pass has an 
elevation of 7,192 feet. 

Bernard, St., Abbot of Clairvaux, was 
born of a noble family in Burgundy, in 
1091. He was educated at the Uni¬ 
versity of Paris. At the age of 23 
he entered the recently founded monastery 
of Citeaux, accompanied by his brothers and 
20 of his companions. He observed the 
strictest rules of the Order, and so distin¬ 
guished himself by his ability and acquire¬ 
ments that he was chosen to lead the colony 
to Clairvaux, and was made abbot of the 
new house; an office which he filled till his 
death. His fame attracted a great number 
of novices, many of whom became eminent 
men. Among them was Pope Eugenius III., 
six cardinals, and many bishops. In 1128 
he prepared the statutes for the Order 
of Knights Templar. Popes and princes 
desired his support and submitted 
princes desired his support, and submitted 
their differences to his arbitration. By his 
influence Innocent II. was recognized as law¬ 
ful Pope; he had a public debate with Abelard 
on some doctrines of his philosophy, and 
procured his condemnation; courageously 
opposed the doctrine of the Immaculate 
Conception of the Virgin and the festival 
instituted in its honor; was founder of 160 
monasteries; and was the chief promoter of 
the second crusade. At the Council of 
Vezelai, in 1146, he spoke as if inspired, be¬ 
fore the King and the nobies of France, and 
with his own hand gave them their crosses. 
He then preached the crusade in Germany, 
persuaded the Emperor Conrad to join it, and 
refused the command which was offered 
him. His prediction of success was falsi¬ 
fied. St. Bernard was the vehement adver¬ 
sary of Arnold of Brescia, and procured 
his banishment from Rome and from 
Ziirich. He successfully attacked the doc¬ 
trines of several so called heretics. He 



Bernard 


Bernardine 


steadily refused tlie offers of several arch¬ 
bishoprics and other dignities, preferring 
to remain abbot only. His character and 
his writings have earned him the title of 
“ Last of the Fathers.” The power, tender¬ 
ness, and simplicity of his sermons and 
other works have secured the admiration of 
Protestants and Catholics alike. Dante in¬ 
troduces him in the last cantos of the 
“ Paradise ” with profound reverence and 
admiring love; and Luther studied his writ¬ 
ings with the same feelings. St. Bernard 
died at Clairvaux in 1153, and was 
canonized in 1174. 

Bernard, Simon, a French engineer, born 
in Dole, April 28, 1779. He served under 
Napoleon as his aide-de-camp; was wounded 
at the battle of Leipsic; superintended the 
defense of Torgau, and was present at 
Waterloo. In 181G he came to the United 
States; was commissioned a Brigadier- 
General of Engineers; and planned an elabo¬ 
rate system of seacoast defenses, the most 
important of the works built by him being 
Fort Monroe. In 1831 he returned to 
France; was made aide-de-camp to Louis 
Philippe, and designed the fortifications of 
Paris. In 1834 he was appointed Minister 
of War. He died in Paris, Nov. 5, 1839. 

Bernard, William Bayle, an Anglo- 
American dramatist, born in Boston, Mass., 
Nov. 27, 1807. His first work was a nauti¬ 
cal drama called the “Pilot.” This proved 
successful and encouraged him to pursue a 
literary career. He wrote in all 114 plays, 
of which the best known are “ Rip Van 
Winkle,” “ The Man About Town,” “ Marie 
Ducange ” and “ The Boarding School.” He 
died in Brighton, England, Aug. 5, 1875. 

Bernard de Ventadour (ber-nar' de 
ven-ta-dor') a French troubadour poet, 
born, presumably, in Ventadour about 1125; 
died in the monastery at Dalon about 1197. 
Love songs “ To Eleonore,” and various 
amatory lays to courtly dames, form the 
riches of his delicate verse. 

Bernard Dog, Great St., & race or 
species of dog which gets its name from 
the Hospice of St. Bernard, where it has 
long been kept by the monks to aid them 
in rescuing perishing travelers. This dog 
is very valuable in assisting the monks to 
keep to the line of the road and in finding 
their way back. They are seldom bur¬ 
dened. Dogs of other races are used for 
the same purpose in other parts of the Alps. 
The St. Bernard dog is of two varieties: 
the first, which has long white hair with 
black or tawny spots being few in number. 

This famous dog, according to the tradi¬ 
tions of the monastery, is the result of a 
cross between a Danish bull-bitch and a mas¬ 
tiff, a native hill dog, though at what time 
effected it is impossible to say. After the 


breed was once established it was kept pure 
till 1812. About 1860 these dogs first at¬ 
tracted the attention of English travelers, 
who imported them to Great Britain, where 
they were exhibited and at once excited 
much notice on account of their size and 
beauty. Others were introduced, and the 
St. Bernard was soon established as the 
most popular big dog, a popularity which 
has gone on increasing. The St. Bernard, 
as bred to modern English ideas, is an im¬ 
mense red or orange colored dog, marked 
with white on muzzle, neck, chest, feet, and 
tip of tail. The head should be massive 
and imposing, with a strong square muzzle, 
a point of great importance. Legs should 
be straight, with large feet, and double or, 
at least, single dew claws. Hind feet should 
turn out, though not sufficiently to hinder 
the dog’s movements. The coat of the rough 
variety is of medium length; it should not 
be too curly. In the smooth variety the 
coat should be short and wiry. Many of 
the finest St. Bernards measure over 30 
inches high at the shoulder and weigh over 
150 pounds. On account of his great size 
and weight the St. Bernard oftens moves in 
an awkward manner, a defect which should 
be avoided. St. Bernards, though occupying 
a great deal of space, are so handsome that 
they are kept as companions in great num¬ 
bers ; as a rule they are good tempered, 
though many are not to be trusted. 

Bernard of Chartres, surnamed Syl- 
vestris, a writer of the 12th century, has 
been lauded as the ablest Platonic of his 
time, and wrote two works, now lost, in one 
of which he endeavored to reconcile Plato 
and Aristotle, and in the other he main¬ 
tained the doctrine of a Providence, and 
proved that all material beings, possessing a 
nature subject to change, must necessarily 
perish. Another work under the name of 
Bernard Sylvestris still exists, and is com¬ 
posed of two parts, distinguished by the 
names of “ Megacosmus ” and “ Microcos- 
mus,” or the “ Great World ” and the “ Lit¬ 
tle World.” He reduces all things to two 
elements — matter and ideas. Matter is in 
itself devoid of form, but susceptible of re¬ 
ceiving it; ideas reside in the divine intel¬ 
lect and are the models of life, and from 
their union with matter all things result. 

Bernard of Treviso, an Italian alchem¬ 
ist, born in Padua in 1406. His most im¬ 
portant work was “ Treatise on the Most 
Secret Chemical Labor of the Philosophers.” 
He died in 1490. 

Bernardine, the name given to the Cis¬ 
tercian monks, a branch of the old Bene¬ 
dictines, from St. Bernard, who, entering 
the order, gave it such an impulse that he 
was considered its second founder. His 
Order was revived in 1664 by Armand Jean 
Bouthelier de Ranee, and long flourished 



Bernardakis 


Bernhard 


under the name of the Reformed Bernar- 
dines of La Trappe. 

Bernardakis, Demetrios (ber-nar’dak- 
is'), a Greek poet, dramatist, and scholar, 
born at Santa Marina, Lesbos, Dec. 2, 
1834. After a course of study at Athens 
and in German universities, he was (with 
one considerable intermission) Professor of 
History and Philology in the University of 
Athens from 18G1 to 1882, when he went 
back of Lesbos. lie is author of a spirited 
Pindaric ode for a jubilee occasion, of sev¬ 
eral dramas, and of a satire, “ The Battle of 
Cranes and Mice;” he has also written a 
“ Universal History,” a “ Church History,” 
and a spirited tractate, “ Confutation of a 
Faise Atticism,” directed against the would- 
be Attic purists. 

Bernardes, Diogo (ber-nar'des), a Por¬ 
tuguese poet, born in Ponte de Lima, about 
1530. He was called, in his day, “ the Sweet 
Singer of the Lima,” a streamlet immortal¬ 
ized in his verse. He left his native valley 
in 1550 and attached himself to the master 
singer, SA de Miranda, who lived retired on 
his estate, Quinta da Tapada, a devotee of 
the Muses. Here Bernardes composed verses 
of all kinds, elegies, sonnets, odes, songs, 
full of tender sympathies and perfect mel¬ 
ody. Here he wrote “ The Lima,” “ Various 
Rimes—• Flowers from Lima’s Banks,” “ Va¬ 
rious Rimes to the Good Jesu.” He died in 
1605. 

Bernardino, St., of Siena, born in 1380 
at Massa-Carrara, of a distinguished family, 
made himself famous by his rigid restora¬ 
tion of their primitive rule among the de¬ 
generate order of the Franciscans, of which 
he became a member in 1404. In 1438 he 
was appointed Vicar-General of his Order for 
Italy. Bernardino was unweariedly de¬ 
voted in his activity during the great Ital¬ 
ian plague of 1400, both as an impressive 
preacher and an attendant upon the sick 
and dying. He founded the Fratres de 
Observantia, a branch of the Franciscan 
Order, which numbered more than 300 mon¬ 
asteries in Italy during his day. He died 
in 1444, and was canonized in 1450. 

Bernardo del Carpio, a half legendary 
Spanish hero of the 9th century, son of 
Ximena, sister of Alphonso the Chaste, by 
Don Sancho of Saldagua. Alphonso put 
out the eyes of Don Sancho and imprisoned 
him, but spared Bernardo, who distin¬ 
guished himself in the Moorish wars, and 
finally succeeded in obtaining from Al¬ 
phonso the Great the promise that his 
father should be given up to him. At the 
appointed time his father’s corpse was sent 
him, and Bernardo in disgust quitted Spain 
for France, where he spent the remainder 
of his life as a knight errant. 

Bernauer, Agnes (ber'nour), the daugh¬ 
ter of a poor surgeon of Augsburg, secretly 


married, in 1432, to Duke Albrecht of Ba< 
varia, only son of the reigning Duke Ernst. 
Their happiness was undisturbed till Al¬ 
brecht's father, becoming aware of his son’s 
attachment, had the knightly lists shut 
against him, as one who was living with a 
woman in licentiousness. Albrecht then 
caused Agnes to be recognized as Duchess 
of Bavaria; but, in her husband’s absence, 
Duke Ernst had Agnes tried for sorcery, 
condemned for having bewitched Albrecht, 
and drowned in the Danube in the presence 
of the whole people, Oct. 12, 1435. Albrecht 
took up arms against his father; but after 
a year of war he was prevailed on to return 
to his father’s court, and ultimately con¬ 
sented to marry Anna of Brunswick. 

Berner. See Bern. 

Berners, John Bourchier, Lord, an 

English baron, a descendant of the Duke of 
Gloucester, youngest son of Edward III.; 
born in 1474; member of Parliament 1495- 
1529; aided in suppressing Cornish insur¬ 
rection, 1497; Chancellor of Exchequer, 
1515; ambassador to Spain, 1518; for many 
years governor of Calais; died 1532. He 
translated “ Froissart’s Chronicles ” ( 1523- 
1525), and other works, his translation of 
the former being a sort of English classic. 

Berners, Lady Juliana, an English au¬ 
thor; daughter of Sir James Berners, who 
was beheaded in the reign of Richard II. 
She is said to have been born in Essex and 
to have flourished in the 15th century. She 
was celebrated for her beauty, spirit, rind 
passion for field sports. Little is known 
of her life excepting that she was prioress 
of the nunnery of Sopewell, near St. Al¬ 
ban’s, and was the author of what was 
probably the earliest sporting book issued 
from the English press, which was entitled 
“ The Treatyses pertynynge to Hawkynge, 
Huntynge, and Fysshynge with an Angle.” 
It was reprinted in 1486 under the title of 
the “ Boke of St. Alban’s,” and was several 
times reprinted in the 16th century, becom¬ 
ing a popular manual of sporting life. 

Bernhard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar, a Ger¬ 
man military officer; born in 1604. He 
entered the army, and early distinguished 
himself. After being engaged in several 
affairs of minor importance, he joined the 
army of Gustavus Adolphus in 1631, in the 
war against the house of Austria. He 
took part in the siege of Wurzburg, assisted 
at the passage of Oppenheim, took Mann¬ 
heim, and drove the enemy from the Pala¬ 
tinate. He began the conquest of Bavaria, 
completed the victory of Liitzen after the 
fall of Gustavus, and drove the Austrians 
from Saxony. He afterward had a com¬ 
mand subordinate to Marshal Horn, and 
was harassed by intrigues. He took Ratis- 
bon, which was soon lost, and, with Horn, 
was defeated at Nordlingen, in September, 




Bernhard 


Bernini 


1634. Soon after he accepted a subsidy 
from the King of France, and concerted 
operations with Richelieu. In 1038 he won 
the battle of Rheinfeld, and took Alt-Brei- 
sach. He died in 1639. 

Bernhard, Karl (barn'har), pseudonym 
of Nicolai de Saint Aubain, a celebrated 
Danish novelist, born in Copenhagen, Nov, 
18, 1798. His induction into the republic 
of letters was under the auspices of his 
noted kinswoman, Madame Gyllembourg. 
The poet Heiberg was his uncle; the nephew 
has almost overshadowed the older writer 
through the brilliance of “ The Favorite of 
Fortune,” “ Two Friends.,” “ For and 
Against,” and many other novels, all 
founded either on historical occurrences or 
the author’s observations of contemporary 
life. He died in Copenhagen, Nov. 25, 1865. 

Bernhardi, Theodor von (bern-har'de), 
a German historian and diplomat, born in 
Berlin, Nov. 6, 1802. Ilis diplomatic career 
was important, and afforded him special 
facilities for compiling a “ History of Rus¬ 
sia and of European Politics During the 
Years 1814-1831” (1863-1877); “Freder¬ 
ick the Great as a Military Commander ” 
(1881), and similar works, all of value. He 
died at Kunersdorf, Silesia, Feb. 12, 1887. 

Bernhardt, Rosine Sarah, a French 
actress, born in Paris, Oct. 22, 1844. At an 
early age her Jewish parents placed her in 
a convent at Versailles. When 14 years 
old she left the convent, and entered the 
Paris Conservatoire, and there studied 
tragedy and comedy. In 1862 she made her 

debut at 
the Theatre 
Frangais, in 
R a c i n e s 
“Iphigene ” 
and Scribe’s 
“ Valerie,” 
b u t, not 
achieving a 
success, she 
retired for 
a time from 
the stage. 
Her first 
great suc¬ 
cess was as 
Marie d e 
Neuberg, in 
Victor Hu¬ 
go’s “Ruy Bias,” in January, 1867. Becom¬ 
ing very popular by her representations, not¬ 
ably in “ Andromaque ” and “ La Sphinx,” 
she was recalled to the Frangais, and was 
soon recognized as the foremost actress in 
French tragedy. In 1879 she visited Lon¬ 
don with the company of the Comedie 
Frangaise and was warmly received; in 1880, 
1887, 1891, 1896, 1900, and 1910 made suc¬ 
cessful tours in the United States, and be¬ 


tween and after these dates visited Switzer¬ 
land, Holland, South America, Italy, Al¬ 
geria, Australia, etc. In 1899 she appeared 
in a new rendering of “ Hamlet ” in Paris, 
and scored a most flattering triumph. She 
has also done considerable work in painting, 
sculpture, and literature. 

Bernhardy, Gottfried, a German classi¬ 
cal philologist, born in Landsberg-on-the- 
Warthe, March 20, 1800. He lectured very 
brilliantly at the leading universities, his 
principal works being “ Greek Syntax Sci¬ 
entifically Considered” (1829), a historical 
study of the subject; “Outlines of Roman 
Literature” (5th ed., 1872); “Outlines of 
Greek Literature” (part i, 5th ed., 1892; 
part ii, 2d-3d -ed., 1876-1880; part iii 
wanting), and a supplement to the first 
named treatise, entitled “ Paralipomena 
[Omission] in [the Work on] Greek Syn¬ 
tax” (1854—1862); although he has writ¬ 
ten many other important books. He died 
in Halle, May 14, 1875. 

Berni, Francesco, an Italian poet, born 
in Tuscany in 1490. He remodeled Boiar- 
do’s “ Orlando Innamorato,” and was the 
author of “ Rime Burlesche.” The grace¬ 
fulness and purity of his diction have been 
seldom equaled; his humor, though broad, 
is not low; and though his themes or al¬ 
lusions are often licentious, his works dis¬ 
play many traits of moral feeling, which 
would do no discredit to a better age. He 
died in 1536. 

Bernicia, a Latinized form of the English 
word Bryneich, used to indicate the N. 
part of what became the kingdom of North¬ 
umbria, the part N. of the Tees. The An¬ 
glian kingdom of Bernicia is said to have 
been founded by Ida, who made his capital 
at Bamborough about 550 A. D. 

Bernier, Francois (bern-ya'), a French 
physician and traveler, born in Angers 
about 1625; set out on his travels in 1654, 
and visited Egypt, Palestine, and India, 
where he remained for 12 years as phy¬ 
sician to the Great Mogul Emperor Aurung- 
zebe. After his return to France he pub¬ 
lished his “ Travels,” an abridgment of the 
philosophy of Gassendi, a “ Treatise on 
Freedom and Will,” and other works. He 
died in Paris in 1688. 

Bernina, a mountain of the Rhaetian 
Alps, 13,290 feet high, in the Swiss canton 
of Grisons, with remarkable and extensive 
glaciers. Its summit was first attained in 
1850. The Bernina Pass, which attains an 
elevation of 7,642 feet, and over which a 
carriage road was completed in 1864, leads 
from Pontresina to Poschiavo. 

Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo (known also 
as IlCavaliere Bernini), an Italian painter, 
born in Naples in 1598, and obtained, among 
his contemporaries, the reputation of being 
the modern Michael Angelo, on account of 



SARAH BERNHARDT. 






Bernis 


Bernouilli 



his success as painter, statuary, and archi¬ 
tect. At the age of 18, he produced the 
“ Apollo and Daphne,” in marble, a master¬ 
piece of grace and execution. Being ap¬ 
pointed archi¬ 
tect of Urban 
VIII., he exe¬ 
cuted many 
works in St. 
Peter’s; built 
the palace Bar- 
berini and the 
Campanile of 
St. Peter’s; vis¬ 
ited Paris in 
1665, his jour¬ 
ney being a 
triumphal pro¬ 
cession; at 70 
executed the 
monument of 
Alexander VII., 
and 10 years 
later sculptured 
the figure of Christ in bas relief for Queen 
Christina, continuing in the indefatigable 
pursuit of his art, as sculptor and archi¬ 
tect, till his death, in 1680. 

Bernis, Francois Joachim de Pierres 

de (ber-ne'). a French cardinal and minister 
of Louis XV., born in 1715. Madame de 
Pompadour presented him to Louis XV., 
who assigned him an apartment in the 
Tuileries, with a pension of 1,500 livres. 
After winning credit in an embassy to 
Venice he rose rapidly to the position of 
Minister of Foreign Affairs, and is possibly 
to be credited with the formation of the 
alliance between France and Austria which 
terminated the Seven Years’ War. The 
misfortunes of France being ascribed to him 
he was soon afterward banished from court, 
but was made Archbishop of Alby in 1764, 
and in 1769 Ambassador to Pome, where 
he remained till his death. When the aunts 
of Louis XVI. left France in 1791 they fled 
to him for refuge, and lived in his house. 
The Revolution reduced him to a state of 
poverty, from which he was relieved by a 
pension from the Spanish court. His verse 
procured him a place in the French 
Academy. The correspondence of Be?:nis 
with Voltaire contains matter of interest. 
He died in 1794. 


Bernouilli, or Bernoulli (ber-no-ye), a 
family which produced eight distinguished 
men of science. The family fled from Ant¬ 
werp during the Alva administration, going 
first to Frankfort, and afterward to Basel. 
1. James, born in Basel in 1654, became 
professor of mathematics there 1687, and 
died 1705. He applied the differential cal¬ 
culus to difficult questions of geometry and 
mechanics; calculated the loxodromic and 
catenary curve, the. logarithmic spirals, the 


evolutes of several curved lines, and dis¬ 
covered the so-called numbers of Bernouilli. 
2. John, born in Basel, in 1667, wrote with 
his brother, James, a treatise on the differ¬ 
ential calculus; developed the integral cal¬ 
culus, and discovered, independently of 
Leibnitz, the exponential calculus. In 1694 
lie became Doctor of Medicine in Basel, and 
in 1695 went, as Professor of Mathematics, 
to Groningen. After the death of his 
brother he received the professorship of 
mathematics in Basel, which he held 
until his death in 1748. 3. Nicholas, 

nephew of the former, born in Basel in 1687; 
in 1705 went to Groningen to John Berno- 
uilli, and, returning with him to Basel, be- 



JOHN BERNOUILLI. 


came there professor of mathematics. On 
the recommendation of Leibnitz he went ae 
professor of mathematics to Padua in 1716, 
but returned to Basel in 1722 as professor 
of logic, and in 1731 became professor of 
Roman and feudal law. He died in 1759 
The three following were sons of the above 
mentioned John Bernouilli: 4. Nicholas, 
born in Basel, in 1695, became professor of 
law there in 1723, and died in St. Peters¬ 
burg in 1726. 5. Daniel, born at Groningen 
in 1700; studied medicine. At the a^e of 
21 he went to St. Petersburg, returning in 
1733 to Basel, where he became professor 
of anatomy and botany, and in 1750 pro¬ 
fessor of natural philosophy. He retired 
in 1777, and died in 1782. 6. John, born 

in Basel in 1710, went to St. Petersburg in 
1732, became professor of rhetoric in Basel 
in 1743, and in 1748 professor of mathe¬ 
matics. He died in 1790. The two follow¬ 
ing were his sons: 7. John, licentiate of 
law and royal astronomer in Berlin, born 
in Basel in 1744. He lived after 1779 
in Berlin as Director of the Mathe¬ 
matical Department of the Academy. IIe 
died in 1807. 8. James, born at Basel in 

1759; went to St. Petersburg, where he be- 





Bernstein 


Berrien 


came professor of mathematics; married a 
grand-daughter of Euler, and died in 1789 
while bathing in the Neva. 

Bernstein, Aaron, a German publicist 
and novelist, born in Dantzic, in 1812. He 
was in politics a Radical, and in religion 
a Reformer, and his life was a continued 
battle against obscurantism and conserva¬ 
tism. Yet he wrote some charming stories 
of life among the Jews, among them “ Men¬ 
del Gibbor ” (1860). He wrote also some 
notable historical sketches, as “ The Peo¬ 
ple’s Years ” and “ The Years of Reaction.” 
He died in 1884. 

Bernstorff, Johann Hartwig Ernst, 
Count, a celebrated statesman in the ser¬ 
vice of the King of Denmark, born in Han¬ 
over, in 1712. He was employed in divers 
embassies, and afterward held the office of 
foreign minister to Frederick V. for about 
20 years, resigning in 1770. He died in 
1772. 

Bernstorff, Andreas Peter, Count, 
nephew of the above, born in 1735; also in 
the service of the King of Denmark. He 
was appointed Prime Minister in 1769, 
when he ceded to Russia the A,ottorp part 
of Holstein in exchange for Oldenburg and 
Delmenhorst. He introduced a new system 
of finance, and prepared the abolition of 
villanage in Schleswig and Holstein. He 
died in 1797. 

Beroe (ber-o'e), a daughter of Oceanus; 
also the name of several women connected 
with Thrace, Illyria, etc.; also a genus of 
animals, the typical one of the family 
beroidce. The heroes are oval or globular 
ribbed animals, transparent and gelatinous, 
with cirri from pole to pole, and two long 
tentacles fringed with cirri, which aid them 
in breathing and in locomotion. They have 
a mouth, a stomach, and an anal aperture. 
They are free swimming organisms inhabit¬ 
ing the see, sometimes rotating, and at 
night phosphorescent. 

Berosus, a priest of the Temple of Belus 
at Babylon early in the 3d century n. c., 
who wrote in Greek a history of the Baby¬ 
lonian Chaldeans founded on the ancient 
archives of the Temple of Belus. It is 
known only by the quotations from it in 
Apollodorus, Eusebius, Josephus, etc. 

Berosus, a genus of beetles belonging to 
the family hydrophilidcc. They have promi¬ 
nent eyes, a narrow thorax, a dusky yellow 
hue, with dark, metallic bronze markings. 
They swim in ponds, often in an inverted 
position. 

Berquin, Louis de (ber-kan'), the first 
Protestant martyr in France, born in 1490. 
He was a gentleman of Artois, a friend of 
Badius, the savant. When, in 1523, the 
police began to seize Luther’s works, with 
a view to suppressing Protestantism, they 
found among Berquin’s books some manu¬ 


scripts of his own writing that were pro¬ 
nounced heretical. As he refused to re¬ 
tract, he was thrown into prison. Fran¬ 
cis 1., whose counsellor he was, obtained for 
him his freedom; and Erasmus, always his 
friend, tried in vain to prevent him from 
exposing his life in a useless struggle. His 
fixed opinions and intrepid nature, how¬ 
ever, having thrown him into prison three 
times, caused him to be condemned to death. 
He was burned alive in Paris, April 17, 
1529. 

Berri, or Berry, Charles Ferdinand 

Due de, second son of the Comte d’Artois 
(afterward Charles X.), born at Versailles, 
Jan. 24, 1778. In 1792 he fled with his 
father to Turin and served under him and 
Conde on the Rhine. In 1801 he went to 
Great Britain, where he lived alternately 
in London and Scotland, occupied with 
plans for the restoration of the Bourbons. 
In 1814 he landed at Cherbourg, and passed 
on to Paris, gaining many adherents to the 
royal cause; but they melted away when 
Napoleon landed from Elba, and the Count 
was compelled to retire with the household 
troops to Ghent and Alost. After the bat¬ 
tle of Waterloo he returned to Paris, and, 
in 1816, married. He was assassinated by 
Louvel, a political fanatic, Feb. 14, 1820. 
The Duke had by his wife, Carolina Ferdi- 
nanda Louisa, eldest daughter of Francis, 
afterward King of the Two Sicilies, a 
daughter, Louise Marie Therese, afterward 
Duchess of Parma, and a posthumous son, 
subsequently known as Comte de Chambord. 

Berri, or Berry, Caroline Ferdinahde 
Louise, Duchesse de, widow of the second 
son of Charles X. of France; daughter of 
Francis I. of the Two Sicilies; born Nov. 5, 
1798. Her futile attempt at insurrection 
in 1832, to place her son on the French 
throne, caused her imprisonment and subse¬ 
quent withdrawal to Sicily. She died 
April 17, 1S70. 

Berrian, William, an American Episco¬ 
pal clergyman and writer, born in New 
York in 1787; was rector of Trinity Church, 
New York (1830-1862). Besides various 
religious works, he wrote “ Travels in 
France and Italy ” and a “ Historical 
Sketch of Trinitv Church.” He died in 
New York City, Nov. 7, 1862. 

Berrien, John HcPherson, an American 
statesman, born in New Jersey, Aug. 23, 
1781; graduated at Princeton College in 
1796, and was admitted to the bar in 
Georgia when 18 years old. He became 
Solicitor of the Eastern District of Georgia 
in 1809. and was Judge of that district in 
1810-1821. He represented Georgia in the 
United States Senate in 1825-1829 and 
1840-1852; was Attorney-General of the 
United States in 1829-1831, and a delegate 



Berro 


Bert 


to the Baltimore Convention in 1844. In 
1829 lie delivered a speech so clear and im¬ 
pressive against certain measures before 
Congress that the title of “ American 
Cicero ” was given him. He died in Savan¬ 
nah, Ga., Jan* 1, 1856. 

Berro, Bernardo Prudencio, an Uru¬ 
guayan statesman, born in Montevideo 
about 1800. In 1852 he was Vice-President 
and President of the Senate. Under Giro he 
was Minister of Government till the Revo¬ 
lution of 1853; again President of the Sen¬ 
ate in 1858, and President of the republic 
in 1860-1864. The revolution of Flores 
was successful soon after the expiration of 
his term. In 1S68 he stirred up a revolt 
against Flores, was imprisoned, and soon 
afterward shot through a window in his 
cell, in April, 1868. 

Berry, a succulent fnr.t, in which the 
seeds are immersed in a pulpy mass in¬ 
closed by a thin skin. The name is usually 
given to fruits in which the calyx is ad¬ 
herent to the ovary and the placentas are 
parietal, the seeds finally separating from 
the placenta and lying loose in the pulp. 
The term, however, is frequently used to 
include fruits in which the ovary is free 
and the placentas central, as the grape. 
Popularly it is applied to fruits like the 
strawberry, bearing external seeds on a 
pulpy receptacle, but not strictly berries. 

Berry, Mary, an English author, daugh¬ 
ter of a Yorkshire clerk, born in Kirk- 
bridge, Yorkshire, March 16, 1763; was 
an intimate friend of Horace Walpole. In 
1798 she edited the “ Works of Horace Wal¬ 
pole.” Her most ambitious work was her 
“ Social Life in England and France,” col¬ 
lectively edited in 1S44„ She died in Lon¬ 
don, Nov. 20, 1852. 

Berry, Canal de, one of the most im¬ 
portant canals in France as regards the 
amount of its traffic; begins at Montlugon 
on the Cher, the chief trading center of the 
coal fields of the Allier; descends the Cher 
valley to St. Amand, then proceeds E., and 
soon after branches, one branch going N. E. 
and joining the lateral canal of the Loire 
about 9 miles N. W. of Nevers, the other 
branch proceeding N. and rejoining the val¬ 
ley of the Cher, and ultimately entering the 
Cher itself near St. Aignan, below which 
point the canalized Cher continues the line 
of navigation to Tours. Length of naviga¬ 
tion 200 miles, of which 36% miles belong 
to the canalized Cher. Constructed 1807- 
1841. 

Berryer, Antoine Pierre (ber -ya'), a 
French advocate and statesman, born in 
Paris in 1790. In 1814 he proclaimed at 
Rennes the deposition of Napoleon, and re¬ 
mained till his death an avowed Legitimist. 
He assisted his father in the defense of 
Ney, secured the acquittal of General Cam- 


bronne, and defended Lamennais from a 
charge of atheism. His eloquence was com¬ 
pared with that of Mirabeau, and, after the 
dethronement of Charles X. (1830), he re¬ 
mained in the Chamber as the sole Legiti¬ 
mist orator. His political services won for 
him a public subscription of 400,000 francs 
in 1836 to meet his pecuniary difficulties. 
In 1840 he was one of the counsel for the 
defense of Louis Napoleon after the Bou¬ 
logne fiasco. In 1843 he did homage to the 
Comte de Chambord in London, adhering 
to him through the Revolution of 1848, and 
voting for the deposition of the Prince- 
President the morning after the coup 
d'etat. He gained additional reputation in 
1858 by his defense of Montalembert, and 
was counsel for the Patterson-Bonapartes 
in the suit for the recognition of the Balti¬ 
more marriage. In 1863 he was re-elected 
to the Chamber with Thiers, and in 1864 re¬ 
ceived a flattering reception in England. He 
died in 1868. 

Bersaglieri (ber-sal-ya're), a corps of 
riflemen or sharpshooters, introduced into 
the Sardinian army by Gen. Della Marmora, 
about 1849. Tliev took part in the Russian 
War and also assisted at the battle of the 
Tchernaya, Aug. 16. 1855. They were like¬ 
wise employed in the Italian Wars of 1859 
and 1866. 

Berserker, a redoubtable hero, the grand¬ 
son of the eight-handed Starkader and the 
beautiful Alfhilde. He despised mail and 
helmet, and, contrary to the custom of his 
time, went always into battle unharnessed, 
his furv serving him instead of defensive 
armor. By the daughter of King Swafur- 
lam, whom he had slain in battle, he had 
12 sons, who inherited the name of Ber¬ 
serker along with his warlike spirit. 

Bersezio, Vittorio (ber-sets'yo), an 
Italian novelist and playwright, born at 
Peveragno, Piedmont, in 1830. Both as a 
writer of tales and of comedies he is con¬ 
spicuous for vivid and faithful delineation 
of Piedmontese life; especially in his dia¬ 
lect comedies, among which “The Misfor¬ 
tunes of Monssit Travett ” is considered to 
be liis masterpiece. He also wrote an ex¬ 
cellent historical work, “ The Reign of Vic¬ 
tor Emmanuel II.” (1878-1893). 

Bert, Paul, a French statesman and 
physiologist, born in Auxerre, Oct. 17, 1833. 
He studied both law and medicine, became 
assistant to Claude Bernard at the College 
of France, and successively occupied the 
chairs of Physiology at Bordeaux and Paris. 
Entering political life in 1870, on the 
proclamation of the republic, he was four 
times re-elected to the Chamber. He 
brought forward laws removing primary in¬ 
struction from the control of the religious 
orders, and making it compulsory. During 
the premiership of Gambetta he held the 




Berthelot 


Berthier 


post of Minister of Public Instruction and 
Worship. While engaged in public life, M. 
Bert still pursued with ardor his scien¬ 
tific investigations, attracting world-wide 
attention by his experiments in vivisection. 
Appointed by the French Ministry to the 
governorship of Tonquin and Annam, he 
went out there in 1886, but died Nov. 11, of 
the same year. The anti-religious views 
of M. Bert excited much controversy. He 
was also the author of several works on 
anatomy and physiology, and of numerous 
educational and political writings. He ren¬ 
dered a service to natural science by the 
clear and simple style of his text-books. M. 
Bert was a member of the French Academy 
of Sciences, and of many other distinguished 
bodies at home and abroad. 

Berthelot, Pierre Eugene Marcellin 

(ber-tel-o"), a French chemist, born in Paris, 
Oct. 25, 1827; early studied chemistry, and 
in 1850 was appointed Professor of Organic 
Chemistry in the Superior School of Phar¬ 
macy. In 1865 a new chair of organic 
chemistry was organized for him in the 
College of France. In 1870 he was elected 
president of the scientific committee of de¬ 
fense, and during the siege of Paris was 
entrusted with the manufacture of am¬ 
munition and guns, and especially dyna¬ 
mite and nitroglycerine. In 1878 he be¬ 
came president of the committee on explo¬ 
sives, which introduced smokeless powder. 
His labors also led to the discovery ol dyes 
extracted from coal tar. He received the 
decoration of the Legion of Honor in 1861; 
was made Commander in 1879, and Grand 
Officer in 1886. In 1889 he was elected Per¬ 
manent Secretary of the Academy of Sci¬ 
ences. He has contributed to the knowledge 
of synthetical processes and to the relations 
between the phenomena of heat and of chem¬ 
istry. His works include: “ Chimie organ- 
ique fondee sur la syntliese ” (1860); 

“ Legons sur les principes sucres” (1862); 
“ Legons sur l’Isomerie ” (1865); “ Traite 
elementire de chimie organique ” and “ Sur 
la force de la poudre et das matieres explo¬ 
sives ” (1872 and 1889); “Verification de 
Tareometre de Baume ” (1873); “Les Or- 
igines de l’alchimie ” (1885); “Collection 
des anciens alchimistes grecs ” (1888); 

etc. He died March 18, 1907. 

Berthier, Alexander, Prince of Neuf- 
chatel and Wagram, Marshal, Vice-Consta¬ 
ble of France, etc.; born in Versailles, Nov. 
20, 1753; son of a distinguished officer; 
was, while yet young, employed in the gen¬ 
eral staff, served in America, and fought 
with Lafayette for the liberty of the United 
States. In the first years of the French 
Revolution he was appointed Major-General 
in the National Guard of Versailles, and 
conducted himself in this post with uniform 


moderation. On Dec. 28, 1791, he was ap¬ 
pointed chief of the general staff in the 
army of Marshal Luckner; marched against 
La Vendee in 1793; joined the army of 
Italy in 1795; and as general of division 
and chief of the general staff contributed 
much to the success of the campaign. In 
October, 1797, General Bonaparte sent him 
to Paris to deliver to the Directory the 
treaty of Campo Formio. In January, 
1798, he received the chief command of the 
army of Italy, and was ordered by the 
Directory to march against the dominions of 
the Pope. In the beginning of February 
he made his entrance into Rome, abolished 
the papal government, and established a 
consular one. Being much attached to 
General Bonaparte, he followed him to 
Egypt as chief of the general staff. 

After the 18th of Brumaire, Bonaparte 
appointed him minister of war. He after¬ 
ward become general-in-chief of the army 
of reserve; accompanied Bonaparte to Italy 
in 1800; and contributed to the passage of 
St. Bernard and the victory at Marengo. 
He signed the armistice of Alessandria, 
formed the provisional government of Pied¬ 
mont, and went on an extraordinary mis¬ 
sion to Spain. He then received again the 
department of war, which, in the meantime, 
had been in the hands of Carnot. He ac¬ 
companied Napoleon to Milan, June, 1805, 
to be present at his coronation, and in Octo¬ 
ber was appointed chief of the general staff 
of the grand army in Germany. On Oct. 
19 lie signed the capitulation of Ulm with 
Mack, and Dec. 6 the armistice of Auster- 
litz. Having in 1806 accompanied the em¬ 
peror in his campaign against Prussia, he 
signed the armistice of Tilsit, June, 1807. 
He afterward resigned his post as minister 
of war, and having been appointed vice¬ 
constable of France, married, in 1808, 
Maria Elizabeth Amelia, daughter of Duke 
William of Bavaria-Birkenfeld, and contin¬ 
ued to be the companion of Napoleon in all 
his expeditions. 

In the campaign against Austria in 1809, 
he distinguished himself at Wagram, and 
received the title of Prince of Wagram. In 
1S10, as proxy of Napoleon, he received the 
hand of Maria Louisa, daughter of the Em¬ 
peror Francis I., and accompanied her to 
France. Somewhat later Napoleon made 
him colonel-general of the Swiss troops. In 
1812 he was with the army in Russia as 
chief of the general staff, which post he also 
held in 1813. After Napoleon’s abdication 
he lost his principality of Neufchatel, but 
retained his other honors, and possessed the 
favor and confidence of Louis XVIII., whom, 
after Napoleon’s return, he accompanied to 
the Netherlands, whence he repaired to his 
family at Bamberg, where he arrived May 
30. After his arrival at this place, he was 
observed to be sunk in a profound melan¬ 
choly; and when, on the afternoon of June 





Berthold 


Bertin 


1, the music of the Russian troops on their 
march to the French borders was heard at 
the gates of the city, he put an end to his 
life by throwing himself from a window of 
the third story of his palace. He left a 
son, Alexander (born in 1810), one of the 
most zealous adherents of Napoleon III., 
and two daughters. 

Berthold, Franz (ber-told'), pseudonym 
of Adeliieid Reinbold, born in 1802; was a 
German novelist, warmly appreciated and 
furthered by Ludwig Tieck. Her story 
“ Fred of the Will-o’-the-Wisp ” (1830), met 
with great favor; after her death appeared 
“King Sebastian 5 ’ (1830), a historical ro¬ 
mance, and “ Collected Tales ” (1842). She 
died in 1839. 

Berthold of Ratisbon, a celebrated Ger¬ 
man preacher and Franciscan monk; ranked 
as the most powerful preacher of his time 
in the German world. It is said that as 
many as 60.000 people flocked to hear him in 
the open fields. His sermons have been 
preserved. He died in 1272. 

Berthollet (ber-tol-a'), Claude Louis, 

Comte, a French chemist, was born in Sa¬ 
voy, Dec. 9, 1748, and studied medicine at 
Turin. Fie afterward settled in Paris, where 
he became intimate with Lavoisier, was 
admitted a member of the Academy of 
Sciences, and made a professor at the Nor¬ 
mal School. He accompanied Napoleon to 
Egypt; and, during the empire, was made 
a Senator and an officer of the Legion of 
Honor; but he was one of the first to de¬ 
sert his patron when his fortunes were on 
the decline; and he received the title of 
Comte from Louis XVIII. His principal 
work is “ Essai de statique chimique ” 
(1803), but he wrote many other valuable 
essays, and also had a large share in the 
reformation of chemical nomenclature. He 
died Nov. 6, 1822. 

Bertholletia, named after Comte Ber¬ 
thollet, a genus of plants belonging to the 
order lecythidacccu. The only species is a 
large tree, growing 100 feet high, with a 
diameter of two feet, found in the forests 
which fringe the Orinoco. It has yellowish 
white flowers, with six unequal petals, and 
a fleshy ring consisting of many white 
stamina. The fruit is the size of a man’s 
head, with four cells and six or eight nuts. 
These are called Brazil, or, from the place 
where they are shipped, Para nuts, are an 
article of commerce, being eatable, besides 
furnishing a bland oil used by watchmakers 
and artists. At Para the fibrous bark of 
the tree is used in place of oakum for calk¬ 
ing ships. 

Bertie, Willoughby, fourth Earl of 
Abingdon, born Jan. 10, 1740; was a vigor¬ 
ous opponent in the House of Lords of the 
policy of England toward the American 
colonies that culminated in the Revolution; 


wrote a famous and very popular tract 
called “ Thoughts on Mr. Burke’s Letter on 
the Affairs of America,” was active in pro¬ 
moting favorable legislation for Irelandj 
and sympathized with the French Revolu¬ 
tion. Fie died Sept. 20, 1799. 

Bertillon, Alphonse (ber-te-ySri'), a 
French anthropologist, born in Paris in 
1853; is widely noted as the founder of a 
system of identification of. criminals. In 
18S0, while Chief of the Bureau of Identi¬ 
fication in the Prefecture of Police, he es¬ 
tablished his system of measurements which 
has given results marvelous for their pre¬ 
cision. The system has since been adopted 
by the police authorities of the large cities 
of Europe and the United States. He was 
one of the expert witnesses in handwriting 
in the trial of Capt. Dreyfus in 1899, and 
soon after its close was removed from his 
office. He was author of numerous works 
bearing upon his system, including “Identi¬ 
fication anthropometrique ” (1893). 

Bertillon System, a system of identifi¬ 
cation of criminals, introduced into France 
by Alphonse Bertillon. The system depends 
upon accurate measurements of various 
portions of the human body, especially the 
bones, which in adults never change. The 
parts measured are the head, ear, foot, mid¬ 
dle finger, the extended forearm, height, 
breadth, and the trunk. These measure¬ 
ments are placed upon a card, and, together 
with photographs of the bodily features, 
take the place of the old portraits in the 
rogues’ gallery. 

Bertin, Antoine (ber-tan), a French poet, 
born in 1752; much admired by his contem¬ 
poraries, who, somewhat extravagantly, 
styled him the French Propertius. He was 
a friend of Parny, and like him excelled in 
elegiac and epistolary verse. His principal 
works are “Voyage in Burgundy” (1777) 
and “ The Loves ” (1780). He died in 1790. 

Bertin, Louis Francois (called Bertin 
l’Aine), a French journalist, born in Paris, 
Dec. 14, 1700. The Revolution made him a 
journalist, and in 1799 he started the fa¬ 
mous “Journal des Debats.” His royalist 
principles offended Napoleon, and cost him 
imprisonment and banish" at to Elba; 
thence, however, he escaped to Rome, where 
he formed a friendship with Chateaubriand. 
In 1805 he returned to Paris, and resumed 
the editorship of the “Debats,” but was 
much hampered by Napoleon. The second 
restoration of the Bourbons restored once 
more to Bertin the free control of his jour¬ 
nal, and henceforward he gave almost con¬ 
stant support to the ministerial party. He 
supported the July monarchy, and edited 
the “Debats” till his death, Sept. 13, 1841. 
Armand Louts Marie Berttn, his son, was 
born in Paris, Aug. 22, 1801, and became, 
after the Restoration, secretary to Chateau- 



Bertin 


Berzelius 


briand, during his embassy in England. In 
1820 he joined the editorial staff of the 
“Journal des Debats,” and at his father’s 
death assumed the chief direction. He died 
at Paris, Jan. 11, 1854. 

Bertin, Louise Angelique, a French 
musician and composer, born near Bievres, 
Jan. 15, 1805; composed “Faust,” “Esmer¬ 
alda,” and other operas. She died in Paris, 
April 26, 1877. 

Bertrand, Eughne, a French operatic 
manager, born in 1835. He made his debut 
as an actor in 1857; but subsequently be¬ 
came a manager, and introduced Adelina 
Patti to the French, as well as many other 
noted singers. In 1892 he was named 
director of the Paris Opera House, produc¬ 
ing “La Belle Helene” (for the first time), 
“ Salammbo,” and “ Samson and Delilah.” 
He died in Paris, Jan. 21, 1900. 

Bertrand (ber-tran'), Henri Gratien, 
Comte, a French military officer, born in 
Chateauroux in 1773, and early entered the 
armies of the Revolution as engineer. He 
accompanied the expedition to Egypt, and 
directed the fortification of Alexandria. He 
distinguished himself at Austerlitz and be¬ 
came Napoleon's adjutant; and, after the 
battle of Aspern, in 1809, for his share in 
saving the French army by bridges, he was 
created count and governor of Illyria. Af¬ 
ter serving with credit in the subsequent 
campaigns, he retired with the Emperor to 
Elba, was his confidant in carrying out his 
return to France, and finally shared his 
banishment to St. Helena. On Napoleon’s 
death, Bertrand returned to France, where, 
though sentence of death had been pro¬ 
nounced upon him •—- a sentence which 
Louis XVIII. had wisely recalled —- he was 
restored to all his dignities, and. in 1830, 
appointed Commandant of the Polytechnic 
School. In 1840, he formed part of the ex¬ 
pedition which brought back the remains of 
Napoleon to France. He died in Chateau¬ 
roux, Jan. 31, 1844. 

Bervic, Charles Clement, a French en¬ 
graver, born in Paris in 1756; made himself 
famous by a full length engraving of Louis 
XVI., from the picture by Callet, one of the 
finest works of the kind ever produced, in 
1790. He died March 23, 1822. 

Berwick, or more fully, Berwick=on= 
Tweed, a seaport town of England, for¬ 
merly a Parliamentary borough and (with 
small adjoining district) a county by itself, 
but now incorporated with Northumberland, 
and giving name to a Parliamentary divi¬ 
sion of the county. It stands on the N. 
or Scottish side of the Tweed, within half 
a mile of its mouth. It is surrounded by 
walls of earth faced with stone, along which 
is an agreeable promenade; the streets are 
mostly narrow, straggling, and irregular. 
The Tweed is crossed by an old bridge of 


15 arches and by a fine railway viaduct. 
The chief industries are iron founding, the 
manufacture of engines and boilers, agricul¬ 
tural implements, feeding cake, manures, 
ropes, twine, etc.; there is a small shipping 
trade. In the beginning of the 12th century, 
during the reign of Alexander I., Berwick 
was part of Scotland, and the capital of 
the district called Lothian. In 1216 the 
town and castle were stormed and taken by 
King John; Bruce retook them in 1318; but, 
after undergoing various sieges and vicissi¬ 
tudes, botn were surrendered to Edward IV. 
in 1482, and have ever since remained in 
possession of England. Pop. 13,995. 

Berwick, James Fitzjames, Duke of, 

born in 1670; was a natural son of James 
II., King of England, and Arabella Church¬ 
ill, sister of the Duke of Marlborough. His 
first military service was under Charles, 
Duke of Lorraine, in Hungary, and he was 
present at the siege of Buda, and the battle 
of Moliacz. He was created Duke of Ber¬ 
wick in 1687; accompanied James II. to 
France, at the Revolution, served under him 
in Ireland, and was at the battle of the 
Boyne. Ho became Lieutenant-General in 
the French army, was naturalized in 
France, afterward commanded in Spain, 
and by the victory of Almanza secured the 
throne to Philip V. He especially distin¬ 
guished himself by the defense of Provence 
and Dauphiny, in 1709, against the superior 
forces of the Duke of Savoy, which has al¬ 
ways been regarded as a triumph of stra¬ 
tegic skill. He was killed at the siege of 
Philipsburg, in 1734. 

Beryl, a colorless, yellowish, bluish or 
less brilliant green variety of emerald, the 
prevailing hue being green of various 
shades, but always pale, the want of color 
being due to absence of chromium, which 
gives to the emerald its deep, rich green. 
Its crystals, which are six sided, are usually 
longer and larger than those of the precious 
emerald, and its structure more distinctly 
foliated. The best beryls are found in Bra¬ 
zil, in Siberia, and Ceylon, and in Dauria, 
on the frontiers of China. Beryls are also 
found in many parts of the United States. 
Some of the finer and transparent varieties 
of it are often called aquamarine. 

Beryllium, a rare white malleable metal, 
the same as glucinum. It does not decom¬ 
pose^ water. Its melting point is below that 
of silver. It is dissolved by caustic pot¬ 
ash and dilute acids with the solution of 
hydrogen. It occurs as a silicate in phena- 
eite, also in the mineral beryl along with 
aluminum silicate. 

Berzelius, Johann Jakob, Baron, a 

Swedish chemist, born in Ostgothland, Aug. 
29. 1779. After graduating at Upsala, in 
1804, he went to Stockholm, where he be¬ 
came an assistant to Sparrmann, who had 



Bes 


Besant 


accompanied Captain Cook in one of his 
voyages around the world; and at his death, 
in 1806, he succeeded him in the chair t>f 
chemistry, which he held for 42 years. His 
patient labors and ingenious investigations 
have done more to lay the foundations of 
organic chemistry than those of any other 
chemist. To him pre-eminently belongs the 
honor of applying the great principles which 
had been established by Dalton, Davy, Gay- 
Lussac, and himself, in inorganic chemistry, 
to the study of the laws which regulate the 
combinations forming the structures of the 
animal and vegetable kingdoms; and of thus 
opening the way for the discoveries of 
Mulder, Liebig, Dumas, and others. To 
him, chemistry is indebted for the discovery 
of several new elementary bodies, more es¬ 
pecially selenium, thorium, and cerium; 
and to his skill as a manipulator may be 
traced many of the analytical processes at 
present in use. All the scientific societies 
of the world contended for the honor of en¬ 
rolling his name among their members. He 
died in Stockholm, Aug. 7, 1848. 

Bes, an Egyptian god, represented clad 
in a lion’s skin, with the head and skull of 
the animal concealing his features, and with 
a dwarfish and altogether grotesque appear¬ 
ance. 

Besan^on (bes-an-soft'), a city in the N. 
E. of France, the capital of the Depart¬ 
ment of Doubs, on the river Doubs. It com¬ 
mands a strong strategic position at the 
convergence of the roads from Switzerland 
and the valley between the Vosges and Jura 
Mountains. It was the fortified town of 
Vesontio in 58 b. c., when Ccesar expelled 
the Sequani. In the 5th century it was 
part of Burgundy, and in 1032 a free city 
of Franche-Comte. By the peace of West¬ 
phalia, in 1648, it was ceded to Spain, but 
was retaken by Louis XIV., united to France 
in 1678, and fortified by Vauban. It with¬ 
stood the Austrians in 1814, and was the 
seat of operations of the French army under 
Bourbaki in 1870-1871. It contains Roman 
remains, including an amphitheater, aque¬ 
duct and triumphal arch of Mars, as well as 
a cathedral of diversified architectural style, 
and the Renaissance palace of Cardinal 
Granwelle, who was born in Besangon. 
Victor Hugo was also a native of Besangon. 
Watch-making is the principal industry. 
Pop. (1906) 56,168. 

Besant, Annie (bes'ant), an English 
theosophist and author, born in London, 
Oct. 1, 1847; was married in 1867 to the 
Rev. Frank Besant, brother of Sir Walter 
Besant, but was legally separated from him 
in 1873. She manifested an earnest interest 
in social and political topics, and, in 1874, 
became connected with the National Secular 
Society. Owing to the publication of 
“ Fruits of Philosophy,” Mrs. Besant was 


prosecuted, in connection with Charles Brad- 
laugh (June, 1877), but the prosecution 
failed. Mrs. Besant has since stated her 
disagreement with the sentiments expressed 
in this book. In 1883 she announced her 
adhesion to Socialism. For three years she 
was a member of the School Board of Lon¬ 
don. She has been prominently connected 
with various socialistic movements, and a 
frequent speaker at meetings for working¬ 
men, and in 1889 joined the Theosophical 
Society, and has since been active in theo¬ 
sophical propaganda in Great Britain and 
the United States. She visited the United 
States in 1891 and 1892—1893 and lectured 
on Madame Blavatsky and reincarnation, 
and on theosophy and occultism. Among 
her numerous publications are “ Reincarna¬ 
tion ” (1892) ; “Seven Principles of Man” 
(1892) ; “ Autobiography ” (1893) ; “ Death 
and After” (1893) ; “Building of the Kos- 
mos ” (1894); “In the Outer Court” 

(1895) ; “Karma” (1895) ; “The Self and 
Its Sheaths” (1895); “Path of Disciple- 
ship” (1896); “Man and His Bodies” 
(1896); “Four Great Religions” (1897); 
“The Ancient Wisdom” (1897); “Three 
Paths to Union with God” (1897), etc. 

Besant, Sir Walter, an English novel¬ 
ist; born in Portsmouth, England, Aug. 14, 
1836; was educated in London and at 
Christ’s College, Cambridge, where he grad¬ 
uated with mathematical honors. He was 
for a time professor in the Royal College, 
Mauritius. His first work, “ Studies in 
Early French Poetry,” appeared in 1868, 
and to the field of French literature also 
belong his “French Humorists” (1873), 
and his “ Rabelais ” (1877 for the “ Foreign 
Classics” series). He was for years secre¬ 
tary to the Palestine Exploration Fund, and 
published a “ History of Jerusalem ” 
(1871) in conjunction with Professor Pal¬ 
mer, a life of whom he also wrote. The 
“ Survey of Western Palestine ” was edited 
by him. He is best known by his novels, 
a number of which were written in part¬ 
nership with the late James Rice, including 
“Ready-Money Mortiboy ” (1872); “This 
Son of Vulcan”; “The Case of Mr. Lu- 
craft”; “The Golden Butterfly” (1876); 
“The Monks of Thelema”; etc. After Mr. 
Rice’s death (1882) Sir Walter wrote: 
“ All Sorts and Conditions of Men ” (1882), 
which led to the establishment of the Peo¬ 
ple’s Palace in London; “ All in a Garden 
Fair” (1883); “Dorothy Foster” (1884); 
“ The World Went very Well Then ” 
(1887); “The Ivory Gate” (1892); “The 
Rebel Queen ” (1893) ; “ Beyond the Dreams 
of Avarice” (1895); “The Orange Girl” 
(1899); “The Alabaster Box” (1900); 
“The Story of King Alfred” (1901), etc. 
Among his other works are “ The Eulogy of 
Richard Jeffries” (1888). He labored for 
many years to promote the interests of all 




Besika Bay 


Bessemer 


members of the literary profession, more 
especially in his capacity as editor of the 
monthly paper, “ The Author.” On May 24, 
1895, he was knighted. He died in London, 
June 9, 1901. 

Besika Bay, a bay on the N. W. coast 
of Asia Minor, opposite Tenedos, to the S. 
of the entrance of the Dardanelles. The 
English fleet was stationed here during 
crises in the Eastern question in 1853-1854 
and 1877-1878. 

Bessarabia, a Russian Province stretch¬ 
ing in a N. W. direction from the Black Sea, 
between the Prutli and Danube and the 
Dniester. It was conquered by the Turks 
in 1474, taken by the Russians 1770, ceded 
to them by the Peace of Bucharest, 1812; the 
S. E. extremity was given to Turkey in 
1850, but restored to Russia by treaty of 
Berlin, 1878, in exchange for the Dobrudsha. 
In the N. the country is hilly, but in the 
S. flat and low. It is fertile in grain, but 
is largely nsed for pasturage. Capital, 
Ivishenef. Pop., chiefly Wallachians, Gip¬ 
sies and Tartars (1908) 2,344,800. 

Bessarion, John, a Greek scholar, born 
in Trebizond in 1395, one of the most emi¬ 
nent restorers of learning in the 15tli century, 
and founder of the library of St. Mark at 
Venice; was a monk of the Order of St. Basil. 
He was drawn from his monastery in the 
Peloponnesus, where he had passed 20 years, 
to accompany the Emperor John Palseologus 
to the great council of Florence, where he 
effected, 1439, a union of short duration 
between the Greek and Roman Churches. 
He was made a Cardinal by Pope Eugenius, 
and had afterward the title of Patriarch of 
Constantinople given him by Pius II. He 
spent the last 30 years of his life at Rome, 
devoting himself to the promotion of liter¬ 
ature, and discharging several important 
embassies. An admirer of Plato, he wrote 
a work in defense of the Platonic philosophy 
in answer to George of Trebizond. He died 
in Ravenna, Nov. 19, 1472. 

Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm, astronomer, 
born in Minden, Prussia, July 22, 1784. 
He attracted the attention of Olbers by 
his computation of the orbit of the comet 
of 1G07 from observations which had just 
been discovered, and was offered the position 
of assistant in Schroter’s observatory; ap¬ 
pointed director of the new observatory at 
Konigsberg, where the rest of his active 
life was passed. His systematic and thor¬ 
ough methods of reducing observations, 
freeing them from instrumental errors, and 
correcting them for precession, aberration 
and mutation, as developed in his reduc¬ 
tion of Bradley’s observations in the 
“ Fundamenta Astronomic ” and completed 
later in the “ Tabulce Regiomontanc,” are 
still the models on which all such work 
is done. He first developed the theory of 


correcting for instrumental sources of error 
in all kinds of observations, and almost all 
the improvements in astronomical accuracy 
since his time have been only the further 
carrying out of his ideas. His investiga¬ 
tions into the length of the seconds pendu¬ 
lum and that of standards of length were of 
the highest importance. His triangulation 
of the Pleiades, his cometary investigations, 
and many others too numerous to mention 
here were all of the highest order of accu¬ 
racy. The later years of his life were largely 
taken up with this subject of the general 
connection of all the European triangula¬ 
tions into one consistent system, and from 
these and from the work of the English in 
India, he deduced a value for the figure and 
dimensions of the earth which is probably 
nearly as accurate as any that we have to¬ 
days from all the investigations since. He 
died in Konigsberg, March 17, 1S4G. 

Bessels, Emil, a German naturalist, born 
in Heidelberg, June 2, 1847; was educated 
in the University of Heidelberg, and while 
an assistant at the Royal Museum in 
Stuttgart became interested in the subject 
of Arctic research. In 1SG9 he was a 
member of Petermann’s expedition that 
sailed into the sea between Spitzbergen and 
Nova Zembla. In 1871 he came to the United 
States and was appointed both naturalist 
and surgeon to the expedition under Capt. 
Charles F. Hall, United States Navy. Most 
of the scientific results of this expedition 
were gathered by his personal efforts, and 
published under the title of “ Report on 
the Scientific Results of the Polaris Expe¬ 
dition” (1876). In 1879 he published a 
German narrative of the expedition, illus¬ 
trated with his own sketches. Later he 
returned to Germany, where he devoted him¬ 
self to literary pursuits, art and geograph¬ 
ical instruction. He died in Stuttgart, 
March 30, 1888. 

Bessemer, a town in Jefferson co., Ala.; 
on several trunk railroads; 11 miles S. 
W. of Birmingham, the county-seat. It was 
founded in 1887 as a manufacturing place 
because of the valuable iron and coal mines 
in its immediate vicinity. It contains iron 
foundries, coke ovens, a number of blast fur¬ 
naces, machine shops, planing mills, iron 
pipe works, fire brick works and other works 
connected with the iron and steel industry. 
It is the seat of Montezuma University and 
Medical College, and has a savings bank, 
several daily and weekly newspapers and 
a propertv valuation of $2,500,000. Pop. 
(1900) 6,358; (1910) 10,864. 

Bessemer, city and county-seat of Goge¬ 
bic co., Mich., on the Chicago and Northwest¬ 
ern and several other railroads; 40 miles 
E. of Ashland, Wis. It is in an important 
iron mining and lumbering region; was 
founded in 1884, and has become important 



Bessemer 


Bessemer Steel 


by reason of its mining and manufacturing 
and its trade relations with the surround¬ 
ing territory. It has a notably fine high 
school building, stone court-house, a Na¬ 
tional bank, and weekly newspapers. Pop. 
(1900) 3,911. 

Bessemer, Sir Henry, an English in¬ 
ventor, born in Charlton, Hertfordshire, 
Jan. 19, 1813; began modeling and designing 
patterns when 18 years old; chose engineer¬ 
ing as a profession, and, after long and 
costly experiments, announced, in 1856, his 
discovery of a means of rapidly and cheaply 
converting pig iron into steel, by blowing 
a blast of air through the iron when in a 
state of fusion (see Bessemer Steel). For 
this discovery the Institution of Civil En¬ 
gineers awarded him the Gold Telford Medal, 
and several foreign governments honored 
him with valuable tokens. In the United 
States appreciation of his great discovery 
took the form of creating industrial cities 
and towns under his name. He was elected 
President of the Iron and Steel Institute of 
Great Britain in 1871 ; knighted by the 
Queen in 1879, and received the freedom of 
the city of London in 1880. He died in 
London, March 15, 1898. 

Bessemer Steel, steel made from pig 
iron, from which practically all the carbon, 
etc., has been removed by exposing the 
molten mass to a current of air. The Bes¬ 
semer process, that of Sir Henry Bessemer, 
patented 1856, is the boldest and most 
noted attempt as yet made to improve on 
the older methods of making both malleable 
iron and steel. Bessemer’s first idea was 
to blow air through molten pig iron till 
practically the whole of the carbon was 
oxidized when malleable iron was required, 
and to stop the blowing when a sufficient 
degree of decarburization was effected in 
order to produce steel. By this process, steel 
has been produced ranging from 1.00 per 
cent, carbon to .08 per cent, carbon, the for¬ 
mer being a steel suitable for springs, 
and the latter a soft material replacing 
wrought iron, rail steel usually contain¬ 
ing .4 to .5 per cent, carbon. But service¬ 
able steel can not be made by the plan 
first specified by Bessemer except from the 
best charcoal iron, such as the Swedish. 
In England, where charcoal iron is not 
used for this purpose, the process can be 
successfully conducted only by first oxidiz¬ 
ing the whole of the carbon and silicon, 
and then restoring the proper amount of 
carbon by the addition of a small quantity 
of a peculiar manganiferous iron, of known 
composition, called spiegeleisen. Moreover, 
until recently, hematite pig was the only 
kind of English pig iron which could be 
employed, as that made from clay ironstone 
contained too much phosphorus and sul¬ 
phur; but by the Thomas Gilchrist modifi¬ 

56 


cation of the Bessemer process impure ores 
can now be employed. 

Process of Manufacture .— The various 
steps in the Bessemer process, as at present 
conducted, are as follows: Pig iron is 

melted either in a cupola or taken direct 
from blast furnace, and run in the liquid 
state into a converting vessel. The con¬ 
verter, as it is called, is a steel shell, lined 
with a silicious material caHed “ ganister,” 
and is suspended on trunnions, so as to ad¬ 
mit of its being turned from an upright to a 
horizontal position by means of hydraulic 
cylinder. The capacity of a converter varies 
from 3 to 17 tons. In the bottom there are 
10 to 16 tuyers, each with 7 to 10 holes of 
about one-half inch in diameter, through 
which air is blown with a pressure of from 



BESSEMER CONVERTER, 
a a a, tuyers; b, air-space; c, melted metal. 


18 to 25 pounds per square inch by a blow¬ 
ing engine. The molten iron in the con¬ 
verter is therefore resting, from the first, 
on a bed of air, the strength of the blast 
being sufficient to keep it from falling 
through the tuyers into the blastway. Dur¬ 
ing the blowing off of the carbon at this 
stage a striking and magnificent effect is 
produced by the roar of the blast, and the 
volcanic-like shower of sparks and red hot 
fragments from the mouth of the con¬ 
verter, as well as by the dazzling splendor 
of the flame. In 10 or 20 minutes practi¬ 
cally the whole of the carbon is removed. 

After the Blow .— When the blow is 
finished, the converter is lowered to a hori¬ 
zontal position, and a definite amount of 
molten spiegeleisen is run in, till it amounts 
to from 5 to 10 per cent, of the whole charge. 




































Bessey 


Bestiary 


As already stated, the spiegeleisen restores 
the proper amount of carbon to produce steel 
suitable for rails. When it is desired to 
manufacture a soft steel similar in proper¬ 
ties to wrought iron, instead of molten spie¬ 
geleisen, a small amount of ferro-manganese 
is added (*4 per cent.) while pouring the 
steel into the ladle. There is a circular pit 
in front of every two converters, with a hy¬ 
draulic piston in its center, and on its 
counterpoised arm a large ladle is hung, so 
that it can sweep the whole circumference. 
Round this the ingot molds are arranged, 
and the hydraulic machinery is so conven¬ 
iently planned that, simply by moving 
levers, a man standing on a small platform 
can empty the contents of the huge con¬ 
verters into the ladle, raise or lower the 
ladle itself, and turn it round from point to 
point so as to fill the molds by means of 
a plug in its bottom. The molds are taken 
from the ingots, which are then sent to heat¬ 
ing furnaces, where they are brought to an 
even and suitable heat, after which they 
are rolled down in a blooming mill to 
smaller rectangular sections, which are 
known to the trade as blooms, billets and 
slabs. These in turn are again heated and 
rolled into rails, beams, rods, plates, etc. 

Production in the United States .— The 
total production of Bessemer steel ingots in 
1908 was 6,116,755 long tons, against 11,- 
667,549 in 1907, and 12,275,830 in 1906, the 
latter surpassing all previous records in 
this industry. The decrease in 1908 was 
attributed to the general business depres¬ 
sion and the restriction of railroad opera¬ 
tions. Of the ingots produced in 1906, Penn¬ 
sylvania furnished 4,827,725 tons; Ohio, 
3,769,913; Illinois, 1,684,772; and all other 
{States, 1,993,420. The production of all 
kinds of Bessemer steel rails direct from 
ingots by the producers of Bessemer steel 
ingots in 1902 was 2,876,293 gross tons, 
against a similar production of 2,361,921 
tons in 1900, and 1.955,427 tons in 1898. 
The maximum production of Bessemer steel 
rails by the producers of Bessemer steel 
ingots was reached in 1902. The year of 
next largest production Avas 1901, when 
2.836.273 tons A\ T ere made. Of the total 
production of Bessemer rails in 1902, Penn¬ 
sylvania made 1,148,425 tons, and other 
States made 1,727,868 tons. A. Monell. 

Bessey, Charles Edwin, an American 
botanist, born in Wilton, O., May 21, 1845; 
educated at Har\ T ard University; Professor 
of Botany in the Iowa Agricultural College 
in 1870-1884; Professor of Botany in the 
University of Nebraska since 1884. He was 
also President of the Society for the Promo¬ 
tion of Agricultural Science in 1883-1885; 
President of the Nebraska Academy of 
Sciences in 1891; acting Chancellor of the 
University of Nebraska in 1888-1891; Fel¬ 
low of the American Association for the Ad¬ 
vancement of Science. His publications in¬ 


clude “Reports on Insects” (1873-1874); 
“Geography of Iowa” (1876); “The Ery- 
siphei of North America ” (1877) ; “ Botany 
for High Schools and Colleges” (1880); 
“Essentials of Botany” (1884); “Reports 
of the State Botanist of Nebraska” (1887 
to 1892), etc. He was editor in charge of 
the Department of Botany of “Johnson’s 
Universal Cyclopaedia,” in 1892-1895. 

Bessieres, Jean Baptiste (bes-yar'), 

Duke of Istria, a marshal of the French Em¬ 
pire, born of poor parents at Preissac, Aug. 
6, 1768. Entering the army in 1792 as a 
private soldier, in less than two years he 
had attained the rank of captain. After 
making the Spanish campaign, he passed 
into the army of Italy, and soon attracted 
the notice of Napoleon, Avho took him to 
Egypt in 1798, Avhere his conduct at St. 
Jean d’Acre and Aboukir covered him with 
glory. At the accession of Napoleon (1804) 
to the throne, he became Marshal of France. 
He showed his usual conspicuous courage at 
Austerlitz, Jena, Eylau, and Friedland, and, 
raised to the rank of Duke of Istria, com¬ 
manded in Spain in 1808-1809. In the Rus¬ 
sian campaign he led the cavalry of the 
Guard, and did much by his sleepless cour¬ 
age and presence of mind to save the wreck 
of the armv in the disastrous retreat from 
Moscoav. On the morning of the battle of 
Liitzen (May 1, 1813), he fell mortally 
Avounded by a cannon ball. 

Best, William Thomas, an English mu¬ 
sician, born in Carlisle, Aug. 13, 1826; re¬ 
ceded his musical training from Mr. Young, 
the organist of the Carlisle Cathedral. In 
1848 he was appointed organist of the Phil¬ 
harmonic Society in Liverpool; in 1852 he 
Avent to London and became organist of the 
Panopticon of Science and Art, and also 
of the Church of St. Martin-in-the-Fields; 
in 1854 was organist of Lincoln’s Inn Chapel; 
in 1855, returned to Liverpool, and became 
organist of St. George’s Hall; in 1868 Avas 
organist of the Liverpool Musical Society; 
and in 1872 Avas again engaged by the Phil¬ 
harmonic Society. He Avas the author of 
“ The Modern School for the Organ ” (1853); 
“ The Art of Organ Playing ” (1870) ; “ Ar¬ 
rangements from the Scores of the Great 
Masters” (1873); “The Organ Student/' 
“ Organ Concertos,” “ Opera and Oratorio 
Songs,” etc. He died in Liverpool, May 10, 
1897. 

Bestiary, the name given to a class of 
Avritten books of great popularity in the 
Middle Ages, describing all the animals of 
creation, real or fabled, composed partly in 
prose, partly in verse, and generally illus¬ 
trated by drawings. But they Avere valuable 
for the moral allegories they contained, no 
less than as handbooks of zoological facts. 
The symbolism Avhich was then so much in 
vogue fastened spiritual meanings upon the 
several animals, until every quality of good 



Bestusheff 


Bethany College 


or evil in the soul of man had its type in 
the beast world. It is in this way to the 
bestiaries that we must look for explana¬ 
tion of the strange, grotesque creatures 
which are found sculptured on the churches 
and other buildings of the Middle Ages. 
The oldest Latin bestiaries had an early 
Greek original, the well known “ Physiol- 
ogus,” under which name about 50 such al¬ 
legories were grouped. The Greek text of 
this famous work is found only in manu¬ 
script. There are old Syriac, Armenian, 
Ethiopic, Arabic, Icelandic, and numerous 
Latin versions. Editions of the Latin have 
been issued — Mai, Heider, and Cahier. An 
Old High German version was made earlier 
than the lltli century; in the 12tli century, 
versions in French were made by Philippe 
de Thaun and Guillaume, a priest of Nor¬ 
mandy. The “ Bestiary of Love ” of Richard 
de Fournival was rather a parody upon the 
earlier form of such books. The following 
is a characteristic extract from the “ Divine 
Bestiary: ” “ The unicorn has but one horn 
in the middle of its forehead. It is the only 
animal that ventures to attack the elephant; 
and so sharp is the nail of its foot, that with 
one blow it rips up the belly of that most 
terrible of all beasts. The hunters can 
catch the unicorn only by placing a young 
virgin in the forest which it haunts. No 
sooner does this marvellous animal descry 
the damsel, than it runs toward her, lies 
down at her feet, and so suffers itself to be 
taken by the hunters. The unicorn repre¬ 
sents our Lord Jesus Christ, who, taking 
our humanity upon him in the Virgin’s 
womb, was betrayed by the wicked Jews, and 
delivered into the hands of Pilate. Its one 
horn signifies the Gospel truth, that Christ 
is one with the Father,” etc. 

Bestusheff, Alexander Alexandrovich 

(bes-to'shef), a Russian novelist and sol¬ 
dier, born in St. Petersburg, Nov. 3, 1797. 
Of his numerous novels, the most celebrated 
are “ Ammalat-Beg,” “ The Nadeshda Frig¬ 
ate,” “ The Terrible Prophecy.” His “ Pri¬ 
vate Correspondence ” is highly prized. He 
was killed in battle in the Caucasus, July 
19, 1837. 

Bestusheff, Michael Alexis Petrovitch, 

a Russian statesman and soldier,, born in 
Moscow, in June, 1G93; enjoyed the favor 
of Peter the Great, Anna, and Elizabeth; 
was appointed imperial chancellor by Eliza¬ 
beth (1744); degraded and exiled on a 
charge of treason (1758) ; was recalled and 
made a field marshal by Catherine II. He 
died April 21, 1766. 

Betauzos, Juan Jose de (be-to'thos), 
a Spanish historian and adventurer of the 
16th century; was author of an account of 
the conquest of Peru by Pizarro. 

Betel, or Betle, the English name of the 
piper betle, a shrubby plant with evergreen 


Its 

few 


leaves, belonging to the typical genus of the 
order jnperacece (pepperworts). It is ex¬ 
tensively cultivated in the East Indies, 
leaf is used as a wrapper to inclose a 
slices of the 
areca palm 
nut with a 
little shell 
1 i m e. The 
Southern Asi¬ 
atics are per¬ 
petually chew¬ 
ing it to sweet¬ 
en the breath, 
to strengthen 
the stomach, 
and, if hunger 
be present, to 
deaden its 
cravings. It 
is called pan, 
or pan soo- 
paree. It is 
offered by na¬ 
tives of the 
East to their 
European vis¬ 
itors, and is 
often all that 
is laid before 
one accepting an invitation to their houses. 

Betelgeuse (bet-el-ges'), or Betelgeux, 
the star Alpha Orionis, the bright, reddish 
star in one of the shoulders of Orion. It 
varies somewhat in brightness, but in no 
regular period. 

Betham=Edwards, Matilda, an English 
author, born in Suffolk, in 1836; was edu¬ 
cated privately; has published numerous 
works in poetry, fiction, and on French rural 
life. She was made an officer of public in¬ 
struction in France in 1891. Among her 
works are “ The White House by the Sea,” 
“ Kitty,” “ The Dream Charlotte,” “ France 
of To-Day,” “ A Romance of Dijon,” “ The 

of poems, 
“ Trav- 



BETEL NUT. 
a, bud; b, fruit; c, nut. 


Lord of the Harvest,” a volume 


and 

els 


m 


an edition 
France.” 


of Arthur 


Young’s 


Bethania, or Bethany, a town in Syria, 
about 2 miles S. E. of Jerusalem, on the 
way to Jericho. It is now a small place, in¬ 
habited by a few Turkish families, by whom 
it is called Lazari, in memory of Lazarus, 
who dwelt here, and who was here raised 
from the dead. The inhabitants show the 
pretended sites of the houses of Lazarus, of 
Martha, of Simon the leper, and of Mary 
Magdalene. The alleged tomb of Lazarus, a 
large excavation in the rock, is also shown 
to the credulous. The situation of Bethania 
is extremely picturesque. 

Bethany College, a co-educational insti¬ 
tution in Linsborg, Kan.; organized in 1881; 
under the auspices of the Lutheran Church; 
has grounds and buildings valued at over 
$225,000; scientific apparatus, $15,000; en- 






Bethany College 


Bethlehemites 


dowment, about $60,000; income from al 
sources, average $78,000; volumes in the 
library, over 12,000; professors and instruc- 
ors, 45; students, about 900. 

Bethany College, a co-educational insti¬ 
tution in Bethany, W. Va.; organized in 
1841; under the auspices of the Church of 
the Disciples; has grounds and buildings 
valued at over $200,000; scientific appara¬ 
tus, $25,000; endowment, $150,000; volumes 
in the library, over 11,000; income, about 
$25,000; professors and instructors, 20; stu¬ 
dents, about 345. 

Bethel, a town of Palestine, about 10 miles 
from Jerusalem, now called Beitin. or Beiteen. 
the patriarch Jacob here had a vision of 
angels, in commemoration of which he built 
an altar. Interesting ruins abound in the 
vicinity. 

Bethel College, an educational institu¬ 
tion in Russellville, Ky.; organized in 1854; 
under the auspices of the Baptist Church; 
has grounds and buildings valued at over 
$100,000; productive funds, $100,000; scien¬ 
tific apparatus, about $5,000; ordinary in¬ 
come, over $6,000; volumes in the library, 
over 6.000; professors and instructors, about 
6; students, 70. 

Bethencourt, Jean de, a Norman baron; 
chamberlain to Charles VI., King of France. 
Being ruined in the war with England, he 
sought to repair his fortunes in foreign 
countries, and made a descent from Spain 
on the Canary Isles, in 1402. Not having 
sufficient force, however, he returned, and 
obtained reinforcements from Henry III. of 
Castile, with which he was successful, and 
was crowned King in 1404, under the title 
of Louis. He converted the greater portion 
of the Canaries to Christianity, and, in 1405, 
received from the Pope the appointment of 
Bishop to the islands. The following year 
he went to Normandy, where he passed the 
remainder of his days, dying in 1425. 

Bethesda, a pool in Jerusalem, near St. 
Stephen’s Gate, and the Temple of Omar. 
It is 460 feet long, 130 broad, and 75 deep, 
and is now known as Birket Israel (see John 
v: 2-9). 

Bethlehem, a borough in Northampton 
co., Pa.; on the Lehigh river and canal, and 
the Lehigh Valley, the Central of New Jer¬ 
sey, and other railroads; 57 miles N. of 
Philadelphia. It was founded in 1741 by 
Moravians, under Count Zinzendorf, and is 
the chief center of that sect in the United 
States. It contains a Moravian Theological 
Seminary, a Moravian Seminary for young 
ladies, more than a dozen churches, and 
two National banks. On the opposite side 
of the river, here spanned by two bridges, is 
South Bethlehem, the seat of Lehigii 
University (q. v.), the main offices of the 
Lehigh Valley Railroad Company, and a 
number of important manufacturing estab¬ 
lishments, including silk mills, rolling mills, 


foundries and machine shops, brass works, 
zinc oxide and spelter works, etc. Monocaey 
creek separates Bethlehem from West' Beth¬ 
lehem, consolidation of which with Bethlehem 
was authorized in 1904. Pop. (1900) Beth¬ 
lehem, 7293 ; West Bethlehem, 3,465; (1910) 
Bethlehem, 12,837 ; South Bethlehem, 19,973. 

Bethlehem (“house of bread;” modern 
Beitlahm), the birthplace of Jesus Christ 
and of King David, and the Epliratali of the 
history of Jacob; is now a small, unwalled 
village of white stone houses, in the midst 
of a most interesting country, 6 miles S. of 
Jerusalem. The population, about 3,000, is 
wholly Christian — Latin, Greek, and Ar¬ 
menian. The Convent of the Nativity, a 
large, square building, resembling a for¬ 
tress, was built by the Empress Helena, in 
327 A. d., but destroyed by the Moslems in 
1236, and, it is supposed, restored by the 
crusaders. Within it is the Church of the 
Nativity, which is subdivided among the 
Latins, Greeks, and Armenians, for devo¬ 
tional purposes. The church is built in the 
form of a cross; the nave, which is by far the 
finest part of the building, belongs to the 
Armenians, and is supported by 48 beautiful 
Corinthian columns of solid granite, each 
between two and three feet in thickness, and 
about 17 in height. The other portions of 
the church, forming the arms of the cross, 
are walled up. At the farther end of that 
section, which forms the head of the cross, 
and on the threshold, is a sculptured marble 
star, which the Bethlehemites say covers 
the central point of the earth. Here a long 
intricate passage descends to the crypt be¬ 
low, where the blessed Virgin is said to have 
been delivered. The walls of the chamber 
are hung with draperies of the gayest col¬ 
ors; and a silver star, with the words, “Hie 
de Virgine Maria Jesus Christus natus est ” 
(here Jesus Christ was born of the Virgin 
Mary), marks the spot of the Nativity. The 
manger stands in a low recess cut in the 
rock. The site appears to have been ven¬ 
erated since the 2d century a. d., and St. 
Jerome, a monk of this convent, toward the 
end of the 4th century, found the grotto in 
possession of pagans, who celebrated here 
the birth of Adonis. To the N. W. stands a 
square domed building, marking the reputed 
site of Rachel’s tomb. The Bethlehemites 
chiefly gain their subsistence by the manu¬ 
facture and sale of crucifixes, beads, boxes, 
shells, etc., of mother-of-pearl and olive 
wood. 

Bethlehemites, a name applied (1) to 
lie followers of Jerome Huss, from Bethle- 
lem Church, where he preached; (2) to an 
order of monks, established, according to 
Matthew Paris, in 1257, with a monastery 
at Cambridge; (3) to an order founded in 
Guatemala about 1655 by Fray Pedro, a 
Franciscan tertiary, a native of TenerifTe. 
It spread to Mexico, Peru, and the Canarv 



BethIem=Gabor 


Betts 


Islands. An order of nuns founded in 1667 
bore the same name. 

Bethlem-Gabor, a Bohemian military of¬ 
ficer, born of a Protestant Magyar family in 
1580; fought under Gabriel Bathori, and 
then joined the Turks, by whose aid he made 
himself Prince of Transylvania in 1613. In 
1619 he assisted the Bohemians against Aus¬ 
tria, and, marching into Hungary, was 
elected King by the nobles (1620). This 
title he surrendered in return for the ces¬ 
sion to him by the Emperor Frederick II. of 
seven Hungarian counties and two Silesian 
principalities. After a brilliant reign, he 
died in 1629. 

Bethsaida (beth-si'da), a Aullage on the 
W. shore of the Lake of Galilee, the birth¬ 
place of Peter and Andrew and Philip. Its 
site has been identified with a heap of grass- 
grown ruins. At the N. E. extremity of the 
lake was another Bethsaida, a village, near 
which the 5,000 were fed. Philip the Te- 
trarch raised it to the dignity of a town, 
and renamed it Julias, in honor of the Em¬ 
peror Augustus’ daughter. 

Bethune, Charles James Stewart, a 

Canadian educator, born in West Flamboro, 
Ont., Aug. 11, 1838; graduated at Trinity 
College, Toronto, in 1859; ordained deacon 
in 1861, and priest in 1862. He became in¬ 
cumbent of the Credit Mission in 1866, and 
in 1870 was appointed to the head master¬ 
ship of Trinity College School, in Port Hope. 
He is well known as a writer on scientific 
subjects. He was the first editor of “ The 
Canadian Entomologist,” a monthly maga¬ 
zine. Resigning this place, he edited for a 
considerable time the entomological depart¬ 
ment of the “ Canadian Farmer” and the 
“ Weekly Globe.” In 1886 he again became 
editor of the “ Canadian Entomologist.” 
In 1892 he was elected a Fellow of the 
Royal Society of Canada. 

Bethune, George Washington, an 

American Dutch Reformed clergyman and 
poet, born in New York, March 18, 1805; 
was a most lovable man, noted as an orator 
and a wit. He had charges at Rhinebeck 
and Utica, N. Y., Philadelphia, Brooklyn, 
and New York city. Besides religious 
works, he wrote “ British Female Poets,” 
“Lays of Love and Faith” (1847), several 
of the hymns in which are widely used. He 
also published an edition of Izaak Walton’s 
“Complete Angler” (1846), etc. He died 
in Florence, Italy, April 27, 1862. 

Betony, a genus of plants belonging to 
the order lamiacece (labiates). The calyx 
is ten ribbed, with five awned teeth, and the 
lower lip of the corolla is trifid. Betonica 
officinalis, or wood betony, grows in shady 
places. It is called by Bentham and others 
stachys betonica. When fresh it has an in¬ 
toxicating effect; the dried leaves excite 
sneezing. The roots are bitter and very nau¬ 


seous, and the plant is used to dye wool a 
fine, dark yellow. 

Betterton, Thomas, English actor, born 
in 1635; excelled in Shakespeare’s characters 
of Hamlet, 

Othello, Bru¬ 
tus, and Hot¬ 
spur, and was 
the means of 
introducing 
shifting 
scenes instead 
of tapestry 
upon the Eng- 
lisli stage. 

He wrote the 
“ W o m a n 
Made a Jus¬ 
tice,” a com¬ 
edy; “The 
A m o r o u s 

0r TIIOMAS BETTERTON. 

the Wanton 

\\ ife,” “ Diocletian,” a dramatic opera, etc. 
Mrs. Sanderson, whom he married in 1670, 
was also an actress of repute. He died in 
1710, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 

Betteloni, Vittorio (bet-el-o'ne), an Ital¬ 
ian poet, born in Verona in 1840. He was 
educated in Pisa, and became Professor of 
Italian Literature and History in the Fe¬ 
male College in Verona. His verse proves him 
an adherent of that Italian classical school 
which dates from 1869, and includes “ In the 
Springtime” (1869); “New Stanzas” 
(1880) ; and a translation of Goethe’s “ Her¬ 
man and Dorothea.” 

Betting, or Wagering, a contract by 
which two or more parties agree that a cer¬ 
tain sum of money or other thing shall be 
paid or delivered to one of them on the hap¬ 
pening or not happening of an uncer¬ 
tain event. At common law, wagers are 
not per se, void, but statutes prohibit¬ 
ing betting have been passed by many 
of the States. When one loses a wager 
and gets another to pay the money 
for him, an action lies for the recovery of 
the money. Wagers on the event of an elec¬ 
tion laid before the poll is open, or after it 
is closed, are illegal. In horse-racing, 
simple bets upon a race are unlawful both in 
England and the United States. In the case 

o 

even of a legal wager, the authority of a 
stakeholder, like that of an arbitrator, may 
be rescinded by either party before the event 
happens. 

Betts, Craven Langstroth, an American 
poet and story writer, born in New Bruns¬ 
wick, in 1853. Besides translating “ Songs 
from BGranger ” in the original meters, he 
wrote “ The Perfume Holder, a Persian 
Love Poem; ” and, with A. W. H. Eaton, 
“ Tales of a Garrison Town.” 




Betty 


Bewick 


Betty, William Henry West, better 

known as the Young Roscius, an English 
actor, born at Shrewsbury in 1791; first ap¬ 
peared on the stage at the age of 11 in Bel¬ 
fast, and achieved an immediate success. 
For almost five years he sustained the heav¬ 
iest parts before crowded and enthusiastic 
audiences. In 1805 Mr. Pitt adjourned the 
House of Commons to permit members to 
witness the boy’s Hamlet. He quitted the 
stage as a boy actor in 1808, but after study¬ 
ing for a while at Cambridge, returned to it 
in 1812. He retired finally in 1824, and 
lived for 50 years in the enjoyment of the 
fortune he had so early amassed. He died 
in London, Aug. 24, 1874. 

Betula, a genus of plants, the typical one 
of the order betulacece (birchworts). The 
B. alba, or common birch, the B. nana, 
or dwarf birch, and the B. papyracea, or 
paper or canoe birch, are species included in 
this genus. 

Betwa, a river of India rising in the 
Vindhya range in Bhopal, and, after a N. 
E. course of 360 miles, joining the Jumna 
at Hamirpur. 

Beust (hoist), Friedrich Ferdinand, 
Count von, an Austrian statesman, born in 
Dresden, Jan. 13, 1809. He adopted the 
career of diplomacy, and as member of em¬ 
bassies or ambassador for Saxony resided at 
Berlin, Paris, Munich and London. He was 
successively Minister of Foreign Affairs and 
of the Interior for Saxony. At the London 
conference regarding the Schleswig-Holstein 
difficulty he represented the German Bund. 
He lent his influence on the side of Austria 
against Prussia before the war of 1866, af¬ 
ter which, finding his position in Saxony 
difficult, he entered the service of Austria 
as Minister of Foreign Affairs, became 
President of the Ministry, Imperial Chancel¬ 
lor, and, in 1868, was created Count. In 
1871-1878 he was Ambassador in London, 
in 1878-1882, in Paris. He died near 
Vienna, Oct. 24, 1886. 

Beveland, North and South, two isl¬ 
ands in the Province of Zeeland, Nether¬ 
lands, in the estuary of the Scheldt. North 
Beveland is 13 miles in length, contains 
about 15,000 acres; pop. 6,000; in 1532 it 
was submerged and remained under water 
for several years. South Beveland is about 
20 miles in length, contains 84,000 acres; 
pop. 23,000; principal city, Goes (pop. 
5,000); the soil is fertile, producing wheat, 
potatoes and fruits. 

Beveridge, Albert Jeremiah, an Amer¬ 
ican lawyer, born in Highland county, O., 
Oct. 6, 1862; was brought up on a farm; grad¬ 
uated at De Pauw University; and engaged in 
law practice in Indianapolis. He entered 
political life in 1883, and soon won a repu¬ 
tation as an effective orator. On Jan. 17, 
1899, he was elected United States Senator 


for Indiana, as a Republican. Soon after his 
election lie went to the Philippine Islands; 
made a thorough study of conditions there; 
and later delivered a thrilling speech in the 
Senate in support of the Administration’s 
policy in the Ear East. In 1909-1910 he was 
a conspicuous “ insurgent ” leader in Con¬ 
gress. 

Beverly, a city in Essex co., Mass.; on 
the Boston and Maine railroad; 2 miles 
N. of Salem. It was founded Oct. 14, 1668; 
was incorporated as a city March 23, 1894; 
contains several villages; and is connected 
by trolley lines with Salem, Peabody, Glou¬ 
cester, and Wenham. It is the seat of the 
New England Institute for the Deaf and 
Dumb; is principally engaged in the manu¬ 
facture of ladies’ boots and shoes, and 
leather; has considerable shipping and fish¬ 
ery interests; contains high and graded 
schools, a public library, a National bank, 
a number of handsome residences belonging 
to Boston business men; and has a property 
valuation exceeding $16,000,000. Pop. 
(1900) 13,884; (1910) 18,650. 

Bevis of Hampton, the hero of a popu¬ 
lar English medieval romance. The son of 
Sir Guy, Earl of Hamtoun, who was treach¬ 
erously murdered by Divoun, Emperor of 
Almayne, he was given by his false mother 
to some heathen merchants to be sold for a 
slave among the Paynim. By them he was 
carried to Ermony, where he soon became 
dear to King Ermyn, and dearer still to hia 
only daughter, the lovely Josian. His chief 
exploits were the overthrow of Brademond 
of Damascus, of a monstrous boar, of the 
giant Ascapard, whom he spared to become 
his squire, and of a dreadful dragon near 
Cologne. His famous sword Morglay he won 
in battle; his horse Arundel was the gift 
of Josian. Still more romantic episodes in 
his story are his carrying his own death- 
warrant in a sealed letter to the vassal 
Brademond, his escape from his noisome 
dungeon after seven years’ imprisonment, 
and recovery of his wife, who had preserved 
his love, though nominally the wife of King 
Ynor of Mombraunt. He next returned to 
England to avenge his father’s death, then 
sailed for Ermony and defeated l 7 nor in a 
desperate battle. His last great fight was 
in the streets of London, when he slaugh¬ 
tered 60,000 citizens, and forced King Edgar 
to grant him terms. Thirty-three years he 
then spent in love and perfect happiness at 
Ermony, dying at the same moment as his 
wife, while his famous steed Arundel had 
died just before. The romance was edited 
by Dr. E. Kolbing for the Early English 
Text Society, in 1885. 

Bewick, Thomas, an English wood en¬ 
graver, born in Northumberland in 1753. 
He was apprenticed to Beilby, an engraver 
in Newcastle, and executed the woodcuts 



Beyle 


B6za 


for Hutton’s “ Mensuration ” so admirably 
that his master advised him to turn his at¬ 
tention to wood engraving. With this view 
he proceeded to London, and, in 1775, re¬ 
ceived the Society of Arts prize for the best 
wood engraving. Returning in a short time 
to Newcastle, he entered into partnership 
with Beilbv, and became known as a skilled 
wood engraver and designer by his illustra¬ 
tions to “ Gay’s Fables,” “ iEsop’s Fables,” 
etc. lie quite established his fame by the 
issue, in 1790, of his “History of Quadru¬ 
peds” (text compiled by Beilby), the illus¬ 
trations of which were superior to anything 
hitherto produced in the art of wood engrav¬ 
ing. In 1797 appeared the first, and in 1S04 
the second, volume of his “ British Birds,” 
generally regarded as the finest of his 
works (text partly by Bewick). Enlarged 
and improved editions of both books soon 
followed. Among his other works may be 
cited, the engravings for Goldsmith’s “ Trav¬ 
eller,” and “ Deserted Village,” Parnell’s 
“ Hermit,” and Somerville’s “ Chase.” He 
died in 1828. His younger brother John, 
who gave promise of attaining equal emi¬ 
nence-, died in 1795, aged 35. 

Beyle, Marie Henri (bal), better known 
under the pseudonym of “ Stendhal,” a 
French novelist and critic, born in Gren¬ 
oble, Jan. 23, 1783. In spite of the inter¬ 
ruptions due to the political upheavals in 
which he became involved, he found time to 
display his critical and imaginative genius 
in “ Rome, Naples and Florence in 1817,” 
“ History of Painting in Italy,” and “ About 
Love,” but his celebrity now rests on 
“ The Chartreuse (Carthusian Nun) of 
Parma,” a magnificent fiction, brilliantly 
original, witty, and absorbing; and to a less 
extent upon “ The Red and the Black ” ( i. 
e., Priests and Soldiers), a romance possible 
only to a writer with the widest knowledge 
of men and things. He died in Paris, March 
23, 1842. 

Beyrout, or Beirut, a flourishing com¬ 
mercial town, situated in a most picturesque 
position on the coast of Syria, and at the 
foot of Lebanon, 55 miles from Damascus, 
and 147 from Jerusalem. It is the chief 
seaport, market-town, and emporium of all 
the trade with the shores of Syria, Pales¬ 
tine, and Cilicia, with a regular service of 
Egyptian, French, and British steamers. The 
latter bring Manchester goods, woolens, Ran¬ 
goon rice, hides, copper, iron, and coal, 
and return to England with corn and silk. 
Since the opening of the Suez Canal, a 
direct Eastern trade in spices, coffee, indi¬ 
go, and jute has sprung up. The roadstead 
is full of sand banks, and large ships cannot 
approach within half a mile of the shore, 
but shelter is found during stormy weather 
in the Beyrout river, about 3 miles from the 
town. Shipbuilding has received some at¬ 


tention. In 1859 a line of omnibuses, the 
first ever seen in Syria, was established here, 
and a French company completed in 1803 a 
good road to Damascus, of which Beyrout 
is the port; in 1875 an English company 
completed an extensive system of water¬ 
works; and in 1886 a concession for gas¬ 
works was sold to a Paris company. A 
Scottish school for Jews has been founded 
at Beyrout, as also the depot of the Amer- 
ican-Syrian mission, with a school, printing 
press, turning out a very large number of 
Arabic Bibles every year, and hospital with 
medical staff. In 1.902 the population of the 
town was estimated at 118,800 against 8,000 
in 1844, this increase being largely due to 
the settlement in 1800 of numbers of the 
Christian refugees from Damascus. 

On Sept. 4, 1903, a native Christian killed 
a Moslem. On the following day the Mos¬ 
lems rose against the Christians in different 
parts of the city, and for two days there 
was general rioting in which a number of 
persons, chiefly Greek Christians, were 
killed. The Christians fled from the city 
or remained at home behind barricaded 
doors, while armed and excited Moslems 
paraded the streets and assaulted all Chris¬ 
tians who appeared thereon. On the 7th 
the city began to assume a more quiet con¬ 
dition, as it became known that men would 
be landed from the United States cruisers 
“ Brooklyn ” and “ San Francisco ” to pre¬ 
serve order should rioting be resumed. The 
warships had been ordered there just before 
the uprising, on a report that the United 
States Vice-Consul at Beyrout had been 
assassinated on Aug. 23. 

Beza, or Beze, Theodore de, a French 
Protestant theologian and reformer, born in 
Vezelai, in 1519. After studying at Orleans 
and Bourges, he went, in 1539, to Paris, 
where he spent nine years, and then went to 
Geneva and married a woman to whom he 
had long been secretly engaged. Soon after¬ 
ward he was appointed Professor of Greek 
at Lausanne, a post which he held for 10 
years. In 1558, ho was sent to ask the in¬ 
tercession of several German princes in be¬ 
half of the persecuted Huguenots in France. 
The next year he settled at Geneva, and was 
thenceforth the associate of Calvin till his 
death, and his successor as Professor of 
Theology and head of the Protestant party. 
Beza undertook a mission to the King of 
Navarre, and succeeded in winning him to 
the side of the reformers. He took a lead¬ 
ing part at the celebrated Colloquv of 
Poissy, and was allowed to preach in Paris. 
He attended the Prince of Conde during the 
Civil War, and was at the battle of Dreux. 
Beza took part in several other synods and 
conferences between the opposing religious 
parties. His energy and activity of mind, 
like his bodily health, continued unabated 



Beziers 


Bhagalpur 


till lie was nearly 80 years of age, and he 
only ceased preaching in 1G00. Among his 
works are a Latin translation of the New 
Testament and “ History of the Reformed 
Churches in France.” He died in 1605. 



Beziers (bez-yar') , a town in Southern 
France, Department of Herault, beautifully 
situated on a height and surrounded by old 
walls, its chief edifices being the cathedral, 
a Gothic structure, crowning the height on 
which the town stands, and the old Epis¬ 
copal palace, now used for public offices; 
manufactures: woolens, hosiery, liquors, 
chemicals, etc., with a good trade in spirits, 
wool, grain, oil, verdigris, and fruits. In 
1209 Beziers was the scene of a horrible 
massacre of the Albigenses. Top. (1901) 
52,510. 

Bezique (bez-ek'), or Besique, a popu¬ 
lar game of cards of French origin in which 
a double pack containing the aces, tens, 
kings, queens, knaves, nine3, eights, and 
sevens are used, valued in the order given. 
The game is plaj^ed by two persons, to whom 
eight cards are dealt. Trumps may be de¬ 
termined either by turning up the first card 
of the stack or by the suit of the first mar¬ 
riage. The non-dealer leads for the first 
trick, and the winner of each trick has the 
succeeding lead. After each trick, each 
player draws one card from the top of the 
stack, the winner of the trick taking the top 
card. The playing is as in whist, the leader 
taking the trick unless his opponent plays 
a higher card of the same suit or a trump. 
It is not necessary to follow suit until the 
stack is exhausted, when one must do so and 
take each trick, if possible. Counting is 
done by means of the values of the cards; 
each ace or ten-spot taken in a trick counts 
10. the winner of the last trick of each 
hand scores 10, and if trump is turned, both 


sevens count 10 for the turner, and if one 
exchanges from his hand a seven of trumps 
for another turned trump or if one declares 
the other seven of trumps 10 more is scored. 
The game is won by the player who first 
makes 1,000 points, and if his opponent has 
not made 500 the game counts double. 
There are certain combinations of cards 
other than the above, which, when declared, 
count as follows: Double bezique (both 
queens of spades and both knaves of dia¬ 
monds) 500; sequence of five highest 
trumps, 250; and 4 aces, 100; any 4 kings, 
80; any 4 queens, GO; any 4 knaves, 40; be¬ 
zique (queen of spades and knave of dia¬ 
monds), 40; royal marriage (king and queen 
of trumps), 40; marriage (king and queen 
of same suit), 20. A declaration is made by 
placing the declared cards face up on the 
table where they remain till played or the 
stack is exhausted, except in the case of the 
seven of trumps. To score, a declaration can 
only be made after winning a trick and be¬ 
fore drawing, and but one declaration can 
be made at a time. After a card lias been 
used in one combination it may be used to 
form another, excepting when used to form 
an equal or inferior combination in the same 
class as before. A player need not declare a 
combination which he holds and only before 
the stack has been exhausted can a declara¬ 
tion be made. 

Bezoar, a morbid secretion sometimes 
found in the intestines of the wild goat of 
Persia (copra cegagrus) , or any other East¬ 
ern ruminant. It consisted of a portion of 
the undigested food of the animal agglutin¬ 
ated into a ball. Its full name was lapis 
bezoar orient ale ~ Oriental bezoar stone. 
Not often met with, and having had attri¬ 
buted to it, without a particle of evidence, 
the power of acting as an antidote to all 
•poisons, as well as curing many diseases, it 
sometimes fetched in the market 10 times 
its weight in gold. Also a similar concre¬ 
tion from the intestines of the American 
llamas ( auchenia llama and A. vicugna). 
This was known as the lapis bezoar occi- 
dentale (Occidental or Western bezoar 
stone). It never had quite the reputation 
of its Eastern compeer, but has shared its 
fall in being at last contemptuously dis¬ 
missed from the pharmacopoeia of all civili¬ 
zed lands. 

Bhagavatgita (be-h&g-S-vet-ge'te), or 
Bhagavadgita, in Sanskrit literature, a song 
relating a discourse between Krishna and 
his pupil Arjun in the midst of a battle. 
Schlegel considers it the most beautiful and 
perhaps the only true philosophical poem in 
the whole range of known literature. Its 
teaching is pantheistic. It consists of 18 
lectures. It has been translated into many 
’languages. 

Bhagalpur (be-hag-al'por), a city in Ben¬ 
gal, capital of a district and division of the 








Bharao 


Bhutan 


same name, on the right bank of the Gan¬ 
ges, here 7 miles wide. There are sev¬ 
eral indigo works in the neighborhood. 
Pop. (1901) 75,760. The division of Bhag- 
alpur has an area of 20,492 square miles, 
and a population (chiefly Hindus and Mo¬ 
hammedans) of 8,063,160. The district has 
an area of 4,268 square miles; pop. 1,966,- 
158. 

Ehamo, a town of Burma on the Upper 
Irrawaddy, about 40 miles from the Chi¬ 
nese frontier. It is the starting-point of 
caravans to Yunnan, and is in position to 
become one of the great emporiums of the 
East in event of a regular overland trade 
being established between India and West 
China. 

Bhartpur, or Bhurtpore, the capital of 
a protected State in Rajputana, India, is a 
large town, measuring about 8 miles in cir¬ 
cuit, 35 miles W. of Agra by rail. It is 
worthy of notice chiefly on account of its 
two sieges in 1805 and 1827. Pop. (1901) 
42,997. The State of Bhartpur has an area 
of 1,974 square miles; pop. (1901) 626,665, 
mostly Jats. 

Bhartrihari, an Indian poet, reputed au¬ 
thor of a book of apophthegms, according to 
legend a dissolute brother of King Vikrama- 
ditya (1st century b. c.), who became a 
hermit and ascetic. The collection of 300 
apophthegms bearing his name is, however, 
probably an anthology. Two hundred of 
them were translated into English and pub¬ 
lished at Niirnberg by Abraham Roger as 
early as 1653, the first Indian writings 
known in Europe. 

Bhatti, an Indian epic poet of the 6th or 
the 7th century. His poem, named after 
him “ Bhattikavyam,” is in 22 cantbs. Its 
theme is the deeds of Rama; but the au¬ 
thor designed the work to be also an exemp¬ 
lification of the rules of grammatical and 
rhetorical composition. It was published 
with a two-fold commentary at Calcutta 
(1828). 

Bhavabhuti (be-ha-va-be-ho'te), surnamed 
“ Srl-kantha,” an Indian dramatist, who 
flourished in the first half of the 8th cen¬ 
tury, and wrote at least three plays: the 
“ Mahavlracharita ” (“life of the great 
hero”), and the “ Uttararamacharita ” 
(“later life of Rama”), forming together, 
in seven acts each, a dramatized version of 
the story of the Ramayana; and the “ Mft- 
lati-madhnva,” a domestic drama in 10 acts, 
full of life and incident. Bhavabhtlti is 
often compared with Kalidasa, whom he 
equaled in vigor and variety, but hardly in 
genius. All three plays have been trans¬ 
lated into English. 

Bhawalpur. See Bahawulpur. 

Bhavishyapurana (bha-vish'ya-po-ra'nh), 
one of the 18 puranas in Sanskrit literature, 


known as the “ purana of the future,” from 
the supposition that it is a revelation of 
future events by Brahma which was commu¬ 
nicated by Sumantu to Satanika, one of the 
kings of the Pandu family. The opening 
of this purana treats of the creation; but 
it is now considered scarcely more than a 
transcript of Manu. It also forms a code 
of rites and observances. The work is nol 
regarded as prophetic. 

Bheels, or Bhils, a Dravidic race inhab¬ 
iting the Vindhya, Satpura, and Satmala 
Hills, a relic of the Indian aborigines driven 
from the plains by the Aryan Rajputs. 
They appear to have been orderly and in¬ 
dustrious under the Delhi emperors; but on 
the transfer of the power in the 18th cen¬ 
tury from the Moguls to the Marathas they 
asserted their independence, and being 
treated as outlaws took to the hills. Vari¬ 
ous attempts to subdue them were made by 
the Gaekwar and by the British in 1818 
without success. A body of them was, how¬ 
ever, subsequently reclaimed, and a Bheel 
corps formed, which stormed the retreats of 
the rest of the race and reduced them to 
comparative order. The hill Bheels wear 
little clothing, and live precariously on 
grain, wild roots and fruits, vermin, etc., 
but the lowland Bheels are in many respects 
Hinduized. Their total numbers are about 
750,000. 

Bhopal, a native State of Central India, 
under British protection, on the Nerbudda, 
in Malwah. Area, 6,874 square miles. The 
country is full of jungles, and is traversed 
by a part of the Vindhya Mountains. The 
soil is fertile, yielding wheat, maize, millet, 
peas and other vegetable productions of 
Central India. Chief exports: sugar, to¬ 
bacco, ginger and cotton. The district is 
well watered by the Nerbudda, Betwa and 
minor streams. Pop. (1901) 665,961. The 
capital of above State, also called Bhopal, 
is on the boundary between Malwah and 
Gundwana. Pop. (1901) 77.023. There are 
fine artificial lakes E. and W. of the town. 

Bhutan, an independent State in the 
Eastern Himalayas, with an area of about 
16,800 square miles, lying between Tibet 
on the N. and Assam and the Jalpaiguri 
District on the S., and consisting of rug¬ 
ged and lofty mountains, abounding in sub¬ 
lime and picturesque scenery. Pop. over 
30,000. The Bhutanese are a backward race, 
governed by a Dharm Rajah, regarded as an 
incarnation of deity, and by a Deb Rajah, 
with a council of eight. They are nomin¬ 
ally Buddhists. After various aggressive 
incursions and the capture and ill treatment 
of Ashley Eden, the British envoy, in 1863, 
they were compelled to cede to the British 
considerable portions of territory, in return 
for a yearly allowance of £2,500. 



Biafra 


Bible 


Biafra, Bight of, a large bay on the W. 

coast of Africa, at the head of the Gulf of 
Guinea, between Capes Formosa and Lopez. 
The principal rivers flowing into it are the 
Niger, the New and Old Calabar rivers, the 
Iiio del Key, the Kamerun, and the Gaboon; 
its islands are Fernando Po (Spanish), and 
St. Thomas’ and Prince’s Islands (Portu¬ 
guese ). Opposite Fernando Po are the 
Kameruns. 


Bianchini, Francesco (be-an-ke'ne), an 
Italian astronomer, born in Verona, in 1662. 
He improved many astronomical instru¬ 
ments, and discovered the spots on the 
planet Venus. His principal work is “ Uni¬ 
versal History,” in Italian. He died in 
1729. 

Biard, Auguste Francois (bear'), a 
French genre painter, born in 1798; trav¬ 
eled extensively, visiting Spain, Greece, 
Syria, Egypt, Mexico, Brazil, etc. Among 
his best known pictures are the “ Babes in 
the Wood ” (1828 ;) the “ Beggar’s Family ” 
(1836); the “Combat with Polar Bears” 
(1839); and the “Strolling Players,” now 
in the Luxembourg. A strong element of 
caricature runs through most of his works. 
He died in 1882. 


Biarritz, a watering-place and noted 
winter resort in France; on the Bay of 
Biscay in the Department of the Basses- 
Pyrenees; 4 miles S. W. of Bayonne. It 
was the royal summer residence during the 
Second Empire, which largely built up the 
fame of its baths and natural attractions. 


Biart, Lucien (be-ar'), a French novel¬ 
ist, poet and writer of travels, born in Ver¬ 
sailles, June 21, 1829. He published a num¬ 
ber of novels, containing masterly descrip¬ 
tions of Mexican and South American na¬ 
ture and customs. Among his works are 
“The Mexican Women” (1853), poems; 


Adventures of a 



Naturalist ” 
“ The Clients 
Bernagius ” 
“ Across Am- 


Young 
(1869); 
of Dr. 

(1873); 

erica” (1 8 7 6), 
crowned by the Acad¬ 
emy, etc. 

Bias, one of the 
seven sages of Greece; 
a native of Priene, 
in Ionia; celebrated 
for his practical 
knowledge and strict 
regard to justice. He 
flourished about 550 
b. c., and died at a 
very advanced age. 

Bib, also called 
Brassy, Pout, or 
Whiting Pout ( gad - 
us luscus ), a fish of the same genus as 
the cod, haddock, and whiting, quite 
common on many parts of the British 


coasts, found also on those of Norway, 
Sweden, Greenland, etc. It is seldom more 
than a foot long, but differs from the 
other British gadidce in the great depth of 
its body, which equals at least one-fourth 
of the entire length. The back is arched, 
and the nape exhibits a rather sharp ridge. 
The head is invested with a loose, dilatable 
membrane. The names bib and pout, both 
originally local English names, were at one 
time supposed to refer to distinct species 
( G . lusca and G. barbata ), but these, proba¬ 
bly, are really one. 

Bibbiena (beb-ya'na), (Bernardo Do- 
vizio, who was styled Bibbiena), an Ital¬ 
ian poet, born at Bibbiena, Aug. 4, 1470. 
For many years secretary to Cardinal Gio¬ 
vanni de Medici, in whose election as Pope 
Leo X. he is said to have had a considerable 
share, he was appointed treasurer, and soon 
after raised to the dignity of cardinal. In 
this dignity he became an ardent promoter 
of art and science. His comedy, “ Calan- 
dria,” is probably the earliest in Italian 
literature. He died Nov. 9, 1520. 

Biberach (beb'rach), a town of Wurtem- 
berg, delightfully situated on the Reiss, 23 
miles S. S„ W. of Ulm. It retains its old 
ramparts and towers, and in front of the 
theater is a monument to Wieland, who was 
born in the neighborhood. There are manu¬ 
factures of machinery, artificial flowers, 
leather, bells, children’s toys, etc. In 1796 
Moreau won a great victory over the Aus¬ 
trian General, Latour, at Biberach, the 
latter losing 4,000 prisoners. Here, also, 
in 1800, Saint Cyr defeated the Austrian 
General, Cray. Biberach fell into the pos¬ 
session of Baden in 1802, but four years 
afterward was ceded to Wiirtemberg. 

Biberich, or Biebrich, a village of Prus¬ 
sia, in the provice of Hesse-Nassau. It is 
situated about four miles from Wiesbaden 
on the E. bank of the Rhine in one of the 
most beautiful regions along that river’s 
course. At Biberich is the ducal residence, 
one of the finest buildings in the Rhine 
valley. 

Bible (French bible, with similar forms 
in other languages, from Greek biblia, 
books, from biblos, the inner bark of the 
papyrus, used for writing on, hence a book), 
the collection of Sacred Writings or Holy 
Scriptures of the Christians. The older and 
larger division of these writings is also 
received by the Jews as embodying their 
faith, and is called the Old Testament, or 
Scriptures of the Old Covenant, because the 
Jewish religion was represented as a com¬ 
pact or covenant between God and the Jews, 
and the Greek word for covenant ( diatheke) 
signifies also last will or testament. The 
same figure was applied to the Christian 
religion, which was considered as an exten¬ 
sion of the old covenant, or a covenant be- 








Bible 


Bible 


tween God and the whole human race. The 
sacred writings peculiar to the Christians 
are, therefore, called the Scriptures of the 
New Covenant, or the New Testament. 
Protestants and Roman Catholics do not 
altogether agree as to the books that ought 
to be admitted into the canon or list of writ¬ 
ings belonging to the Old Testament. A 
certain number of books classed by the for¬ 
mer under the head of Apocrypha are called 
by the latter “ deutero-canonical,” as being 
admitted into the canon at a later date 
than the rest, but are held to be of equal 
authority. 

The books of the Old Testament as they 
are arranged in the authorized Roman Cath¬ 
olic Latin version, called the Vulgate, and 
declared canonical by the decree of the 
council of Trent, are as follows, those 
marked with the * belonging to the Apoc¬ 
rypha of the Protestants: Genesis, Exo¬ 
dus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, 
Joshua, Judges, Ruth, I Samuel, or I 
Kings; II Samuel, or II Kings; I Kings, 
otherwise called III Kings; II Kings, other¬ 
wise called IV Kings; I Chronicles, II 
Chronicles, I Esdras (as it is called in the 
Septuagint and the Vulgate), or Ezra; II 
Esdras, cr Nehemiah; * Tobit, * Judith, 
Esther, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 
Song of Solomon, or Canticles, * The Book 
of Wisdom, * Ecclesiasticus, Isaiah, Jere¬ 
miah, Lamentations, * Baruch, Ezekiel, 
Daniel (including the stories of Susanna 
and Bel and the Dragon), Hosea, Joel, 
Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Ila- 
bakkuk, Zephaniah, Iiaggai, Zechariah, Mal- 
achi, * I Maccabees and * II Maccabees. 

The books received by the Jews were 
divided by them into three classes: (1) The 

Law, contained in the Pentateuch or five 
books of Moses, being the first five of the 
Bible. (2) The Prophets, comprising Joshua. 
Judges, I and II Samuel, I and II Kings, 
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the 12 minor 
prophets. (3) The Cetubim, or Hagiographa, 
that is, holy writings, containing the 
Psalms, the Proverbs, Job, in one division; 
Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, 
the Song of Solomon, in another division; 
Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, I and II Chron¬ 
icles, in a third. These books were writ¬ 
ten in the Hebrew language, while those 
which are rejected from the canon as apoc¬ 
ryphal by the Protestants are found only in 
Greek or Latin. Biblical critics often di¬ 
vide the Scriptures of the Old Testament 
into the Pentateuch, or five books of Moses; 
the Historical books, from Joshua to Esther 
inclusive; the Doctrinal or Poetical books 
of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and 
the Song of Solomon; and the Prophetical 
books consisting of the writings of the four 
major prophets — Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, 
Daniel, and the 12 minor. There is no 
difference of opinion between Protestants 
and Roman Catholics regarding the canon 


of the New Testament, the books of which 
consist of the four Gospels of St. Matthew, 
St. Mark, St. Luke, and St. John; the Acts 
of the Apostles; the epistolary writings 
known briefly as Romans, I and II Corin¬ 
thians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, 
Colossians, I and II Thessalonians, I and 
II Timothy, Titus, Philemon, Hebrews, 
James, I and II Peter, 1, II, and III John, 
and Jude; and lastly the Apocalypse or 
Revelation. 

Old Testament .— The books of Moses (or 
at any rate “the book of the law”) were 
deposited, according to the Bible, in the 
tabernacle, near but not in the ark: the 
other sacred writings, it is further sup¬ 
posed, were successively deposited in the 
same place as they were written. After 
the building of the temple, they were placed 
by Solomon in it. On the capture of Jeru¬ 
salem by Nebuchadnezzar, the autographs 
probably perished, but numerous copies 
were preserved, as is inferred from allu¬ 
sions in writers subsequent to the Babylon¬ 
ish captivity. It is believed by many that 
the canon of the Old Testament was settled 
soon after the return from Babylon and 
the reestablishment of the Jewish religion. 
This work was accomplished, according to 
the traditions of the Jews, by Ezra, with 
the assistance of the great synagogue, who 
collected and compared as many copies as 
could be found. From this collation a cor¬ 
rect edition of the whole was prepared, 
with the exception of the writings of Ezra, 
Malachi, and Nehemiah, which were added 
afterward. The first definite statement re¬ 
garding the contents of the Hebrew canon 
is by Josephus (about A. d. 70), who states 
that it consisted of 22 books “ justly be¬ 
lieved to be divine.” Allowing for differ¬ 
ences of division in early times it is probable 
that these represent our present Old Testa¬ 
ment books, apart from the Apocrypha. It 
is confidently stated that no existing apoc¬ 
ryphal, or non-canonical book is ever 
appealed to in the New Testament as scrip¬ 
tural, yet the canon was long in consider¬ 
able uncertainty. 

The scriptures were, no doubt, originally 
written on skins or parchments rolled up 
into rolls or A 7 olumes. The ancient Hebrew 
characters were considerably different from 
the more modern square ones with which we 
are familiar, the latter being probably an 
importation from the East brought in along 
with the Chaldee language, and superseding 
the ancient mode of writing as the one lan¬ 
guage superseded the other. When the 
change was made is doubtful — some refer 
it to the time of Ezra, others think that it 
was not long anterior to the Christian era. 
The original Hebrew also was written with¬ 
out what are known as “ vowel points,” indi¬ 
cating the true ancient pronunciation; these 
were only gradually introduced through 
the labors of the Jewish scholars of what is 



Bibie 


Bible 


called the Masoretic period, the system 
being completed from the Gth to the 9th 
century, and the present or Masoretic text 
being thus produced. A division of the 
books into certain sections or chapters is 
very ancient, but the existing division into 
chapters and verses is of comparatively 
modern origin. Cardinal Hugo de Sancto 
Caro, who flourished in the 13th century, is 
said to have divided the Vulgate into chap¬ 
ters, for convenience of reference, but 
the present division into verses is said to 
be based on a similar division introduced by 
the Masoretic scholars in the Middle Ages, 
and adopted by Robert Stephens in his edi¬ 
tion of the Vulgate in 1555. The first En¬ 
glish translations in which it appeared were 
the Geneva Bible, the Bishops’ Bible, and 
the Authorized Version of 1611. The punc¬ 
tuation is also the work of modern scholars. 
The most ancient manuscripts of the He¬ 
brew text of the Bible are not much more 
than seven or eight centuries old; a manu¬ 
script in the Bodleian library is thought to 
be 700 years old; one in the Vatican is 
supposed to have been written in 973. 

The printed editions of the Hebrew Bible 
are very numerous. The earliest appeared 
in Italy. The first edition of the entire He¬ 
brew Bible was printed at Soncino, in 1488. 
The Brescian edition of 1494 was used by 
Luther in making his German translation. 
The two Rabbinical Bibles printed at Brom¬ 
berg are famous, and the editions of Athias, 
a Jew of Amsterdam, 1661 and 1667, are 
much esteemed for their beauty and correct¬ 
ness. Van der Hooght, whose edition is a 
standard, followed the latter. Kennicott 
did more than any one of his predecessors 
to settle the Hebrew text. His Hebrew 
Bible appeared at Oxford, in 1776-1780, 
2 vols. folio. The text is from that of Van 
der Hooght, with which 630 MSS. were col¬ 
lated. De Rossi, who published a supple¬ 
ment to Kennicott’s edition (Parma, 1784- 
1799, 5 vols. 4to), collated 958 MSS. The 
Germans, in recent times, have done much 
toward correcting the Hebrew text. Dr. S. 
Davidson’s is a handy modern edition of 
the Hebrew text. 

The earliest and most famous version of 
the Old Testament is the Septuagint, or 
Greek translation, completed it is believed 
in the 2d century b. C. The Syriac version, 
called the Peshito, was made in the 2d cen¬ 
tury after Christ, and is celebrated for its 
fidelity. The famous Latin version of St. 
Jerome, known as the Vulgate, was finished 
in 405. The ancient Chaldee or Aramaic 
targums, that is translations or paraphrases 
are also of importance, especially that 
of Onkelos on the Pentateuch and that of 
Jonathan Ben Uzziel on the Prophets. 

civ Testament .— The New Testament, 
besides being originally written in Greek, 
also differs remarkably from the Old in this 
respect, that while the writings compre¬ 


hended in the earlier collection range over 
a period of 1,000 years, those included in 
the latter were produced almost contem¬ 
poraneously — most of them probably be¬ 
tween a. d. 50 and a. d. 70. The collection 
consists of 27 writings, ascribed either to 
apostles or to persons intimately associat¬ 
ed with them. Five of the works are in 
the form of historical narratives, four of 
which relate from different points of view 
the story of Christ’s life, while the fifth 
describes the formation and extension of 
the Church by the ministry of the leading 
apostles. Twenty-one are epistolary. Thir¬ 
teen of these bear the name of St. Paul as 
their author, nine being addressed to vari¬ 
ous Christian communities, three (I and II 
Timothy, and Titus) — called the pastoral 
epistles — to office-bearers in the Church, 
and one to a private individual (Philemon). 
The epistle to the Hebrews is anonymous, 
but w r as certainly not the work of St. Paul. 
Seven other letters — one ascribed to 
James, two to Peter, three to John, and 
one to Jude — are often known as the cath¬ 
olic (that is, general) epistles, as having 
been intended for the use of Christians in 
general. The only remaining work is the 
Apocalypse or Revelation of St. John. Of 
these writings the epistles are the earliest 
in date and were written to various Chris¬ 
tian communities to give advice in special 
circumstances, to explain points of doctrine, 
or to warn against mistaken beliefs. They 
are adapted to the special conditions and 
mental attitude of those to whom they were 
addressed; thus in the letters to the Corin¬ 
thian Christians, who dwelt in Greece, va¬ 
rious speculative questions are discussed. 
The first three Gospels, called the synoptic 
Gospels, were probably written in or near 
a. d. 70, that of Mark being perhaps the 
earliest. They are supposed by many to 
be all founded on an earlier Greek transla¬ 
tion of an Aramaic account of the sayings 
of Christ which Papias ascribes to Alat- 
thew. The fourth Gospel is of much later 
date (about a. d. 100), and has a markedly 
different character. It gives an account of 
Christ’s life not so much from an objective 
and historical as from a subjective and per¬ 
sonal point of view. 

From the 5th century to the present time 
the canon of the New Testament has re¬ 
mained unaltered, but if we go back a cen¬ 
tury farther this unanimity of sentiment is 
broken. At that time a distinction was 
made between the homologoumena, or ac¬ 
knowledged, and the antilegomena or con¬ 
troverted books; the former including the 
four Gospels, Acts, the Pauline epistles (in¬ 
cluding Hebrews), I John, I Peter, and, 
though with some hesitation, the Apoca¬ 
lypse. The earliest list we possess of the 
books of the New Testament emanating 
•from the orthodox Church is the Alurato- 
rian canon (a. d. 160-170) ; and in it Jude, 



Bible 


Bible 


II and III John, the Apocalypse, and an¬ 
other Apocalypse (that of Peter) are in¬ 
cluded, while I Peter is omitted. Of still 
earlier date is the heretical canon of Mar- 
cion (about 140 A. d. ), which embraces only 
a gospel based on that of Luke and 10 of 
the Pauline epistles. Various early notices 
group the writings under the two general 
divisions of evangelical and apostolic; and 
the more detailed information obtained from 
the oldest extant MSS., versions, and cata¬ 
logues of books exhibits substantially the 
same arrangement as that now followed in 
our Bibles. Few copies, however, contain¬ 
ed the whole of the New Testament; most 
frequently the Gospels were in one volume, 
the Acts and Epistles in another, while the 
Apocalypse was comparatively seldom as¬ 
sociated with the other books. The general 
order of the books was: Gospels, Acts, 
Catholic Epistles, Pauline Epistles, Apoea- 
lypse; from which arrangement, however, 
there are individual deviations, especially 
as regards the book of Acts. The four Gos¬ 
pels are almost constantly in their familiar 
order; and in the Pauline epistles the letter 
to the Hebrews exhibits almost the only va¬ 
riation, being sometimes — and indeed most 
frequently — inserted before the pastoral 
epistles. Besides the books with which we 
are familiar there were many others, such 
as The Shepherd of Hennas, the Epistle of 
Barnabas, the Acts of Paul, the Revelation 
of Peter, and the Teachings of the Apos¬ 
tles, which long held a doubtful position 
in regard to apostolic authority; and it was 
'not till the Council of Laodicea (300 a. d.) 
that their use was definitely forbidden. 

The originals of the writings now collect¬ 
ed in the New Testament do not seem to 
have remained long in existence. There is 
no certain mention of them in the early 
fathers; for the two passages in Ignatius 
and Tertullian which have been supposed to 
refer to them, apply to the Old Testament 
as contrasted with the New, and to the 
Greek as contrasted with the Latin transla¬ 
tion. Although the originals have thus 
vanished, we may form some approximate 
idea of their outward appearance. The ma¬ 
terial was probably paper (II John, 12), 
made of the Egyptian reed or papyrus; 
parchment, though not unknown (II Tim¬ 
othy, iv: 13), being at that time too dear 
for ordinary use. Ink and the reed pen are 
mentioned in III John, 13. The sheets when 
written were made up in the form of a roll. 
The text was written in columns, and the 
writing was continuous, without any inter¬ 
vals between the words, and without any 
system of punctuation. The characters were 
what are known as uncial, consisting wholly 
of large, erect, square or but slightly round¬ 
ed, capitals. The different writings were 
speedily multiplied by means of copies; and 
it is from such of these copies as have 
been preserved, taken in connection with an¬ 


cient versions and quotations in the writ¬ 
ings of the fathers, that we are enabled to 
ascertain or approximate to the true text. 
The oldest manuscripts extant are referred 
to the 4th century, and on comparing these 
with later ones we find that various 
changes were introduced. All the manu¬ 
scripts of the New Testament are in the 
volume form consisting of folded sheets, 
and not in rolls. The division into columns 
was at first retained, but the number of 
columns varied. The uncial characters by 
degrees lost their stiffness and uprightness, 
and by the 10th century the smaller cursive 
writing prevailed. It was but seldom that 
a codex contained the whole New Testa¬ 
ment; and if it did, it probably embraced 
the Septuagint also. Only four of the un¬ 
cials, and but few even of the cursives, ap¬ 
proach completeness. Many of the manu¬ 
scripts have glosses on the margin, or even 
a continuous chain of patristic comments. 
Punctuation came into general use about 
the 8th century, but no uniform system 
existed for several centuries. Our present 
mode was only established after the be¬ 
ginning of the 16th century by the Vene¬ 
tian printers, Aldus and Paulus Manutius, 
and was applied to the New Testament by 
Erasmus and R. Stephens. The need of 
some division of the text for purposes of 
reference was early felt, and so we find that 
various systems of division were introduced 
at different periods. Our modern arrange¬ 
ment of chapters, already referred to, was 
made by the Spanish cardinal, Hugo de 
Sancto Caro (died 1263). The subdivision 
into verses, as we now have it, was estab¬ 
lished by Robert Stephens in 1555. The 
titles and subscriptions of the books form 
no part of the original text, and they mere¬ 
ly represent the ancient tradition as to the 
authorship of the books. The subscriptions 
in the case of some of the epistles are de¬ 
monstrably erroneous. 

During the 1,400 years of our era preced¬ 
ing the invention of printing, the text of 
the New Testament was preserved and 
transmitted by means of manuscript copies; 
and as the transcribers were liable to the 
various possibilities of error incident to 
such a process, the text naturally under¬ 
went numerous minute changes or varia¬ 
tions in the course of frequent transcrip¬ 
tion. For long the existence of various 
readings was almost unknown, but in 1707 
Dr. Mill announced that he had collected 
30,000 for his edition. This number has 
since been greatly enlarged, and now not 
less than 120,000 are recorded. In deciding 
the correct text in such cases our chief au¬ 
thorities are the manuscripts. Their value 
depends partly on their antiquity and part¬ 
ly on other considerations, internal and ex¬ 
ternal. The number of the uncial or older 
manuscripts (down to the 10th century), 
after deducting duplicates, is 127, and there 



Bible 


Bible 


are in all about 1,500 cursives. For con¬ 
venience of reference the former are desig- 
nated by letters of the Roman or Greek al¬ 
phabet. the latter by numerals. Among the 
leading are the Codex Alexandrinus (A), 
now in the British Museum, assigned to the 
first half of the 5th century; Codex Vati- 
canus (B), in the Vatican Library, assign¬ 
ed to the 4th century; Codex Ephraemi 
(C), a palimpsest in the Imperial Library 
at Paris, of the 5th century; Codex Bezse 
(D, for the Gospels and Acts), a Grseco- 
Latin MS. in Cambridge University Li¬ 
brary, assigned to the Gth century; and the 
Codex Sinaiticus, discovered by Tischendorf 
in 1859, believed to be at least as old as B. 
After manuscripts come the ancient ver¬ 
sions, of which the chief are two Syriac 
translations, the Peshito and the Philoxen- 
ian; two Egyptian, the Mempliitic and the 
Sahidic; the Ethiopic; the Gothic of Ulfi- 
las (very fragmentary) ; the different re¬ 
mains of the version known as the old 
Latin and the Vulgate. A third authority 
consists in the citations of the books in 
the works of the fathers, but this is much 
less reliable than the other two. 

The Greek New Testament was first print¬ 
ed on the eve of the Reformation in two 
nearly contemporary editions, that of 
the Complutensian Polyglot projected by 
Cardinal Ximenes (1514), and that of Eras¬ 
mus (1516). Erasmus issued other edi¬ 
tions, and was followed by the learned 
Parisian printer, Robert Stephens, whose 
great edition (1550), designated Regia 
(.Royal), presented the first systematic 
collection of various readings. Beza’s edi¬ 
tion of 1589 and that of Stephens of 1550 
were the chief authorities on which the 
English Authorized Version of 1611 was 
based. The celebrated Elzevir editions ap¬ 
peared at Leyden in 1624 and 1633. Subse¬ 
quent editions of importance were Walton’s 
Polyglot (1657), Dr. Mill’s (1709), Ben- 
gel’s (1734), and Wetstein’s (1751), fol¬ 
lowed by the celebrated Griesbach’s, who 
published his editions in 1774-1775, 1796- 
1806. Lachmann’s larger edition appeared 
in 1842-1850, and was followed by Tischen- 
dorf’s, one of the most important of all, 
and that of Tregelles (1857-1859). West- 
cott and Hort’s edition, which does not 
greatly differ from Tischendorf’s, appeared 
in 1881. Another recent text is that which 
gives the readings adopted in the Revised 
Version of 1881. 

All the books of the New Testament have 
come down to us as originally written in 
the Greek language. The Greek of the 
New Testament, however, differs consider¬ 
ably from that of the classical writers, and 
belongs to what was called the common dia¬ 
lect, that form which the language as¬ 
sumed after the Macedonian supremacy had 
brought the various Greek-speaking commu¬ 
nities under a common rule. Tbe writers .of 


the New Testament were all, or nearly all, 
Jews; and while employing the Greek lan¬ 
guage, they exhibit many traces of their 
native idiom, so that their writings present 
more or less of a Hebraic coloring. The 
body, as has been well said, is Greek; the 
spirit is Hebrew. The language of the 
authors of the New Testament was power¬ 
fully influenced by that of the Septuagint, 
but it was more idiomatic. The New Testa¬ 
ment writers frequently use well-selected 
Greek terms, which the Alexandrian trans¬ 
lators have not employed; and form their 
ph rases in accordance with genuine Greek 
idiom, where the Septuagint keeps by the 
Hebrew. The Hellenistic idiom in the Sep¬ 
tuagint moves in the fetters of a close 
translation; in the New Testament it ex¬ 
hibits the freedom and flexibility of original 
composition. 

English Translations .— Paraphrases of 
portions of the Bible into Anglo-Saxon 
alliterative meter were made by Caedmon, 
and are still extant, and we possess also the 
Psalms, the Gospels, and other portions of 
Scripture in Anglo-Saxon. Wyclif’s trans¬ 
lation, made by the reformer in conjunction 
with a coadjutor, Nicholas de Hereford, was 
begun about 1356, and completed in 1380. 
A revised and improved edition of this was 
executed by John Purvey, Wyclif’s friend, 
and finished in 1388. Ihe first printed ver¬ 
sion of the New Testament in English was 
the memorable translation of William Tyn- 
dale, one of the early martyrs to the Refor¬ 
mation. Before his exile from England, 
Tyndale had revolved in his mind this work, 
by which he proposed that he should make 
“ the boy that driveth the plow to know 
more of the Scriptures than the priests.” 
He executed it during his residence on the 
Continent, where his last years were spent 
in labors and travels connected with this 
enterprise. His New Testament was partly 
printed at Cologne in 1525, the complete edi¬ 
tion appearing at Worms. Other editions 
were printed in different continental cities 
— Hamburg, Antwerp, Strassburg, Nurem¬ 
berg, etc.— at different dates. It was pro¬ 
scribed and burned in England, but copies 
were smuggled over and used in secret. The 
Pentateuch was also published by Tyndale 
in 1530, a second edition in 1534. He also 
translated some of the prophetical books. 
His translation was superior to all previous 
versions in purity, perspicuity, and accu¬ 
racy, and it formed the basis of all subse¬ 
quent translations, particularly of the Au¬ 
thorized Version. The first printed English 
translation of the entire Bible was pub¬ 
lished by Miles Coverdale in 1535. It 
was undertaken at the instance of Cromwell 
in opposition to Tyndale’s translation, and 
being made, not from the originals but 
from German and Latin versions, was in¬ 
ferior to Tyndale’s. It is in black-letter and 
contains the Apocrypha. After the death 




Bible 


Bible 


of Tyndale, John Rogers, who was the first 
to suffer death for his religion in the reign 
ot Queen Mary, undertook the completion of 
his translation of the Old Testament, and 
the preparation of a new edition. In this 
edition the latter part of the Old Testament 
(after II Chronicles) was based on Cover- 
dale’s version. It was printed at Antwerp, 
in black-letter, and the translator’s name 
was given as Thomas Matthew. Through 
the influence of Archbishop Cranmer it was 
allowed to be published in England and 
was dedicated to Henry VIII. It was in 
one volume folio, dated 1537, and contained 
useful prefatory matter and marginal notes. 
A second edition appeared in 1538; and a 
revised edition was published, in 1539, under 
the superintendence of Richard Taverner, 
who also added matter of his own. In the 
same year as Taverner’s another edition ap¬ 
peared, printed by authority, with an en¬ 
graving, said to be by Holbein, on the 
title-page, in costly type, and forming a 
sumptuous folio, with a preface by Cran¬ 
mer, and hence called Cranmer’s Bible, 
otherwise the Great Bible. This was the 
first Bible printed by authority in England, 
and a royal proclamation in 1540 ordered a 
copy of it to be placed in every parish 
church. This continued, with various revi¬ 
sions, to be the authorized version till 15G8. 
In 1557 an English translation appeared at 
Geneva, beginning with the New Testament, 
based on Tyndale’s, and completing the entire 
Bible in three years. This was the work 
of Whittington, Coverdale, Goodman, John 
Knox, and other exiles. It was accompa¬ 
nied by notes of a polemical and Calvin- 
istic tendency. It w T as commonly called the 
Geneva Bible, but became even better known 
by another title, the Breeches Bible, from 
its rendering of the last clause of Genesis 
iii: 7 : “ They sewed fig-tree leaves together 

and made themselves breeches.” This ver¬ 
sion was generally adopted by the Puritan 
party, and was for GO years the most popu¬ 
lar in England. It was allowed to be print¬ 
ed in England under a patent of monopoly 
in 1561. It was the first printed in Roman 
letters, instead of the old black-letter, which 
reduced its bulk and price. It was also the 
first English edition (as already mentioned) 
to adopt the plan of a division into verses. 
It omitted the Apocrypha, left the author¬ 
ship of the epistle to the Hebrews open, and 
put words not in the original in italics. 

The Bishops’ Bible, published in 15G8 to 
1572, was based on Cranmer’s and revised 
by Archbishop Parker and eight bishops. It 
succeeded Cranmer’s as the authorized ver¬ 
sion, and was rendered as attractive as pro¬ 
fuse illustration and expensive getting up 
could render it, but thi3 made it inacces¬ 
sible to the people, and it did not commend 
itself much to scholars. In 1582 an edition 
of the New Testament, translated from the 
Latin Vulgate, appeared at Rheims, and 


in 1G09-1G10 the Old Testament, with notes, 
was published at Douay. This is commonly 
called the Douay Bible, and is the English 
version recognized by the Roman Catholic 
Church. It professed to be based on a 
greater respect for the Septuagint, the Vul¬ 
gate, and other ancient translations, than 
the previous English versions, and was ac¬ 
companied by notes as dogmatic as those 
of the Geneva Bible. In one respect it was 
markedly deficient, in purity of English 
diction. 

In the reign of James I. a Hebrew scholar, 
Hugh Broughton, insisted on the necessity 
of a new translation, and at the Hampton 
Court Conference (1G04) the suggestion was 
made by Dr. Rainolds of Oxford, as spokes¬ 
man of the Puritan representatives, and 
accepted by the king. The work was com¬ 
mitted to 54 scholars, but only 47 took 
part in it. They were divided into six 
companies, who had their respective tasks 
assigned them and met apart. The revi¬ 
sion was begun in 1607, and occupied three 
years. The whole work was revised by 12 
of the translators, two out of each company, 
and a final revision was made by Dr. Myles 
Smith, the writer of the preface, and Dr. 
Bilson, Bishop of Winchester. The com¬ 
pleted work was published in a folio volume 
in 1G11. The translators were enjoined to 
follow the ordinary Bible read in the 
churches commonly called the Bishops’ Bi¬ 
ble, and not to make alterations unless the 
meaning of the original could be more ac¬ 
curately conveyed. The general accuracy 
of this translation, which is usually known 
as the Authorized Version, and the purity 
of its style, so won the approbation of schol¬ 
ars and commended it to readers generally 
that from the time of its adoption it has 
superseded all other versions. This general 
adoption, however, which no previous au¬ 
thorized version had succeeded in obtaining, 
though evidently resting more on its own 
merits than on official sanction, has prob¬ 
ably had an injurious effect on the critical 
study of the Bible, which the continued use 
of a variety of versions must have tended 
to foster. Latterly, however, the advances 
made in Hebrew scholarship and biblical 
criticism gave rise to a general demand 
among those interested in the study of the 
Bible for a revision of the Authorized Ver¬ 
sion, and the task was undertaken by a 
number of the Anglican clergy, with the 
aid of associates from various other bodies. 
The work was set afoot by the convocation 
of Canterbury, which in 1870 appointed a 
committee to consider the question of revi¬ 
sion. The committee in a few months re¬ 
ported favorably on the scheme, recommend¬ 
ing that “ the revision be so conducted as 
to comprise both marginal renderings and 
such emendations as it may be found neces¬ 
sary to insert in the text of the authorized 
version ”; stating also “ that in the above 



Bible and Science 


Bible and Science 


resolutions we do not contemplate any new 
translation of the Bible, or any alteration 
of the language, except where in the judg¬ 
ment of the most competent scholars such 
change is necessary.” The work of trans¬ 
lation was accomplished by two committees, 
British and American, the function of the 
latter being wholly an advisory one. Two 
companies were soon formed — one for the 
Old, the other for the New Testament — and 
the revised version of the New Testament 
was issued in 1881, while that of the Old 
Testament appeared in 1885. In accuracy, 
at least, the revised version is greatly supe¬ 
rior to the Old, but probably it will not 
supersede it. The American committee pub¬ 
lished in 1901 an American Revised Ver¬ 
sion, in which were presented the readings 
originally suggested by it to the British 
Committee, but not embodied in the Re¬ 
vised Version, and also various other al¬ 
terations made by it subsequent to 1885. 
Of other translations than the English Au¬ 
thorized Version, that of Luther, which 
formed an epoch in the history of the Ger- 
man language, is the most remarkable. The 
New Testament portion was published in 
1522, the Old Testament from 1525 onwards, 
and the first complete edition appeared in 
1534. 

Bible and Science, Accord of. It is equally 
a mistake to go to the Bible for science, 
or to science for the historical and moral 
teachings of the Bible; but in each case 
we can go to the other for confirmatory 
evidence. In history and morals, the 
Bible is the main witness, while in the 
realm of natural philosophy, science is the 
main witness. But the evidence for the 
moral teachings of the Bible may be 
strengthened by studying the analogies of 
nature, and as an historical witness the 
Bible may be cross-questioned to see if its 
statements conform to the natural con¬ 
ditions implied. On the other hand, science 
may be cross-questioned to see if its pur¬ 
ported conclusions conform to the plain 
teachings of the Bible regarding morals and 
history. In this article we will submit 
some of the most important portions of 
Bible history to the cross-questioning which 
is made possible by scientific investigations. 

I. At the outset it is important to note 
that both the facts of science and the lan¬ 
guage of the Bible have to be interpreted 
and that, therefore, what seem to be con¬ 
tradictions between science and the Bible 
may be merely contradictions between false 
interpretations of one or the other, or of 
both. Since the Bible is a literary book 
mainly designed for the accomplishment of 
a moral purpose, it is not proper to treat 
its words and phrases as if they were in 
a scientific treatise, where a strict literal 
interpretation is properly adhered to. 
►The Bible should be allowed all the freedom 


of interpretation which belongs to other lit¬ 
erature of its class. When God is said to 
do things which are accomplished through 
secondary agencies, it is no more fair to 
attribute error to the statement than it 
would be to one in which the president of 
a modern corporation is said to manufacture 
goods which he has never touched or seen, 
and which are not made by hand at all, as 
the etymology of the word would imply. 
Keeping this principle in mind, we will no¬ 
tice first that the Bible and science are in 
remarkable accord in the matter of the 
creation of the universe. The Bible most 
unequivocally makes the universe the work 
of a personal God: “In the beginning God 
created the heavens and the earth.” To 
this bold statement, which heathen philos¬ 
ophers never dared to make, science not 
only can make no valid objection, but must 
add the support of her own positive testi¬ 
mony. Among physicists there are no 
greater names than those of Lord Kelvin, 
Faraday, and Clerk-Maxwell, all of whom 
are, or were, devout believers in the Bible. 
Two famous sayings of Clerk-Maxwell voice 
the sentiment not only of these, but of al¬ 
most all profound students of chemistry and 
physics. After tracing the protean forms 
of matter down to the ultimate atoms, with 
which the chemist deals in all his formulae, 
Clerk-Maxwell affirms that they bear every 
mark of being “manufactured articles”;, 
while, after having traced to its limits 
every variety of evolutionary theory, he af¬ 
firmed with the utmost confidence that every 
one of them must have a God to make it 
work. Thus are these philosophers brought 
back to almost the identical opening words 
of Genesis as the statement of their highest 
philosophy. 

II. The first verse of Genesis is followed 
by a more detailed statement, indicating 
that the original creation was succeeded by 
an orderly development, progressing from 
the simpler forms of matter and life to the 
complex forms which we see at the present 
time. This involves periods of time, even 
if one should restrict the meaning of the 
word “day” to twenty-four hours, which is 
by no means necessary, when one considers 
the great latitude given to the meaning of 
the word “day” both in the Bible and in 
general literature. Now, it is a most 
striking fact, which cannot be lightly disre¬ 
garded, that the order of the creation as 
stated in the first chapter of Genesis is so 
closely parallel to that which is brought to 
light by modern science, that even carping 
critics can find but little fault with it, while 
a large array of eminent geologists, like 
Guyot, Dawson, Dana and Winchell, em¬ 
phatically declare that the scheme is so 
perfect as to preclude the idea of its being 
of human origin. No uninspired man, three 
thousand years ago, could have hit upon a 



Bible and Science 


Bible and Science 


scheme according so closely as this docs 
with the ripest fruits of modern science. 
The criticisms of Huxley and others are 
based upon small matters, involving such a 
doubtful interpretation of literary phrases 
that they are scarcely worthy of notice. 
The production of such a scheme, so ac¬ 
cordant with the actual facts, by a Jew 
twenty-five hundred or three thousand years 
ago, without the aid of divine inspiration, 
would be a greater wonder than its produc¬ 
tion through divine inspiration. 

III. In the story of the fiood, the Bible 
indicates a period of instability in the 
earth’s crust such as does not now exist. 
Hence there has been a strong tendency 
either to regard the story as entirely un- 
historical, or to minimize the event to such 
an extent that it loses its significance. The 
Bible says that the fiood was largely caused 
by the “breaking up of the fountains of 
the great deep,” which is a very good geo¬ 
logic phrase for the subsidence of the land. 
It also affirms that the destruction was so 
extensive that an ark was necessary to 
preserve not only Noah and his family, but 
the species of animals most closely asso¬ 
ciated with him. When one observes the 
.literary character of the document and 
keeps in view its moral purpose, it is easy 
to see that it is unfair to impose upon the 
language a strictly literal interpretation. 
The “general” phrases used are such as 
are often employed under the restrictions of 
the known conditions to which they are ap¬ 
plied. When, for example, we say, “Every 
one knows,” or “The whole heavens were 
black,” no one thinks of giving an abso¬ 
lutely literal interpretation to the words 
used. As Dr. Dawson has well said, the 
story of the flood reads like the “log” of a 
sea-captain, in which the general phrases 
are, from the nature of the case, restricted 
to the horizon of his vision. It is to be 
noticed, in confirmation of the account, that 
the dimensions of the ark are scientific in 
their proportions—its length, breadth and 
depth being nearly the same as those of the 
latest steamships made to cross the At¬ 
lantic. In round numbers, the ark was 500 
feet long, 80 wide and 50 deep. The 
“Great Eastern” was G80 feet long, 83 wide 
and 48 deep. That such correctness of pro¬ 
portions could not have been ignorantly ob¬ 
tained by guesswork is shown by the fact 
that everybody else who has dealt freely with 
the subject has destroyed the harmony. The 
cuneiform tablets make the vessel so broad 
and high that it would be utterly unsea¬ 
worthy, viz., 1,000 feet long and 233 feet 
wide and deep; while Berosus makes it 
1,200 feet broad, and Origen claimed that it 
was 135,000 feet long, and 3,750 feet wide. 
What kept the biblical writer from making 
a fool of himself as these others have done? 
The simple answer is, that he confined him¬ 

57 


self to the facts which had come under his 
observation. 

Returning now to the scientific question 
of a recent abnormal instability of the 
earth’s crust, such as is implied in the bib¬ 
lical account of the deluge, we may cite 
as evidence the well-known geological facts 
that all the high mountain systems of the 
world belong to the latest geological (the 
Tertiary) epoch, and received their main 
elevation shortly before the advent of man, 
while there is abundant evidence that since 
man came into the world there have been, 
extensive oscillations of level fitted to 
cause catastrophes beyond anything of 
which we have had modern experience. 
More and more these oscillations of land 
level are seen to connect themselves with 
the glacial epoch, which came on at the 
close of the Tertiary period and, continuing 
until after the advent of man, ended in a 
series of rapid changes of level affecting a 
large part of the Northern hemisphere. The 
general public has scarcely yet begun to 
realize the extent of the tremendous shift¬ 
ing of forces which took place during this 
epoch. Six million square miles of terri¬ 
tory in the Northern hemisphere were cov¬ 
ered with ice a mile deep, making six mill¬ 
ion cubic miles. This ice was formed bv 
the accumulation of snow, which represented 
water evaporated from the ocean, and was 
sufficient to lower the ocean level 250 feet 
the world over. In weight the ice was twice 
as great as the whole of the North American 
continent, amounting to twenty-four 
thousand million tons. Any one who ap¬ 
preciates what it means to have that 
amount of weight transferred from the 
ocean beds to a limited portion of the land 
surface of the Northern hemisphere will have 
such a sense of the instability of the 
earth’s crust at that time that Noah’s flood 
will be easily credible from any point of 
view. The means for its accomplishment 
will be seen to be so ready at hand that the 
calamity will make no excessive demands 
upon our credulity. The means and the 
end will not be disproportionate. We do 
not claim, however, by this deductive rea¬ 
soning, to prove the flood. We simply ac¬ 
cept the evidence of the Bible, and by this 
means remove the exaggerated objections to 
the occurrence of the event which have hin¬ 
dered belief. The Bible narrative is brief, 
and aimed principally at giving the moral 
effects of the catastrophe. Still, the so¬ 
briety of the account goes far to establish 
its genuineness and accordance with fact. 

IV. In like manner, recent studies into 
the geology of the Jordan Valley go far to 
confirm in a remarkable degree the biblical 
account of the destruction of Sodom and 
Gomorrah, and of the crossing of the Jor¬ 
dan by the children of Israel under the 
leadership of Joshua. In both these ac- 



Bible and Science 


Bible and Science 


counts it is to be observed that there is a 
remarkable brevity, leading to the exclusion 
of all superfluous matter, and of everything 
which is out of harmony with physical con¬ 
ditions. One who is familiar with the gen¬ 
eral tendency of the human mind to enlarge 
such narratives by the addition of explan¬ 
atory and legendary surmises, cannot read 
these Bible accounts without being con¬ 
vinced that they are the records of eye-wit¬ 
nesses with which no one has ventured to 
tamper. 

The Jordan Valley is a great crack in the 
earth’s surface, along which the western 
edge has slipped down to the extent of 4,000 
or 5,000 feet. This is what the geologists 
call a “ fault,” and, all things considered, it 
is probably the most remarkable of its kind 
in the world. Along the line of such a 
fault, further movement is likely to con¬ 
tinue and be connected with earthquakes, 
which would lead ho openings into the 
depths of the earth. In this case, the move¬ 
ments are in an exhausted oil and gas dis¬ 
trict, the signs of which are abundant, both 
in the existing rocks and in the large quan¬ 
tities of bitumen or asphalt which are found 
about Jericho and the Dead Sea. The de¬ 
scription of the destruction of Sodom and 
Gomorrah fits so perfectly to the explosion 
and burning of such a combustible reservoir 
that it could not have been invented, but 
must be the simple tale of an eye-witness. 
The description of the scene witnessed by 
Abraham from the heights of Hebron as he 
looked over into the valley of the Jordan at 
the time of this catastrophe has been 
matched time and time again in the great 
Russian oilfields at Baku. It is a striking 
commentary upon the matter-of-fact charac¬ 
ter of this description that in the “National 
Geographic Magazine ” Mr. Robert T. Hill, 
who was sent by the society to Martinique 
to investigate and report upon the calamity 
there, opened his report with the graphic 
words of this Bible story, “ The Lord rained 
fire and brimstone, and the smoke of the 
country went up as a furnace.” 

The story of the crossing of the Red Sea 
affords another remarkable opportunity for 
testing the truth of the account by the phys¬ 
ical conditions. The biblical story is re¬ 
markable for the prominence it gives to 
the secondary causes associated with the 
event. “The Lord caused the sea to go 
back by a strong east wind” which blew all 
night and made the sea “dry land”; and 
when the waters came back to overwhelm 
the Egyptians it was God “who did blow 
with his wind that the sea should cover 
them.” The Gulf of Suez now ends in a 
narrow point of shallow water extending a 
few miles north of the city; but there is 
every evidence to show that at a compar¬ 
atively recent time the region northward 
was depressed 25 or 30 feet, so that an arm 


of the gulf projected 30 or 40 miles north¬ 
ward to the present station of Ismailia. 
Under such conditions the isthmus which 
now separates Suez from the Bitter Lakes 
would be covered with water G or 7 feet 
deep, when the strong east wind spoken of 
in the Bible would easily lower the level of 
the water so much that this isthmus would 
be dry. The west winds blowing over Lake 
Erie are frequently known to lower the 
water 7 or 8 feet at Toledo, while the east 
winds lower it an equal amount at Buffalo. 
We have, therefore, but to suppose that the 
children of Israel were encamped just south 
of the Bitter Lakes in a region which fits 
the description exactly, when God through 
the agency of the wind opened a way of es¬ 
cape before them, and through the same 
agency closed the passage behind them, so 
as to overwhelm their pursuers. The state¬ 
ment that the “waters were a wall unto 
them” on their right and on their left sim¬ 
ply means that they were protected by the 
water upon either flank—the Gulf of Suez 
on their right and the Bitter Lakes upon 
their left. Thus Nahum (xxxviii.), speak¬ 
ing of Egypt, says, “. . . whose rampart 

was the Nile ,and her wall was the sea.” So 
strictly does this biblical account conform to 
the geological conditions involved that it is 
impossible to regard it as anything but a 
straightforward story of an eye-witness 
which has not been remodeled by the imag¬ 
inations of the original writers or of the 
transcribers. It is not a myth or a legend, 
but a true story supported by every kind of 
scientific examination. 

The crossing of the Jordan by the chil¬ 
dren of Israel is supported by similar 
cross-examination. There is nothing fan¬ 
tastic in the biblical account, but in the 
simplest manner it is said that “the waters 
which came down from above stood and 
rose up upon an heap very far from the city 
of Adam, that is beside Zaretan: and those 
that came down toward the sea of the plain, 
even the salt sea, failed and were cut off ” 
(Josh. iii. 16). Here the description cor¬ 
responds exactly to what would occur if 
such a landslide on the brink of the river 
as we know to have taken place at the Cas¬ 
cades of Columbia River in Oregon, had 
taken place in the Jordan a short distance 
above the ford. This would have produced 
a temporary dam setting the water back to 
Zaretan, maintaining a dry bed below until 
the host had passed over, when the water 
would have surmounted the obstruction 
and soon resumed its ordinary course. A 
study of the trough of the Jordan above 
the ford makes such a catastrophe easily 
credible. Or another method of producing 
the results described might easily have been 
through the agency of an earthquake 
which pushed a ridge or wave of earth 
across the valley to obstruct the current 





Bible Societies 


Bible Societies 


of the river temporarily. The description 
of the event in the Bible fits in with either 
of these secondary causes, and, like that of 
the crossing of the Red Sea, is free from 
exaggerated and fantastic conceptions. 

Thus, in general, it may be confidently af¬ 
firmed that the Bible history is so in accord 
with the physical conditions involved, and is 
so far from making extravagant demands 
upon our belief in the miraculous, that its 
credibility is supported, rather than lessened, 
by scientific cross-examination. Space forbids 
showing this here respecting the experiences 
of Israel in Egypt and numerous other cru¬ 
cial instances, but all would tend, in a sim¬ 
ilar manner, to confirm the general credi¬ 
bility of Old Testament history. 

G. Frederick Wrigiit. 

Bible Societies, societies formed for 
the distribution of the Bible or portions of 
it in various languages, either gratuitously 
or at a low rate. A clergyman of Wales, 
whom the want of a Welsh Bible led to 
London, occasioned the establishment of the 
British and Foreign Bible Society, which 
was founded in London, March 7, 1804. A 
great number of similar institutions were 
soon formed in all parts of Great Britain, 
and connected with the former as a parent 
society, to support it with pecuniary con¬ 
tributions anti to receive in return a sup¬ 
ply of Bibles. On the Continent of Europe, 
in India, in the Australian colonies, in 
Canada and elsewhere, similar societies have 
been formed and are connected with the 
home society which is by far the largest 
of the kind in the world. It carries on the 
distribution of the Scriptures, partly di¬ 
rectly, by means of agents of its own es¬ 
tablished in the different countries, under 
whom are colporters who disseminate the 
society’s publications among the people; and 
partly indirectly, by the assistance it gives 
to other associations of various kinds, all 
engaged in work more or less akin to its 
own. Tims churches engaged in missionary 
or home work are everywhere indebted to the 
British and Foreign Bible Society for as¬ 
sistance lent, and in particular the Society 
for the Propagation of the Gospel in For¬ 
eign Parts and the Church Missionary So¬ 
ciety, which between them use some 70 lan¬ 
guages in their missions, are for 60 out of 
those 70 languages entirely dependent on 
the Bible Society. Other institutions aided 
by free grants of books, or of books at 
reduced prices, include such as the missions 
to seamen, soldiers, and fishermen, Young 
Men’s Christian Associations, missionary so¬ 
cieties, the Salvation Army, Dr. Barnardo’s 
Homes, etc.: while grants of money are 
made directly to the expenses of Bible wom¬ 
en in London and to several societies for 
the employment of idle women in the 
East, such as the Church of England 
Zenana Missionary Society, and the Ze¬ 
nana Bible and Medical Mission. Since 


the formation of this great society in 1804 
the translation, printing, and distribution of 
tire whole or part of the Bible has been pro¬ 
moted by it directly in 286 languages or dia¬ 
lects, and indirectly in other 65, making a 
total of 351, exclusive of different versions 
and revisions in the same language or dia¬ 
lect. Among the European languages in 
which the whole Bible has been circulated 
are Welsh, Gaelic, Irish, Manx, French, 
Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Flemish, 
Dutch, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Ice¬ 
landic, German, Russian, Polish, Bohemian, 
Hungarian, modern Greek, ancient Greek, 
Turkish, Rumanian, Servian, Bulgarian. 

In some cases the whole Bible has been 
translated on behalf of a comparatively 
small population. Thus, to mention only 
European tongues, we have separate ver¬ 
sions for the use of the Lithuanians, the 
Wends of Saxon Lusatia, the Wends of 
Prussian Lusatia, the Romansch people of 
the Engadine, the Romansch of the Grisons v 
the Lapps, the Finns, the Livonians, and 
the Esthonians. Among the languages ol 
Asia the Bible has been translated into Ar¬ 
menian (ancient and modern), Arabic, 
Syriac, Persian, Sanskrit, Hindustani, Ben¬ 
gali, Hindi, Uriya (Orissa), Telugu, Ivan- 
arese, Tamil, Malayalam, Marathi, Gujara- 
thi, Singhalese, Assamese, Burmese, Chinese, 
Mongol, Japanese, and Malay. There are 
also versions in Maori, Fijian, and several 
other languages of the Pacific islands; in 
Abyssinian (Amharic), Swahili, Malagasi, 
Sechuana, Zulu, and one or two other lan¬ 
guages of Africa; in Eskimo and Cree 
among American tongues; while many of 
the languages in which portions of the 
Scriptures have been circulated by or 
through the society are unknown to ordi¬ 
nary readers even by name. In many cases 
the society has been instrumental in getting 
languages reduced to a written form for 
the first time in order to provide the people 
using them with the Scriptures. The soci¬ 
ety has a large annual income, arising part¬ 
ly from subscriptions, donations, legacies, 
etc., and partly from the sale of its publica¬ 
tions, which, of course, are often sold at a 
loss. Latterly its annual expenditure has 
been usually about £200,000, and in one 
year rose as high as £240,000. Altogether, 
from its commencement to 1898, its expendi¬ 
ture amounted to £12,744,000. For the year 
ending March 31, 1898, the income amount¬ 
ed to £229,749, the expenditure to £221,857. 
The total issue of the society in the same 
year of Bibles and portions of the Bible was 
4,387,152, there being 2,073,467 of these is¬ 
sued from the Bible House, London, and the 
rest from the depots abroad. The aggregate 
of the society’s issue now amounts to about 
160,000.000. At the beginning of the 19th 
century it is probable that there were not 
more than 4 000,000 or 5 000,000 copies of 
the Scriptures in the world, the number of 




Bible Societies 


Bible Statistics 


translations then employed for the Bible 
amounting to about 50. Since the establish¬ 
ment of the British and Foreign Bible So¬ 
ciety about 160,000,000 copies of the Word 
of God, in whole or in part, have, as just 
mentioned, been circulated by its directly; 
while other kindred societies which have 
sprung out of it, or acted in concert with it, 
have distributed 94,000,000 copies more; 
so that during the 19th century the total 
number of copies or portions of the sacred 
Scriptures distributed in this way has 
amounted to about 254,000,000. 

The Edinburgh Bible Society was estab¬ 
lished in 1809, and up to 1826 was connect¬ 
ed with the British and Foreign Bible So¬ 
ciety. It then took up a separate position, 
and remained independent till in 1861 it 
united with the National, the Glasgow, and 
other Bible societies, into a whole called 
the National Bible Society of Scotland, hav¬ 
ing its headquarters in Edinburgh and Glas¬ 
gow. The revenue of the society is between 
£30,000 and £40,000, and the yearly circula¬ 
tion of Bibles and portions of Scripture 
about 800,000. The society has many aux¬ 
iliaries, and circulates the Scriptures in 
Great Britain and colonies, on the Conti¬ 
nent, and in China, Japan, etc. The total 
issue is now over 12,000,000. The Hibernian 
Bible Society, which has its headquarters 
in Dublin, was established in 1806. Its ob¬ 
ject is to encourage a wider circulation of 
the Holy Scriptures, without note or com¬ 
ment, in Ireland. 

On the Continent of Europe the principal 
Bible societies are the Prussian, which was 
established at Berlin in 1805, and has is¬ 
sued over 3,000,000 copies; the Wiirtem- 
berg, instituted in 1812, with auxiliaries; 
the Berg (Elberfeld), instituted 1813; the 
Saxon, 1814; the Netherlands, 1815; and 
the Swedish. The Russian Bible Society in 
St. Petersburg, founded in 1813, vied with 
the British, and printed the Bible in 31 
languages and dialects spoken in the Rus¬ 
sian dominions; but it was suppressed by 
an imperial ukase in 1826. A new Bible 
society was then instituted at St. Peters¬ 
burg — namely, the Russian Evangelical Bi¬ 
ble Society, which supplies the Bible to Rus¬ 
sian Protestants. The British and Foreign 
Society has colporters in the country. In 
1817 the distribution of the Bible by such 
societies was forbidden in Austria, and 
those already existing in Hungary were sup¬ 
pressed. Italy, Spain, and Portugal have 
had as yet no Bible societies; but the British 
societies are energetic in providing them 
with Bibles in their own tongues. 

In the United States the great American 
Bible Society, formed in 1816, acts in con¬ 
cert with the auxiliary societies in all parts 
of the Union. The annual income of the 
society is now over $500,000, and its total 
issue has amounted to about 64,000,000 
copies. These have been mostly in English, 


Spanish, and French, from the society’s 
plates. The managers have occasionally 
purchased Bibles in Europe, and issued them 
to applicants, in German, Dutch, Welsh, 
Gaelic, Portuguese, modern Greek, and some 
other European languages. They have also 
furnished money to print translations into 
pagan languages, by American missionaries. 
It is the object of the society to supply 
every one who can read in the United 
States, before devoting much attention to 
distribution abroad. Yet Spanish America 
and Ceylon, Greece, and the Sandwich Is¬ 
lands have been furnished with Bibles by 
the society. Other American societies are 
the Pennsylvania Bible Society, the Ameri¬ 
can and Foreign Bible Society, and the 
American Bible Union. 

Bible Statistics, an interesting compila¬ 
tion, said to be the fruits of three years’ 
labor by the indefatigable Dr. Horne, and 
given by him in his introduction to the 
study of tne Scriptures. The basis is an 
old English Bible of the King James 
version. 

Old Testament .— Number of books, 39; 
chapters, 929; verses, 23,214; words, 593,- 
493; letters, 2,728,100. 

A 7 cio Testament .— Number of books, 27; 
chapters, 260; verses, 7,959; words, 181,253; 
letters, 838,380. 

The Bible .—-Total number of books, 66; 
chapters, 1,189; verses, 31,173; words, 773,- 
746; letters, 3,566,480. 

Apocrypha .— Number of books, 14; chap¬ 
ters, 184; verses, 6,031; words, 125,185. 

Old Testament .—• The middle book of the 
Old Testament is Proverbs. The middle 
chapter is Job xxix. The middle verse is 
II Chronicles xx, between verses 17 and 18. 
The shortest book is Obadiah. The shortest 
verse is I Chron. i: 25. The word “and” 
occurs 35,543 times. Ezra vii: 21 contains 
all the letters of our alphabet. The word 
“ Selah ” occurs 73 times and only in the 
poetical books. II Kings xix and Isaiah 
xxxvii are alike. The Book of Esther does 
not contain the words God or Lord. The 
last two verses of II Chronicles and the 
opening verses of the Book of Ezra are 
alike. Ezra ii and Nehemiah vii are alike. 
There are nearly 30 books mentioned, but 
not found in the Bible, consisting of civil 
records and other ancient writings now 
nearly all lost. About 26 of these are al¬ 
luded to in the Old Testament. 

New Testament .—-The middle book is II 
Thessalonians. The middle chapter is be¬ 
tween Romans xiii and xiv. The middle 
verse is Acts xvii: 17. The smallest book 
is II John. The smallest verse is John xi: 
35. The word “and” occurs 10,684 times. 
The name Jesus occurs nearly 700 times in 
the Gospels and Acts, and in the Epistles 
less than 70 times. The name Christ alone 
occurs about 60 times in the Gospels and 



Bibles, The Seven 


Bibliography 


Acts, and about 240 times in the Epistles 
and Revelation. The term Jesus Christ 
occurs 5 times in the Gospels. 

The Bible .— The middle book is Micah. 
The middle (and smallest) chapter is Psalm 
cxvii. The middle verse is Psalm cxviii: 8. 
The middle line is II Chronicles iv: 1G; 
the largest book is that of the Psalms; the 
largest chapter is Psalm cxix. The word 
Jehovah (or Lord) occurs G,855 times. 
The word “ and ” occurs 4G,227 times. The 
number of authors of the Bible is 50. The 
Bible was not until modern times divided 
into chapters and verses. The division of 
chapters has been attributed to Lanfrank, 
Archbishop of Canterbury, in the reign of 
William I.; but the real author of this 
division was Cardinal Hugo de Sancto-Caro, 
about 1236. The number of languages on 
earth is estimated at 3,000; the Bible or 
parts of it have been rendered into only 
about 180, or, languages and dialects to¬ 
gether, 345. The first English translation 
complete of the Bible was by Wyclif in 
1380. The first American edition was 
printed in Boston in 1752. 

Bibles, The Seven, the seven principal 
Bibles of the world are the Koran of the 
Mohammedans, the Eddas of the Scandina¬ 
vians, the Tripitikes of the Buddhists, the 
Five Kings of the Chinese, the three Vedas 
of the Hindus, the Zend Avesta and the 
Scriptures of the Christians. The Koran is, 
except the Eddas, the most recent of these 
seven Bibles and not older than the 7th cen¬ 
tury of our era. It is a compound of quo¬ 
tations from the Old and New Testaments, 
the Talmud and the Gospel of St. Barnabas. 
The Eddas of the Scandinavians was first 
published in the 14th century. The Tripi¬ 
tikes of the Buddhists contain sublime 
morals and pure aspirations, but their au¬ 
thor lived and died in the Gth century be¬ 
fore Christ. 

The sacred writings of the Chinese are 
called the Five Kings, king meaning web of 
cloth or the warp that keeps the threads in 
their place. They contain the best sayings 
of the best sages on the ethico-political 
duties of life. These sayings cannot be 
traced to a period higher chan the 11th 
century before Christ. The three Vedas are 
the most ancient books of the Hindus, and 
it is the opinion of Max Miiller, Wilson, 
Johnson and Whitney that they are not 
older than 11 centuries before Christ. 
The Zend Avesta of the Persians is the 
grandest of all these sacred books next to 
our Bible. Zoroaster, whose sayings it con¬ 
tains, was born in the 12th century before 
Christ. 

Biblia Pauperum (Bible of the poor), 
the name for block books common in the 
Middle Ages, and consisting of a number of 
rude pictures of Biblical subjects with short 
explanatory text accompanying each picture. 


Biblical Archaeology, Society of, a so 

ciety founded in London Dec, 9, 1870, “for 
the investigation of the archaeology, history, 
arts, and chronology of ancient and modern 
Assyria, Palestine, Egypt, Arabia, and other 
Biblical lands; the promotion of the study 
of the antiquities of those countries, and 
the record of discoveries hereafter to be 
made in connection therewith.” The asso¬ 
ciation has already risen into great power 
and reputation. It was before this society 
that George Smith, on Dec. 3, 1872, read his 
paper on “ The Assyrian Account of the 
Deluge,” translating the celebrated “ Deluge 
Tablet.” 

Biblical Criticism, the science which has 
for its objects (1) to decide which books 
are entitled to have a place in the Scripture 
canon, and (2) to bring the text of these 
canonical books to the utmost possible de¬ 
gree of purity. In prosecuting the first of 
these aims, the Biblical critic must not be 
confounded with the Christian apologist; 
the function of the former is a strictly 
judicial one, while the office of the latter is 
that of an advocate. One important sub¬ 
ject of investigation is as to what Old Testa¬ 
ment books were recognized as divine by 
the ancient Jewish Church or Synagogue; 
as also what New Testament books were at 
once and universally welcomed by the early 
Christian Church, and what others were 
for a time partially rejected, though they 
ultimately found acceptance everywhere. 
In seeking to purify the text, the Biblical 
critic must do much toilsome work in the 
collation of codices or manuscripts. He 
does not put the whole of these on one level 
and admit whatever reading has a majority 
of manuscripts in its favor; but attempts 
to test the value of each one apart, forming 
an hypothesis if he can as to when, where, 
and from whom it emanated, and from what 
other manuscripts it was copied at first, 
or, in technical language, to what recen¬ 
sion it belonged. Those which he values 
most for New Testament criticism are the 
“ Codex Sinaiticus,” written probably about 
the middle of the 4th century; and the 
“ Codex Alexandrinus ” and “ Codex Vati- 
canus,” dating, it is believed, from about 
the middle of the 5th century. 

Subjoined is a list of a few of the chief 
passages in the New Testament on which 
Biblical critics have thrown doubt: Mark 
xvi: 9-2G; John v: 4; viii: 1-11; Actsviii: 
37; I John v: 7, and, perhaps, the doxol- 
ogy appended to the Lord’s Prayer, “ For 
thine is the kingdom,” etc. (Matt, vi: 
13.) These omissions will not overthrow any 
theological doctrine held by the Churches. 

Bibliography, the science or knowledge 
of books, their authorship, the dates of 
their first publication, and of the several 
editions they have gone through, with all 
other points requisite for literary history. 



Bibliomancy 


Bicarbonate 


This, it will be perceived, is not the mean¬ 
ing of the word in Greek. The Greek term 
generated the French bibliographie, with 
the meaning (identical with neither the 
Greek nor the English one) of acquaintance 
with ancient writings and skill in decipher¬ 
ing them. About a. d. 1752 the modern 
sense of the word was arising, though the 
old one still held its ground. Finally, in 
1763, the publication of De Bure’s “ Biblio¬ 
graphic Instructif ” established the new 
meaning, and gave the death blow to the 
old one. It was not the first book which had 
appeared on literary history, Conrad Ges- 
ner’s “ Bibliotheca Universalis,” containing 
a catalogue of all the Hebrew, Greek, and 
Latin books he knew, had long preceded it, 
having appeared in 1545. Among the stand¬ 
ard works on bibliography may be men¬ 
tioned Watt’s “ Bibliotheca Britannica,” 
published in England in 1824; and Lowndes’ 
“ Bibliographer’s Manual,” published in the 
same country in 1834. The “ Catalogue of 
the Library of Congress ” or of any other 
library is a bibliographical production; so, 
also, is every publisher’s catalogue. 

Bibliomancy, divination by the Bible, 
sometimes called Sortes Biblicse; a common 
practice among the early Christians, who 
were accustomed to regulate their conduct 
by opening the Sacred Scriptures, and ac¬ 
cepting the passage which first presented 
itself as a guide. Although condemned by 
the councils of Vannes in 465; Agde, in 
506, and Orleans in 511, this mode of divina¬ 
tion was practiced for many years. The 
Mohammedans exercise a similar divination 
by means of the Koran. The ancients used 
the works of Homer and Vergil in the same 
manner — the Sortes Homeric®, and the 
Sortes Vergilianse being popular means of 
prognosticating future events. 

Bibliomania, the passion of the book 
miser, which impels to the gathering and 
hoarding of books without regard to their 
literary value or practical utility; or, in 
its nobler aspect, in Andrew Lang’s phrase, 
the “ love of books for their own sake, for 
their paper, print, binding, and for their 
associations, as distinct from the love of 
literature.” The word in English is modern, 
having been introduced from France about 
1750; but the thing must be in some form 
as ancient as the existence of printed or 
written documents. In this, as in other 
passions of the like kind, the freaks of in¬ 
dividual fancy are endless: while one man 
disdains everything save the tallest copy 
of a rare work in the finest condition, an¬ 
other takes pity on the dingiest waif of the 
back street bookstall. Fashion, too, exer¬ 
cises a great influence on the form in which 
bibliomania displays itself; it is no longer 
the prevailing hobby to collect Elzevir and 
Foulis editions, but he is a special favorite 
of the gods who possesses a set of the parts 


of “ Pickwick ” in the original green paper 
covers, or of early Thackerays in their 
original yellow. Competition between col¬ 
lectors leads to the most extravagant prices 
being paid in the book auction. Bernard 
Quaritch, the London bookseller and biblio¬ 
phile (died Dec. 17, 1899), had the credit 
of having paid the largest sum recorded as 
the price of a single volume — $24,750 for 
No. 1650 at the Syston Park sale, in 1884 
—“ Psalmorum Codex” (folio, Mogunt. 
Fust and Scheffer, 1459). At the Syston 
sale also the so-called Mazarin Bible (one 
of the 25 copies known to have belonged to 
Cardinal Mazarin), which is the first 
printed Bible, printed by Gutenberg and 
Fust about 1450, brought $19,500. At the 
sale of the Earl of Jersey’s Oesterley Park 
library in 1885, the only perfect copy of 
Malory’s “ King Arthur,” printed by Cax- 
ton, was sold to a Chicago merchant for 
$9,750; Caxton’s “ Hi story es of Troye ” 
brought $9,100; and Caxton’s “ Eneydos ” 
brought $11,750. 

Bibra, Ernst von (be'bra), a German 
scholar and writer, born in Schwebheim, 
Bavaria, June 9, 1806; was left an orphan 
with a large fortune at an early age; de¬ 
voted himself to physical science, publish¬ 
ing various works that brought his name 
before the public. He traveled in South 
America, taking home with him collections 
important both from the ethnological and 
naturalist’s view point. Among his numer¬ 
ous works are “ Travels in South America,” 
“ Memories of South America,” “ Sketches 
of Travel and Kovels” (1864), etc. He 
died in Nuremberg, June 5, 1878. 

Bibracte (be-brak'te), a town of ancient 
Gaul; was the capital of the iEdui, whom 
Caesar once defeated; the modern Autun. 

Bibulus, Lucius Calpurnius, a Homan 
politician. He was consul with Julius 
Caesar in 59 b. c., which office he acquired 
through the influence of the aristocratic 
party. After his opposition to Caesar’s 
agrarian law had failed, he secluded him¬ 
self in his house, whence he issued edicts 
against the measures of Caesar. In 49 B. c. 
Pompey appointed him commander of the 
fleet in the Roman Sea. In the following: 
year Caesar eluded him and crossed over 
into Greece. He died near Coreyra, Greece, 
in 48 b. c. 

Bicarbonate, a name given to the acid 
carbonates of potassium (KHC0 3 ), sodium 
(NaIIC0 3 ), ammonium (NH 4 .HC0 3 ), etc. 
Also a carbonate dissolved in water con¬ 
taining carbonic acid gas, as carbonate of 
calcium thus dissolved, reprecipitated on 
boiling. Bicarbonate of potassium, KIIC0 3 , 
is obtained by passing C0 2 gas through a 
saturated aqueous solution of Iv 2 C0 3 (potas¬ 
sium carbonate). It crystallizes in color¬ 
less rhombic non-deliquescent crystals, 



Bicci 


Bickmore 


which are soluble in four times their weight 
of water. It does not give a precipitate 
with BaCL in the cold. Bicarbonate of 
potassium is a direct antacid, and is em¬ 
ployed in the treatment of acute rheuma¬ 
tism and for removing uric acid from the 
system. 

Bicci, Ersilio (be'cho) an Italian poet, 
born in Pisa, 1845. He studied in Florence, 
and became Professor of Italian Literature 
in the Licei Dante and Toscanelli of that 
city. His best composition is in the collec¬ 
tion styled ‘‘ New Verses.” 

Bice, the name of two colors used in 
painting, one blue, the other green, and both 
native carbonates of copper, though infe¬ 
rior kinds are also prepared artificially. 

Bicetre (be-sat're), a village of France, 
1 mile from Paris, where, in the reign of 
Charles V., a large building was erected 
for disabled soldiers, but which was de¬ 
stroyed in the wars under Charles VI. It 
was rebuilt by Louis XIII., and was used 
as a military asylum until the Hotel des 
Invalides was established at Paris. It was 
afterward used as an hospital for the old, 
the sick, and the insane, and also served as 
a prison. A fort was built here in 1842. 

Bichloride cf Gold, in chemistry and 
pharmacy, Au"CL, a substance which has 
risen into notoriety on account of the use 
made of it by the late Dr. Keeley of Dwight, 
Ill., in the cure of dipsomania and chronic 
alcoholism. Its general characteristics 
chemically, posologicallv, and in physiologi¬ 
cal action are to a great extent similar to 
those of mercury bichloride. Its employ¬ 
ment by Dr. Keeley produced a profound 
impression on the medical world, and many 
advocates both for and against its virtues 
exist. The success, from a financial stand¬ 
point, of the Dwight sanitarium, induced 
many imitators and much harm has been 
done by unskillful persons using; this dan¬ 
gerous and most powerful medicinal agent. 

Bickersteth, Edward, an active and de¬ 
voted clergyman of the Church of En¬ 
gland; the son of a surgeon in Kirkby- 
Lonsdale, Westmoreland; was born there, 
March 19, 178G. He was educated in the 
grammar school of his native town, and at 
the age of 14 was placed in a situation in 
the postoffice, London. After remaining 
there for six years he served an appren¬ 
ticeship of five years as an articled 
clerk with a London attorney. He 
then commenced business as a solicitor 
in Norwich, in partnership with his 
brother-in-law, Mr. Bignold (having mar¬ 
ried in 1812) — an undertaking which 
rapidly prospered, and from which he 
soon found himself realizing a large and 
increasing income. A great change, how¬ 
ever, now came over his mind — the truths 
of religion made a deep impression on him, 


and he began to exert himself in promoting 
their diffusion among his fellowmen. 
Among other works accomplished by him 
was the establishment of the Norwich 
Church Missionary Society. He also pub¬ 
lished in 1814 “A Help to the Study of 
the Scriptures,” which met with great suc¬ 
cess. But nothing could now satisfy him 
till he had fairly embarked all his energies 
in the cause of religion, and he accordingly 
resolved to abandon the legal profession 
for that of a minister of the Church of En¬ 
gland. The Church Missionary Society 
wished to send him abroad on a special 
mission to Africa, and in this view the 
Bishop of Norwich, dispensing with the 
usual course of a university education, ad¬ 
mitted him to deacon’s orders, Dec. 10, 
1815, and a fortnight afterward he was ad¬ 
mitted to full orders by the Bishop of 
Gloucester. Mr. Bickersteth thereupon, 
with his wife, proceeded to Africa, from 
which, after accomplishing satisfactorily 
the objects of his mission, he returned in 
the following autumn. He now filled the 
office of secretary to the Church Missionary 
Society, and from this period to 1830, when 
he resigned it, was most zealous and inde¬ 
fatigable in the performance of its multi¬ 
form duties. In the year last mentioned 
he became rector of Watton in Hertford¬ 
shire, and spent there the remainder of his 
life. By this time Mr. Bickersteth was 
widely known throughout the kingdom as 
one of the most influential and popular 
clergymen of the evangelical section of the 
Church. Besides taking a constant and 
active share in furthering the cause of the 
various religious societies, including the 
Evangelical Alliance, of which he was one 
of the founders, he likewise issued from 
the press a series of publications which had 
an immense circulation. These include, 
among others: “The Christian Student,” 
“ A Treatise on the Lord’s Supper,” “ A 
Treatise on Prayer,” “ The Signs of the 
Times,” “ The Promised Glory of the 
Church of Christ,” “ The Restoration of 
the Jews,” “ A Practical Guide to the 
Prophecies,” besides sermons and tracts 
without number. In 1S4G, while proceed¬ 
ing to a meeting of the Evangelical Alli¬ 
ance, he sustained an accident by being 
thrown from his chaise and run over by a 
cart, but he lived till Feb. 24, 1850. 

Bickmore, Albert Smith, an American 
naturalist, born in St. George, Me., March 1, 
1839; graduated at Dartmouth College in 
18G0, and studied under Agassiz at the 
Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard. In 
18G5-18G9 he traveled in the Malay Archi¬ 
pelago and in Eastern Asia; in 1870 became 
Professor of Natural History in Madison 
(now Colgate) University; and, in 1885, 
Professor in charge of the Department of 
Public Instruction at the American Museum 



Bicknell 


Bicycle 


of Natural History, New York city. Ilis 
publications include “ Travels in the East 
Indian Archipelago” (18G9) ; “The Ainos 
or Hairy Men of Jesso; ” “ Sketch of a 
Journey from Canton to Hankow,” etc. 

Bicknell, Frank Martin, an American 
author, born in Melrose, Mass., Jan. 24, 
1854; graduated at the English High School 
in Boston, in 1872 ; was engaged in business 
till 1888; and afterward devoted himself 
to literature. He has contributed largely 
to “ St. Nicholas,” “ Harper’s Young Peo¬ 
ple,” “ Youth’s Companion,” “ Outing,” New 
York “ Evening Post,” etc. He wrote “ The 
City of Stories,” “ The Apprentice Boy,” 
etc. 

Bicknell, Thomas Williams, an Ameri- 
fcan educator, born in Barrington, It. I., 
Sept. G, 1834; was graduated from Brown 
University’ in 18G0. During his senior year 
in college he was elected to the Ehode Isl¬ 
and Legislature, and after graduation was 
principal of schools in Rehobart, Bristol 
and Providence, P. I., and in Elgin, Ill. In 
1869-1875 he was commissioner of the pub¬ 
lic schools of Illinois, and during this in¬ 
cumbency he secured the establishment of 
the State Normal School. He founded, 
edited and owned “ The Journal of Educa¬ 
tion,” “ The Primary Teacher,” “ The Amer¬ 
ican Teacher,” “ Education,” and “ Good 
Times,” between 1874 and 1886. He has 
been President of the Rhode Island Insti¬ 
tute of Instruction, the American Institute 
of Instruction, the National Council of Edu¬ 
cation, the National Educational Associa¬ 
tion, the Interstate Commission for Fed¬ 
eral Aid, the Chautauqua Teacher’s Read¬ 
ing Union, and the Massachusetts, New 
England and International Sunday School 
Unions. He has written “ State Educa¬ 
tional Reports,” “ John Myles and Religious 
Toleration,” “ Life of W. L. Noyces,” “ Brief 
History of Barrington,” “ Barrington in the 
Revolution,” and “ The Bicknells.” 

Bicycle, a two-wheeled instrument driven 
by pedal cranks on either side and propelled 
by the rider, who sits astride upon a seat, 
or saddle, which is mounted on a frame 
in which the wheels are set. A handle bar 
in front is used to guide the forward wheel, 
which acts as a steering wheel, to preserve 
or change the direction. In the early, and 
now obsolete form, the bicycle was pro¬ 
pelled by striking the rider’s feet on the 
ground. The rider sat upon a figure or 
frame, roughly resembling the body of a 
horse. The bicycle is a gradual evolution 
from a four-wheeled, self-propelling machine 
invented as long ago as 1G49. In March, 
1784, a man named Ignaz Trexler, of Graz, 
invented a horseless wagon, the wheel of 
which the rider propelled with his feet. It 
was said to have attained the velocity of a 
galloping horse. About 181G the ducal for¬ 


ester of Baden, Karl von Drais, Freiherr 
von Sauerbroon (1784—1851), built a rudi¬ 
mentary bicycle, consisting of two wheels, 
one before the other, connected by a perch, 
the forward wheel axled in a fork swiveled 
to the forward end of the perch and bear¬ 
ing a cross-bar or handles for steering. The 
rider sat astride the perch and propelled 
the machine by thrusting his feet on the 
ground and on level ground could easily 
make 5 miles an hour. The Drasine, or 
Draisine, as this first machine was called, 
was patented in Paris in 1816. It was in¬ 
troduced into England in 1818, and pat¬ 
ented there with some improvements by a 
man named Knight. It very soon acquired 
the name of “ dandy horse ” or “ hobby 
horse.” In 1819 the “hobby horse” was 
brought to the United States and created 
great enthusiasm in many of our leading 
cities. But the fever did not last long. The 
grotesque appearance of a person leaning 
forward on his elbows and kicking away at 
the ground beneath his clumsy vehicle, 
proved too much for the National sense of 
humor, and riders soon became objects of 
more or less ridicule. A typical “ hobby 
horse ” in the early ’20’s had the following 
specifications: Wheels, wood, 32 inches; 

wheel base, 4 feet 7 inches; backbone, wood, 
5 feet 9 inches long; saddle, hard wood, 1 
foot 6 inches long; handle bar, wood, 9 
inches, elevated 48 inches above ground: 
finish, black paint; weight, 90 pounds. Tim 
elevated cross-piece half-way between the 
saddle and handle bar was of wood and sup¬ 
ported the rider’s arms while steering. In 
these days of rapid invention it seems 
strange that none of the makers of those 
old machines thought of putting cranks on 
the front axle. It is asserted, though not 
proved, that a Scotchman, Kirkpatrick Mc¬ 
Millan, having tried a system of cranks, 
side-levers, connection rods, and pedals for 
propelling a tricycle, in 1835, applied them 
to a wooden bicycle in 1840, and used it 
with success. In 1846, Calvin Dalzei, or 
Dalzelle, who is said to have seen McMil¬ 
lan’s machine, invented and rode a rear 
driving velocipede propelled by pedals on 
hanging levers which, bv means of connect¬ 
ing rods instead of chains, rotated cranks 
on the rear axle. In 1855, Michaux, a Par¬ 
isian carriage-maker, built a velocipede 
which was propelled by cranks on the front 
wheel. The same year a German instru¬ 
ment-maker, named Philipp Maritz Fischer, 
made a bicycle and used it extensively in 
traveling about the country. Ten years 
later Pierre Lallement invented the front 
driving velocipede, which gained a wonder¬ 
ful though short-lived popularity. He pat¬ 
ented it in the United States in 1866. Ed¬ 
ward Gilman, an English inventor, patented 
one on a similar plan a little earlier. Be¬ 
fore the velocipede craze had passed the 



Bicycle 


Bicycle 


English manufacturers conceived the idea 
of enlarging the front wheel, and the high 
bicycle with suspension wheels was speedily 
developed. For some years the two wheels 
were of very unequal size, the rider being 
mounted directly over the very large one, 
which at first was the rear and afterward 
the front one, the other wheel, which was 
very small, serving for steering and balanc¬ 
ing. This form of wheel is still occasion¬ 
ally seen. In this shape the bicycle was 
chiefly a means of sport and recreation, and 
its use was limited. It was so high that 
mounting was difficult and a fall dangerous. 
It was used only by men and high speed 
was attained. For strength and lightness, 
iron and steel began to be used in its con¬ 
struction and factories sprang up for its 
manufacture. About 1884 the high wheel 
began to be abandoned for the modern type, 
usually called the “ Safety,” in which at 
first, the large wheel was made smaller and 
the smaller one larger, and afterward both 
wheels were made of equal diameter, speed 
being gained by the rear wheel having a 
high gear. The old type had hard rubber 
tires for the wheels. The introduction of 
the pneumatic tire in 1891, by J. B. Dunlop, 
wrought a practical revolution in the bicy¬ 
cle industry. The pneumatic tire consists 
of tubular rubber, inflated by an air pump. 
It is made to endure the wear of the rough- 
cst roads, and, while it reduces the jar and 
vibration of the machine, it also greatly in¬ 
creases the speed capacity over that of the 
older forms. Numerous improvements in 
the saddles, pedal gear, and assemblage of 
the spokes, have been made. The problems 
of weight, strength, balance, and speed, have 
been studied by the best machinists. The 
finest materials have been introduced and 
improved machinery has reduced the con¬ 
struction of bicycles to a science in which 
ingenuity and skill have been incited by the 
competitions of an enormous and increasing 
trade. Ball-bearings have been generally 
adopted for the axles, a great variety of 
spring surfaces for the seats have been tried, 
and the weight has been reduced without 
decreasing the strength, by the introduction 
of tubular frame work, made of the strong¬ 
est steel. This development of the bicycle 
has been partly the result and partly the 
cause of its rapid introduction into general 
use. From being merely an instrument for 
recreation and sport, it has become one of 
the most common vehicles upon the high¬ 
ways. A special form with a drop frame, 
suitable for women, enables them to use the 
bicycle almost as generally as men. The 
“ Safety ” bicycle has been adopted for mili¬ 
tary purposes by many of the nations of the 
world: by Austria-Hungary, in 1884; by 
England and Switzerland, in 1887; by Bel¬ 
gium, in 1889. The French army is said 
to be equipped with several thousand bicy¬ 


cles and a perfected system of drill and tac¬ 
tics for advance guard duty, skirmishing, 
and rapid movements has been introduced 
into the various armies. A detachment of 
bicycle-mounted soldiers has been found use¬ 
ful in accompanying the motor Maxim gun, 
first tried in 1899. The military bicycle is 
especially constructed for hard work and 
rough usage. Some of the French machines 
are made to fold so that when the riders 
come to impassable ground they can double 
them up and carry them on their backs. 

Numerous devices have been employed to 
get rid of the use of a chain in the driving 
mechanism of the bicycle, but of all the 
schemes as yet tried by the bicycle inventor 
only two, that known as the pin-wheel 
gearing and that called the shaft and bevel 
gear have met with any degree of success. 
The pin-wheel gearing may run smoothly 
at first, but the lack of durability has mili¬ 
tated against it. The construction of the 
bevel-geared wheel is simple theoretically, 
but has been found to be a matter of great¬ 
est nicety in actual practice. The matter 
of cutting the gears so that they would fit 
exactly and would roll into each other with¬ 
out any slipping of friction has proved to 
be extremely difficult. Special machines 
had to be made for the purpose and experi¬ 
ments by the hundred conducted to get the 
exact form of the teeth determined and re¬ 
produced. The first bevel-geared wheels 
were made with an unusual strength of 
tubing in the back portions of the fork, 
making them weigh as high as 38 pounds. 
This has since been avoided to a large ex¬ 
tent by the use of 50-point carbon tubing, 
which has been found more satisfactory than 
nickel steel, and gives rigidity without a 
greatly increased weight. The bevel-geared 
wheel, when completed, makes a very neat 
appearance, since the chain is entirely absent 
and the driving mechanism inclosed and hid¬ 
den. Moreover, it is claimed that the longer 
these gears are used the more perfect the 
bearing surfaces of the teeth become, and, 
consequently, the easier the wheel runs. In 
the chain and sprocket gear the reverse of 
this is true, since as the links and rivets of 
the chain wear down, the distance between 
links, or the pitch, changes and ceases to 
fit the teeth of the sprocket wheel perfectly, 
causing friction and frequently hard run¬ 
ning. This action is considerably augmented 
by the dust and grit to which a chain is 
exposed. The other type of chainless wheel 
which is finding favor with cyclists is con¬ 
siderably like the bevel-geared machine in 
the advantage claimed for it. Among the 
more modern improvements in the bicycle 
are those built for more than one person, in¬ 
cluding the tandem, the triplet, the quad¬ 
ruplet, the quintuplet, and even the nonip- 
let, for nine persons; but these more ex¬ 
travagant forms are not in general use. 



Biddeford 


Biddle 


The almost universal use of the bicycle 
has brought about various associations, both 
in the United States and abroad, viz., the 
League of American Wheelmen, the English 
Cyclists’ Touring Club and National Cy¬ 
clist Union, the French Union Velociped- 
ique, the German Bicycle Union and Tour¬ 
ists’ Club, and others. These clubs have de¬ 
voted themselves to the improvement of 
roads, the fostering of legitimate racing, a 
preparation of maps, the protection of trav¬ 
elers, and the general advancement of sport. 

Biddeford, a city in York co., Me.; on 
the Saco river, and the Boston and Maine 
railroad; 15 miles S. W. of Portland, and 
G miles from the Atlantic Ocean. It derives 
its name from Bideford, England; was set¬ 
tled under a patent in 1630, although a 
small settlement was made in the vicinity 
near the mouth of the river in 1616, and 
was given a city charter in 1855. The city 
has an excellent waterpower promoted by a 
fall of 42 feet in the river here; manufac¬ 
tures of cotton goods, large lumber inter¬ 
ests, and extensive ledges of granite which 
provide an important and growing industry. 
There are two National banks, more than a 
dozen churches, daily, weekly and monthly 
periodicals, public library, trolley line to 
Old Orchard Beach, and a property valu¬ 
ation of over $7,000,000. Pop. (1890), 
14,443; (1900) 16,145; (1910) 17,079. 

Biddle, Anthony Joseph Drexel, an 

American publisher, journalist and miscel¬ 
laneous writer, born in Pennsylvania, in 
1874. ITe has written “A Dual Rede, and 
Other Stories,” “ An Allegory and Three 
Essays,” “ The Madeira Islands,” “ The 
Froggy Fairy Book,” etc. 

Biddle, Arthur, an American lawyer, 
born in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 23, 1852; 
graduated at Yale in 1873; studied law and 
was admitted to the bar in 1878. Later he 
became a member of his father’s firm and 
devoted much time to the study of certain 
branches, the results of which were pub¬ 
lished in his works, “ Treatise on the Law 
of Stock Brokers” (1881); “ Treatise on 
the Law of Warranties in the Sale of Chat¬ 
tels ” (1884) ; and “ The Law of Insurance ” 
(1893). He died in Atlantic City, N. J., 
March 8, 1897. 

Biddle, Clement, the “ Quaker Soldier,” 
was born in Philadelphia, May 10, 1740. 
Although a strict Quaker, he identified him¬ 
self with the Revolutionary cause even to 
the extent of going to war. He was present 
at the battles of Princeton, Brandywine, 
Germantown and Monmouth. He also 
shared the sufferings of Valley Forge. He 
resigned active service in 1780, but assisted 
in the making of the Federal Constitution 
in 1787. After that he was United States 
marshal of Pennsylvania. He died in Phila¬ 
delphia, July 14, 1814. 


Biddle, James, an American naval offi* 
cer, born in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1793; 
entered the navy as a midshipman on the 
“ Philadelphia ” in 1800, and was on that 
frigate when she was wrecked on the Bar¬ 
bary coast in 1803. In the War of 1812 
he served on the “ Wasp ” in the capture of 
the British sloop “ Frolic,” and was captain 
of the “ Hornet ” at the capture of the 
“ Penguin.” In 1845 he was given com¬ 
mand of the East India Squadron and con¬ 
cluded the first treaty between the United 
States and China. He died in Philadelphia, 
Oct. 1, 1848. 

Biddle, John, father of the modern Uni¬ 
tarians, born in Wotton-under-Edge, in 
Gloucestershire, in 1615; was educated at 
Oxford, and became master of a free school 
at Gloucester. He was repeatedly impris¬ 
oned for his anti-Trinitarian views, and 
the Westminster Assembly of Divines having 
got Parliament to decree the punishment of 
death against those who should impugn the 
established opinions respecting the Trinity 
were eager for his punishment, but the act 
was not put in force. A general act of ob¬ 
livion, in 1652, restored him to liberty, 
when he immediately disseminated his opin¬ 
ions both by preaching and by the publi¬ 
cation of his “ Twofold Scripture Cate¬ 
chism.” He was again imprisoned, and the 
law of 1648 was to be put in operation 
against him when, to save his life, Crom¬ 
well banished him to St. Mary’s Castle, 
Sicily, and assigned him 100 crowns an¬ 
nually. Here he remained three years, until 
the Protector liberated him in 1658. He 
then continued to preach his opinions till 
the death of Cromwell, and also after the 
Restoration, when he was committed to jail 
in 1662, and died a few months after. He 
wrote “ Twelve Arguments Against the 
Deity of the Holy Spirit,” “ Confession of 
Faith Concerning the Holy Trinity,” etc. 

Biddle, Nicholas, an American naval of¬ 
ficer, born in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 10, 
1750. After serving in the British navy 
and in the Arctic exploring expedition led 
by Captain Phipps, he returned to his na¬ 
tive country at the outbreak of the Revolu¬ 
tion, and was one of the five officers who 
received the rank of captain at the organiza- 
zation of the American navy in 1775. In 
command of the “ Andrea Doria ” he ac¬ 
companied Fleet-Captain Hopkins to the Ba¬ 
hamas, and was present at the capture of 
New Providence. In 1777 he took command 
of the 32-gun ship “ Randolph,” the first 
American frigate ever launched. He met 
the British “ Yarmouth,” 64 guns, on March 
7, 1778, and in the ensuing action the “ Ran¬ 
dolph ” blew up, causing the death of her 
captain and about 315 others. 

Biddle, Nicholas, an American financier, 
born in Philadelphia, Pa.* Jan. 8^ 1786; 




Biddle 


Bidwell 


became secretary to John Armstrong, United 
States Minister to France, in 1804, and 
subsequently went to England as secre¬ 
tary to James Monroe, then United States 
Minister. He returned home in 1807, was 
elected to the Pennsylvania Legislature in 
1810, and was appointed a director of the 
United States Bank in 1819. He became 
president of the bank in 1823 and managed 
it ably down to the expiration of its charter. 
The financial trouble precipitated upon the 
country by Jackson’s withdrawal of the Gov¬ 
ernment deposits in 1833 gave an unfortu¬ 
nate ending to Biddle’s career as a banker, 
but while both his ability and his integrity 
were questioned at the time he has been 
amply vindicated since. Besides miscellane¬ 
ous writings, he published a “ Commercial 
Digest,” and “ History of the Expedition 
under Lewis arid Clarke to the Pacific 
Ocean.” He died in Philadelphia, Feb. 27, 
1844. 

Biddle, Richard, an American lawyer, 
born in Philadelphia, Pa., March 25, 179G; 
studied law and was admitted to the bar 
in Pittsburg, Pa. In 1837-1841 he was a 
member of Congress. He was the author 
of a “ Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, with a 
Beview of the History of Maritime Discov- 
erv” (1831), etc. He died in Pittsburg, 
July 7, 1847. 

Biddulph, Sir Michael Anthony Shrap= 
nel, an English military officer, born in 
Cleeve Court, Somersetshire, in 1823. He 
entered the Poyal Arti'ltry in 1844; be¬ 
came Captain in 1850; Major in 1854; Col¬ 
onel in 1874; Major-General in 1877; Lieu¬ 
tenant-General in 1881; and General in 
1886. He served in the Crimean War at 
Alma, Inkermann, Balaklava, and the siege 
of Sebastopol. In India he commanded the 
field force and marched to Kandahar and 
the Helmund, and returned by the Tal Cho- 
tiali and Boree to the Indus, in 1878—1879. 
He was retired in 1890, and in 1890 became 
Gentleman Usher of the Black Bod. He 
published “ Illustrated Forrester’s Norway ” 
(1849). He died July 31, 1904. 

Biddulph, Sir Robert, an English mili¬ 
tary officer, born in London, Aug 26, 1835. 
He entered the Royal Artillery in 1853; be¬ 
came Captain in 1860; Major in 1861; Col¬ 
onel in 1872; Major-General in 1883; and 
General in 1892. He served in the Crimean 
War, 1854-1856, and in the Indian Mutiny 
campaign, 1857—1859; was High Commis¬ 
sioner for Cyprus in 1879-1886; Inspector- 
General of Becruiting in 1886-1888; Di¬ 
rector-General of Military Education in 
1888-1893; and governor and commander- 
in-chief at Gibraltar, in 1893-1899. 

Bidental Reptiles, in paleontology, the 
name given by Andrew Geddes Bain, sur¬ 
veyor of military roads in South Africa, to 
certain notable reptiles found there about 


500 miles E. of Cape Town. The name was 
given because of their possessing two long, 
curved, and sharp pointed tusks. Prof. 
Owen founded for them the genus dicnyo • 
don, and considered them to belong to a new 
tribe or order of saurians. 

Bidie, George, an English medical offi¬ 
cer, born in Blackies, Banffshire, April 3, 
1830; educated at the University of Aber¬ 
deen. He was appointed to the Madras 
Medical Service in 1856; served with the 
Madras Artillery and the 12th Boyal Lan¬ 
cers in 1856-1858; and with the 1st In¬ 
fantry, Haidarabad Contingent, 1858-1860. 
He was Professor of Botany and Materia 
Medica in the Madras Medical College and 
superintendent of the Madras Lunatic Asy¬ 
lum, in 1866-1870; secretary in the head 
office of the Medical Department, in 1870- 
1883; deputy surgeon-general, in charge 
of the British Burma Division in 1884; 
Sanitary Commissioner of the Madras Presi¬ 
dency in 1885-1886. He discovered, in 1867, 
a preventive for an insect pest which 
threatened to destroy the coffee growth in 
Southern India. In 1898 he became honor¬ 
ary surgeon to the Queen. His publications 
include “ Beports on the Ravages of the 
Borer Insect on Coffee Estates” (1869); 
“Handbook of Practical Pharmacy” (1883); 
“ Catalogue of Gold Coins in the Govern¬ 
ment Central Museum, Madras” (1874); 
“ Neilgherry Parasitical Plants Destructive 
to Forest-trees” (1874); “Catalogue of 
Baw Products of South India sent to Paris 
Exhibition” (1878) ; “Native Dyes of Ma¬ 
dras” (1879); “Pagoda or Varaha Coins 
of South India” (1883); “Sand-binding 
plants of South India” (1883), etc. 

Bidpai (bid'pl), or Pilpai, the reputed 
author of a very ancient and popular col¬ 
lection of Eastern fables. The original 
source of these stories is the old Indian 
collection of fables called “ Panchatantra,” 
which acquired its present form under Bud¬ 
dhist influences not earlier than the 2d 
century B. c. It was afterward spread 
over all India and handed down from age to 
age in various more or less different ver¬ 
sions. An abridgment of this collection is 
known as the “ Hitopadesa.” The “ Pan. 
chatantra ” was translated into Pehlevi iri 
the 6th century of our era. This translation 
was itself the basis of a translation into 
Arabic made in the 8th century; and this 
latter translation—in which the author is 
first called Bidpai, the chief of Indian 
philosophers— is the medium by which 
these fables have been introduced into the 
languages of the West. The first English 
translation was published in 1570. 

Bidwell, John, an American politician, 
born in Chautauqua county, N. Y., Aug. 5, 
1819. In 1831 his parents moved to Ashta¬ 
bula county, 0., where he acquired an aca- 



Bieda 


Bielinski 


demical education and taught school. He 
went to California in 1841; served in the 
Mexican War, reaching the rank of Major; 
was a member of the Constitutional Conven¬ 
tion of 1849; and of the National Democratic 
Convention in Charleston, in 1860. In the 
Civil War he was brigadier-general of Cali¬ 
fornia militia. In 1864 he was elected to 
Congress as a Republican; in 1866 was a 
member of the Philadelphia Convention; in 
1890 was the unsuccessful Prohibition can¬ 
didate for Governor of California; and, in 
1892, unsuccessful candidate of his party 
for the Presidency. He died in Chico, Cal., 
April 5, 1900. 

Bieda (be'da), the modern name of the 
ancient Plera, a town in Italy. It is noted 
for its extensive Etruscan necropolis of 
rock-hewn tombs, built in several terraces. 
These tombs are interesting from their imi¬ 
tation of dwellings. They have molded door¬ 
ways, and within the ridge beams and raft¬ 
ers of the roof are cut in relief. There are 
rock benches on three sides, made to re¬ 
ceive the dead, and besides the doors, nu¬ 
merous windows. 

Biedermann, Aloys Emanuel, a German 
theologian, born in Oberrieden, March 2, 
1819; educated at Basel and Berlin. In 1850 
he became Professor Extraordinary of The¬ 
ology at Zurich, and Professor Ordinary in 
1864. He was author of “Free Theology” 
(1844); “Christian Dogmatics” (1869), 
etc. In theology he was a Rationalist. He 
died in Zurich, Jan. 25, 1885. 

Biedermann, Friedrich Karl, a German 
author, born in Leipsic, Sept. 25, 1812. He 
became Professor of Philosophy in Leipsic 
University in 1838 and held this chair till 
1845, when he was deposed on account of 
his political opinions. In 1849 he played 
an important role in the Parliament of 
Frankfort, and was reinstated as Professor 
at Leipsic, but was again removed in 1853 
for political reasons. He was editor of the 
“Deutsche Allegemeine Zeitung ” in 1863- 
1866; and founded and edited a number of 
other liberal papers. His works include 
“ Wissenschaft und Universitat” (1838); 
“ Die Deutsche Philosophie von Kant bis 
auf unsere Tage ” (1842-1843); “ Vorles- 
ungen uber Socialismus und sociale Fra- 
gen ” (1847); “ Erinnerungen aus der 

Paul’s Kirche ” (1849), etc. 

Biefve, Eduard de (bef've), a Belgian 
painter, born in Brussels, Dec. 4, 1809; 
painted many portraits, and was also noted 
for his scenes from history. His best known 
work probably is his “Compromise of the 
Netherland Nobles at Brussels, 1566.” He 
died in Brussels, Feb. 7, 1882. 

Biel, or Byll, Gabriel, a German phil¬ 
osopher, born in Spire, about 1442; edu¬ 
cated at Heidelberg and Erfurt; and became, 
a cathedral preacher in Mainz. In 1477 he 


was made provost of Urach, and an adviser 
in the founding of the University of Tubin¬ 
gen, where he became Professor of Theology, 
in 1484. He has been erroneously called 
“ the last of the Schoolmen.” His principal 
work was “ Col lector ium ex Occamo.” He 
died in Tubingen, 1495. 

Biela (be'la), Wilhelm, Baron von, an 

Austrian army officer, born in Roslau, Prus¬ 
sia, March 19, 1782; known from his dis¬ 
covery of the comet bearing his name. He 
died in Venice, Feb. 18, 185G. 

Biela’s Comet, a comet which took its 
name from Major Biela of the Austrian 
army, who traced it out in 1826 and fur¬ 
nished such data regarding its movements 
as to convince the other astronomers of his 
day that he had a proprietary right to it. 
The same comet had been noticed on March 
8, 1772, and again in 1805. It was reckoned 
that the comet had passed its perihelion 
six times between the two periods without 
being detected by the astronomers. On an¬ 
other visit it passed out of sight on Jan. 
3, 1833. Its next appearance was in July, 
1839. It was found again late in Novem¬ 
ber, 1845, and in the following month an 
observation was made of one of the most 
remarkable phenomena in astronomical rec¬ 
ords, the division of the comet. It put forth 
no tail while this alteration was going 
on. Prof. Challis, using the Northumber¬ 
land telescope at Cambridge, on Jan. 15, 
1846, was inclined to distrust his eyes or his 
glass when he beheld two comets where but 
one had been before. He would call it, he 
said, a binary comet if such a thing had 
ever been heard of before. His observations 
were soon verified, however. Late in Au¬ 
gust, 1852, the larger came into view and 
three weeks later the smaller one, now much 
fainter than its former companion, was seen 
about a million miles in the lead. Schiapa¬ 
relli’s investigations showed it to be prob¬ 
able that the comet is the illuminated central 
mass of a stream of meteorites. The Leonid 
stream of meteors revolves around the sun in 
a period of 33*4 years, and the earth passes 
their orbit every year, but meets the main 
swarm only when it is passing the point of 
intersection of the two paths. On Nov. 12, 
1799, Nov. 13, 1833, and Nov. 14, 1866, the 
earth is known to have encountered a dense 
portion of the stream. Astronomers looked 
for the reappearance of this stream of me¬ 
teors Nov. 13-14, 1899, but were disap¬ 
pointed, only a few stray metoors putting 
in an appearance. 

Bielinski, or Belinski, a Russian critic 
and journalist, born in 1815. He was edi¬ 
tor of the “ Observer,” which ceased to 
appear in 1839. He was also one of the 
chief contributors to the “ Annales de la 
Patrie.” He died in St. Petersburg, 1848. 



Bielovski 


Biester 


Bielovski, August (bc-lov'ske), a Polish 
poet, born at Krechowice, Galicia, in 1806. 
Among his poetical compositions is to be 
mentioned the historical rhapsody, “ Lay 
of Henry the Pious.” lie wrote a “ Criti¬ 
cal Introduction to the History of Poland.” 
He died in 1876. 

Bielozero (Polish, the white lake), a 
lake 25 miles long by 20 miles broad, in the 
Province of Novgorod, Russia; named from 
its milky appearance, caused by the wash of 
the chalk formation of its bed. It has an 
outlet into the Volga by the river Sheksua. 

Bielshohle (bels'he-la), a stalactite cav¬ 
ern in the Harz Mountains, on the right 
bank of the Bode. It was discovered about 
1672, but first made accessible in 1788. 
Its entrance is 108 feet above the bed of the 
stream; and its total length is 230 yards. 

Bielski, Marcin (bels-ke), a Polish his¬ 
torian, born in Biala about 1495. His works 
include “ Kronika s’wiata ” (1550) ; “ Kron- 
ika Polska” (a history of Poland, com¬ 
pleted bv his son and published in 1597). 
He died in Biala, 1575. 

Bienne (be-en'), or Biel, a town of Swit¬ 
zerland, canton of Bern, 16 miles N. W. of 
Bern, beautifully situated at the N. end of 
the lake of the same name, and at the foot 
of the Jura. Pop. 11,623. The lake is 
about 10 miles long by 3 broad. It re¬ 
ceives the waters of Lake Neufchfitel by the 
Thiel and discharges itself into the Aar. 

Biennial, a plant that requires two sea¬ 
sons to come to maturity, bearing fruit and 
dying the second year, as the turnip, car¬ 
rot, wall flower. 

Bienville, Jean Baptiste Ie Moyne 

(byen-vel'), a French colonist, born in Mon¬ 
treal, Feb. 23, 1680. In 1698, with his 
brother, Iberville, he left France to found 
a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. 
In 1700 he constructed a fort 54 miles above 
the mouth of the river, and in 1701, at the 
death of Sauvolle, a second brother, he suc¬ 
ceeded to the direction of the colony, the 
seat of which became Mobile. In 1718 he 
received a commission as governor of Mis¬ 
sissippi, and about this time founded the 
city of New Orleans. In 1724 he was sum¬ 
moned to France, and, on Aug. 9, 1726, was 
removed from office. In 1733 he was sent 
back to the colony as governor, with the 
rank of lieutenant-general. Tn 1743 he 
was again removed and returned to France, 
where he died in 1765. 

Bierbaum, Otto Julius (ber'boum), a 
German poet, born in Griineberg, Silesia, 
June 28, 1865. He is a rising man of let¬ 
ters; his “Songs of Experience” (or 
“Poems That Were Lived”) (1892), is as 
yet his most noteworthy volume. 

Biernatzki, Johann Christoph (ber- 
nats'ke), a German pietist, poet, and story 


writer, born at Elmshorn, Holstein, Oct. 17, 
1795. A country pastor, he devoted himself 
to the versification of his own precepts and 
beliefs, the volume “ Faith ” being the re¬ 
sult. In “ The Brown Boy,” and “ Hallig, or 
the Adventures of Castaways on an Island 
in the North Sea,” he displays a not un¬ 
pleasing capacity for prose narrative. He 
died at Friedrichstadt, May 11, 1840. 

Bierstadt, Albert, an American painter, 
born near Dusseldorf, Germany, Jan. 7, 
1830; removed with his parents to Salem, 
Mass., in 1831; began to paint in oils in 
1851; and in 1853 returned to Dusseldorf 
to study his art, spending a winter in Rome, 
traveling in Italy and Switzerland, and re¬ 
turning to the United States in 1857. In 
1859 lie accompanied General Lander’s ex¬ 
pedition to the Rocky Mountains, and spent 
several months in studies of mountain 
scenery. He was elected a member of the 
National Academy in 1860. In 1861 he 
finished his painting, “ Laramie Peak,” and 
in 1863 “ ^ iew of the Rocky Mountains — 
Lander’s Peak.” Those at once gave him 
a high reputation. He traveled in Europe 
in 1867, 1878 and 1883, on the Pacific coast 
in 1873, and in Alaska in 1889. He has 
received medals in Austria, Bavaria, Bel¬ 
gium, and Germany, was given the cross of 
the Legion of Honor in 1867, and in 1869 
the Russian Order of St. Stanislaus, of 
which he received also the second class in 
1872, and also the Turkish Order of the 
Medjidieh. Among his best known paint¬ 
ings are “North Fork of the Platte” 
(1864); “Looking Down the Yosemite ” 
(1865); “ El Capitan, on Merced River” 
(1866); “Storm on Mt. Rosalie” (1866); 
“Valley of the Yosemite” (1866), in the 
Lenox Library, New York; “ Settlement of 
California.” and “ Discovery of the Hudson 
River,” both in the Capitol at Washington; 
“Emerald Pool, on Mt. Whitney” (1870) ; 

“ In the Rocky Mountains ” (1871) ; “ Great 
Trees of California” (1874): “Valiev of 
Ivern River, California” (1875); “Estes 
Park, Colorado” (1878); “Mountain Lake” 
(1878); “Mt. Corcoran in the Sierra Ne¬ 
vada” (1878) ; “Geysers” (1883) ; “Storm 
on the Matterhorn” (1884); “Valley of 
Zermatt, Switzerland” (1885); “On the 
Saco, New Hampshire” (1886), etc. He 
died in New York city, Feb. 18, 1902. 

Bies=Bosch, a marshy sheet of water in¬ 
terspersed with islands, between the Dutch 
Provinces of North Brabant and South Hol¬ 
land, formed in 1421 by an inundation 
which destroyed 72 villages and 100,000 
people. 

Biester, Joao Ernesto (bes'ter), a Por¬ 
tuguese dramatist, born at Lisbon in 1829. 
He wrote some 90 plays, the most note¬ 
worthy among them being “ The Nineteenth 
Century Gentleman,” “ Luck and Labor/ 1 ' 



Biet 


Bigelow 


and “ The Scandal Mongers.” He died in 
1880. 

Biet, Antonio (bet), a French mission¬ 
ary, in 1052 accompanied GOO colonists to 
Cayenne, where he remained 18 months. He 
was the author of “Voyages de ] a France 
Equinoxiale” (1004), with a Galibi dic¬ 
tionary at the end. 

Bifevre (byav're), Marquis de, born in 
1747; served in the corps of the French 
musketeers, was a life guard of the King 
of France, and acquired much reputation 
by his puns and repartees. He is the author 
of several amusing publications, including 
“ Le Seducteur,” a comedy in verse; an 
“ Almanach des Calembourgs,” or collection 
of puns; and there is also a collection of his 
jests called “ Bievriana.” He died in 1789. 

Biffin, a variety of excellent kitchen ap¬ 
ple, often sold in a dry and flattened state. 

Bifrost (bef'rost), in Northern mythology 
the name of the bridge represented as 
stretching between Heaven and Earth (As- 
gard and Midgard) ; really the rainbow. 

Bigamy, in civil law: (1) English, the 
act of marrying a second time, while the 
first husband or wife is still known to be 
living. By a law passed in 127G, it was 
punished with death. In 1603, during the 
reign of James I., it was made felony, with¬ 
out benefit of clergy. By a law passed in 
1794, the capital penalty was modified into 
imprisonment or transportation. If a per¬ 
son marry a third wife, while the first two 
are still living, the law makes the offense 
still be called only bigamy, although po¬ 
lygamy would be a more accurate designa¬ 
tion. (2) In the United States, the statu¬ 
tory provisions against bigamy or polygamy 
are in general similar to, and copied from, 
the statute of James I., excepting as to 
punishment, and excepting the Congress¬ 
ional legislation against those practicing 
polygamy as a part of their religious belief. 
See Mormons. 

Big Bend Country, a volcanic plain near 
the center of the State of Washington. It 
covers 4,800 square miles, a third of it 
being gently rolling, brown loam prairie, 
suitable for farming, and the rest low hills 
and plateaus of bunch grass and sage brush, 
where livestock is ranged. The Columbia 
river curves round this region, bounding 
it on the N. and W. and partly on the S. 
W. for 20 miles, and flowing in a ravine 
1,500 feet below the general level. It is 
traversed by several remarkable chasms, 
many miles long, and from a furlong to 
half a league wide, with sheer walls of black 
basalt 500 feet high. There are a number of 
wheat farms in the region. 

Big Bethel, a village in Virginia, on the 
peninsula between the York and James 
rivers; the scene of a battle. June 10, 1861, 


between the Federal and Confederate forces. 
It resulted in the defeat of the Federal 
army with the loss of about 100 men. Maj. 
Theodore Winthrop was killed in this bat¬ 
tle. 

Big Black River, a river of Mississippi, 
flowing into the Mississippi at Grand Gulf. 
Its valley constitutes a fine cotton region 
200 miles long. The name is also applied 
to Black river, in Southeastern Arkansas. 

Big Bone Lick, a salt spring, in Boone 
county, Ky., 11 miles S. of Burlington, 
where fossil remains of mastodons and other 
extinct fauna have been found. 

Bigelow, Erastus Brigham, an Ameri¬ 
can inventor, born in Boylston, Mass., April 
2, 1814; became a leading manufacturer in 
Clinton, Mass.; invented looms for sus¬ 
pender weaving, for counterpanes, for coach 
lace and for carpets; and published a text 
book on shorthand writing, “ The Tariff 
Question” (1862), and other works. He died 
in Boston, Dec. 6, 1879. 

Bigelow, Frank Hagar, an American 

clergyman and meteorologist, born in Con¬ 
cord, Mass., Aug. 28, 1851; graduated at 
Harvard in 1873, and at the Episcopal 
Theological School at Cambridge, Mass.; 
was ordained in 1880, and became assistant 
rector at St. John’s Church in Washington, 
D. C. In 1873-1S7G and 1881-1883 he was 
Astronomer at the Cordoba Observatory, 
Argentine Republic; in 1884-1889, Pro¬ 
fessor of Mathematics at Racine College, 
Wisconsin; and in 1S93 became Professor of 
Meteorology in the United States Weather 
Bureau. He has written many articles on 
solar and terrestrial magnetism, astronomy 
and meteorology. His most important con¬ 
tribution to astronomv is a monograph on 
the solar corona, which was published by 
the Smithsonian Institution in 1889. 

Bigelow, Jacob, an American physician, 
born in Sudbury, Mass., Feb. 27, 1787; 
graduated at Harvard College in 1806, and 
began medical practice in Boston in 1810. 
He early became known as a botanist, and 
a number of plants were named for him by 
Sir J. E. Smith, in the supplement to 
“ Rees’ Cyclopcedia,” by Schrader, in Ger¬ 
many, and De Candolle in France. He 
founded Mount Auburn Cemetery, in Cam¬ 
bridge, which was the first garden ceme¬ 
tery established in the United States. He 
was Professor of Materia Medica in Har¬ 
vard College in 1815-1855, and Rumford 
Professor there in 1816-1827. His works 
include “ Useful Arts Considered in Con¬ 
nection with the Applications of Science ” 
(1840); “ Florula Bostoniensis ” (1824); 
“American Medical Botany” (1817-1820) ; 
“Nature in Disease” (1854); “A Brief 
Exposition of Rational Medicine,” “ The 
Paradise of Doctors, a Fable” (1858); 
“History of Mount Auburn” (18G0); 



Bigelow 


Biggar 


“ Modern Inquiries,” and “ Remarks on 
Classical Studies” (1867). He died in 
Boston, Jan. 10, 1879. 

Bigelow, John, an American author, 
born in Malden, N. Y., Nov. 25, 1817; gradu¬ 
ated at Union College, in 1835, and became 
first a lawyer and afterward a journalist. 
In 1845-1846 he was inspector of Sing Sing 
prison; in 1849-1861 one of the editors of 
the New York “Evening Post;” in 1861— 
1864, United States Consul-General at 
Paris; and in 1864-1867, Minister to 
France. He was Secretary of State of New 
York in 1875-1877. In his will Samuel J. 
Tilden appointed him his biographer and 
one of the three trustees of the bulk of his 
estate, set apart for the establishment of a 
public library in New York city. On Feb. 
22, 1895, a joint committee, representing 
the Tilden Trust Fund and the Astor and 
Lenox Libraries, agreed on a plan for the 
consolidation of those interests and the es¬ 
tablishment of a great public library to be 
known as the Now York Public Library, 
Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations. The 
agreement was ratified by the several in¬ 
terests, an act of incorporation was ob¬ 
tained from the Legislature, and, on May 
27, Mr. Bigelow was elected President of the 
consolidated Board of Trustees, and ap¬ 
pointed Chairman of the Executive Commit¬ 
tee. His works include “Molinos the Quiet- 
ist,” “ France and the Confederate Navy,” 
“ Life of William Cullen Bryant,” “ Life of 
Samuel J. Tilden,” “ Some Recollections of 
Edouard Laboulaye” “The Mvstery of 
Sleep,” “A Life of Franklin.” In 1885 he 
published “ The Writings and Speeches of 
Samuel J. Tilden,” and in 1888, “ The Com¬ 
plete Works of Benjamin Franklin.” 

Bigelow, John, Jr., an American mili¬ 
tary officer, born in New York, May 12, 
1854; son of the preceding; was educated 
in Paris, Bonn, Berlin, Freiburg, and Provi¬ 
dence, R. I.; graduated at the United States 
Military Academy in 1877; and was as¬ 
signed to the 10th United States Cavalry. 
In 1887-1889 was adjutant-general of the 
militia in the District of Columbia; and 
in 1894-1898, Professor of Military Science 
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technol¬ 
ogy. During the war with Spain he was 
wounded in the attack on San Juan, Cuba, 
July 1, 1898. He published “Principles of 
Strategy, Illustrated Mainly from Ameri¬ 
can Campaigns” (rev. ed., 1894). 

Bigelow, Melville Madison, an Ameri¬ 
can lawyer, born in Eaton Rapids, Mich., 
Aug. 2, 1846; graduated at the University 
of Michigan in 1866, and engaged in prac¬ 
tice in Boston. His works include “ The 
Laws of Bills, Notes and Checks,” “ Eng¬ 
lish Procedure in the Norman Period,” “ The 
Law of Fraud on Its Civil Side,” “ Elements 
of Equity/’ “ Elements of the Law of Torts,” 


“ Placita Anglo-Normannia,” “ The Law of 
Wills,” “ The Law of Estoppel,” “ Leading 
Cases in the Law of Torts,” etc. 

Bigelow, Poultney, an American author, 
born in New York, Sept. 10, 1855; son of 
John Bigelow; graduated at Yale Uni¬ 
versity and at the Columbia Law School in 
1882, and was admitted to the bar. In 
1875—1876 he took a journey around the 
world in a sailing ship, which was wrecked 
on the coast of Japan. He traveled in 
China, Africa, the West Indies, and De- 
merara. Fie has made canoe voyages on the 
principal waters of Europe, and was the 
first person to take a canoe through the 
Iron Gates of the Danube. Emperor Wil¬ 
liam II. has been his personal friend since 
they were students together in Germany. 
He wrote “ The German Emperor and His 
Neighbors,” “ Paddles and Politics Down 
the Danube,” “ The Borderland of Czar and 
Kaiser,” “History of the German Struggle 
for Liberty,” “White Man’s Africa,” etc. 
He edited the “Outing” magazine, 1885- 
1887. 


Bigelow, Robert Payne, an American 
biologist, born in Baldwinsville, N. Y., July 
10, 1863; was graduated at Harvard in 
1887; and studied at Johns Hopkins in 1891- 
1893. In 1893 he became Instructor in 
Biology, and in 1895 librarian in the Massa¬ 
chusetts Institute of Technology. He has 
written a number of papers on zoological 
subjects. 

Bigelow, Timothy, an American mili¬ 
tary officer, born in Worcester, Mass., Aug. 
12, 1739. On May 23, 1775, he led a com¬ 
pany of minute men to Cambridge, and be¬ 
came a Major in Ward’s regiment. He was 
under Arnold in the expedition to Quebec 
in 1775, and was there captured, remaining 
a prisoner till 1776. He became a Colonel 
in 1777, and assisted in the capture of Bur- 
goyne. He also saw service at Valley Forge, 
Monmouth, West Point, and Yorktown. He 
died in Worcester, Mass,, March 31, 1790. 


Biggar, Hamilton Fisk, a Canadian 
physician, born in Oakville, Ont., March 15, 
1839; educated at Victoria University, and 
pursued his medical studies at the Univer¬ 
sity of Medicine and Surgery, Cleveland, 
O. In 1866 he began practice in Cleveland, 
and in 1867 w T as made Professor of Anatomy 
and Clinical Surgery in the Homoeopathic 
Hospital College, there. Later he was, for 
10 years. Professor of Clinical Surgery, with 
operations in the same college. In 1900 he 
held the chair of Surgical Diseases of Wo¬ 
men and Clinical Surgery. Dr. Biggar 
founded the Cleveland Training School for 
Nurses, where he was Dean for 10 years. 
He wrote “ Twelve Months of Surgery,” 
“ Loiterings in Europe,” etc. 

Biggar, Joseph Gillis, an Irish poli¬ 
tician, born in Belfast, in 1828; succeeded 



Bigge 


Bigordi 


Iiis father in mercantile business in 1861; 
entered politics in 1869; and was elected to 
Parliament for County Cavan in 1874. He 
was a member of the Supreme Council of 
the Irish Republican Brotherhood. When 
Charles Stewart Parnell entered Parliament 
in 1875 Biggar ranged himself on the side 
of that leader. He took an active part in 
the Land League movement. In 1877 he 
was expelled from the Fenian organization, 
and in 1880 delivered aggressive speeches in 
Ireland. He was one of the few prominent 
Irish members who were never in prison. 
He died in London, Feb. 19, 1890. 

Bigge, Sir Arthur John, an English mili¬ 
tary officer, born in Stamfordliam, June 18, 
1849. He entered the Royal Artillery in 
1869; served in the Zulu War, 1878-1879, 
with distinction, and in 1879 was appointed 
aide-de-camp to Major-General Sir Evelyn 
Wood. In 1880 he became groom-in-wait¬ 
ing to the Queen and Assistant Private Sec¬ 
retary; in 1881 Equerry in Ordinary, and 
in 1895, Private Secretary and Equerry to 
the Queen. 

Biggs, Asa, an American jurist, born in 
Williamston, N. C., Feb. 4, 1811; received 
an academical education; was admitted to 
the bar in 1831. He was a member of the 
Constitutional Convention of North Caro¬ 
lina in 1835; was elected to the State Legis¬ 
lature in 1840, 1842, and 1844; was a mem¬ 
ber of the commission appointed to revise 
the “ Statutes ” of the State in 1850, and 
was again sent to the Legislature in 1854. 
In 1854 he "was elected a United States Sena¬ 
tor; resigned in 1858, and was appointed 
Judge of the United States District Court 
of North Carolina. He died in Norfolk, 
Va., March 6, 1878. 

Biggs, Hermann M., an American phy¬ 
sician, born in Trumansburg, N. Y., Sept. 
29, 1859; was graduated at Cornell Uni¬ 
versity in 1882, and at Bellevue Hospital 
Medical College in 1883; and became pro¬ 
fessor in the last institution in 1887, and 
Pathologist and Director of the Bacterio¬ 
logical Laboratories of the Health Depart¬ 
ment of New York city, in 1892. He has 
contributed frequently to medical periodi¬ 
cals. 

Big Horn, the haplocerus montanus or 
wild sheep of the Rocky Mountains, named 
from the size of its horns, which are 3^4 
feet long, the animal itself being of the same 
height at the shoulder. The big horns are 
gregarious, going in herds of 20 or 30, fre¬ 
quenting the craggiest and most inaccessi¬ 
ble rocks, and are wild and untamable. It 
is called also Rocky Mountain sheep. 

Big Horn Mountains, a range of moun¬ 
tains beginning near the center of Wyoming 
and running N. into Montana, containing 
heights of from 8,000 to 12,000 feet, and 
covering 7,500 square miles. 


Big Horn River, a river of Montana and 
Wyoming; rises in the Rocky Mountains 
near Fremont’s Peak, and flows N. E. into 
the Yellowstone. Along its course is some 
of the grandest mountain scenery in the 
world. It is navigable in its lower course, 
and has a total length of 400 miles. 

Bignon, Louis Pierre Edouard (ben- 

yon'), a French historian and statesman, 
born in La Meilleraye, Jan. 3, 1771; en¬ 
tered the National Assembly in 1817; be¬ 
came a peer of France in 1837; wrote a 
“History of France” (7 vols., 1827-1838). 
He received from Napoleon I. a bequest of 
100,000 francs. He died in Paris, Jan. 5, 
1841. 

Bignonia, a genus of plants (that of the 
trumpet flowers), constituting the typical 
one of the order bignoniaceas or bignoniads. 
It has four perfect stamina, two long and 
two short. The species, which are numer¬ 
ous, are nearly all of an ornamental char¬ 
acter, owing to their fine, large, trumpet 
like, monopetalous corollas, colored red, 
blue, yellow, or white. They are trees or 
shrubs, in the latter case often climbing; 
found in, or sometimes even beyond, the 
tropics of both hemispheres, and constitut¬ 
ing a feature in the flora of the regions 
which they inhabit. Many are from the 
warmer parts of this country. India also 
lias various species. One of the latter, the 
bignonia indica, called in the Bombay Presi¬ 
dency taetoo, has supra decompound leaves, 
from 4 to 6 feet long, panicles of flow¬ 
ers about 4 to 6 feet long, and legume¬ 
like capsules more than 2 feet long by 
three and a half inches broad. Numerous 
bignonias have been introduced into the 
hothouses and greenhouses of this country, 
and several of the hardier sort will grow in 
the open air in the middle temperate lati¬ 
tudes. 

Bignoniaceas, an order of plants, ranked 
by Dr. Lindley as the type of his bignonial 
alliance. The stamina are five, but always 
one and sometimes three are abortive, so 
as to make the species tetradynamous or 
diandrous plants. The ovary is two or 
spuriously four celled and polyspermous. 
The capsule is two celled, and sometimes 
so long as to appear like a legume. The 
inflorescence, which is terminal, is generally 
somewhat panicled. The leaves are mostly 
compound. The bignoniads are trees or 
shrubs, as a rule climbing. They are highly 
ornamental plants from the tropics of both 
hemispheres. 

Bigordi, Domenico, an Italian painter, 
born in Florence, in 1449; was nicknamed 
Ghirl Andajo; teacher for a time of Michael 
Angelo and Granacci; founder of a new 
school of painting; painted chiefly sacred 
subjects, and executed notable frescoes in 
Rome, Florence, and other cities. His 



Big Rapids 

* Adoration of the Magi,” a panel in the 
Church of the Innocents, and the “ An¬ 
nunciation,” on a cathedral entrance in 
Florence, are among his best works. He 
died in Florence, Jan. 11, 1494. 

Big Rapids, city and county-seat of Me¬ 
costa co., Mich.; on the Muskegon river, 
and several important railroads; 56 miles 
N. of Grand Rapids. The river is here 
dammed in two places, providing a very 
valuable water power. The city has the 
Holly system of waterworks, and an ex¬ 
tensive trade in lumber and manufactures 
of furniture, sash, doors and blinds, coiled 
elm hoops, shingles, etc. Among the note¬ 
worthy institutions is the Ferris Industrial 
School. There are daily and weekly news¬ 
papers, a private bank, several hotels, and 
a propertv valuation of nearly $2,000,000. 
Pop. (1900) 4,686; (1910) 4,519. 

Big Sandy Creek. (1) A river of Colo¬ 
rado that flows into the Arkansas, 200 miles 
long. (21 A river of Indiana, that flows 
into the Ohio. 

Big Sandy River, a river forming the 
boundary between West Virginia and Ken¬ 
tucky, and flowing into the Ohio; having 
two confluent forks, Tug Fork, that rises 
in West Virginia, and West Fork, that 
rises in Kentucky. It is navigable for 100 
miles of its lower course; flows through 
a timber and coal region. 

Big Sioux (sil), a river of South Dakota 
that flows into the Missouri near Sioux 
City; it is 285 miles long. 

Big Stone Lake, a large lake of Big Stone 
county, Minn., drained by the Minnesota 
river; it is about 25 miles long. 

Big Trees, the sequoia gigantea, “ big 
tree ” of California, is found only on the W. 
slope of the Sierra, while the sequoia semper - 
virens, or “ redwood,” belonging to the same 
genus, is confined to the Coast Range. 

The Calaveras Grove of sequoia gigantea 
is the northernmost of the California groves 
of big trees, and it is the nearest to San 
Francisco. It is, however, comparatively 
seldom visited, as the Mariposa Grove is 
conveniently included in the usual route to 
the Yosemite. The Calaveras Grove covers 
an area 1,100 yards long and 70 yards wide, 
4.750 feet above the sea, and contains about 
100 trees of large size, besides many smaller 
ones. The tallest now standing is the 
Keystone State, which is 325 feet high and 
45 feet in girth. The Mother of the Forest 
(denuded of its bark) is 315 feet high and 
has a girth of 61 feet, while the prostrate 
Father of the Forest measures 112 feet in 
circumference. Two other trees are over 
300 feet high, and many exceed 250 feet. A 
house has been built oi^er a stump with a 
diameter of 24 feet. The bark is sometimes 
iy 2 feet in thickness. About 5 miles to 

58 


Bijapur 

the S. is the Stanislaus or South Grove, also 
containing many fine trees. 

The Mariposa Grove of big trees, so 
called from its situation in Mariposa county, 
occupies a tract of land (6,500 feet above 
the sea) 4 square miles in area, reserved 
as a State Park, and consists of two dis¬ 
tinct groves, one-half mile apart. The 
Lower Grove contains about 100 fine speci¬ 
mens of the sequoia gigantea , including the 
Grizzly Giant, the largest of all, with a cir¬ 
cumference of 94 feet and a diameter of 31 
feet. Its main limb, 200 feet from the 
ground, is 6 y 2 feet in diameter. In ascend¬ 
ing to the Upper Grove, which contains 
365 big trees, the road passes through a 
tunnel, 10 feet high and 9*4 feet wide (at 
the bottom), cut directly through the heart 
of a living sequoia, 27 feet in diameter. 
About 10 of the trees in the Mariposa Grove 
exceed 250 feet in height (highest 272 feet) 
and about 20 trees have a circumference of 
over 60 feet, three of these being over 90 
feet. The Calaveras Grove has taller trees 
than any of the Mariposa Grove, but the 
latter has those of greater circumference. 
The wood of the sequoia gigantea , like that 
of the sequoia sempervirens, is easily 
worked, durable, and susceptible of a high 
polish. The sequoia sempervirens , or red¬ 
woods, sometimes reach a height of 300 
feet. 

The Santa Cruz Grove of big trees con¬ 
tains about a score of the genuine redwood 
with a diameter of 10 feet and upward. The 
largest is 23 feet across; one of the finest, 
named the Pioneer, has a girth of 70 feet. 
The redwood is one of the most prized 
varieties of lumber, and is shipped in great 
quantities to the Eastern States, where its 
ornamental qualities are fully appreciated. 

Big Woods, a forest region in the S. E. 
part of Minnesota, extending S. from St. 
Cloud to Le Sueur, where it crosses the 
Minnesota, and sends branches toward 
Faribault and Mankato. It is 100 miles 
long and from 10 to 40 miles wide, cover- 
ing 5,000 square miles, four-fifths of which 
lie N. of the Minnesota. This great belt of 
hardwood timber is one of the most valuable 
forests in the West. 

Bihe (be-ha), a fruitful district of South 
Africa, E. of Benguela, and under Portu¬ 
guese influence. Bihe is an important cara¬ 
van center, as the only route across the 
continent passes through it. Area, 2,500 
square miles. Pop. 95,000. 

Bijapur (be-jii-por'), a decayed city in 
the Bombay Presidency, 160 miles S. E. of 
Poona. It was for centuries the flourishing 
capital of a powerful kingdom, but fell 
therewith under various dynasties in suc¬ 
cession, Hindu and Mussulman, till in 
1686 it was captured by Aurungzebe. It 
passed, during the early part of the 18th 



Bijns 


Bile 


century, into the hands of the Mahrattas, 
and became British in 1848. Now that a 
gradual decay has done its worst, Bijapur 
presents a contrast perhaps unequaled in 
the world. Lofty walls of hewn stone, still 
entire, inclose the silent and desolate frag¬ 
ments of a once vast and populous city. 
With the exception of an ancient temple, 
the sole relic of aboriginal domination, the 
ruins are Mohammedan, and consist of beau¬ 
tiful mosques, colossal tombs, a fort, with- 
an inner citadel, a mile in circuit. The 
British Government has done everything to 
prevent further decay. Pop. (1901) 23,811. 

Bijns, Anna (binz), a noted Flemish 
poet, born in Antwerp, 1494. Much admired 
for her melodious verses, full of metaphors 
and showing great technical skill, she was 
styled the “ Brabantine Sappho ” by her 
contemporaries. The first of her volumes 
of collected verse bore the title, “ This Is a 
Beautiful and Truthful (or Sincere) Little 
Book,” while a second is known as “ Spirit¬ 
ual Refrains.” She died in Antwerp, April 
10, 1575. 

Bikaner, a native State of Rajputana, 
India, under the superintendence of a po¬ 
litical agent and the governor-general’s 
agent for Rajputfma, lying: between 27° 
12' and 30° 12 v N. lat., and 72° 15' and 73° 
50' E. long. Area, 23,173 square miles; 
pop. (1901) 584,627. Bikaner, the capital, 
is surrounded by a fine wall 314 miles in cir¬ 
cuit. It has a fort, containing the rajah’s 
palace, is irregularly built, but with many 
good houses, and manufactures blankets, 
sugar candy, pottery, etc. Pop., including 
suburbs, (1901) 53,075. 

Bikelas, Dimitrios (be-ka'las), a Greek 
poet and essayist, born at Hemopolis, in the 
island of Svra, in 1835. After completing 
his studies, he went to London, where his 
parents had settled, and since 1874 he has 
lived in Paris. After having published a 
collection of his poems in London in 1862, 
he devoted himself to the task of making 
Shakespeare’s dramas known in Greece 
through excellent metrical translations. As 
a prose writer he has won wide reputation 
with his tale, “ Lukis Laras ” (1879), which 
was translated into 13 languages. 

Bilaspur, a district in the chief commis- 
sionership of the Central Provinces of In¬ 
dia, lying between 21° 22' and 23° 6' N. 
lat., and between 80° 48' and 83° 10' E. 
long. Area, 7,798 square miles; popula¬ 
tion, 1,017,327. The administrative head¬ 
quarters of the district are at Bilaspur, 
which is also the principal town. It is 
pleasantly situated on the S. bank of the 
Arpa, and has a population of 7,775. 

Bilbao, a town of Northern Spain, the 
capital of the Basque Province of Vizcaya, 
is situated in a mountain gorge on the 
Nervion, 8 miles S. E. of its mouth at 


Portugalete, and 63 miles N. by E. of Mi¬ 
randa by rail. Bilbao is well built. The 
place, which is purely a trading town, 
prides itself on being kept exceptionally 
clean. Pop. (1900) 83,306. Bilbao was 
founded in 1300 by Diego Lopez de Haro 
under the name of Belvao — i. e., the fine 
fort — and soon attained great prosperity. 
In the 15th century it was the seat of the 
most authoritative commercial tribunal in 
Spain. It suffered severely in the wars 
with France, first in 1795, and again in 
1808, when 1,200 of its inhabitants were 
slaughtered in cold blood. During the 
Carlist struggles Bilbao stood two great 
sieges, Zumalacarreguy here receiving his 
death wound in 1835, while in 1874 the 
place was vainly besieged and heavily bom¬ 
barded by the forces of Don Carlos for four 
months. 

Bilberry, the name given to one or two 
species of vaccinium, a genus of plants be¬ 
longing to the order vacciniacece (cranber¬ 
ries). It is especially used of the vaccinium 
myrtillus, called also the whortleberry. It 
has angular stems, drooping, urceolate, al¬ 
most waxy flowers, greenish with a red 
tinge, and black berries very pleasant to 
the taste. It grows in woods and healthy 
places. The great bilberry or bog whortle¬ 
berry is an allied species with rounded 
stems, smaller flowers, and less agreeably 
tasted fruit. It grows in mountain bogs. 
It is called also the bleaberry or blaeberry. 
The name is also applied to the fruit of the 
species described. That of the bilberry, 
properly so called, is eaten in the places 
where it grows, either as it is or with milk. 
It is made also into jellies and tarts. It is 
astringent, and may be used in diarrhoea 
and dysentery. The fruit of the V. uligi- 
nosum is acid, and produces giddiness and 
headache when eaten in too large quantity. 

BilbiJ is, an old Iberian city of Spain, 
2 miles E. of the modern town of Cala- 
tayud, in the Province of Saragossa, chiefly 
celebrated as the birthplace of the poet, 
Martial, but also famed for its highly tem¬ 
pered steel blades. 

Bilderdijk, Willem (bil'der-dik), a Dutch 
poet, born in Amsterdam, Sept. 7, 1756; 
reached the highest point of his lyric genius 
in the “ Miscellaneous Poems ” and patriotic 
pieces, notably the hymn, “ Willem Fred- 
erik,” and “ The True Love of Fatherland.” 
Of his great didactic poems most are imi¬ 
tations; e. g., the “Country Life,” after a 
French original; “ Man,” after Pope’s “ Es¬ 
say on Man.” His epic, “ Destruction of 
the First World,” a work not unworthy of 
his genius, was left uncompleted. He died 
in Amsterdam, Dec. 18, 1831. 

Bile, an animal fluid secreted by the liver. 
It is collected from venous and not from 
arterial blood. It is a viscid, transparent 



Biled=u?~£erid 


liquid of a very deep yellow or greenish 
color, darkening by exposure to the air. 
Its odor is disagreeable; its taste nauseous 
and bitter. It has an alkaline reaction. 
Strecker has shown that it is essentially a 
mixture of two acids, the glycoholic and the 
taurocholic acid, the first containing nitro¬ 
gen without sulphur and the latter having 
both. The principal coloring matter of the 
bile is called bilirubine or cholepyrrhine. 
In 1,000 parts it contains: 

Water. ,from 823 to 903 parts. 

Solid matter. from 177 to 92 parts. 

Bile acids with alkali. from 108 to 66 parts. 

Fat and cholesterine. from 47 to 40 parts. 

Mucus and coloring matter, from 24 to 15 parts. 

Ash. from 11 to 6 parts. 

When the bile is elaborated in the liver, it 
is received from the secreting vessels by 
very minute tubes, which, uniting, form the 
hepatic duct. The bile is conveyed into the 
gall bladder by means of the cystic, or into 
the duodenum by the choledoch duct; that 
which makes its way into the former re¬ 
ceptacle is called the cystic bile, and that 
which enters the latter the hepatic bile. 
Cystic bile is deeper in color and more 
viscid, pungent, and bitter than hepatic bile. 
One main use of bile is to convert chyme 
into chyle as one step in the process of 
digestion. 

Riled=ul=gerid (-jer'id), a tract of North 
Africa, lying between the S. declivity of 
Atlas and the Great Desert, noted for the 
production of date palms. 

Bilfinger, or Bulffinger, Georg Bern= 

hard, a German philosopher, born in Cann- 
statt, Wiirtemberg, Jan. 23, 1G93; was Pro¬ 
fessor of Theology in Tubingen, and Privy 
Councilor in Stuttgart. He wrote “ Diluci- 
dationes de Deo, anima humana,” (1725), 
etc. He died in Stuttgart, Feb. 18, 1750. 

Bilge, the breadth of a ship’s bottom, or 
that part of her floor which approaches to 
a horizontal direction, on which she would 
rest if aground. Bilge water, water which 
enters a ship and lies upon her bilge or 
bottom; when not drawn off it becomes 
dirty and offensive. Bilge ways, planks of 
timber placed under a vessel’s bilge on the 
building slip to support her while launch¬ 
ing. 

Rilguer, Paul Rudolf von (bel-ger), a 
Prussian military officer, born in Ludwig- 
slust, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Sept. 21, 1815. 
He was a lieutenant in the army, and was 
best known as an authority on chess. He 
was the author of “ Handbuch des Schach- 
spiels,” etc. He died in Berlin, Sept. 10, 
1840. 

Bilharzia (distomum or yyneecophorus 
hcematobius) , a parasitic flat worm in the 
fluke or trematode order, and belonging 
either to the same genus as the common 
liver fluke ( D. hepaticum), or to one very 


Bill 

closely related. The most remarkable fact 
about this worm is the separation and re¬ 
lation of the sexes. In all other trematodes 
the sexes are united, the animals are herma¬ 
phrodite, but here a grooved canal, formed 
from two folds of skin on the ventral sur¬ 
face of the larger male, contains the female. 
Pairs thus united are found in the portal 
and other vessels in the abdominal region, 
both in men and monkeys. They are espe¬ 
cially abundant in boys, and cause hema¬ 
turia and other troubles. These are mainly 
due to the inflammation caused by the de¬ 
position of the ova in the vessels of the 
mucous membrane of ureter, bladder, in¬ 
testine, etc. They occur from Egypt south¬ 
ward to the Cape. It is said that about 
half of the Fellah and Copt population of 
Egypt suffer from this parasite. The em¬ 
bryos are ciliated, but the life history is 
not known. 

Biliary Calculus, a concretion which 
forms in the gall bladder or bile ducts; 
gall stone. It is generally composed of a 
peculiar crystalline fatty matter which has 
been called cholesterine. 

Bill, a cutting instrument hook shaped 
toward the point, or with a concave cutting 
edge; used by plumbers, basket makers, 
gardeners, etc.; made in various forms and 
fitted with a handle. Such instruments, 
when used by gardeners for pruning hedges, 
trees, etc., are called hedge bills or bill 
hooks. Also an ancient military weapon, 
consisting of a broad, hook shaped blade, 
having a short pike at the back and an¬ 
other at the summit, attached to a long 
handle, used by the English infantry espe¬ 
cially in defending themselves against cav¬ 
alry down to the 15th century, and by civic 
guards or watchmen down to the end of the 
17th. 

Bill, a written or printed paper contain¬ 
ing a statement of any particulars. In com¬ 
mon use a tradesman’s account, or a printed 
proclamation or advertisement, is thus 
called a bill. In legislation a bill is a 
draft of a proposed statute submitted to 
a legislative assembly for approval, but not 
yet enacted or passed and made law. When 
the bill has passed and received the neces¬ 
sary assent, it becomes an act. 

Bill of Adventure .— A writing signed by 
a merchant, in which he states that certain 
goods shipped in his name really belong to 
another person, at whose risk the adventure 
is made. 

Bill of Attainder .— A bill declaring that 
the person named in it is attainted and his 
property confiscated. The Constitution of 
the United States declares that no State 
shall pass any bill of attainder. 

Bill of Costs .— A statement of the items 
which form the total amount of the costs 
of a suit or action. This is demandable as 








Bill 


Bill 


a matter of right before the payment of the 
costs. 

Bill of Credit. — A letter sent by an agent 
or other person to a merchant, desiring him 
to give the bearer credit for goods or money. 
It is frequently given to one about to travel 
abroad, and empowers him to take up money 
from the foreign correspondents of the per¬ 
son from whom the bill or letter of credit 
was received. 

Bill of Entry. — A written account of 
goods entered at the custom-house, whether 
imported or designed for exportation. 

Bill of Exceptions. — A bill of the nature 
of an appeal from a judge who is held to 
have misstated the law, whether by ig¬ 
norance, by inadvertence, or by design. This 
the judge is bound to seal if lie be requested 
by the counsel on either side so to do. The 
exceptions noted are reviewed by the court 
to which appeal is taken, and if the ob¬ 
jections made to the rulings of the trial 
judge are well founded, the finding in the 
case is reversed, and usually the cause is 
remanded for a new trial. 

Bill of Exchange. — A bill or security 
originally introduced for enabling a mer¬ 
chant in one country to remit money to a 
correspondent in the other. It is an open 
letter of request from one man to another 
desiring him to pay to a third party a 
specified sum and put it to the account of 
the first. If A. in London owe $500 to B. in 
New York, and C. be about to travel from 
New York to London, then C. may pay the 
$500 to B. before departure, and carry a 
bill of exchange on A. in London for the 
amount. If the last named gentleman be 
honest, and if he be solvent, he will repay 
the money to C. on reaching London, and 
C. will have reaped an advantage in having 
the cash in the form of a bill, which it was 
safer for him to carry in this form on the 
passage than if he had had it in notes or 
gold. In such a transaction. B., the person 
who writes the bill of exchange, is called 
the drawer; A., to whom it is written, is 
termed up to the time that he accepts it, 
the drawee, and after he has done so, the 
acceptor; and C., his order, or the bearer 
— in short, whoever is entitled to receive 
the money — the payee. The bill may be 
assigned to another by simple indorsement; 
the person who thus transfers it is named 
the indorser, and the one to whom it is 
assigned the indorsee or holder. Every one 
whose name is on the back of a bill is re¬ 
sponsible if the person on whom payment 
should legitimately fall fail to meet his 
engagement. The first bills known in com¬ 
merce were about a. n. 1328. Bills of ex¬ 
change are also called drafts. Formerly it 
was deemed important to divide them into 
foreign, when they were drawn by a mer¬ 
chant residing abroad or his correspondent, 
and inland, when both the drawer and the 


drawee resided in the same country. Now, 
the distinction is little attended to, there 
being no legal difference between the two 

classes of bills. 

Bill of Fare. — A written or printed paper, 
enumerating the several dishes at a dinner 
table; or, in the case of hotels and public 
eating houses, enumerating the prices of 
the several articles which may be ordered 
for meals. 

Bill of Health. — A certificate given to the 
master of a ship clearing out of a port in 
which contagious disease is epidemic, or is 
suspected to be so, certifying to the state 
of health of the crew and passengers on 
board. 

Bill of Indictment. — A written accusation 
made against one or more persons of having 
committed a specified crime or misdemeanor. 
It is preferred to and presented on oath by 
a grand jury. If the grand jury find the 
allegations unproved, they ignore the bill, 
giving as their verdict, “ Not a true bill; ” 
if, on the contrary, they consider the indict¬ 
ment proved, their verdict is a “ True bill.” 

Bill of Lading. — A document by which 
the master of a ship acknowledges to have 
received on board his vessel, in good order 
and condition, certain specified goods con¬ 
signed to him by some particular shipper, 
and binds himself to deliver them in simi¬ 
larly good order and condition — unless the 
dangers of the sea, fire, or enemies prevent 
him — to the assignees of the shipper at the 
point of destination, on their paying him 
the stipulated freight. Usually two or 
three copies of a bill of lading are made, 
worded thus: “ One of which bills being 

accomplished, the others stand void.” A bill 
of lading may be transferred by indorsement 
like a bill of exchange. 

Bill of Parcels. — An account given by a 
seller to a buyer, giving a list of the several 
articles which he has purchased, and their 
prices. 

Bill of Parliamentary Procedure. — An in¬ 
strument drawn or presented by a member 
or committee to a legislative body for its 
approbation and enactment. After it has 
successfully passed both houses and re¬ 
ceived the constitutional sanction of the 
chief magistrate, where such approbation 
is requisite, it becomes a law. 

Bill of Particulars. —-A paper stating in 
detail a plaintiff’s case, or the set off on 
defendant’s side. 

Bill of Rights. — A bill which gave legal 
validity to the claim of rights, i. e., the 
declaration presented by the Lords and Com¬ 
mons to the Prince and Princess of Orange 
on Feb. 13, 1688, and afterward enacted in 
Parliament when they became King and 
Queen. It declared it illegal, without the 
sanction of Parliament, to suspend or dis¬ 
pense with laws, to erect commission courts, 
to levy money for the use of the crown on 




Bill 


Bill Fish 


pretense of prerogative, and to raise and 
maintain a standing army in the time of 
peace. It also declared that subjects have 
a right to petition the King, and, if Protes¬ 
tants, to carry arms for defense; also that 
members of Parliament ought to be freely 
elected, and that their proceedings ought 
not to be impeached or questioned in any 
place out of Parliament. It further enacted 
that excessive bail ought not to be required, 
or excessive fines imposed, or unusual pun¬ 
ishment inflicted; that juries should be 
chosen without partiality; that all grants 
and promises of fines or forfeitures before 
conviction are illegal; and, that, for redress 
of grievances and preserving of the laws, 
Parliament ought to be held frequently. 
Finally, it provided for the settlement of 
the crown. In the United States, a bill of 
rights, or, as it is more commonly termed 
in this country, a declaration of rights, is 
prefixed to the constitutions of most of the 
States. 

Bill of Sale .— A deed of writing, under 
Real, designed to furnish evidence of the sale 
of personal property. It is necessary to 
have such an instrument when the sale of 
property is not to be immediately followed 
by its transference to the purchaser. It is 
used in the transfer of property in ships, 
in that of stock in trade, or the good-will 
of a business. It is employed also in the 
sale of furniture, the removal of which from 
the house would call attention to the em¬ 
barrassed circumstances of its owner; hence 
the statistics of the bills of sale act as an 
index to measure the amount of secret dis¬ 
tress existing in times of commercial depres¬ 
sion. In not a few cases bills of sale are 
used to defeat just claims against the nom¬ 
inal or real vendor of the goods transferred. 

Bill of Sight .— A form of entry at the 
custom-house by which one can land for in¬ 
spection, in presence of the officers, such 
goods as he has not had the opportunity of 
previously examining, and which, conse¬ 
quently, he cannot accurately describe. 

BilIaud=Varennes, Jacques Nicolas (be- 
yo'-var-en'), the son of a French advo¬ 
cate at Rochelle, born in 175G; was edu¬ 
cated at the same college as Fouche, and 
proved himself one of the most violent and 
sanguinary characters of the French Revo¬ 
lution. He bore a principal part in the 
murders and massacres which followed the 
destruction of the Bastille; voted immediate 
death to Louis XVI.; and officiated as presi¬ 
dent of the Convention on Oct. 18, 1793. He 
was afterward deported to Cayenne, and 
subsisted on a small pension allowed him 
by Petion. He died in Haiti, in 1819. 

Billaut, Adam (be-ye'), better known as 
“ Mattre A.dam,” a French poet, born at the 
beginning of the 17th century. A carpenter 
by trade, he wrote rude but original poems, 


the gayety of which, together with the con¬ 
trast they allorded with his occupation, 
made them very popular at the time. Vol¬ 
taire called him “Vergil with the Plane.” 
Hie three collections of his poems were en- 
titled “The Pegs,” “The Center-Bit,” and 
" The Plane.” He died in 1G62. 


Bill Broker, a financial agent or money 
dealer, who discounts or negotiates bills of 
exchange, promissory notes, etc. 

Bill Chamber, a department of the Court 
of Sessions in Scotland, in which one of the 
judges officiates at all times during session 
and vacation. All proceedings for sum¬ 
mary remedies, or for protection against 
impending proceedings, commence in the 
bill chamber, such as interdicts. The proc¬ 
ess of sequestration or bankruptcy also is¬ 
sues from this department of the court. 

Bille, Steen Andersen (be'le), a Danish 
naval officer, born in Copenhagen, Dec. 5, 
1797. He was a member of the expedition 
that went to South America in 1840, and 
had command of a scientific expedition 
round the world, in the corvette “ Galatea,” 
1845—1847. In his “ Beretning om Corvet- 
ten Galatheas Reise omkrung jorden, 1845- 
184G og 1847 ” (1849—1851) he has given 
an account of this expedition. He died in 
Copenhagen, May 7, 1883. 

Bille, Steen Andersen, a Danish naval 
officer, born Aug. 22, 1751; became admiral 
and also a minister of State. He greatly 
distinguished himself in an attack on Trip¬ 
oli in 1798, and in the battle of Copen¬ 
hagen in 1807. He died at Copenhagen, 
April 15, 1833. 

Billet, the term given to a molding fre¬ 
quently introduced in mediaeval architec¬ 
ture, consisting of a torus ornamented by 
alternate chequers, like a staff cut into short 
lengths and disposed horizontally or around 
a molding, and of another molding, com¬ 
posed of a series of small projections, ar¬ 
ranged round a curve in alternate direc¬ 
tions, but in a consecutive manner. 


Billeting, a mode of feeding and lodging 
soldiers when they are not in camp or bar¬ 
racks by quartering them on the inhabitants 
of a town. The necessity for billeting oc¬ 
curs chiefly during movements of the troops 
or when any accidental occasion arises for 
quartering soldiers in a town which has 
not sufficient barrack accommodation. The 
billeting of soldiers on private householders 
is now generally abandoned, but all keepers 
of inns, livery stables, ale-houses, victualing 
houses, and similar establishments are lia¬ 
ble to receive officers and soldiers billeted on 
them. 


Bill Fish, the gar pike or long nosed gar 
(lepidosteus ossSus ), a fish common in the 
lakes and rivers of the United States; but 
the name is also given to other fishes. 





Billiards 


Billiards 


Billiards, a word probably derived from 
old French billiard, “ a stick with a curved 
end; ” in English, introduced as the name of 
a game, and made plural. The origin of 
billiards is uncertain. Some ascribe its in¬ 
vention to Henrique Devigne, an artist who 
flourished about 1570. It was brought into 
fashion by Louis XIV. (middle of 17tli cen¬ 
tury), whose physicians recommended him ex¬ 
ercise after eating. Others believe billiards 
to be of English origin. It is mentioned 
by Spenser (“Mother Hubbard’s Tale/’ 
1591), and by Shakespeare (“Anthony and 
Cleopatra,” circa, 1007). The earliest de¬ 
scription of billiards in English is in Cot¬ 
ton’s “ Compleat Gamester” (1G74). The 
bed of the table was then made of oak; 
sometimes of marble. Slate beds were first 
used about 1827. The cushions were stuffed 
with flock; list was used later. India rub¬ 
ber cushions were first manufactured about 
1835. The pockets, called hazards, were at 
first wooden boxes, nets being employed 
soon afterward. Each player pushed his 
ball with a mast (now corrupted into 
mace), made of heavy wood, and tipped at 
the broad end with ivory. The game played 
was the white winning game (single pool), 
five or three up. A player holding his 
adversary’s ball won an end (or life) ; if 
he holed his own ball he lost a life (hence 
the terms winning and losing hazards). In 
addition, a small arch of ivory, called a 
port, and an ivory peg or king, stood 
on the table, and certain scores appertained 
to passing the port and to touching the 
king. 

In 1734 French billiards first appear in 
Seymour’s “ Court Gamester.” It is there 
stated that port and king are now wholly 
laid aside. Maces were still commonly used, 
but cue playing was permitted. Cues, how¬ 
ever, had no tips until about the beginning 
of the 19th century. French billiards was 
very like single pool, a hazard counting two, 
a miss one, and a coup three. The game 
was played 12 up. The losing game, in 
which a player scored for a losing hazard, 
was also occasionally played. About 1775 
the carambole game (later corrupted into 
cannon), was first heard of. A third ball, 
called the caram ball (etymology unknown), 
was introduced. Winning hazards and can¬ 
nons counted to the striker, losing hazards 
against him; and a baulk (now first so 
called) compelled the next striker to play 
out of baulk, as at present. Early in the 
19th century, the white winning and losing 
carambole game, now known as billiards, 
ousted all other varieties in England. It 
is played on a table 12 feet by 0 feet, sur¬ 
rounded by cushions, and having six pock¬ 
ets, of no fixed size, one at each angle of the 
two adjacent squares which form the bed of 
the table: three balls, diameter 2 l-10th in¬ 
ches, are used. The French have long dis¬ 


carded pockets, altogether, and play only 
a cannon game, with larger balls and a 
smaller table. The Americans added a 
fourth ball, and in their game cannons and 
winning hazards counted to the striker, and 
losing hazards against him. They then 
abolished the tw T o side pockets, in conse¬ 
quence of their interfering with cannon 
play (or, as the Americans still spell it, 
more correctly, carom). Of late years pocket 
tables have been but little used in the United 
States, except for pool; and the size of the 
table has been gradually reduced to 10 feet 
by 5 feet; balls 2% inches in diameter. 
The four ball game is now seldom played by 
experts, the three ball French carom game 
having superseded it in match play. Each 
carom counts 1; each miss, 1; and the game 
is usually 34 up. Sometimes it is played 21 
up, misses not being reckoned, and each 
carom counting 1; or 45 up, each carom 
counting 2, and misses being scored. In 
the American game, push and crotch shots 
are generally barred. The crotch is a 414- 
inch square at each corner of the table. 
Whenever the centers of both object balls 
lie within the same crotch, only three car¬ 
oms are allowed, unless at least one of the 
object balls is moved out of the crotch. 

The highest breaks made at the English 
game are as follows: On an ordinary table, 
spot barred, John Roberts, Jr., twice during 
1894 exceeded 1,000 in exhibition games, 
making 1,033 and 1,302; on an ordinary 
table, all in, Peall — 2,413 (338 and 449 
spots), at the Aquarium, Westminster, Nov. 
4 and 5, 1886. Peall also holds the record 
on a championship (3 inch pocket) table, 
the spot being 12% inches from the top 
cushion, instead of 12*4 inches as in 
championship matches. His break was 445 
(128 spots), at the Billiard Hall, on May 
31, 1887. The best break on a championship 
table, with spot 12*4 inches from the cush¬ 
ion, is by John Roberts, Jr. The break was 
155, in a match for the championship, in 
June, 1885. 

To play the game of billiards, the learner 
should first acquire an easy attitude. The 
left foot should be forward, a little to the 
left of the ball to be struck, with the toe 
pointing to the ball. The right foot should 
be about 18 inches behind the left, and 
nearly parallel to the edge of the table. The 
body should be inclined forward, with the 
face full in front of the ball. The cue 
should be lightly grasped with the right 
hand near the butt end, the hand being di¬ 
rectly under the right elbow. The left hand 
should be placed on the table, w r ith the 
space between the thumb and first finger 
opposite the center of the ball to be struck, 
the tip of the middle finger being eight or 
nine inches from the ball. To form the 
bridge on which the cue is to rest vdien 
aiming and striking, raise the knuckles 



Billiards 


Billings 


about two inches; raise the thumb, and 
press it against the third knuckle of the 
first finger. Spread the fingers a little, and 
press slightly on the table with the fore¬ 
finger, little finger, and ball of the thumb. 

The cue, when placed between the thumb 
and the first finger, should be nearly paral¬ 
lel to the bed of the table, and pointing to 
the center of the ball, or slightly above it. 
To deliver the cue properly, draw it back 
several inches, and then send it forward 
with a free and even motion, allowing the 
tip to pass beyond the spot occupied by the 
ball. For practice, place the ball on the 
spot in the middle of the baulk line, and 
drive it over the red spot, gently at first, 
so as to make the ball return into baulk. 
If struck truly in the center, it will re¬ 
turn over the baulk spot. When able to ac¬ 
complish this with tolerable certainty, in¬ 
crease the strength, and practice striking 
the ball a trifle above the center. 

When able to hit the ball quite accu¬ 
rately above the center, at any strength, the 
learner should practice half-ball losing haz¬ 
ards. A half-ball stroke is one in which 
half the striker’s ball overlaps half the ob¬ 
ject ball. Place the red on the spot. Draw 
an imaginary line from the red to the near¬ 
est shoulder of the middle pocket, and 
place the white on that line rather nearer 
to the shoulder than midway between it and 
the red. This gives a half-ball losing haz¬ 
ard with gentle strength into the top 
corner pocket. The white is to be struck 
in the center. Then move the white ball 
toward the opposite middle pocket, say 
about two inches. A half-ball losing hazard 
is still left, but it requires to be played 
stronger, and the ball should be struck 
above the center. Again moving the white 
ball toward the opposite middle pocket, a 
stronger half-ball loser is left, the limit be¬ 
ing reached when the ball has been moved 
about 814 inches, the stroke being then 
played as hard as possible. On either side 
of these limits, losing hazards can still be 
made into the corner pocket, but they re¬ 
quire either side, or screw, or to be played 
finer or fuller than a half-ball. 

To play with side, the ball must be struck 
on one side instead of in the center. If 
the ball is to travel to the right, right hand 
side is required ; if to the left, left hand 
side. The cue should be held parallel to the 
direction of the aim, and not crossing the 
ball. The more gently the ball is struck, 
the more the side will tell. The amount of 
side required for given strokes can only be 
judged by practice. The effect of side is to 
alter the angle at which the striker’s ball 
leaves the object-ball or the cushion; if side 
is put on in the direction in which the ball 
is going, the angle is increased; if reverse 
side is put on — i. e., if the ball is struck 


on the side away from that in which the 
ball is going, the angle is diminished. 

To play with screw, the ball must be 
struck below the center, and the cue should 
be tightly grasped. Screws should never be 
played at top strength, and never finer than 
a three-quarter ball (three-quarters of each 
ball overlapping). The effect of screw is to 
make the striker’s ball leave the object ball 
at a greater angle than it would if played 
without screw. 

For following strokes, the striker’s ball 
should be hit above the center, and the ob¬ 
ject ball fuller than a half-ball. For fine 
strokes, the striker must be careful to play 
his own ball truly in the center. How fine 
the object ball has to be struck to make a 
given stroke is a matter of practice. 

Cannons follow the same principles as los¬ 
ing hazards. For pocket read ball, and the 
stroke is as already explained. Winning 
hazards depend chiefly on striking the ball 
accurately. Except when playing for posi¬ 
tion, the ball should be struck in the cen¬ 
ter. The striker should draw an imagin¬ 
ary line from the center of the pocket, 
through the object ball, and one inch be¬ 
yond it, and should aim at the point where 
that line ends. A fine winning hazard or 
cut cannot be made if the angle formed by 
the imaginary line and the line traversed 
by the striker’s ball is greater than a right 
angle. 

The foregoing instructions are only in¬ 
tended to initiate the learner into the ele¬ 
ments of the game. Besides the ordinary 
strokes described, much might be said about 
billiards which must here be passed over. 
In a complete treatise, push, kiss, bricole, 
mass£, spot, and other strokes should be 
separately treated. 

Billings, John Shaw, an American sur¬ 
geon and librarian, born in Switzerland 
county, Ind., April 12, 1830; was graduated 
at Miami University, in 1857, and the Ohio 
Medical College, in 1800; was demonstrator 
of anatomy in the last institution, in 1860- 
1861; entered the Union army as an Assist¬ 
ant Surgeon, in 1861; was promoted to 
Lieutenant-Colonel and Deputy Surgeon 
General, June 6 , 1894; and was retired, Oct. 
1, 1895. He was Professor of Hygiene in 
the University of Pennsylvania, in 1893- 
1896; and in the last year was appointed 
Director of the Hew York Public Library 
(Astor, Lenox and Tilden foundations). 
After the close of the war Dr. Billings took 
charge of the library in the Surgeon-Gen¬ 
eral’s Office; reorganized the United States 
Marine Hospital Service; was Vice-Presi¬ 
dent of the National Board of Health, in 
1879-1882; and had charge of the compila¬ 
tion of vital and social statistics in the 
Eleventh Census (1890, et seq.). He is 
a member of a large number of American 
and foreign scientific societies, and his nu- 



Billings 


Biloxi Indians 


merous publications include “ Principles of 
Ventilation and Heating/’ “ Index Cata¬ 
logue of the Library of the Surgeon-Gen¬ 
eral’s Office, United States Army” (14 
vols.), and “The National Medical Dic¬ 
tionary ” (2 vols.). 

Billings, Josh. See Siiaw, Henry 
Wheeler. 

Billings, William, an American com¬ 
poser, born in Boston, Oct. 7, 1746; pub¬ 
lished “ The New England Psalm Singer,” 
“ The Singing Master’s Assistant,” “ Music 
in Miniature,” “ The Psalm .Singer’s Amuse¬ 
ment,” and other works. One of the ear¬ 
liest of American composers, he is accred¬ 
ited Ivith having introcluced into New Eng¬ 
land a spirited style of church music. He 
died in Boston, Sept. 26, 1800. 

Billingsgate, a word said to have been 
derived from Belinus Magnus, a somewhat 
mythic British prince, father of King Lud, 
about B. c. 400. More probably it came 
from some unknown person called Billing. 
It is applied to the celebrated London fish 
market existent at least as early as A. 
d. 979, made a free market in 1699, ex- 
tended in 1849, rebuilt in 1852, and finally 
exposed to the rivalry of another market be¬ 
gun 1874, completed 1876. The word is 
also used to indicate foul, abusive language, 
such as is popularly supposed to be mutu¬ 
ally employed by fish-wives who are unable 
to come to an amicable understanding as to 
the proper price of the fish about which 
they are negotiating. Billingsgate is used 
as a synonym of coarse, vulgar abuse. 

Billington, Elizabeth ,an English singer, 
born in London, about 1769. Her mother 
was an English vocalist, her father a Saxon 
musician named Weichsel. She appeared as 
a singer at the age of 14, and at 16 mar¬ 
ried Mr. Billington, a double bass player. 
She made her debut as an operatic singer 
in Dublin, and afterward appeared at Cov- 
ent Garden. She visited France and Italy, 
and Bianchi composed the opera of “ Inez de 
Castro ” expressly for her performance at 
Naples. In 1802-1811 she sang an Italian 
opera in London, and, having amassed a 
handsome fortune, she retired from the 
stage in 1811. Her private character was 
the cause of much scandal. She died in 
Italy, in 1818. 

Billion, in English notation 1,000,000 
times 1,000,000, and in England it is writ¬ 
ten 1,000,000,000,000, i. e., with twice as 
many ciphers as 1,000,000 has. In the 
United States and in France the notation is 
different, the word billion signifying only 
1,000 millions, written 1,000,000,000. 

Billiton, a Dutch East Indian island be¬ 
tween Banca and the S. W. of Borneo, of an 
irregular, sub-quadrangular form, about 

40 miles across. It produces iron and tin, 


and exports sago, cocoanuts, pepper, tor¬ 
toise shell, trepang, edible birds’ nests, etc. 
It was ceded to the British in 1812 by the 
Sultan of Palembang, but in 1824 it was 
given up to the Dutch. Pop. (1900) 43,386. 

Billon, an alloy of copper and silver, in 
which the former predominates, used in 
some countries for coins of low value, the 
object being to avoid the bulkiness of pure 
copper coin. 

Billy Barlow, a street droll, a Merry An¬ 
drew. So called from a half idiot of the 
name, who fancied himself some great per¬ 
sonage. Ho was well known in the East 
of London, and died in Whitechapel work- 
house. Some of his sayings were really 
witty, and some of his attitudes really 
droll. 

Bilma, a town of the Sahara, Central 
Africa, situated in 18° 40' N. lat., 14° E. 
long., on an oasis called the Wady Kewar. 
It is the capital of the Tibu country, im¬ 
portant as a resting-place of caravans cross¬ 
ing the desert, but is a poor place. 

Bilney, Thomas, an English martyr, born 
about 1495, probably at Norwich; studied 
at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and was or¬ 
dained in 1519. He was opposed to the 
formal “ good works ” of the Schoolmen, and 
denounced saint and relic worship; and to 
these mild Protestant views he converted 
Hugh Latimer and other young Cambridge 
men. In 1527 he was arraigned before 
Wolsey, and on recanting, absolved, but was 
confined in the Tower for over a year. 
Stung by remorse, after two years of suffer¬ 
ing, he began to preach in the fields of 
Norfolk, but was soon apprehended and 
condemned; and although allowed to re¬ 
ceive the sacraments of the Church from 
which he differed so little, he was burned as 
a heretic at Norwich, Aug. 19, 1531. 

Biloxi, a city in Harrison co., Miss., on 
Biloxi Bay, opening into the Gulf of Mexico, 
and the Louisville and Nashville railroad; 
80 miles N. E. of New Orleans. It is prin¬ 
cipally engaged in the canning of oysters, 
fish, fruit and vegetables, and has also con¬ 
siderable manufacturing and shipping in¬ 
terests. Biloxi is the site of the first set¬ 
tlement made upon the Mississippi by white 
men, under the direction of Pierre Le Moyne 
d’Iberville, in 1699. The city has electric 
lights, artesian waterworks, over 25 miles 
of shell roads, and an iron lighthouse with 
a light 62 feet above the sea level; and is 
a popular summer and winter resort. Pop. 
(1900) 5,467; (1910) 7,988. 

Biloxi Indians, the name given to one of 
the 10 groups of tribes into which the 
Siouan stock of North American Indians 
is divided. In 1669 they had one village on 
Biloxi Bay near the Gulf of Mexico. Thirty 
years later there were three villages, Biloxi, 




Bimetallism 


Bimetallism 


Paskagula and Moctobi. A few survivors 
of the tribe are still to be found near Le- 
compte, Rapides parish, La. 

Bimetallism is a scheme to maintain two 
monetary standards in concurrent circula¬ 
tion at a fixed relative value. The term is 
a modern one, having originated probably 
with Cernuschi ( q. v.) about the time of the 
serious fall in the value of silver in 1876, 
when new measures were thought to be 
necessary to support the value of silver. As 
distinct from the action of a single State, 
the proposal for combined agreement by sev¬ 
eral commercial nations upon the’same ratio 
between two standards is commonly known 
as international bimetallism. 

The theory of Bimetallism is based upon 
the so-called quantity-theory of money, 
and upon the compensatory action of two 
standards. The quantity-theory regards 
the level of prices as being fixed by the 
quantity of “money” in circulation com¬ 
pared with the money-work to be done. 
With a given circulation, it is held that an 
increasing volume of transactions would put 
such a demand upon the circulation that its 
value would necessarily be raised, bringing 
about, consequently, a fall in the level of 
prices. The compensatory action assumes 
that there may be changes in the conditions 
affecting the value of each of the two bi¬ 
metallic standards; that, as one falls in 
value relative to the other, obligations and 
prices will be expressed in the lower stand¬ 
ard, causing a concentration of monetary 
demand upon the less valuable standard; 
and that, as demand is withdrawn from the 
more valuable, and added to the less valu¬ 
able, standard, the value of the former will 
fall and the value of the latter will rise, 
until an equilibrium is restored, so that both 
standards will circulate together. Under 
the compensatory action, while changes in 
relative values of the standards may be fre¬ 
quent—and must be sufficient to cause a 
shift from the one standard to another by 
the world of trade—it is claimed that the 
changes could not be as extreme as under a 
single standard. 

The logic and theory of Bimetallism have 
been seriously attacked on grounds quite 
apart from its practical impossibility. In the 
first place, the theory of prices upon which 
Bimetallism rests lias been declared to be 
wholly fallacious. When silver was aban¬ 
doned by Germany, 1871-1873, the point was 
made that there was not enough gold in the 
world to do the money-work; if silver were 
given up, the increasing demand for “money” 
would raise the value of gold and lower 
prices; therefore, properly to increase the 
quantity of money, silver should be used as 
well as gold as a means of maintaining the 
requisite level of prices. Both theory and 
facts are now advanced to show the falsity 
of this position. From the point of view of 


theory, a sharp distinction has been drawn 
between money in its function as a standard, 
and as a medium of exchange. Price is the 
quantity of the standard metal for which 
an article will exchange. To affect price, 
therefore, a change is necessary in the value 
of that “money” which is serving as a stand¬ 
ard. Consequently, the separate forms of 
money which act as media of exchange are 
of little or no influence on prices. Inasmuch 
as gold is the standard, and many other 
things are devised to serve as media of ex¬ 
change, the demand for “money” arising 
from increasing transactions is a demand 
for more media of exchange (such as bank 
notes, checks, etc.), and not necessarily for 
more of the metal adopted as a standard of 
prices. If the demand for media of exchange 
is met by banks—as it usually is—with a 
very elastic check-and-deposit currency, 
then there may be quite considerable fluctua¬ 
tions in. the amount of the media of exchange 
without perceptibly affecting the value of 
that form of “money” which serves as the 
standard of prices. Thus, it is held by many 
economists that there is no direct relation 
between the level of prices and the quantity 
of that money which circulates as a medium 
of exchange. The compensatory action, 
moreover, depends on the willingness of 
States belonging to an international com¬ 
bination to see one metal entirely disappear 
as a standard, and to have all prices and 
obligations expressed in another metal. 
Only in that way could a restoration in the 
relative values of two metals be brought 
about. Providing this were allowed, it is 
still a question whether the demand thus 
created for media of exchange would so act 
on the value of a standard of prices 
throughout the whole world as to regulate 
the level of prices thereby. But on this 
point, Bagehot said it was useless to 
argue about Bimetallism, because it was a 
political impossibility: no nation would 
submit to the regulation of its internal 
monetary and fiscal system in the interest 
of a mere theory such as that proposed by 
Bimetallism, even though it might be of 
general concern to other nations. Great 
Britain’s trade, for instance, is based to a 
large extent on the stability of bills of ex¬ 
change drawn in gold, and she would not 
possibly submit to a loss of this advantage. 
In the reasoning of Bimetallism, it is as¬ 
sumed, also, that a demand for one stand¬ 
ard, like gold, can be transferred without 
change to another standard, like silver. On 
the other side, it is maintained that the de¬ 
mand for gold is based on different consid¬ 
erations than is that for silver; consequent¬ 
ly, gold and silver not being homogeneous, 
the demand for gold could not be trans¬ 
ferred to a demand for silver. Gold has 
been wanted because it has a larger value 
in less bulk for large transactions and so 



Bimetallism 


Bimetallism 


is more desired in foreign trade. Also, there 
is a popular belief among men of affairs, 
whether well founded or not, that gold is 
less liable to fluctuations in its value than 
silver. Whatever the reason, it is claimed 
that whenever choice was free, gold has, in 
fact, been preferred to silver by commercial 
nations. The facts of history are thus used 
to prove tnat the demand for gold and silver 
is not homogeneous. Likewise, it is urged 
that the supply of gold comes mainly from 
different fields than that of silver: Gold 
being supplied from California and some 
other States of our Union, Australia, Rus¬ 
sia, the Rand in Africa, British Columbia, 
and Alaska; while silver is found not only 
in the United States, but mainly in Mexico 
and South America. Thus two different 
metals, with separate sources of supply, and 
with demands quite unlike, cannot be re¬ 
garded as homogeneous for monetary pur¬ 
poses. If not homogeneous in both demand 
and supply, it is held that the compensa¬ 
tory action would fail to work in practice. 

In recent years, the discussion of Bimetal¬ 
lism has subsided. This outcome is due 
chiefly to the prevalent belief in the suf¬ 
ficiency of the gold supply. Advocates of 
the quantity-theory of money assert that, 
since the level of prices depends upon the 
quantity of money in circulation, the great 
recent production of gold has removed the 
objection to the gold standard raised about 
1876 and thereafter, and that consequently 
the need of adding silver to the circulation 
is no longer so urgent. In this way the advo¬ 
cates of Bimetallism have maintained their 
consistency in accepting the gold standard. 
By those of differing views, the validity of 
this argument is challenged. Holding that 
the level of prices can be influenced either 
by changing the expenses of producing goods 
or by changes in the value of the gold stand¬ 
ard, they admit that an increased quantity 
of the standard metal theoretically might 
lower its valu'e and thus keep up the level 
of prices; but they insist that, in fact, the 
increasing supply of gold is the very reason 
why changes in prices of goods cannot be 
assigned to changes in the value of gold. 
They recall the truth that, owing to its 
durability, the supply of gold to meet exist¬ 
ing demands is not the present supply, but 
all the supply since gold has been pro¬ 
duced; hence, as years go on, the total sup¬ 
ply becomes larger and larger, relatively to 
the annual supply, and, consequently, less 
and less influenced by ordinary changes in 
temporary supply or demand. To add a 
pail of water to g barrel-full would raise 
the level of the water; but to add a hogs¬ 
head-full to Lake Superior would produce 
no perceptible effect on the level of water 
in Lake Superior. So with gold: the great 
additions of recent decades to the total sup¬ 
ply forbid that ordinary fluctuations in 


demand or supply, even in terms of years, 
could perceptibly change the value of gold. 
It would, therefore, be illogical to argue 
that prices have been raised lately by the 
exceptional increase in gold of late years. 
In truth, the movement of gold prices seems 
to have no connection with the production 
of gold, as may be seen by comparing the 
statistics of this subject. While present 
prices (see Senate Aldrich Report on 
Prices) are about twenty per cent, lower 
than they were in 1860, or even in 1879, the 
production of gold has increased in the fol¬ 
lowing way: 

Gold Production 


Years. of the World. 

1851-1860. $1,696 millions 

1860-1872. 1,628 

1873-1892. 2,188 

1893-1902. 2,382 


In effect, we have a decline of the general 
level of prices contemporaneous with a 
prodigious increase in the supply of the 
very metal in which the prices of goods are 
estimated. 

Historically, Bimetallism has been fre¬ 
quently introduced by legislative decree, but 
there seems to be no period of any conse¬ 
quence during which both gold and silver 
continued to circulate concurrently at a 
fixed legal ratio. However intended, the ex¬ 
periment has resulted in an alternative 
standard of one or the other metal. In the 
United States, a complete bimetallic system 
was inaugurated by Hamilton in 1792 at a 
ratio of 15 to 1, the mints being open freely 
to both gold and silver. The fall in the 
value of silver due to the large production 
of silver in Mexico after 1780 caused silver 
to flow to our mints, as the cheaper metal, 
according to Gresham’s Law, and gold (very 
little, however, then circulating in our cur¬ 
rency) to flow out. By 1814-1817, all gold 
had disappeared. In 1834, recognizing the 
actuality of silver as the standard money. 
Congress changed the ratio from 15 to 1 to 
about 16 to 1. This went too far and over¬ 
valued gold, which began to flow to the 
mints, while silver was withdrawn. By 1840 
silver was practically out of circulation, 
and the gold discoveries of 1848 strength¬ 
ened the tendency in favor of gold. In 
1S53 the United States accepted the single 
gold standard, and gave up the bimetallic 
system as impracticable. In France, Bi¬ 
metallism was tried in 1803 at the ratio of 
15% to 1; but in time silver became the 
sole currency. Finally, in 1865, a group of 
States, led by France (Belgium, Switzer¬ 
land, Italy, Greece and Rumania), under 
the name of the Latin Union, made a trial 
of Bimetallism. So long as gold flowed into, 
and silver flowed out of, these countries, no 
fears were expressed; but when, after 1873, 
silver began to come in and press to the 
mints, one after another of these countries 







Bin 


Bingham 


stopped the coinage of silver, thus ending 
this, the only known experiment in inter¬ 
national bimetallism. 

Bibliography (chiefly on recent phases of 
Bimetallism) : Cernuschi, “La Monnaie 
biinetallique” (1876); Jevons, “Money and 
the Mechanism of Exchange” (1875; gives 
statement of the compensatory theory) ; 
McLeod, “Bimetallism” (1894); Laughlin, 
“History of Bimetallism in the United 
States” (4th ed. 1897) ; Nicholson, “Treatise 
on Money and Essays on Monetary Problems” 
(2d ed., 1893) ; Shaw, “The History of Cur¬ 
rency” (189G); Lexis, art. “Doppelwnh- 
rung,” “Handwbrterbuch dcr Staatswissen- 
schaften” (1891); GitTen, “The Case 
against Bimetallism” (189G); Walker, “In¬ 
ternational Bimetallism” (1896); Willis, 
“History of the Latin Union” (1901); 
Laughlin, “Principles of Money” (1903); 
Scott, “Money and Banking” (i 903) ; Kin- 
ley, “Money” (1903). 

See also Coinage ; Currency; Latin Union, 
The; Money. J. Laurence Laughlin. 

Bin, Jean Baptiste Philippe Emile, a 

French painter; working principally upon 
portraiture and decorative painting, in 
both of which lines he has been eminently 
successful; born in Paris, Feb. 10, 1825. 
He is a pupil of Gosse and Cogniet. In 
1878 he was made a member of the Legion 
of Honor, and in 1881 was conspicuous as 
one of the founders of the Society of French 
Artists. Since that time he has taken an 
active part in politics, and has been elected 
mayor of the 18th arrondissement . His 
“Prometheus Chained” is in the Museum 
at Marseilles. Among his historic portraits 
are those of MM. Clemenceau, Rousseau, 
Deschamps, etc. 

Binary Star. See Double Stars and 
Multiple Stars. 

Binary Theory, in chemistry, a hy¬ 
pothesis proposed by Davy to reduce the 
haloid salts (as NaCl) and the oxygen salts 
(as NaN0 3 ) to the same type, the monad 
Cl' being replaced by the monad redical 
containing oxygen (N0 3 )'. Acids are hy¬ 
drogen salts, as HC1, cr H(N0 3 )'. A radi¬ 
cal is only part of a molecule, which can 
unite with or replace an element or another 
radical, atomicity for atomicity. Thus the 
dyad radical (SO,)" can replace two monad 
radicals, (N0 3 )' 2 , as in the equation 
Pb" (N0 3 ) 2 + Mg" (SO,)" = Pb” (SO,) " + 
Mg”(N0 3 )' 2 . A radical cannot exist in a 
separate state. 

Binet, Victor Jean Baptiste Barthel- 

emv (be-na'), a French landscape painter, 
belonging to the realistic school, born in 
Rouen, March 17, 1849; made his debut in 
Ihe Salon of 1878, showing “The Warren.” 
One of the most famous of his pictures is 
“ The Plain at St. Aubin-sur-Quilleboeuf,” 


in the Museum at Amiens. In 1889 he was 
awarded a first class medal at the Paris 
Exposition. 

Bingen (bing'en), a German town in the 
Province of Rhine-Ilesse, Hesse; on the left 
bank of the Rhine, and the right of the Nahe. 
It is of considerable historical interest, con¬ 
taining the ruins of the Castle of Klopp, 
blown up by the French in 1G89; the re¬ 
mains of a 12th century monastery; and the 
tower, which, tradition tells us, was the 
scene of the tormenting death of Hatto, 
Archbishop of Mainz, said to have been 
eaten alive by mice in the 9th century. A 
statue of “ Germania,” heroic size, has been 
erected here to commemorate the German 
victories of 1870-1871. 

Binger, Louis Gustave (ban-ja'), a 
French officer and African explorer, born 
Oct. 14, 185G. He made his way from the 
Upper Niger to Grand Bassam in 1887-1889, 
thus connecting the French possessions with 
the Ivory Coast. In 1892 he was commis¬ 
sioner of the French Government to settle 
the Ashanti boundaries with England. 

Bingham, Hiram, an American Congre¬ 
gational clergyman, born in Bennington, 
Vt., Oct. 30, 1789; was one of the first mis¬ 
sionaries of the Congregational Church to 
be sent to the Sandwich Islands, where he 
acquired much influence with the natives. • 
He died in New Haven, Conn., Nov. 11, 1869. 

Bingham, John A., an American politi¬ 
cian, born in Mercer, Pa., in 1815; studied 
at Franklin College, Ohio, and became a 
lawyer in 1840. He was elected to Congress 
as a Republican in 1S54, and re-elected 
three times, retaining his seat from 1855 
till 1803. He was chairman of the mana¬ 
gers of the House in the impeachment of 
Judge Humphreys, for high treason, in 
1862. President Lincoln appointed him a 
Judge Advocate in the army in 1864, and 
later in the same year solicitor of the 
United States Court of Claims. He was 
special judge advocate in the trial of the 
assassins of President Lincoln. In 1865 he 
was again elected to Congress, and retained 
his seat till 1873. He was one of the man¬ 
agers of the impeachment trial of Presi¬ 
dent Johnson. From 1873 to 1885 he was 
United States minister to Japan. He died 
in Cadiz, 0., March 20, 1900. 

Bingham, Joseph, an English writer; 
born in 1668; distinguished himself as a 
student at Oxford, and devoted his atten¬ 
tion particularly to ecclesiastical antiqui¬ 
ties. He was compelled to leave the univer¬ 
sity for alleged heterodoxy, but was pre¬ 
sented to the living of Headbourn-Worthy, 
near Winchester, and afterward to that of 
Havant, near Portsmouth. His great work, 

“ Origines Ecclesiastic®, or Antiquities of 
the Christian Church,” in 10 volumes, was 
published 1708-1722. lie died in 1723. 




Bingham 


Binocular 


Bingham, Kinsley S., an American legis¬ 
lator, born in Camillus, N. Y., Dec. 10, 1801; 
studied law, and went to Michigan in 1833. 
He was a judge of probate, Speaker of the 
State House of Representatives; a member 
of Congress in 1849-1851 ; Governor of 
Michigan in 1855-1S59, and United States 
Senator in 1859-1801. He died in Green 
Oak, Mich., Oct. 5, 1801. 

Binghamton, city and county-seat of 
Broome co., N. Y., at the junction of the 
Chenango and Susquehanna rivers, and on 
several railroads; 50 miles E. of Elmira. 
It occupies a site more than 850 feet above 
tide water, and both rivers are here spanned 
by several bridges. The city is supplied 
with water by the Holly system, which cost 
over $1,500,000; has nearly 100 miles of 
streets lighted by electricity, and contains 
over 30 churches and chapels, public school 
property valued at over $425,000, a public 
library, two National banks, and an as¬ 
sessed property valuation exceeding $20,- 
000,000. Among the attractions of Bing¬ 
hamton, which has been named the “ Parlor 
City,” are Ross Park, Bennett Grove, and the 
Driving Parks and Fair Grounds. The note¬ 
worthy buildings include the State Asylum 
for the Insane, United States Government 
Building, State Armory, new courthouse, 
new city hall, two orphan asylums, the 
Commercial Travelers’ Home, an opera 
house, and the Casino. Binghamton ranks 
as the third cigar manufacturing city in 
the United States, and, according to the 
census of 1890, it then had 704 manufac¬ 
turing establishments, employing $9,058,651 
capital and 10,191 persons; paying $4,349,- 
162 for wages, and $7,659,207 for material, 
and having a combined output valued at 
$15,040,152. Other important manufactures 
are scales, chemicals, furniture, sheet metal 
work, glass, ,gloves, and refined oils. An 
interesting feature of the city is the large 
number of cottages owned by the working 
people. Binghamton received a city charter 
in 1867. Pop. (1890) 35,005;‘ (1900) 

39,647; (1910) 48,443. 

Bingley, Ward, the Garrick of the 
Dutch stage, was born at Rotterdam in 
1755, of English parents. In 1799 he made 
his debut on the stage of Amsterdam, and 
almost from the first took his place at the 
head of his profession, not only in the 
Dutch theaters, but also in those which 
performed French plays in Amsterdam and 
The Hague. He died at The Hague in 
1818. 

Binnacle, corrupted from bittacle, a 
wooden case or box in which the compass 
on board a ship is kept to protect it from 
injury. A light is placed within it at night 
to insure that its indications arc seen. It 
is placed immediately in front of the wheel 



or steering apparatus, and secured to the 
deck, usually by metal stays. The after 
portion has glass win¬ 
dows, so that the compass 
is at all times visible to 
the helmsman, who stands 
at the wheel. 

Binney, Hibbert, a 
Canadian clergyman, born 
in Nova Scotia, Aug. 12, 

1819; graduated at Ox¬ 
ford University in 1842. 
lie became Bishop (Ang¬ 
lican) of Nova Scotia 
and Prince Edward Isl¬ 
and, in 1851, this being 
the first instance of Eng¬ 
land founding a bishop¬ 
ric in her colonies. He 
attended the General Con¬ 
vention of the Protestant Episcopal Church 
held in Chicago in 1886. He died in 1887. 

Binney, Horace, an American lawyer, 
born in Philadelphia, Jan. 4, 1780; was 
graduated at Harvard in 1797; and for 
many years was at the head of the Pennsyl¬ 
vania bar. He had a number of distin¬ 
guished cases in his career; the most noted 
one being the defense of the city of Phila¬ 
delphia against the executors of Stephen 
Girard. He was also a director in the 
United States Bank. He wrote many valu¬ 
able papers, and was the author of “ The 
Leaders of the Old Bar of Philadelphia,” 
and “ The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas 
Corpus Under the Constitution.” He died 
in Philadelphia, Aug. 12, 1875. 

Binney, Thomas, an Independent 

preacher, theologian, and controversialist, 
born at Newcastle-on-Tyne, England, in 
1798. He was pastor of Weigh House 
Chapel, London, for 40 years; was a vol¬ 
uminous writer on polemical subjects, his 
most successful venture as an author be¬ 
ing “ Is It Possible to Make the Best of 
Both Worlds? ” a work for young men. He 
died in 1874. • 


Binnie, Sir Alexander R., an English 
civil engineer, born in London, March 26, 
1839; educated at private schools. He 
worked on the Welsh railways in 1862- 
1866, and for the Indian Public Works De¬ 
partment in 1868—1874; was engineer of 
the city of Bradford, in 1875-1890; con¬ 
structed the Nagpore waterworks, the 
Rlackwall tunnel, the Bradford waterworks, 
the Barking Road bridge, etc. In 1897 he 
was made chief engineer of the London 
County Council. His publications include 
articles and reports on professional sub¬ 
jects, lectures on waterworks, papers on 
rainfall, etc. 

Binocular, literally, having Uvo eyes or 
pertaining to both eyes; an instrument 
having two tubes, each furnished above with 
an eye glass, so as to enable ojie to see with 



























Binomial 


Biograph 


both eyes at once. Many opera glasses, 
telescopes, and microscopes are now binocu¬ 
lar. 

Binocular Eye Piece. — An eye piece so 
constructed and applied to the object glass 
as to divide the optical pencil transmitted 
to the latter, and form, as to each part of 
the divided pencil, a real or virtual image 
of the object beyond the place of division. 

Binocular Microscope. — A microscope 
with two eye glasses, so that both eyes may 
use it simultaneously. When the invention 
of the stereoscope by Prof. Wheatstone 
had called attention to the value of binocu¬ 
lar vision, attempts were made to render 
microscopes also binocular. Prof. Riddel, 
of New Orleans, Mr. Wenham, of London, 
and Prof. Nachet experimented, all more 
or less successfully, in this direction 

Binocular Telescope. — A pair of telescopes 
mounted in a stand, and hav'ng a parallel 
adjustment for the width between the eyes. 
The tubes have a coincident horizontal and 
vertical adjustment for altitude and azi¬ 
muth. The inventor of this instrument is 
said to have been a Capuchin monk, 
Schvrleus de Rhoita. Galileo also made a 
binocular telescope in 1617. 

Binomial, literally, having two names. 

Binomial System .— A system (that which 
now prevails) which gives to an animal, a 
plant, or other natural object, two names, 
the first to indicate the genus, and the sec¬ 
ond the species to which it belongs, as 
Canis familiaris (the dog), Beilis perennis 
(the daisy). 

Binomial Theorem. —• In algebra, a the¬ 
orem, or it may be called a 1 »w, discovered 
by Sir Isaac Newton, by which a binomial 
quantity can be raised to any power with¬ 
out the trouble of a series of actual multi¬ 
plications. Actual multiplication shows 
that the 7th power of x -f- a is x 7 + 7 x*a -f- 
21 x s a 2 + 35x 4 a 8 -f- 35 x*a* -f- 21 a? 2 a 5 -f- 7 xa a -J- 
a 1 . It is evident that the several powers of 
the two letters x and a and the co-efficients 
stand so related to each other that study 
of them might enable one to educe a law 
from them. In its most abstract form it is 
this: If (x + a) be raised to the nth 

power, that is, 


(x -J- a) n , it = x n + nx n — 5 a -f- 


n 


(n 


1 ) 


X 


n _2 


a 2 + 


n 


(w - 1) In- 2) xn _ s a 3 + 


1.2.3 


etc. 


Bintang, an island of the Dutch East 
Indies, 40 miles S. E. of Singapore.. Area 
454 square miles; pop. 18,000. Gambir, rice 
and pepper are exported. 

Binturong (Arctitis = bear-marten), a 
genus of carnivores in the civet section. Its 
resemblance to raccoons, beside which it 
used to be placed, is entirely superficial. It 
is a slow, arboreal and nocturnal animal, 
partly vegetarian, indeed omnivorous, in its 


diet, with lank body, coarse, dark hair, long, 
tufted ears, and prehensile tail. There is 
but one species (A. binturong ), found in 
India, Malay Archipelago, Sumatra and 
Java. It is easily tamed. 

Rinue. See Bexue. 

B5o=Bio (byo-byo), the largest river of 
Chile, has a W. N. W. course of about 200 
miles, from near the volcano of Antuco in 
the Andes to Concepcion on the Pacific 
Ocean. It is 2 miles wide at its mouth, 
and navigable for 100 miles. It was called 
Biu-biu (“ double string ”) and Butanleuvu 
(“ great river”) by the aborigines. Here 
Valdivia first attacked the Araucanians. 

Bio=Bio, a central province of Chile, in 
the valley of the Bio-Bio river, whence it 
derives its name; between Argentina and 
Arauco, with Concepcion and Nublc on 
the N. and Malleco on the S.; area, 5,245 
square miles; pop. (1907) 98,035; capital, 
Angeles; pop. (1895) 7.868. It is in a 
fertile region with railroad communications. 

Biogenesis, in biology, a word invented 
by Prof. Huxley, and first used by him 
in his address, as President of the British 
Association, at Liverpool, 1870, to indicate 
the view that living matter can be produced 
only from that which is itself living. It is 
opposed to abiogenesis. The first who estab¬ 
lished the doctrine of biogenesis was Fran¬ 
cesco Redi. He considered that there were 
two kinds of it; the first, and by far the 
most common, that in which the offspring 
passes through the same series of changes 
as the parent, and the second, that in which 
the offspring is altogether and permanently 
unlike the parent. The former is now called 
homogenesis and the latter xenogenesis. 
Prof. Huxley, after summing up the argu¬ 
ment for and against Redi’s great doc¬ 
trine of biogenesis, adds the words, “ Which 
appears to me, with the limitations I have 
expressed, to be victorious along the whole 
line at the present day.” 

Biograph, an apparatus that displays in 
rapid sequence a long series of photographs. 
It belongs to a class of apparatus which fol¬ 
lowed the invention of the kinetoscope, and 
includes the vitascope, cinematograph, 
phantoscope, etc. It differs from the kin¬ 
etoscope in that instead of showing small 
pictures through an enlarging lens by re¬ 
flected light, it projects them on a screen. 

The camera used in taking the negative 
from which motion pictures are made is pro¬ 
vided with a mechanism similar to that em¬ 
ployed in showing the finished photographs. 
Exposures are made at the rate of from 25 
to 50 per second. After the film has been 
subjected to the usual photographic opera¬ 
tions it is made to pass, in contact with a 
second sensitized film, beneath an incan¬ 
descent lamp, and thus the photographs 
are printed upon the sensitized surface. 





Biography 


Biology 


Biography, that department of literature 
which treats of the individual lives of men 
or women; and also, a prose narrative de¬ 
tailing the history and unfolding the char¬ 
acter of an individual, written by another. 
When written by the individual whose his¬ 
tory is told it is called an autobiography. 

Though the term biography is modern, the 
kind of literature which it describes is 
ancient. In the Book of Genesis there are 
biographies, or at least memoirs, of Adam, 
Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, and 
others. Homer’s “Odyssey” may be con¬ 
sidered to be an extended biography of 
Ulysses, limited, however, to the most in¬ 
teresting period of his life, that of his wan¬ 
derings. Though the “Iliad” may be loosely 
called a history of the Trojan War, yet, 
accurately, it is a chapter from the biog¬ 
raphy of Achilles, describing calamities he 
brought upon the Greeks by the revenge 
which he took on Agamemnon for carrying 
off his female captive Briseis. The most 
elaborate Greek biography was Plutarch’s 
“Parallel Lives” (“Bioi Paralleloi”), con¬ 
sisting of 46 memoirs of Greek, Roman, and 
other celebrities; it was published about 
A. d. 80. In b. c. 44, Cornelius Nepos had 
sent forth a biographical work, his “Vitae 
Imperatorum” (“Lives of Commanders”). 

Modern biographical literature may be 
considered to date from the 17th century, 
since which time individual biographies have 
multiplied enormously. Dictionaries of bi¬ 
ography have proved extremely useful, Mo- 
reri’s “Historical and Critical Dictionary” 
(1671), being, perhaps, the first of this 
class. During the 19th century there were 
published the “Universal Biography” (45 
vols., 1811-1862) ; “New General Biography” 
(46 vols., 1852-1866) ; Chalmer’s “General 
Biographical Dictionary” (32 vols., 1812- 
1817) ; Rose’s “Biographical Dictionary” (12 
vols., 1848-1>850) ; Leslie Stephen’s “Dic¬ 
tionary of National Biography” (completed 
in 63 vols.—3 vols. supplement—the first 
of which appeared in 1885, and the last 
in 1900) ; Appleton’s “Cyclopaedia of 
American Biography” (7 vols., 1887-1900) ; 
White’s “National Cyclopaedia of American 
Biography” (New York) ; “Men and 
Women of the Time” (London) ; “Who’s 
Who” (London) ; “Who’s Who in America” 
(Chicago) ; Vapereau’s “Universal Diction¬ 
ary of Contemporaries” (Paris) ; “Lamb’s 
Biographical Dictionary of the United 
States” (8 vols., 1897, et seq.) ; and 
“Canadian Men and Women of the Time.” 
Among works of more limited aim may be 
noted various “Lives of the Saints,” Fox’s 
“Book of Martyrs,” various “Lives of the 
Poets,” Boswell’s “Life of Johnson,” etc. 

Biology is the science of living things; 
that is, it is the study of organisms as con¬ 
trasted with inorganic objects. In its gen¬ 


erally accepted sense the term was first 
used by the French naturalist, Lamarck 
( q . v .), in the preface to his “Hydrologie,” 
published in 1802. It was also suggested 
with the same signification by Treviranus 
as the title of a work, “Biologie, die Phil¬ 
osophic der lebenden Natur,” the first of the 
five volumes of which appeared in the same 
year. The use of the word is the outcome 
of the recognition of the existence of cer¬ 
tain fundamental properties common to both 
plants and animals. To a large extent it 
has superseded the older expression “Nat¬ 
ural History,” two branches of which, Bo¬ 
tany and Zoology, had reached a high state 
of development before the newer word came 
into use. In its broadest signification the 
term would include many branches of human 
knowledge which are generally regarded as 
distinct sciences. Thus, a liberal applica¬ 
tion of the word would include history, an¬ 
thropology, sociology, psychology and all 
other studies concerned with man and 
human society, both past and present. In 
practice, however, the subject is restricted 
almost exclusively to the study of organisms 
lower than man, though the branches of 
medicine are usually excepted, psychology 
being often included and sometimes history. 
The scope of biology may be gathered from 
the following tabulation, which is adapted 
from Huxley, and which is to be read from 
below upward: 


Biology 
(life, organisms) 


' ^Etiology 
(causes) 


Distribution 


Physiology 

(function) 


Morpholog}' 
. (structure) 


' Evolution, 
Adaptation, 
Variability, 

. Heredity. 

Geographical, 

Geological. 

f Reproduction, 

( Irritability, 
Growth, 
Nutrition. 

Classification, 

Embryology, 

Histology, 

„ Anatomy. 


So comprehensive is the subject that it is 
necessarily subdivided into numerous 
branches of restricted limits, and a “biol¬ 
ogist” is consequently not to be regarded as 
one who is conversant with the general sub¬ 
ject in all of its extensive ramifications, but 
rather as one whose interests and attain¬ 
ments are confined to some of the lesser 
branches. 

While the word was coined in response 
to a general and increasing recognition of 
the many similarities between the two great 
groups of organisms as contrasted with their 
unlikeness to the mineral world, and of the 
desirability of a term which would express 
their most striking and distinctive feature, 
viz., the manifestation of vital activity, or 
the possession of life, the real warrant for 
the use of the word is found in the great 









Biology 


Bioplasm 


generalization of the German zoologist, Max 
Schultze. This was based mainly upon the 
observations of Dujardin, a French zoologist, 
upon certain amoeboid organisms, the body 
substance of which he named sarcode 
(1835), and those of the German botanists 
Schleiden and von Mold upon the contents 
of vegetable cells which the former called 
Schleim (1839), and for which the latter 
proposed the term Protoplasma (1846), 
Schultze (1861) insisted upon the essential 
similarity of the sarcode of Dujardin and 
the Protoplasma of von Mold, and urged the 
use of the latter term as a suitable name 
for the substance. Thus, the fundamental 
likeness of plant and animal organisms was 
established and the reasonableness of includ¬ 
ing them in one general subject of investi¬ 
gation was confirmed. All subsequent 
studies have only served to emphasize the 
truth that plants and animals are funda¬ 
mentally alike, and that they simply exhibit 
two somewhat contrasted phases of vital ac¬ 
tivity. A consideration of this activity 
shows that to a very great extent the life- 
phenomena can be explained in terms of 
physics and chemistry, though it must not 
be inferred from tins statement that the 
mystery of life has yet been solved, and that 
an organism may be regarded in certain 
aspects is a machine; that is, a mechanism 
for the transformation of energy. The ex¬ 
tremes of the life-phenomena are seen in the 
green plant on the one hand, and in the 
higher animals on the other. In the former 
case the striking feature is the constructive 
metabolic changes which manifest themselves 
in the formation, in the green parts or 
chloroplasts of the organism and under the 
influence of sunlight, of starchy substances 
or carbohydrates out of the simpler com¬ 
pounds, carbon dioxide and water. This 
constructive activity is associated with fix¬ 
ity of position or sedentary mode of life, the 
vegetable organism being thus a storehouse 
of energy locked up largely in its carbo¬ 
hydrates. On the other hand, the salient 
character of the animal is, in general terms, 
its activity as expressed in motion and sen¬ 
sation. It is a liberator of the energy re¬ 
ceived directly or indirectly from the plant 
in the form of food. From these extremes 
the branches of the genealogical tree lead 
back to organisms in which these activities 
are so equally balanced that the systematist 
despairs of being able ever to say that a 
given organism of this kind is to be called 
an animal rather than a plant, or vice versa. 
The genealogical tree, then, showing the gen¬ 
eral relationships of plants and animals may 
broadly be regarded as having the shape of 
the letter Y, one branch of which rep¬ 
resents the plants and the other the animals, 
while the stem shows the position of the 
lower forms which cannot definitely be 
classified as plant or animal. 


In considering these definitions, we must 
remember that in a living organism “dead” 
matter in the form of food and air is con¬ 
stantly being changed into “living” matter 
by the process of assimilation going on in 
the tissues, and then passes back into its 
“dead” condition in the excretions. We 
must also hear in mind that the tissues of a 
living organism consist very largely of ma¬ 
terial that is no longer protoplasm and is, 
hence, in the biological sense, not living. 
The outer layers of the skin and nails, the 
hair, much of the bones and teeth, the lymph 
and blood-plasma, the red corpuscles of the 
blood, the bulk of adipose tissue and large 
portions of the nervous system, to say noth¬ 
ing of many other important parts of the 
body, are not living substance, though they 
aid in the performance of functions essen¬ 
tial to the presence and continuance of vi¬ 
tality. The boundary line between living 
and non-living matter is thus seen to be in¬ 
distinct and indefinable, and the organic 
matter to have much in common with the in¬ 
organic as regards composition and activi¬ 
ties. 

The aim of biology is the elucidation and 
control of the life-phenomena. To a certain 
extent this has already been attained, as is 
shown by the operations of agriculture, hor¬ 
ticulture, the breeding of animals, the prac¬ 
tice of medicine, and in laboratory experi¬ 
ments on regeneration, artificial fecunda¬ 
tion of eggs, etc. While in English and 
French usage the word “biology” includes 
the study of life-phenomena in a broad sense, 
the Germans persist in making it practically 
synonymous with ecology. See also Bo¬ 
tany; Paleontology; Zoology, and the 
numerous titles in these departments. 

Charles Wright Dodge. 

Bion, a Greek pastoral poet, born near 
Smyrna in the 3d century b. c. He appears 
to have passed the latter part of his life 
in Sicily. His pastorals betray a degree of 
refinement and sentimentality not found 
in the earlier and more spontaneous bu¬ 
colic poets. Still extant is his “Lament 
for Adonis,” often imitated by subsequent 
poets. Besides this there remain of his 
works only short pieces, many of them 
fragmentary. 

Biondo, Flavio (be-yon'do), an Italian 

archaeologist (1388-1463), whose encyclo¬ 
paedias have served as the foundation for 
all subsequent collections of archaeologi¬ 
cal knowledge. They were called “Roma 
instaurata,” “Roma triumphans,” and 
“Italia illustrata.” 

Bioplasm, in biology, a term introduced 
by Prof. L. S. Beale, an English scien¬ 
tist, to designate forming, living, or germi¬ 
nal matter; the living matter of living 
beings. The term protoplasm had beeD 









Biot 


Birch 


previously used in an analogous sense, but 
Dr. Beale felt that a word more limited in 
signification was required. 

Biot, Edouard Constant (be-yo'), a 
Chinese scholar, born in Paris, July 2, 1803; 
son of Jean Baptiste Biot. He was at 
first a railway engineer; but his health 
failing, he retired from the public service, 
and devoted his leisure to the study of 
Chinese and the history of the social or¬ 
ganization of the Celestial Empire. He was 
elected a member of the Academy in 1847, 
He wrote a “ Dictionary of the Chinese 
Empire” (1842), and a multitude of 
memoirs on Chinese subjects. He died 
March 12, 1850. 

Biot, Jean Baptiste, a French physicist 
and astronomer, born in Paris, April 21, 
1774. He entered the artillery, but for¬ 
sook the service for science, and, in 1800, 
became Professor of Physics in the College 
de France. Along with Arago he was 
(180G) sent to Spain to carry out the 
measuring of a degree of the meridian, and, 
in 1817, he visited England, and went as 
far N. as the Shetland Islands, in or¬ 
der to make observations along the line of 
the British arc of meridian. His most valu¬ 
able contributions to science are on the 
polarization of light, for which he received 
the Rumford gold medal in 1840; his re¬ 
searches into ancient astronomy are also 
very valuable. Among the latter may bemen- 
tioned his “ Researches into Ancient Chi¬ 
nese Astronomy” (1840), and “Studies in 
Indian Astronomy” (1862). His works on 
physics are esteemed; the third edition of 
his “ Elementary Treatise on Physical As¬ 
tronomy ” (5 vols.,. 1841—1857) was trans¬ 
lated into English. In 1849 Biot was made 
a commander of the Legion of Honor; he 
was also a member of the French Academy, 
and of most of the learned societies in 
Europe. He died in Paris, Feb. 3, 1862. 

Biotite, a hexagonal and an optically un- 
axial mineral, formerly called magnesia 
mica, hexagonal mica, and uniaxial mica; 
named after Jean Baptiste Biot. It exists 
in tabular prisms, in disseminated scales, 
or in massive aggregations of cleavable 
scales. Color: silvery-white, rarely bottle 
green, and by transmitted light often fiery 
red. Composition varies a good deal. One 
specimen had silica, 40.00; alumina, 16.16; 
sesquioxide of iron, 7.50; oxide of mangan¬ 
ese, 21.54; potassa, 10.83; water, 3.0; iron, 
0.50; and titanic acid, 0.2. Rubellan is an 
altered biotite and eukamptite one of a 
hydrous type. 

Biped, a descriptive term, sometimes ap¬ 
plied to man, but more frequently to birds. 
It may be used in two ways—* (a) in ref¬ 
erence to habit only (physiological), when 
animals use only their two hind limbs for 
moving along the ground — 6. g., man, kan¬ 


garoo, bird; (b) in reference to anatomy 
(morphology), when the typical number 
of four limbs is reduced to two. Thus 
among mammals the order of whales ( cet¬ 
acea ) is marked by the absence of hind 
limbs; among birds the fore limbs are con¬ 
siderably reduced in the running birds of 
the ostrich sub-class, and especially in the 
New Zealand kiwi ( apteryx ) ; among rep¬ 
tiles, some serpents ( e. g., pythons), re¬ 
tain traces of hind legs, while all the others 
have lost both pairs, and a few lizards have 
either only hind feet ( pseudopus, ophiodes ), 
or only fore feet ( chirotes ) ; among am¬ 
phibians, a few ( e . g., siren) have only fore 
feet; and the same is true of numerous fishes 
(e. g., among siluridee) , and especially of 
those which live to a large extent in mud. 

Biquadratic Equation, in algebra, an 
equation raised to the fourth power, or 
where the unknown quantity of one of the 
terms has four dimensions. An equation of 
this kind, when complete, is of the form 
# 4 -f- Aa? 3 -f- Bx . 2 +Ca? -f- D = O, where A, B, 
C and D denote any known qualities what¬ 
ever. 

Birch, the English name of the trees and 
shrubs belonging to the botanical genua 
betula. The common birch ( betula alba) 
has ovate-deltoid, acute, doubly serrate 
leaves. Its flowers are in catkins, which 
come forth in April and May. It grows 
best in healthy soils and in Alpine districts. 
The drooping or weeping birch ( B . pendala) 
is a variety of this tree. It grows wild on 
the European continent and in Asia. The 
wood of the birch is tough and white. It 
is used for making brooms; it is often 
burned into charcoal; twigs are by many 
employed for purposes of castigation. The 
oil obtained from the white rind is used in 
tanning Russia leather. The Russians turn 
it to account also as a vermifuge and as a 
balsam in the cure of wounds. In some 
countries the bark of the birch is made into 
hats and drinking cups. The B. nana, or 
dwarf birch, grows in the Highlands of 
Scotland, in Lapland, etc. It is a small 
shrub, one or two feet high. The Lap¬ 
lander uses the wood for fuel, and the 
leaves, spread over with a reindeer’s skin, 
for a bed. B. lenta is the mahogany birch, 
mountain mahogany, sweet birch, or cherry 
birch of North America. Its leaves are 
fragrant, and have been used as a substi¬ 
tute for tea. The canoe birch, of which the 
North American Indians constructed their 
portable canoes, is the B. papyracea. 

Birch, Samuel, an English Orientalist, 
born in London, Nov. 3, 1813. He entered 
the British Museum as Assistant Keeper 
of Antiquities, in 1836, and ultimately be¬ 
came Keeper of the Egyptian and Assyrian 
Antiquities. He was especially famed for his 
capacity and skill in Egyptology, and was 




Birchard 


Birde 


associated with Baron Bunsen in his work 
on Egypt, contributing the philological por¬ 
tions relating to hieroglyphics. His prin¬ 
cipal works, besides numerous contributions 
to the transactions of learned societies, to 
cyclopaidias, etc., include “ Gallery of An¬ 
tiquities’’ (1842); “Catalogue of Greek 

Vases ” (1851); “ Introduction to the Study 
of Hieroglyphics” (1857); “Ancient Pot¬ 
tery” (1858); “Egypt from the Earliest 
Tinles” (1875). He edited “ Records of 
the Past,” from 1873 to 1880. He had the 
LL. D. degree from St. Andrews and Cam¬ 
bridge, D. C. L. from Oxford, besides many 
foreign academical distinctions. He died 
Dec. 27, 1885. 

Birchard, Isaac James, a Canadian 
educator, born in Uxbridge, Ont., Oct. 11, 
1850; graduated at Toronto University, in 
1880, and studied at Syracuse University. 
He was principal of a public school in To¬ 
ronto in 1874-1880; Master of Mathematics 
at Brantford College Institute in 1882- 
1893; and, in 1900, was Master of Mathe¬ 
matics in the Toronto College Institute. He 
is a teacher of exceptional merit, best known 
as the author of the text-book “ Plane 
Trigonometry for Schools and Colleges,” 
and as the joint author of “ High School 
Algebra ” (2 vols.). 

Birch=Pfeiffer, Charlotte (berch-pfi- 
fer), a German actress and dramatist 
(1800—18G8). She joined the Court Theater 
Company at Munich at the age of 13 years; 
at 18 she had won distinction in tragic 
roles. She married Christian Birch in 1825; 
thereafter till her death she was in active 
relations with the stage, either as actress 
or conductress. Her numerous dramatic 
compositions were produced on nearly every 
stage in Germany. They evince remarkable 
skill in the employment of stage effects. 
Her plays are, in many instances, grounded 
on novels; among them are “ Graffen- 
stein Castle,” “ The Favorites,” “ The Bell 
Fingers of Notre Dame” (Victor Hugo), 
“The Woman in White” (Wilkie Collins), 
“ The Orphan of Lowood ” (Charlotte 

Bronte), etc. Her dramatic works, number¬ 
ing 70, and her novels and tales were pub¬ 
lished complete in 1862. 

Bird. See Ornithology. 

Bird, Charles, an American military of¬ 
ficer, born in Delaware, June 17, 1838. He 
entered the volunteer service, in 1861, as 
First Lieutenant, 1st. Delaware Infantry; 
was promoted Lieutenant-Colonel, 9th Dela¬ 
ware Infantry, in 1864; and was commis¬ 
sioned Colonel of the 1st United States Vet¬ 
eran Infantry, Dec. 24, 1865. On March 2, 
1867, he was brevetted First Lieutenant and 
Captain in the United States army for gal- 
antry in the battle of Fredericksburg, 
Major for Spottsylvania, and Lieutenant- 
Colonel for Petersburg, Va. He was appointed 
59 


a Second Lieutenant, 14th United States 
Infantry, in 1866; promoted to Major and 
Quartermaster in 1895; and commissioned 
a Colonel of United States Volunteers for 
the war with Spain, in 1898. 

Bird, Frederic Mayer, an American 
clergyman, born in Philadelphia, June 28, 
1838; graduated at the University of Penn¬ 
sylvania in 1857, and at the Union Theolo¬ 
gical Seminary in 1860. He was rector at 
Spotswood, N. J., in 1870-1874; Chaplain 
and Professor of Psychology, Christian Evi¬ 
dences and Rhetoric, at Lehigh University 
in 1881—1886; and acting chaplain there in 
1893—1898. He is noted as a hymnologist, 
and as the collector of one of the most com¬ 
plete and valuable musical libraries in the 
United States. He edited several collec¬ 
tions of hymns;' was associate editor of 
“ Chandler’s Encyclopaedia; ” editor of 
“ Lippincott’s Magazine ” ( 1893-1898). He 
died April 2, 1908. 

Bird, Golding, an English physician, 
born in Norfolk, Dec. 9, 1814; became a 
Lecturer on Natural Philosophy at Guy’s 
Hospital in 1836; Fellow of the London Col¬ 
lege of Physicians in 1845; and Lecturer 
on Materia Medica at the College of Physi¬ 
cians in 1847. He is remarkable for his 
early mental development, for several very 
able medical works, and his “ Elements of 
Natural Philosophy” (1839). He died in 
Tunbridge Wells, Oct. 27, 1854. 

Bird, Robert Montgomery, an Ameri¬ 
can dramatist and novelist, bcrn in New¬ 
castle, Del., about 1803; studied medicine 
in the University of Pennsylvania, and af¬ 
ter practicing for a year, turned his at¬ 
tention to literature. He was the author of 
three tragedies, “ The Gladiator,” “ Ora- 
loosa,” and “ The Broker of Bogota,” and of 
the novels, “ Cal aver ” (1834); “The In¬ 
fidel” (1835) ; “The Hawks of Hawk Hol¬ 
low; ” “Shephard Lee;” “Nick of the 
Woods” (1837); “ Peter Pilgrim ” (1838); 
and “Robin Day” (1839). For several 
years he edited the “ North American Ga¬ 
zette.” He died in Philadelphia, Jan. 22, 
1854. 

Bird=Catching Spider, a name applied 
to gigantic spiders of the genera myg&le and 
epeira, more especially to the mygdle avi- 
cularia, a native of Surinam and elsewhere 
which preys upon insects and small birds 
which it hunts for -and pounces on. It is 
about two inches long, very hairy, and al¬ 
most black; its feet when spread out oc¬ 
cupy a surface of nearly a foot in diameter. 

Bird Cherry, a small tree (the primus 
padus, etc.). It has pendulous racemes of 
white flowers, which appear in May, and are 
succeeded by small, black, drupaceous, 
cherry-like fruits. 

Birde, or Byrd, William, an English 
composer, born about 1538; became organ* 




Bird Lice 


Bird’s Nest Orchis 


ist at Lincoln Cathedral in 1503, and of the 
Chapel Royal, London, in 1569. He is best 
known by his fine canon, “ Non Nobis 
Domine.” and a volume of “ Sacred Songs.” 
He died in London, July 4, 1023. 

Bird Lice, the common name given to 
the small parasites so frequently seen in¬ 
festing birds. Naturalists place them in 
the insect order mallophaga , in immediate 
proximity to the anoplura, which contains 
the human pediculi. 

Bird Lime, a substance whitish and 
limy in appearance; used, as its name im¬ 
ports, for capturing birds. It is, in gen¬ 
eral, manufactured from the bark of the 
holly, though the berries of the mistletoe, 
and also the bark, boiled in water, beaten 
in a mortar, and then mashed, may also 
bo employed for the purpose. 

Bird of III Omen, a phrase often applied 
to a person who is regarded as unlucky; 
one who is in the habit of bringing ill news. 
The ancients thought that some birds indi- 
cated good luck, and others evil. Even to 
the present day many look upon owls, 
crows and ravens as unlucky birds; swal¬ 
lows and storks as lucky ones. Ravens, by 
their acute sense of smell, discern the 
savor of dying bodies (like sharks), and, 
under the hope of preying on them, light 
on chimney tops or flutter about sick rooms; 
hence the raven indicates death; owls 
screech when bad weather is at hand; and 
a a foul weather often precedes sickness, so 
the owl ’*s looked on as a funeral bird. 

Bird of Paradise, the English designa¬ 
tion of a family of conirostral birds — 
the paradiseidee. They are closely allied to 
the corvida? (crows), with which, indeed, 
they are united by some writers. They have 
magnificent plumage, especially the males, 
who can, moreover, elevate quite a canopy 
of plumes behind their necks. When first 
discovered they were the subject of many 
myths. They were supposed to be perpe¬ 
tually on the wing, having no feet, a 
fable perpetuated by Linnaeus in the name 
apoda or footless, given to the best known 
and finest species. The fact was, that the 
inhabitants of New Guinea, their native 
region, cut off the feet before selling them 
to white men. The fable of the phoenix is 
believed to have been framed from myths 
current about the birds of paradise. 

Bird Seed, seed for feeding cage birds, 
especially the seed of phaldris canariensis, 
or canary grass. 

Bird’s Eye, the eye or eyes of a bird. 
In botany, the name of several plants with 
small, bright, usually blue, flowers. (1) 
A widely diffused name for veronica chamce- 
drys. (2) A name for a plant, called more 
fully the bird’s-eye primrose. It is the 
primula farinosa. It has pale lilac flowers 
with a yellow eye. The whole plant is 


powdered with a substance smelling like 
musk. It grows in the milder temperate 
climates of Europe. The American flower 
bearing the same common name is of a dif¬ 
ferent species, being called by botanists 
primula pusilla. (3) A name sometimes 
given to the adonis autumnalis, and, indeed, 
to the whole genus adonis, more commonly 
designated “ pheasant’s eye.” 

Bird’s=Eye Limestone, a division of.the 
lower Silurian rocks of North America, ap¬ 
parently equivalent to the Llandeilo Beds, 
so called from the dark circular markings 
which stud many portions of its mass, and 
which have been referred to the impressions 
of a fucoid ( phyiopsis cellulosus) , others 
regarding them as the filled-up burrows of 
marine worms. 

Bird’s=Eye Maple, curled maple, the 
wood of the sugar maple when full of little 
knotty spots, somewhat resembling birds* 
eyes, much used in cabinet work. 

Bird’s=Eye View, the representation of 
any scene as it would appear if seen from a 
considerable elevation right above. 

Bird’s Foot, a common name for several 
plants, especially papilionaceous plants of 
the genus ornilhSpus, their legumes being 
articulated, cylindrical, and bent in like a 
claw. 

Bird’s=Foot Trefoil, the popular name of 

lotus corniculfttus, and one or two other 
creeping leguminous plants common in Great 
Britain. The common bird’s-foot trefoil is a 
common British plant, and is found in most 
parts of Europe as well as in Asia, North 
Africa and Australia, and is a useful pas¬ 
ture plant. 

Bird’s Nest, the nest of a bird. Those 
of the several species vary in their minor 
details so as to be in most cases quite dis¬ 
tinguishable from each other. 

Edible birds’ nests are nests built by the 
collocalia csculenta, and certain other spe¬ 
cies of swallows inhabiting Sumatra, Java, 
China, and some other parts of the East. 
The nests, which are deemed a luxury by 
the Chinese, are formed of a mucilaginous 
substance, secreted by the birds themselves 
from their salivary glands. 

Bird’s=Nest Orchis, one of the orchidcce, 
neottia or listera nidus-avis of Linnaeus. The 
English designation is a translation of the 
Latin nidus-avis. The plant is so called from 
having its root composed of numerous fleshy 
fibers aggregated in a bird’s-nest fashion. 
Gerard indicates the kind of nest which in 
his view it resembles, saying that it “ hath 
many tangling rootes platted or crossed one 
over another verie intricately, which re- 
sembleth a crowe’s nest made of stickes.” 
It has dingy brown flowers growing in 
spikes. 



Birds of Passage 


Birmingham 


Birds of Passage, birds which migrate 
with the season from a colder to a warmer, 
or from a warmer to a colder climate, di¬ 
vided into summer birds of passage and 
winter birds of passage. Such birds always 
breed in the country to which they resort 
in summer, i. e., in the colder of their 
homes. Among British summer birds of 
passage are the cuckoo, swallow, etc., which 
depart in autumn for a warmer climate; 
while in winter woodcocks, fieldfares, red¬ 
wings, with many aquatic birds, as swan 
geese, etc., regularly flock to Great Britain 
from the North. In the United States the 
robin is a familiar example. 

Birdwood, Herbert Mills, an English 
lawyer, born in Belgaum, Bombay Presi¬ 
dency, May 29, 1837. He was educated at 
Edinburgh University; and was Dean of 
Arts (1808, 1881, 1888, 1890) and Syndic at 
the Bombay University, and Vice-Chancellor 
in 1891-1892. He entered the ’Bombay 
Civil Service in 1858; was made assistant 
collector and magistrate in 1859; assistant 
judge in 1SG2; Under Secretary to the 
Government, Judicial, Political and Edu¬ 
cational Departments, and Secretary of the 
Legislative Council, in 1863; acting reg¬ 
istrar of the High Court, Bombay, in 1SG7; 
District Judge for Batnagiri, Surat and 
Thana, 1871-1880; Judicial Commissioner 
and Judge of the Sadar Court, Sind, in 
1881; three times acting judge of the High 
Court, Bombay, 1881—1885; Puisne Judge 
of the High Court of Bombay in 1885-1892; 
and member <. f the Executive Council of the 
Governor of Bombay in 1892-1897. His 
publications include “ Catalogue of the 
Flora of Matheran and Mahableshwar,” 
“ Catalogue of Bills Introduced into the 
Bombay Legislative Council in 1862-1865,” 
and papers relating to the constitution of 
the Council, the plague in Bombay, etc. 

Bireme, a Poman ship of war with two 
banks of oars. It was inferior in magnitude 
and strength to the trireme. 

Biren, Ernest John, Duke of Courland, 

a Lithuanian of mean family, was born in 
1690, and went in 1714 to St. Petersburg. 
Anna, Duchess Dowager of Courland, made 
him her favorite, and when she became 
Empress of Bussia, intrusted to him the ad¬ 
ministration of the kingdom. On the death 
of the Empress he assumed the regency, by 
virtue of her will; but, in 1740, a conspiracy 
was formed against him by Marshal 
Munich, and he was condemned to death, 
which sentence was changed to banishment. 
Peter III. recalled him, and Catherine II. 
restored him to his former dignity. In 
1763, Biren re-entered Mitau; and, profit¬ 
ing by the lessons of misfortune he had ex¬ 
perienced, governed for the remainder of his 
life with mildness and justice. He died in 
1772. 


Birge, Edward Asahel, an American 

naturalist, born in Troy, N. Y., Sept. 7, 
1851; graduated at Williams College in 
1873; studied physiology and histology at 
Leipsic in 1880-1881. He became Instructor 
of Natural History in the University of 
Wisconsin in 1875; Professor of Zoology in 
1879; and Dean of the College of Letters and 
Science in 1891. In 1894 he became Di¬ 
rector of the Geological and Natural His¬ 
tory Survey of Wisconsin. He has written 
many articles and papers on zoology. 

Birkbeck, George, an English educator, 
born in Settle, Yorkshire, Jan. 10, 1776; 
educated at Edinburgh; became Professor of 
Natural Philosophy in the Andersonian In¬ 
stitution at Glasgow in 1799. In 1801- 
1804 he gave free courses of lectures to the 
mechanics of Glasgow, and was prominent in 
the establishment of the London Mechanics’ 
Institute, of which, in 1823, he was made 
president for life. He died in London, Dec. 
1, 1841. 

Birkenfeld, a German principality be¬ 
longing to Oldenburg, but surrounded by 
the Prussian Bhine Province, and inter¬ 
sected by the railway from Bingen to Saar- 
briick. It has an area of nearly 200 square 
miles, with a population of (1900) 43,409, 

it has been connected with Oldenburg, 300 
miles distant, since 1817. The capital, 
Birkenfeld, has a population of 2,500. 

Birket=el=Kero3n (“lake of the horn”), 
an Egyptian lake in the Favoom, about 30 
miles in length by 6 in breadth. It commu¬ 
nicates with the Nile and had connection 
formerly with the artificial Lake Maris, 
with which it has been confounded. 

Birkett, Herbert Stanley, a Canadian 
physician, born in Hamilton, Ont., July 17, 
1864; graduated at McGill University, in 
1886. He was senior house surgeon to the 
Montreal General Hospital in 1886-1887, 
and assistant physician to the Montreal 
Dispensary in 1887—1889. He is a fellow of 
the American Laryngologist Association. 
In 1889 he was appointed Demonstrator of 
Anatomy at McGill University, and in 1900 
was Laryngologist to the Montreal General 
Hospital, and Aurist to the Mackay Insti¬ 
tute for Deaf Mutes. 

Birmingham, city and county-seat of 
Jefferson co., Ala.; at the junction of sev¬ 
eral trunk railroads; 90 miles N. W. of 
Montgomery, the State capital. It is at 
the foot of Bed Mountain, which, besides its 
vast limestone deposits, contains a remark¬ 
ably large and accessible vein of hematite 
iron ore; and is also in close proximity to 
the Warrior, Cahaba and Coosa coal fields. 
These natural resources have made Birming¬ 
ham the most important manufacturing city 
in the South since the close of the Civil 
War. The city has an extensive waterworks 
system with a reservoir on Shade’s Moun- 



Birmingham 


Birmingham 


tain, 225 feet above the city; is provided 
with the Waring system of sewerage; and 
has an exceptional equipment of street rail¬ 
roads connecting it with all important sub¬ 
urban points. In the suburbs are Avon¬ 
dale, East Lake, Woodlawn, East Birming¬ 
ham, North Birmingham, Elyton, Smith- 
field, West End, Powderly, Pratt City, 
Ensley, Bessemer, Gate City and Irondale, 
all intimately associated with the industrial 
life of the city, and containing an aggregate 
population of about 50,000. 

Business Interests .—According to the cen¬ 
sus of 1890 there were 283 manufacturing 
establishments, employing $4,553,478 capital 
and 3,G14 persons; paying $2,003,969 for 
wages and $3,508,588 for material; and hav¬ 
ing a combined output valued at $7,034,248. 
Since then the industrial development of 
the city has been so rapid that a statement 
of conditions would scarcely hold good for a 
month. The city and its immediate vicinity 
produce approximately 2,000,000 tons of iron 
ore, more than 1,000,000 tons of pig iron, 
1,500,000 tons of coke, and over 6,000,000 
tons of coal yearly. In the year end¬ 
ing July 1, 1899, nearly $4,000,000 was put 
into new business enterprises. The Alabama 
Steel and Shipbuilding Company began op¬ 
erations with a capital of $1,000,000; the 
Alabama Steel and Wire Company, witli 
$2,000,000, and 13 other companies contrib¬ 
uted to the aggregate stated. About 250 
new buildings were erected in the city itself, 
over 500 in the Ensley suburb and 250 in 
other suburbs. In 1899 there were 3 Na¬ 
tional and many State and private banks, 
and the exchanges at the United States 
clearing-house here aggregated in the year 
$30,215,716, an increase over the total 
of the previous year of $7,109,273. In 
March, 1900, the great steel plant of the 
Alabama Steel and Shipbuilding Company, 
in the Ensley suburb, put into operation 
three more furnaces, making six open 
hearth furnaces in blast, with four more 
being built. This plant, with the full com¬ 
plement of furnaces will have a capacity 
of 1,000 tons per day, nearly all of which 
will go to the Alabama Wire and Steel Com¬ 
pany’s plant for the manufacture of wire 
rods and nails. At the above date the local 
iron and steel firms had already sold their 
output for the first half of the year, and 
were refusing orders even at the extraordin¬ 
ary high prices that then prevailed. 

Public Interests .— Birmingham is the 
seat of Howard College (Baptist), Northern 
Alabama College (Methodist Episcopal), the 
Colored Normal Training school, Hillman 
and Sisters of Charity hospitals, and the 
Davis and Davis and the Brown and Wilson 
Infirmaries; and contains a public library, 
about 25 churches, public school property 
valued at about $200,000, a synagogue, con¬ 
vent, sanitarium, union railroad depot. 
United States government building, court 


house, opera house, and many attractive 
business buildings. The assessed property 
valuation in 1900 exceeded $20,000,000; the 
bonded debt was about $1,610,000; and the 
city had assets of $2,000,000. 

History .—Birmingham was incorporated 
as a city in 1871 with a population of less 
than 1,000. Its noticeable development be¬ 
gan in 1880 and its remarkable progress may 
be said to date from 1890. In 1896 its two 
largest iron and steel corporations began 
selling pig iron for export at prices as 
satisfactory as those obtained on domestic- 
orders; and since then it has had a larger 
development in the iron and steel industry 
than any city S. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 
26,178 (1900) 38,415; with suburbs, about 
100,000; (1910) 132,685. 

Birmingham, a city of England, on the 
Pea river near its confluence with the Tame, 
in the N. W. of Warwickshire, with suburbs 
extending into Staffordshire and Worcester¬ 
shire; 112 miles N. W. of London, and 97 
S. E. of Liverpool. It is the principal seat 
of the hardware manufacture in Great Brit¬ 
ain, producing metal articles of all kinds 
from pins to steam engines. It manufac¬ 
tures firearms in great quantities, swords, 
jewelry, buttons, tools, steel pens, locks, 
lamps, bedsteads, gas fittings, sewing ma¬ 
chines, articles of papier mache, railway 
carriages, etc. The quantity of solid gold 
and silver plate manufactured is large, and 
the consumption of these metals in electro¬ 
plating is very great. Japanning, glass 
manufacturing, and glass staining or paint¬ 
ing form important branches of industry, 
as also does the manufacture of chemicals. 
At Soho and Smethwick in the vicinity of 
the city are the famous works founded by 
Boulton and Watt, who there manufactured 
their first steam engines, where gas was 
first used, plating perfected, and numerous 
novel applications tried and experiments 
made. Among the public buildings are the 
town hall, a handsome building of the 
classic style, the free library, commenced 
in 1861, the central portion of which was 
burned down in 1879, when the irreplace¬ 
able Shakespeare library, and the collection 
of books, prints, etc., bearing on the an¬ 
tiquities of Warwickshire, were destroyed; 
the Midland Institute and Public Art Gal¬ 
lery, the council house, etc. There are 
statues of the Prince Consort, James Watt, 
Sir Robert Peel, Lord Nelson, Dr. Priestle^y, 
Rowland Hill, Sir Joshua Mason, and oth¬ 
ers. The finest ecclesiastical building is 
the Roman Catholic cathedral, a noble 
Gothic structure. The principal educational 
establishments are Queen’s Colle'ge, provid¬ 
ing instruction in theology, medicine, and 
arts; a Roman Catholic college (Oscott) ; 
the Royal College for Medicine, Arts, En¬ 
gineering and Law; the Mason Scientific 
College, founded by Sir Joshua Mason, 1875, 



Birney 


Birth 


opened 1880; and the Free Grammar School, 
founded by Edward VI., etc. The Reform 
Act of 1832 made Birmingham a Parlia¬ 
mentary borough with two members; the 
act of 1867 gave it a third; while the Re¬ 
distribution Act of 1885 divided it into 
seven divisions, each sending one member to 
Parliament. Birmingham is known to have 
existed in the reign of Alfred, in 872, and 
is mentioned in the Domesday Book (1086) 
by the name of Bermengeham. Another old 
name of the town is Bromwycham, a form 
still preserved very nearly in the popular 
local pronunciation, Brummagem. In 1801 
the pop. was 73,670; in 1891, 478,113; in 
1901, 522,182. 

Birney, David Bell, an American mili¬ 
tary officer, born in Huntsville, Ala., May 
29, 1825; son of James Gillespie Birney; 
studied law in Cincinnati, and, in 1848, be¬ 
gan practice in Philadelphia. At the out¬ 
break of the Civil War he entered the Union 
army; in the summer of 1861 was com¬ 
missioned Colonel of the 23d Pennsylvania 
Volunteers: and was promoted Major-Gen¬ 
eral, May 23, 1863. He distinguished him¬ 
self in the battles of Yorktown, Williams¬ 
burg, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville and 
•Gettysburg. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., 
Oct. *18, 1864. 

Birney, James Gillespie, an American 
statesman and publicist, born at Danville, 
Ky., Feb. 4, 1792. Though a Southern 
planter, he emancipated his slaves and be¬ 
came a prominent anti-slavery leader in the 
South, proprietor and editor of the anti¬ 
slavery journal, “ The Philanthropist,” etc. 
He was candidate of the Liberty Party 
for President in 1840 and 1844. He wrote 
“ Ten Letters on Slavery and Colonization,” 
“Addresses and Speeches,” “American 
Churches the Bulwark of American Slav¬ 
ery.” He died at Perth Amboy, N. J., Nov. 
25, 1857. 

Birney, William, fin American lawyer, 
born in Madison county, Ala., May 28, 1819, 
was educated in Paris; took part in the 
Revolution of 1848; and was appointed, on 
public competition, Professor of English 
Literature in the College at Bourges, 
France. In 1861 he entered the United 
States army as a private, and was promoted 
through ali the grades to brevet Major-Gen¬ 
eral. In 1863-1865 he commanded a divi¬ 
sion. His writings include “ Life and Times 
of James G. Birney,” “ Plea for Civil and 
Religious Liberty,” etc. He died in 1907. 

Biron (be-roiT), Armand de Gontault, 
Baron de, Marshal of France; born about 
1524. He took a prominent part in the civil 
wars of Huguenot and Catholic, and served 
at the battles of Dreux, St. Denis and Mon¬ 
contour. He negotiated the peace of St. 
Germain, and narrowly escaped at the mas¬ 
sacre of St. Bartholomew. He recovered 


Guienne and Languedoc from the Protes¬ 
tants, served in the Netherlands against the 
Duke of Parma, and was one of the first to 
recognize Henry IV. as king. He distin¬ 
guished himself in various battles and was 
killed at the siege of Epernay, in 1592. 

Biron, Charles de Gontault, Due de, 
son of the preceding; born in 1562, was 
Admiral and Marshal of France, and is 
noted for the friendship which Henry IV. 
entertained for him, and for his treason to¬ 
ward that monarch. He early covered him¬ 
self with glory at the battles of Arques and 
Ivry, and at the sieges of Paris and Rouen. 
The king loaded him with honors, saved 
his life at the fight of Fontaine Francaise, 
and made him ambassador to England. 
Biron entered into a conspiracy with Spain 
and Savoy against his sovereign; and the 
plot being revealed by Lafin, its instigator, 
he was beheaded in 1602. 

Biron, Duke of Courland. See Biren. 

Birrell, Augustine, an English essayist; 
born in Wavertrce, near Liverpool, Jan. 19, 
1850. He graduated from Cambridge and 
was called to the bar. He is author of 
charming critical and biographical essays on 
literary subjects, collected in the two series 
of “Obiter Dicta” (1884, 2d series 
1887) and “Res Judicatoe ” (1892, real¬ 
ly the third of the same series). “Men, 
Women and Books” (1895) is a collection 
of short newspaper pieces. In 1887 he pub¬ 
lished a “ Life of Charlotte Bronte ”; in 
1897 edited Boswell’s “ Life of Johnson,” 
and in 1898 published “Life of Sir Frank 
Lockwood.” 

Birth, or Labor, in physiology, the act 
by which a female of the class mammalia 
brings one of her own species into the 
world. When the foetus has remained its 
due time in the womb, and is in a condition 
to carry on a separate existence, it is ex¬ 
truded "from its place of confinement, in 
order to live the life which belongs to its 
species, independently of the mother. The 
womb having reached its maximum of 
growth with the increasing size of the foe¬ 
tus, its peculiar irritability excites in it the 
power of contraction; it thereby narrows 
the space within and pushes out the ma¬ 
ture foetus. The period of gestation is very 
different in different animals, but in each 
particular species it is fixed with much pre¬ 
cision. In the womb the corporal frame of 
man commences existence as an embryo; 
after further development, appears as a 
foetus; then as an immature, and finally 
as a mature, child. With its growth and 
increasing size, the membranes which en¬ 
velop it enlarge, the womb also expanding 
to give room for it. At the end of the 39th 
or the beginning of the 40th. week, the 
child has reached its perfect state and is 
capable of living separate from the mother; 
hence follows in course the birth. 



Birth 


Birth 


Contractions of the womb gradually come 
on, which are called, from the painful 
sensations accompanying them, labor pains. 
These are of two kinds: first, the prelim¬ 
inary pangs, which begin the labor, do not 
last long, are not violent, and produce the 
feeling of a disagreeable straining or pres¬ 
sure. When the pregnant female is at¬ 
tacked by these, she is often unable to 
move from her place till the pang is over, 
after which she is often free from pain for 
some hours. Then follow the true labor 
pains; these always last longer, return 
sooner, and are more violent. The con- 
tractions of the womb take place in the 
same order as the enlargement had pre¬ 
viously done, the upper part of it first con¬ 
tracting, while the mouth of the womb 
enlarges, and grows thin, and the vagina be¬ 
comes loose and distensible. By this means 
the foetus, as the space within the womb 
is gradually narrowed, descends with a 
turning motion toward the opening; the 
fluid contained in the membranes envelop¬ 
ing the foetus, as the part making the 
greatest resistance, is forced out, and forms 
a bladder, which contributes much to the 
gradual enlargement of the opening of the 
womb. It is therefore injurious to deliv¬ 
ery, if hasty or ignorant midwives break 
the membranes too soon. By repeated and 
violent throes the membranes at length 
burst, and discharge their contents, and 
some time after the head of the child ap¬ 
pears. As the skull bones have not yet ac¬ 
quired their perfect form and substance, 
but are attached at the crown of the head 
only by a strong membrane, and may be 
brought nearer together, the head, by the 
pressure which it undergoes, may be some¬ 
what diminished in size, and squeezed in a 
more oblong form, so as to pass through the 
opening of the matrix and the pelvis in 
which it is contained, and, finally, through 
the external parts of generation; and when 
this is done, the rest of the body soon fol¬ 
lows. 

The act of birth or delivery is accord¬ 
ingly, in general, not an unnatural, dan¬ 
gerous, and diseased state of the system, 
as many timid women imagine. It is a 
natural process of development, which is 
no more a disease than the cutting of the 
teeth, or the coming on of puberty, al¬ 
though like them, it may give rise to im¬ 
portant changes in the body, and to vari¬ 
ous diseases. It is true that the process 
of childbirth requires a violent exertion of 
nature, but this is facilitated by many pre¬ 
paratives and helps adapted to the pur¬ 
pose. If the birth succeeds in the way de¬ 
scribed, it is called a natural birth. For 
this it is requisite that the pelvis should 
be properly formed, and that the opening 
should permit a free passage to the perfect 
foetus; that the growth and size of the 
foetus should be proportioned to the pelvis, 


I especially that the head should have the 
size designed by nature, proportioned to 
the diameter of the pelvis; also, that there 
should be a proper situation of the womb 
in regard to the axis of the pelvis, and a 
proper position of the foetus, namely, the 
head down, the back of the head in front, 
and toward the opening of the womb, so as 
to appear first at birth; and, finally, that 
the external parts of generation should be 
in a natural state. 

An easy birth takes place 'without any 
excessive strainings, and in due season. A 
difficult birth proceeds naturally, but is 
joined with great efforts and pangs, and 
occupies a long time — over six or eight 
hours. The cause of it is sometimes the 
stiffness of the fibers of the mother, her 
advanced years, the disproportionate size 
of the child’s head, and various other 
causes. Nature, however, finishes even 
these births; and women in labor ought not 
to be immediately dejected and impatient 
on account of these difficulties. An unnat¬ 
ural (or properly an irregular) birth is one 
in which one or more of the above-men¬ 
tioned requisites to a natural birth are 
wanting. An artificial birth is that which 
is accomplished by the help of art, with in¬ 
struments or the hands of the attendant. 
Premature birth is one which happens some 
weeks before the usual time, namely, after 
the seventh, and before the end of the 
ninth month. Though nature has assigned 
the period of 40 weeks for the full matur¬ 
ing of the fcctus, it sometimes attains, some 
weeks before this period has elapsed, such 
a growth that it may be preserved alive, in 
some cases, after its separation from the 
mother. That it has not reached its ma¬ 
ture state is determined by various indi¬ 
cations. Such a child, for instance, does 
not cry like full-grown infants, but * only 
utters a faint sound, sleeps constantly, and 
must be kept constantly warm, otherwise 
its hands and feet immediately become 
chilled. Besides this, in a premature 
child, more or less, according as it is more 
or less premature, the skin over the whole 
body is red, often indeed blue, covered with 
a fine, long, woolly hair, especially on the 
sides of the face, and on the back; the fon¬ 
tanel of the head is large, the skull bones 
easily moved; the face looks old and wrin¬ 
kled; the eyes are generally closed; the 
nails on the fingers and toes short, tender, 
and . soft, hardly a line in length; the 
weight of such a child is under six, often 
under five pounds. The birth is called un¬ 
timely when the foetus is separated from the 
womb before the seventh month. Such chil¬ 
dren can be rarely kept alive; there are in¬ 
stances, however, of five months’ children 
living. 

> Bate birth is a birth after the usual pe¬ 
riod of 40 weeks. As this reckoning of the 
time of pregnancy to birth is founded for 



Birth=Rate 


Biscuit 


the most part solely on the evidence of the 
mother, there is much room for mistake or 
deception. The question is one of much in¬ 
terest in medical jurisprudence, as the in¬ 
quiry often arises whether a child born 
more than 40 weeks after the death of the 
reputed father is to be considered legitimate 
or not. The importance of the question, and 
the uncertainty of the proof, have occasioned 
a great variety of opinions among medical 
writers. Most of them doubt the truth of 
the mother’s assertions about such a de¬ 
layed birth, and give, as their reason, that 
nature confines herself to the fixed period of 
pregnancy; that grief, sickness, etc., can¬ 
not hinder the growth of the foetus, etc. 
Others maintain that nature binds herself 
to no fixed rules; that various causes may 
delay the growth of the child, etc. 

Abortion and miscarriage take place when 
a foetus is brought forth so immature that 
it cannot live. They happen from the be¬ 
ginning of pregnancy to the seventh month. 
The occasions, especially in those of a sus¬ 
ceptible or sanguine temperament, are vio¬ 
lent shocks of body or mind by blows, fall¬ 
ing, dancing, cramp, passions, undue excite¬ 
ment of any kind, etc. 

Birth-Rate, the proportion of births in 
a given number of inhabitants. For several 
years it has been evident to students of vital 
statistics that the birth-rate is steadily 
decreasing in nearly all of the European 
countries, and the following table, compiled 
from several authoritative sources, and 
showing the birth-rate per 1,000 inhabi¬ 
tants, certainly strengthens that belief: 


COUNTRIES. 

1865. 

1885. 

1896. 

Austria. 

37.7 

38.3 

39.0 

"Bavaria,. 

36.9 

38.7 

Belgium. 

31.4 

31 .0 

29.0 

England. 

35.4 

33.3 

29.9 

France. 

26.3 

24.7 

22.7 

TTmiP’arv . 

40.6 

45.0 

41.1 

Italy. 

38.3 

37.8 

35.1 

Netherlands. 

35.9 

34.8 

32.0 

Norway. 

31.7 

30.0 

30.0 

Prussia . 

39.1 

37.2 

27 2 

Sweden. 

26.2 

39.4 

27.5 

Switzerland. 

31.7 

28.2 

30.7 



In the United States the birth-rate in the 
census year 1900 was 35.1 per 1,000. 

Birthright, any right or privilege to 
which a person is entitled by birth, such as 
an estate descendible by law to an heir, or 
civil liberty under a free constitution. See 
Primogeniture. 

Birthroot, a name of trillium erectum 
and other American plants of the same 
genus, having roots said to be astringent, 
tonic, and antiseptic. 

Biru, the name of a warlike chief of 
South America, who flourished in the 16th 
century. During an exploring expedition of 


Gaspar de Morales in 1515, the Spaniards 
encountered a chief called Biru, by whom 
they were repulsed. His territory extended 
on both sides of the river Biru or Pirn. All 
the country S. of the Gulf of Panama was 
soon characterized as the Biru country. In 
1526, this name’was given to the empire of 
the Incas, now known as Peru. 

Biscay , or Vizcaya, the most northerly 
of the Basque Provinces of Spain, is bounded 
N. by the Bay of Biscay, E. and S. by its 
sister provinces, Guipuzcoa and Alava, and 
W. by Santander. It has an area (very 
mountainous in the S.) of S49 square miles, 
and a population of (1900) 311,361. Chief 
town, Bilbao. 

Biscay, Bay of, that portion of the At¬ 
lantic Ocean which sweeps in along the 
N. shores of the Spanish Peninsula in an 
almost straight line from Cape Ortegal 
to St. Jean de Luz, at the V/. foot of the 
Pyrenees, and thence curves N. along the 
W. shores of France to the island of Ushant. 
Its extreme width is about 400 miles, and 
its length much about the same. The depth 
of water varies from 20 to 200 fathoms, be¬ 
ing greatest along the N. shores of Spain. 
The whole of the S. coast is bold and rocky, 
and great parts of the French shores are low 
and sandy. The bay receives numerous un¬ 
important streams from the mountains of 
Spain, and, through the rivers Loire, Char- 
ente, Gironde, and Adour, the waters of half 
the surface of France. Its chief ports are 
Santander, Bilbao, and San Sebastian, in 
Spain; and Bayonne, Bordeaux, Rochefort, 
La Rochelle and Nantes, in France. Navi¬ 
gation of the bay is proverbially trying 
to inexperienced voyagers, and is frequently 
rendered dangerous by the prevalence of 
strong winds, especially westerly ones. 
Rennel’s current sweeps in from the ocean 
round the N. coast of Spain. 

Bischoff, Mount, a post-town of Tas¬ 
mania, 60 miles W. of Launceston, which 
owes its existence to the discovery here in 
1S72, by James Smith, of some of the rich¬ 
est tin mines in the world. Between 1884- 
1886 more than 20.000 tons of tin ore had 
been mined. The yield of pure tin from the 
ore is from 70 to 80 per cent. The mount 
takes its name from the chairman of a land 
company (1828). There is railway com¬ 
munication with Emu Bay, 45 miles distant. 
Pop. of mining locality, over 2,000. 

Biscuit, in general language, thin flour 
cake which has been baked in the oven until 
it is highly dried. There are many kinds of 
biscuits, but the basis of all is flour mixed 
with water or milk. In fancy biscuits, 
sugar, butter, and flavoring ingredients are 
used. Plain biscuits are more nutritious 
than an equal weight of bread, but owing to 
their hardness and dryness, they should be 
more thoroughly masticated to insure their 
easy digestion. When exposed to moisture, 
























Bishop 


Bishop 


biscuits are apt to lose their brittleness and 
become moldy, lienc-e it is necessary to keep 
them in a dry atmosphere. Digestive bis¬ 
cuits consist almost entirely of bran. Char¬ 
coal biscuits contain about 10 per cent, of 
powdered vegetable charcoal. Meat biscuits, 
which are very nutritious, contain either 
extract of meat, or lean meat which has 
been dried and ground to a fine powder. 
Ground roasted biscuits are sometimes used 
to adulterate coffee. 

In pottery, articles molded and baked in 
an oven, preparatory to the glazing and 
burning. In the biscuit form, pottery is 
bibulous, but the glaze sinks into the pores 
and fuses in the kiln, forming a vitreous 
coating to the ware. 

Bishop (a word derived from the Greek 
cpiscopos , that is, overseer, through the 
Saxon biscop), in the early Christian 
Church, the name of every person to whom 
the care of a Christian congregation was 
intrusted. Every congregation even in 
country districts had at least one such 
overseer. The word was accordingly used 
in the early history of the Church in ex¬ 
actly the same sense as presbyter or elder. 
This is confirmed not only by the express 
statements to that effect of the oldest ec¬ 
clesiastical writers, but also by the New 
Testament itself. In Acts xx: 17 the writer 
of the Acts of the Apostles says that Paul 
sent from Miletus to Ephesus for the 
“ elders ” of the church, and in the 28tli 
verse he addresses these elders as “ over¬ 
seers ” or “bishops”; and the apostles, in 
addressing the elders of the church, in some 
instances speak of themselves as presbyters 
or fellow-presbyters (I Pet. v: 1; II and III 
John 1). The identity of the original sig¬ 
nification of the words “ presbyter ” and 
“ bishop ” was acknowledged by the Chris¬ 
tian fathers St. Jerome and St. Augustine 
in the 5th century, and even by Pope Urban 
II. at the end of the lltli century, and it 
is not denied by many Episcopalians even at 
the present day. By the Council of Trent, 
however, the doctrine which placed presby¬ 
ters and bishops originally on a footing 
of perfect equality in the early Church was 
declared as a heresy, the object of which 
was to deny to the bishops of the Church 
the priority of rank which they claimed. 

Those who adhere to the Episcopalian 
form of Church government, and at the same 
time admit the original identity of presby¬ 
ters and bishops, differ from the Presbyte¬ 
rians in their theory of the origin of the 
episcopal authority. The Episcopalians main¬ 
tain that even before the words had a sepa¬ 
rate meaning attached to them the distinc¬ 
tion between bishops and subordinate pastors 
existed in fact, and was a regular eccle¬ 
siastical institution, those who held a pecu¬ 
liar authority over others being appointed 
originally by the apostles. The Presbyte¬ 
rians, on the other hand, believe that the 


authority that was undoubtedly conceded 
to certain of the “ bishops ” or “ presby¬ 
ters ” when they met to consider the affairs 
of the Church, was not due to any formal 
appointment, but merely to the mutual 
agreement of the assembled presbyters, and 
that this distinction was no more than a 
mark of respect paid to some member who 
was venerable by his age or distinguished 
by his piety. But, whichever of these two 
theories may be correct, there is no doubt 
of the fact that at a comparatively early 
period in the history of the Church a posi¬ 
tion of authority was acquired by the pas¬ 
tors of the Christian communities belonging 
to certain places, and that these came to 
be distinguished from the others by the 
name of bishops. The growth of this au¬ 
thority was favored by the doctrine which 
was started about the beginning of the 2d 
century with regard to the priestly dignity 
being a peculiarly divine institution. The 
more this doctrine was affirmed the higher 
grew the claims of the bishops. Ignatius 
of Antioch, who died about 115, had already 
declared every bishop to be a representative 
of Christ, and 100 years later the doctrine 
of the apostolical succession was developed, 
that is to say, the doctrine of the transmis¬ 
sion of the ministerial authority in uninter¬ 
rupted succession from Christ to the apos¬ 
tles, and through these from one bishop to 
another. By the foundation of new churches 
in the larger towns which were affiliated to 
the original churches, and by the depend¬ 
ence of the presbyters in the country dis¬ 
tricts upon those having urban charges, the 
authority of the bishops came to be grad¬ 
ually extended over greater or less dioceses; 
and at the same time the bishops began to 
reserve to themselves peculiar privileges. 
While at first the bishops in all the more 
important matters were dependent on the 
approval of the presbyters and congrega¬ 
tions, they appear at the Council of Nice 
in 325 as the sole possessors of the right 
of voting. 

While this then was the position of the 
bishops in relation to the presbyters, they 
at first considered themselves as standing 
on a footing of equality in relation to each 
other. But as certain of the presbyters in 
their assemblies had acquired a priority 
of rank over the others, it gradually came 
about in the same way that the bishops 
of the chief cities (Jerusalem, Antioch, Cor¬ 
inth, Alexandria, Constantinople, Rome) ob¬ 
tained a similar precedence among the bish¬ 
ops, and received the title of metropolitan 
bishops; and so early as the beginning of 
the 4th century we find the Bishop of 
Rome claiming to be the head of the Church 
as the true successor of Peter, whom Christ 
Himself had pronounced to be the rock on 
which He would build His Church. Rome, 
however, was not allowed to assume this 
rank uncontested. Several of the other 



Bishop 


Bishop 


metropolitan bishops claimed the rank for 
themselves, and the conflict went on till 
Syria, Asia Minor, and Egypt were wrested 
from Christendom by the Mohammedans, 
when the only two cities that were left to 
dispute the priority of rank in the Church 
were Rome and Constantinople. Meantime 
the Bishop of Rome had assumed the title 
Papa ( “ father,” “ pope ” ), in order to 
avoid even the appearance of equality 
with the other bishops, and in course 
of time his claim was recognized through¬ 
out Christendom, except in those parts 
which were under the more imme¬ 
diate supremacy of the Bishop of Con¬ 
stantinople; and the contest between 
these two great cities of the West and 
the East was only ended by the separation 
of the Greek and Roman Churches in 1053. 

The practice of solemnly investing bishops 
with their offices dates from the 7tli cen¬ 
tury. Already in the 5th century the Popes 
had begun to send to the newly-elected 
metropolitan bishops (now called archbish¬ 
ops) the pallium, a kind of official mantle 
worn by archbishops, as a token of their 
sanction of the choice. Two centuries later 
it became the custom to consecrate bishops 
by investing them with the ring and crosier, 
the former as a token of marriage with the 
Church, the latter as a symbol of the pas¬ 
toral office. Since this investiture was what 
gave validity to the election of the bishops, 
it became the source of long-continued con¬ 
tests between the Popes and the temporal 
sovereigns in the Middle Ages. The influ¬ 
ential position which the bishops occupied 
in the State caused the temporal rulers to 
be desirous of keeping the right of investi¬ 
ture in their own hands, while the Popes 
with equal determination claimed the right 
for themselves. The contest was most bitter 
between the Popes and the Emperors of the 
Romans, as they were called. It began in 
the lltli century, but was not settled till 
1122, when it was agreed in the concordat 
of Worms between Pope Calixtus II. and 
the Emperor Henry V. that the election of 
bishops should take place according to the 
laws of the Church, under the direction of 
the emperor, and that the spiritual investi¬ 
ture (with ring and crosier) should remain 
in the hands of the Pope, while the bishops 
were to be invested with the temporal rights 
of their office by the emperor. This is still 
the fundamental law of the Roman Catholic 
Church with regard to investiture. The 
election to a bishopric is for the most part 
in the hands of the dean and chapter of 
the cathedral of the diocese; but in some 
cases it is a right of the territorial sover¬ 
eign. In any case papal confirmation is req¬ 
uisite before the appointment is complete. 
Roman Catholic bishops in England are ap¬ 
pointed exclusively by the Pope. 

When the system of the ecclesiastical rule 
was matured, the almost absolute authority 


which they exercised over the clergy of their 
dioceses; their interference in tlie secular 
concerns of the governments, to which they 
soon rendered themselves necessary by their 
superior information and their elevated 
rank; the administration of the Church rev¬ 
enues; and their extensive ecclesiastical as 
well as criminal jurisdiction, caused their 
duties as teachers and spiritual fathers to 
appear of less importance. Still it continued 
to be the bishop’s duty to teach and preach 
in his own diocese, to watch over purity of 
doctrine, to see that the people were pro¬ 
vided with the sacraments, to visit the 
churches in his diocese, etc. The most dis¬ 
tinctive functions of their spiritual office 
remained as they still are, the ordination of 
the clergy, the consecration of other bishops, 
the confirmation of youth, the consecration 
of churches, etc. In the Middle Ages they 
attached to themselves subordinate or as¬ 
sistant bishops called suffragans or coadju¬ 
tors, who often had intrusted to them the 
performance of those functions which more 
especially concerned the Church. The epis¬ 
copal office being such as we have described 
it, the nobility, and even the sons of princes 
and kings, strove to obtain a dignity which 
was as honorable as it was profitable, and 
was not deemed incompatible with festivi¬ 
ties and luxurious enjoyments. The splendid 
establishments which they were able to 
maintain from the large revenues derived 
chiefly from rich donations to their churches 
by pious devotees, gave, to the bishops of 
Germany particularly, a high degree of 
dignity. They became princes of the empire, 
and their influence on public affairs was 
highly important. 

The Reformation lessened the number of 
bishops, and though in some of the Protes¬ 
tant countries of the N. of Europe the high¬ 
er clergy have retained the title of bishop, 
yet they have lost the greater part of their 
former revenues and privileges, though in 
neither of these particulars have those of 
England any reason to complain. The En¬ 
glish Church has left to its bishops more 
authority than the rest, and this is one 
reason why it bears the name of episcopal. 
To them belong ordination, confirmation, the 
consecration of churches, the licensing of 
curates, and institution to benefices. They 
receive their appointment from the crown. 
In Prussia, though the majority of the 
population are Protestants, the Roman 
Catholic bishops receive an annual allow¬ 
ance from the State. Some bishops in the 
Roman Catholic Church are nominally in 
charge of dioceses in countries which do not 
acknowledge the Christian faith. The dio¬ 
ceses of such bishops are said to lie in par- 
tibus infidelium (in parts belonging to un¬ 
believers), and they are chiefly those that 
were wrested from the Christian Church by 
the Mohammedans. 





Bishop 


Bishop 


The bishops of the Greek Catholic Church 
have less authority than those of the Roman 
Catholic Church. They are taken from the 
monastic orders, and they are appointed 
by the archbishops. 

In the United States a bishop is the high¬ 
est dignitary in the Greek Catholic and 
Protestant Episcopal Churches. These bish¬ 
ops generally claim to be successors of the 
apostles. In the Methodist Episcopal and 
other evangelical Churches, the office of 
bishop is maintained, but with less of formal 
dignity and without any claim to apostolic 
succession. In the Roman Catholic Church 
growth has been sufficient in the opinion 
of the ruling functionaries of that commun¬ 
ion, to warrant the establishment of the 
greater hierarchy, and as a consequence the 
office and dignity of a bishop have become 
secondary — the highest places being occu¬ 
pied by a cardinal and numerous archbish¬ 
ops. A new bishop is appointed by the Pope 
from a list of three recommended by the 
clergy of a vacant diocese. 

Bishop, Sir Henry Rowley, an English 
composer, born in London in 1780; was 
trained under Bianchi, composer to the Lon¬ 
don Opera House. From 1809, when his 
first opera, the “ Circassian Bride,” was pro¬ 
duced at Drury Lane, until his masque 
“ The Fortunate Isles,” written to celebrate 
Queen Victoria’s marriage, he composed 
about 100 works for the stage — among oth¬ 
ers the music of “ Guy Mannering,” “ The 
Slave,” “ The Miller and His Men” “ Maid 
Marian,” “ The Virgin of the Sun,” “ Alad¬ 
din,” “ Hamlet,” versions of operas by Ros¬ 
sini, Meyerbeer and others, “ Waverley,” 
“ Manfred,” etc. From 1810 to 1824 he 
acted as musical composer and director to 
Covent Garden Theater. He also arranged 
several volumes of the National melodies, 
and completed the arrangement of the music 
for Moore’s “ Irish Melodies,” commenced by 
Stevenson. Shortly after the accession of 
Queen Victoria he was knighted. He was 
elected Reid Professor of Music in Edin¬ 
burgh University in 1841, and in 1848 Pro¬ 
fessor of Music in the University of Oxford. 
He died in London, April 30, 1855. 

Bishop, Isabella Bird, an English au¬ 
thor and traveler, born in Yorkshire, about 
1831; made her first trip abroad 1855, when 
she visited Prince Edward’s Island and the 
United States, and has since circumnavi¬ 
gated the globe three times. In recent years 
she has spent much time in Japan, and in 
1894-1895 made her third trip to Korea. 
She was in Seoul when the war broke out, 
1894, and was the first person whose war 
correspondence reached London. She is a 
fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, 
and is constantly sending it papers on her 
travels. Her publications include: “ The 

English Woman in America” (185G) ; “ Six 
Months in the Sandwich Islands” (1873); 


“ A Lady’s Life in the Rocky Mountains ” 
(1874); “Unbeaten Tracks in Japan” (2 
vols. 1880) ; “Journeys in Persia and Kur¬ 
distan” (2 vols. 1892); “Among the Tibe¬ 
tans ” (1894) ; “ Korea and Her Neighbors ” 
(2 vols. 1898); “The Yangtze Valley and 
Beyond” (1899), etc. She died in 1904. 

Bishop, John Remsen, an American edu¬ 
cator; born in New Brunswick, N. J., Sept. 
17, 1860; was graduated at Harvard Univer¬ 
sity in 1882; taught Greek and English at 
St. Paul’s School, Concord, N. H., in 1882- 
1883; was principal of the Princeton Pre¬ 
paratory School in 1884-1887; instructor of 
Greek and Latin at Hughes High School, 
Cincinnati, in 1888-1895; and became prin¬ 
cipal of the Walnut Hills High School, 
Cincinnati, in 1895. He is the author of 
“ Vergil’s Georgies Edited for Sight Read¬ 
ing,” and of numerous papers and articles 
on pedagogical subjects; editor of “Cicero’s 
Orations”; an active promoter of local and 
national educational organizations; and a 
member of the American Social Science As¬ 
sociation. 

Bishop, Louis Faugeres, an American 

physician, born in New Brunswick, N. J., 
March 14, 1864; graduated at Rutgers Col¬ 
lege in 1S85, and at the New York College of 
Physicians and Surgeons in 1889. He was 
resident physician of St. Luke’s Hospital, 
New York, in 1889-1892, and secretary of 
the New "York Academy of Medicine and 
Chairman of its Section of Medicine in 1900. 
His publications include “ Theory and Treat¬ 
ment of Rheumatism,” “ Diagnosis and 
Treatment of Gout,” “ Important Points in 
the Treatment of Pneumonia,” etc. 

Bishop, Seth Scott, an American phy¬ 
sician, born in Fond du Lac, Wis., Feb. 7, 
1852; graduated at the Northwestern Uni¬ 
versity, in 1876. He began practice in 
Chicago, and in 1900 was Professor of 
Otology in the Chicago Post-Graduate Medi¬ 
cal School and Hospital; Professor of Di¬ 
seases of the Nose, Throat and Ear in the 
Illinois Medical College; and Surgeon to the 
Illinois Hospital and the Post-Graduate 
Hospital. He was also consulting surgeon 
to the Mary Thompson Hospital, the Illi¬ 
nois Masonic Orphan’s Home in Chicago, and 
the Silver Cross Hospital in Joliet. He was 
a member of the International Medical Con¬ 
gress, the Pan-American Medical Congress, 
the American Medical Association, etc. He 
has written “ Diseases of the Ear, Nose and 
Throat, and Their Accessary Cavities,” be¬ 
sides many monographs, and is one of the 
editors of “ The Laryngoscope.” 

Bishop, William Henry, an American 
novelist, born in Hartford, Conn., Jan. 7, 
1847. He was graduated at Yale in 1867, 
and became Professor of Spanish Language 
and Literature in its Scientific School 
(Sheffield), resigning in February, 1902, to 



Bishops Suffragan 


Bismarck=Schonhausen 


spend several years in travel in Spain and 
elsewhere, in preparation for a list of new 
works in the fields of travel and fiction. He 
is the author of several novels, including 
“Detmold ” (1879) ; “The House of a Mer¬ 
chant Prince” (1882) ; “A Pound of Cure: 
A Story of Monte Carlo” (1894); “Old 
Mexico and Her Lost Provinces” (1884); 
“Fish and Men in the Maine Islands”; 
“A House Hunter in Europe”; “Writing 
to Russia,” a story; “ The Golden Justice ”; 
“ Clioy Susan and Other Stories”; “The 
Brown-Stone Boy and Other Queer People,” 
and many similar works. 

^ Bishops Suffragan, a class of bishops in 
England appointed by the crown to take the 
places of the early bishops in partibus, who 
were assistants to the active bishops of 
English sees, and who held their warrant 
at the pleasure of the bishops to whom they 
were assigned. They were distinguished 
from suffragan bishops in the Church of 
England, as every regular bishop was a 
suffragan of his superior or metropolitan. 

Bismarck, city, capital of the State of 
North Dakota, and county-seat of Burleigh 
co.; on the Missouri river, and the North¬ 
ern Pacific railroad; 194 miles W. of Fargo. 
It contains the State Capitol (which cost 
over $500,000), the State Penitentiary, 
court-house, city hall, opera house, a State 
Hospital for the Insane, St. Paul Seminary, 
and an immense river warehouse. The river 
is here spanned by a bridge that cost $1,- 
500,000. Bismarck has improved water¬ 
works, electric lights, several flour mills, 
a National bank, the State Library, and 
an assessed property valuation of nearly 
$2,000,000. The city is a supply and trade 
center for an extensive agricultural section, 
and is also a base of supplies for Indian 
agencies and United States military posts. 
Its river traffic with stations above and be¬ 
low it, is very heavy. Pop. (1890) 2,186; 
(1900) 3,319; (1910*) 5,443. 

Bismarck, Herbert, Prince von, a Ger¬ 
man statesman, born in Berlin, Dec. 28, 
1849; son of Otto Eduard Leopold, Prince 
von Bismarck-Schonhausen. As a diplomat 
he ranks with the best and shrewdest ot 
Europe. He served as Secretary to the Lon¬ 
don Embassy, and on his father’s retire¬ 
ment he was provisionally charged with 
the Foreign Affairs of the Empire. In 1886 
he was Secretary of State, and in 1889 the 
Emperor conferred on him the Order of the 
Red Eagle. He died in 1904. 

Bismarck=Schbnhausen (biz'mark-shtm'- 
houz-en), Otto Eduard Leopold, Prince 
von, a German statesman, born at Schon- 
hausen in Brandenburg, of an old family, 
of which various members gained a reputa¬ 
tion both as soldiers and statesmen, April 
1, 1815. He received his university educa¬ 
tion at Gottingen, Berlin, and Greifswald. 


Before 1847 he was little heard ot, but 
about that time he began to attract atten¬ 
tion in the new Prussian Parliament as an 
Ultra Royalist. He opposed the scheme of 
a German Empire as proposed by the Frank¬ 
fort Parliament of 1849. His diplomatic 
career began in 1851, when he was appointed 
Prussian member of the resuscitated Ger¬ 
man Diet of Frankfort. In the Diet, he 
gave open expression to the long felt dis¬ 
content with the predominance of Austria, 
and demanded equal rights for Prussia. 
He remained at Frankfort till 1859, when 
he beheld in the approach of the Italian 
War an opportunity of freeing Prussia and 
Germany from the dominance of Austria. 
In the spring of 1862 King William, on the 
urgent advice of the Prince of Hohenzol- 
lern, transferred Bismarck as ambassador 
to Paris, in order to give him an insight 
into the politics of the Tuileries. During 
his short stay at Paris Bismarck visited 
London, and had interviews with the lead¬ 
ing politicians of the time, including Lord 
Palmerston and Mr. Disraeli. In the au¬ 
tumn Bismarck was recalled, to take the 
portfolio of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 
and the presidency of the Cabinet. Not be¬ 
ing able to pass the reorganization bill and 
the budget, he closed the Chambers (Octo¬ 
ber, 1862), announcing to the Deputies that 
the king’s government would be obliged to 
do without their sanction. When the “ con¬ 
flict era,” as it was called, approached a 
crisis, the death of the King of Denmark re¬ 
opened the Schleswig-Holstein question, and 
excited a fever of national German feeling, 
which Bismarck was adroit enough to work 
so as to aggrandize Prussia by the acquisi¬ 
tion of the Elbe duchies. 

The action of France in regard to the 
candidature of Prince Leopold of Holienzol- 
lern for the throne*of Spain gave Bismarck 
the opportunity of carrying into action the 
intensified feeling of unity among Germans. 
During the War of 1870-1871, Bismarck 
was the spokesman of Germany; he it was 
that in February, 1871, dictated the terms 
of peace to France. Having been made a 
Count in 1866, he was now created a prince 
and Chancellor of the German Empire. Fol¬ 
lowing the Peace of Frankfort (May 10, 
1871), the sole aim of Bismarck’s policy, 
domestic and foreign, was to consolidate 
the young empire of his own creating. 
Thus, conceiving the unity of the nation 
and the authority of its government to be 
endangered by the Church of Rome, and 
its doctrines of Papal infallibility, he em¬ 
barked on that long and bitter struggle 
with the Vatican, called the Kulturkampf, 
in the course of which the Imperial and 
Prussian Parliaments passed a series of 
most stringent measures (Falk or May 
laws) against the Catholic hierarchy. But 
Bismarck had underrated the resisting 





Bismarck= Schonhausen 


Bismuth 


power of the Roman Church, anil motives 
of political expediency gradually led him 
to modify or repeal the most oppressive of 
the anti-papal edicts, leaving the Catholics 
virtual masters of the field. Otherwise, 
his domestic policy was marked, among 
other things, by a reformed coinage, a 
codification of law, a nationalization of the 
Prussian railways (as a preliminary step 
to Imperial State lines), fiscal reform in 
the direction of making the Empire self sup¬ 
porting (t. c., independent of matricular 
contributions from its component States), 
repeated increase of the army and the regu¬ 
lar voting of its estimates for seven years 
at a time (military scptennate), the in¬ 
troduction of a protective tariff (1879), and 
the attempt to combat social democracy. 

In 1884 Bismarck inaugurated the career 
of Germany as a colonizing power, a new 
departure which brought him into sharp 
but temporary conflict with the England 
of Gladstone. For the rest, his foreign 
policy mainly aimed at isolating France 
and rendering her incapable of forming 
anti-German alliances. On the other hand, 
he gradually combined the central powers 
of Europe into a peace league, aiming at 
counteracting the aggressiveness of Russia 
and France, separately or combined, on the 
Danube or the Rhine. The nucleus of this 
peace league was formed in 1879 by the 
Austro-German Treaty of Alliance (pub¬ 
lished in February, 1888), which Italy for¬ 
mally joined in 1886, and which entitles 
Bismarck to be called the “ peacemaker ” 
and the “ peacekeeper ” of Europe, a charac¬ 
ter he first publicly acquired when, as “ hon¬ 
est broker ” between Austria and Russia, he 
presided over the Berlin Congress in 1878. 
The phrase, “man of blood and iron,” is 
based on the Iron Chancellor’s own use of 
the words in a speech in 1862. 

Bismarck’s life was often threatened, and 
twice actually attempted — once at Berlin 
in 1866, just, before the Bohemian campaign, 
by Ferdinand Cohen (or Blind), a crazy 
youth who aimed at making himself the 
instrument of popular dissatisfaction with 
Bismarck, as the champion of absolutism 
and the fancied apostle of a fratricidal war; 
and again in 1874 at Kissingen, by a Catho¬ 
lic tinsmith named Kullmann, who was 
unquestionably a product of Ultramontane 
fury engendered by the May laws. 

Emperor William died on March 9, 1888. 
The short reign of Emperor Frederick fol¬ 
lowed and then the present Emperor as¬ 
cended the throne. On March 18, 1890, 
Bismarck fell. The last cause of his fall 
has not been told. Many explanations 
have been given — that Bismarck objected 
to the labor rescripts, that he opposed the 
abolition of the laws against Socialists, that 
he would not tolerate the Emperor’s direct 
consultation with the other Ministers or the 


Parliamentary leaders. After the war with 
Denmark, King William had made Bis¬ 
marck a Count. After the conquest of 
France Emperor William had named him 
Prince. Emperor William II. gave him the 
title of Duke of Lauenburg. When Bis¬ 
marck’s 81st birthday was celebrated in 
1896, there was talk of a reconciliation be¬ 
tween the Prince and his sovereign. The 
Emperor sent his photograph to Bismarck, 
the latter returned thanks, and little by 
little the way was paved for a meeting be¬ 
tween the two men, and eventually for the 
State visit which the Emperor paid to Bis¬ 
marck at Friedrichsruhe, where the states¬ 
man died July 30, 1898. 

Bismarck Archipelago, the name offi¬ 
cially given by Germany to New Britain, 
New Ireland, New Hanover, and several 
smaller adjoining islands in the South Pa¬ 
cific, since in 1884 they became a German 
dependency. 

Bismuth, a triad metallic element, Sym. 
Bi; At. Wt. 210; found associated with the 
ores of nickel, cobalt, copper and silver, in 
Saxony, Austria, Peru, Australia and Bo¬ 
livia. Bismuth is usually found in a me¬ 
tallic state, and is readily obtained from 
the ores containing it on account of its low 
fusibility (266° C.). An ore containing 
about 10 per cent, of bismuth associated 
with arsenic and cobalt is worked at Schnee- 
berg, Saxony. The ore is broken into fine 
pieces and heated in sloping cast iron 
cylinders whose lower openings are plugged 
with fire clay. The metallic bismuth melts 
and flows to the lower ends of the cylinders, 
where it is collected in iron pots, contain¬ 
ing charcoal to prevent oxidization. The 
residue, being lighter, floats on the top and 
is raked out through the upper opening. 
With five cylinders working in a single 
furnace one ton of ore is smelted in eight 
hours. Bismuth forms a dioxide Bio0 2 , a 
trioxide Bi,0 3 , and a pentoxide Bi 2 0 3 . The 
so called tetroxide Bi 2 0 4 is said to be a com¬ 
pound of the last two oxides. Bismuth 
forms one . chloride BiCl 3 , bismuthous 
chloride. Bismuth salts are precipitated by 
HoS from an acid solution. They may be 
separated from the other metals of that 
group thus: the precipitate of sulphides of 
arsenic, antimony, and tin; the residue is 
washed and then boiled with nitric acid, 
which dissolves all the sulphides except 
mercuric sulphide, HgS. The solution is 
then evaporated with sulphuric acid, the 
lead, if any, separates out as PbS0 4 , then 
ammonia, NHJFRO, is added in excess, which 
precipitates the bismuth as Bi(OH) 3 ; the 
copper and cadmium are in the solution. 
The salts of bismuth give a white precipi¬ 
tate with water if NH 3 HC1, ammonic 
chloride, is first added to convert them into 
bismuth chloride, and they give a yellow 
precipitate with K 2 Cr0 4 , which is insoluble 




Bison 


Bison 


in KHO, blit soluble in nitric acid. They 
are reduced on charcoal by the blowpipe- 
flame, yielding a brittle metallic bead, and 
give a slight yellow incrustation of oxide. 

Bismuth is known by its reddish color 
and crystalline structure. On account of 
its brittleness it is unfit for use in the me¬ 
tallic state, by itself, except in the con¬ 
struction of thermo-electric piles. The use 
of bismuth in alloys depends on its low 
melting point, and its property of expand¬ 
ing upon solidification. It is used in type 
metal and in several solders. One known 
as Newton’s fusible alloy, contains bismuth, 
50 per cent; lead, 25 per cent, and tin, 25 
per cent. It melts at 94° C., although the 
most fusible of its constituents, the tin, has 
a melting point of 232°. Another similar 
alloy has one-half its tin replaced by cad¬ 
mium and melts at 01° C. Bismuth is 
used for pharmaceutical purposes in form 
of subnitrate of bismuth, carbonate of 
bismuth, and oxide of bismuth, which, taken 
internally, act as sedatives on the stomach, 
in dyspepsia and chronic vomiting. They 
have been also used in epilepsy and in diar¬ 
rhoea attending phthisis. Preparations of 
bismuth are sometimes employed externally 
as cosmetics, but when a sulphuretted gas 
acts upon them they blacken the face. 

Bison, the name applied to two species 
of ox. One of these, the European bison or 
aurochs {Bos bison or Bison Europceus ), is 
now nearly extinct, being found only in the 
forests of Lithuania and the Caucasus. The 
other, or American bison (Bison America- 
nus ), is found only in North America, and 
is remarkable for the great hump or pro¬ 
jection over its fore shoulders, and for the 
length and fineness of its woolly hair. The 
hump, is oblong, diminishing in height pos¬ 
teriorly, and gives a considerable obliquity 
to the outline of the back. The hair over 
the head, neck, and fore part of the body is 
long and shaggy, forming a beard beneath 
the lower jaw, and descending below the 
knee (wrist) in a tuft. The hair on the 
summit of the head rises in a dense mass 
nearly to the tips of the horns, and, directly 
on the front, is curled and matted strongly. 

Altogether the American bison, commonly 
called the buffalo, is of rather a formidable 
appearance, with his ponderous head, and 
its fell of thick shaggy hair, and its stream¬ 
ing beard, supported upon a massive neck 
and shoulders, whose apparent strength is 
more imposing from the augmentation pro¬ 
duced by the hump and the long hair cover¬ 
ing the anterior parts of the body. There 
is considerable difference between the sum¬ 
mer and winter dress of the bison, consisting 
partly in the length, partly in the color of 
the hair. In late summer, after the new 
coat is acquired, from the shoulders back¬ 
ward the surface is covered with a short 
fine dark hair, smooth and soft as velvet. 


Previous to this the old coat has fallen off, 
often leaving bare and unsightly patches. 
At this season the animal is fond of wallow¬ 
ing in mud to gain a protective covering of 
this material. Except the long hair on the 
fore parts, which is, to a certain extent, 
of blackish color, the color is a uniform 
brown, becoming of a bleached and faded 
hue toward the end of winter. Varieties 
of color are very rare among this species. 
The horns are usually 16 or 17 inches in 
length, and of a black color. The bison 
bulls are more easily approached and killed 
by hunters than the cows, not being so vigi¬ 
lant, though the cows were preferred both 
on account of their finer skins and more 
tender flesh. The cow is much smaller than 
the bull, and has not so much of the long 
hair on the shoulders, etc.; her horns are 
not so large, nor so much covered by the 
hair. The sexual season begins toward the 
end of July, and lasts till near the beginning 
of September. The cows calve in April; the 
calves seldom leave the mother until a year 
old; cows are sometimes seen with calves of 
three seasons following them. Bison beef 
is rather coarser in the grain than that of 
the domestic ox, but is considered superior 
in tenderness and flavor. The hump is par¬ 
ticularly celebrated for its richness and 
delicacy. The tongues and marrow bones 
are regarded as next in excellence. 

The American bison, or buffalo, was once 
extensively diffused over what is now the 
territory of the United States, except that 
part lying on the E. of Hudson river and 
Lake Champlain, and narrow strips of coast 
on the Atlantic and Pacific. Southward its 
range extended to the delta of the Missis¬ 
sippi and into part of Mexico, while in the 
N. W. it reached even as far as the Great 
Slave Lake. The great prairies connected 
with the Mississippi system formed its fa¬ 
vorite feeding-grounds, and here it used to 
be seen in herds whose numbers were well- 
nigh incredible. We are told, for instance, 
of a herd encountered in 1871, which ex¬ 
tended over an area of 25 miles in breadth 
by 50 miles in length, and was calculated 
to number not less than 4,000,000 individ¬ 
uals. A traveler on the Kansas Pacific 
railroad again declared that the train on 
which he was a passenger passed through 
a herd of buffalo for a distance of not less 
than 120 miles. In those days, that is about 
or previous to 1870, the plain might often 
be seen black with moving masses of buf¬ 
falo, which sometimes compelled the engine 
drivers to bring their trains to a standstill. 
The animals used to congregate and perform 
regular migrations, which depended upon 
the season and the necessary supply of food, 
these movements being mainly from N. 
to S. and vice versa. All this is now a 
thing of the past, and the wholesale destruc¬ 
tion of the bison is one of the most melan¬ 
choly stories in the history of zoology. So 



Bison 


Bissell 


long as it was pursued only or mainly by 
the Indians there was little to fear for it, 
though many tribes were almost wholly de¬ 
pendent on these animals for food, clothing, 
tents, utensils, etc. Vast multitudes owing 
to this were slaughtered annually; but it is 
to be deeply regretted that the white hunt¬ 
ers (especially after the spread of rail¬ 
roads) were in the habit of destroying these 
interesting and valuable beasts in the most 
wanton and unnecessary manner. It was 
common for such persons to shoot bisons, 
even when they had abundance of food, for 
the sake of the tongue or hump alone, or 
even because the animals came so near as to 
present a fair aim. It is therefore not to 
be wondered that, from all causes of dim¬ 
inution, the bison should become less and 
less numerous every year till it is now prac¬ 
tically extinct, at least in the wild state. 
Latterly the National Museum of the United 
States thought it necessary to send out an 
expedition to collect a few specimens in view 
of this contingency; and a report furnished 
to the museum in 188G shows what difficulty 
the expedition had in fulfilling its mission 
in consequence of the extermination of the 
bison having been already so nearly effected. 
“ It is firmly believed by good authorities,” 
the report states, “ that there are not now 
more than from 50 to 100 buffaloes in the 
whole of Montana (where this animal used 
to be remarkably abundant) outside of the 
National Park, where there are probably 
from 200 to 300 head.” 

The skins of bisons, especially that of 
the cow, dressed in the Indian fashion, with 
the hair on, make admirable defenses 
against the cold, and may be used for blan¬ 
kets, etc. They are called buffalo robes. 
The wool of the bison has been manufactur¬ 
ed into hats, and has also been employed in 
making coarse cloth. The bison or buffalo 
may be domesticated without much difficul¬ 
ty, and it has been ascertained that the ani¬ 
mal breeds freely with the domestic or com¬ 
mon ox, and that these half-breeds are 
fertile among themselves. 

The Secretary of Agriculture in a report 
to the Senate on the extinction of the Amer¬ 
ican bison says that as far as the depart¬ 
ment is aware only two small herds of wild 
buffalo are in existence in the United States, 
one of them being in Yellowstone Park, and 
the other in Lost Park, Col. During last 
fall several of the latter were killed and it 
is thought that now the herd does not con¬ 
tain more than 8 or 10 individuals, and the 
Yellowstone herd 25. In Canada there are 
a few wild buffalo in the Peace river country 
but they are believed to be of a different 
species from those which roamed the plains 
of the West. In the hands of private in¬ 
dividuals there are three herds: The Cor¬ 
bin herd on the game preserves of the Blue 
Mountain Forest Association in New Hamp¬ 
shire and the Allard and Goodnight herds. 


The Allard herd is on the Flathead Indian 
reservation in Montana and the Goodnight 
herd in Texas. Both the latter, however, 
are mostly cross-breeds, known as cataloes, 
obtained by crossing buffalo bulls with do¬ 
mesticated cows; and the originator of the 
breed says that he has succeeded in cross¬ 
ing the buffalo with almost all breeds of 

o # 

cattle, but that he considers the Galloway 
and the Polled Angus the best for this pur¬ 
pose. The Allard herd is being broken up, 
many having been sold within a short time, 
and it was suggested that the government 
should acquire possession of the buffaloes 
that are left, and place them on some reser¬ 
vation under competent management, where, 
under proper protection, they could be pre¬ 
served indefinitely. It is also believed that 
by securing the herd and dividing it into 
two sections, thus preventing too close in- 
breeding, the absolute extermination of the 
species might be long delayed. At present 
the buffalo bids fair to become as extinct 
as the mastodon or other animals of prehis¬ 
toric ages. 

Bissagos Islands, a group of small vol¬ 
canic islands, about 30 in all, off the W. 
coast of Africa, opposite the mouth of the 
Bio Grande. The islands are inclosed by a 
reef, and, with a few exceptions, are thickly 
wooded; many of them densely peopled. 
There are several fine ports, but the climate 
is excessively dangerous for Europeans. 
The principal islands belong to the Portu¬ 
guese, whose governor resides at Bolarna. 

Rissao (bis-iin'o), an island and Portu¬ 
guese station closer to the African coast 
than the Bissagos and opposite the Jeba’s 
delta. Before the prohibition of slavery by 
the Portuguese government it was" an 
important slave market. 

Bissell, Edwin Cone, an American Con¬ 
gregational clergyman and writer, born at 
Schoharie, N. Y., March 2, 1832. Having 
served in the Civil War (18G2-18G3), he 
became pastor in Massachusetts and Cali¬ 
fornia, missionary in Austria (1873-1878). 
Professor in the Hartford Congregational 
Theological Seminary (1881-1892), and the 
McCormick Presbyterian Theological Semi¬ 
nary, Chicago (1892-1894). He published 
“Historic Origin of the Bible” (1873) and 
various other religious works, including a 
curious edition of “ Genesis Printed in 
Colors, Showing the Original Sources from 
Which It Is Supposed to Have Been Com¬ 
piled ” (1892). He died in Chicago, April 
9, 1894. 

Bissell, Wilson Shannon, an American 

lawyer, born in New London, N. Y., Dec. 
31, 1847; graduated at Yale University in 
18G9; and studied law in Buffalo with 
Lansing, Cleveland & Folsom. In 1872 
he formed a partnership with Lyman K. 
Bass, the firm of which Grover Cleveland be¬ 
came a member in 1873. When Mr. Cleve* 



Bissen 


Bittern 


land was elected governor of New York the 
firm was disbanded. Subsequently it was re¬ 
organized, and, in 1900, consisted of Bissell, 
Carey & Cooke. He was a delegate to sev¬ 
eral State conventions; in 1884 was a 
Democratic Presidential Elector; and in 
1893-1895 was Postmaster-General of the 
United States. He died Oct. 6, 1903. 

Bissen, Wilhelm, a Danish sculptor, 
born in Schleswig in 1798, and from 1823 to 
1833 studied in Pome under Thorwaldsen, 
who, in his will, commissioned him to com¬ 
plete his unfinished works. In 1850 he 
was made Director of the Academy of Arts, 
Copenhagen. Among his masterpieces are 
the “ Valkyrie,” “ Cupid Sharpening His 
Arrow,” and “ Moses; ” his “ Orestes,” and 
a frieze 134 feet long, perished in the burn¬ 
ing of the Christiansborg at Copenhagen 
(1884). He died March 10, 18G8. 

Bisson, Alexandre (be-son'), a French 
dramatist and musical composer, born in 
1848. His vaudeville, “ Four Cuts with a 
Penknife” (1873), won for him instant 
celebrity. “The Deputy from Bombignac ” 
is his masterpiece. Other comedies or 
operettas were “ The Late Toupinel ” 
(1890) ; “ The Joys of Paternity” (1891) ; 
“The Pont-Biquet Family” (1892). With 
Theodore de Lajarte he was joint author of 
a “Grammar of Music” (1879) and of a 
“Little Encycloptedia of Music” (1881). 

Bistineau, a navigable lake in N. W. 
Louisiana; 25 miles long by 2 miles wide; 
discharges into the Red river.. 

Bistort, the English name given to a 
sub-genus or subdivision of the genus 
polygonum. Two well known weeds fall un¬ 
der it — the polygonum bistorta (common 
bistort or snakeweed), and the P. vivipa- 
rum, or viviparous Alpine bistort. Each 
has a simple stem, and a single terminal 
raceme of flowers. The former has flesh 
colored flowers, and is common; the latter 
has paler flowers, and is a mountain plant. 
It is sometimes called Alpine bistort. 

Bistoury (from Pistoja, anciently called 
Pistorium, a city in Italy, 20 miles N. 
W. of Florence, where these knives were 
made at an early period), a surgical instru¬ 
ment used for making incisions. It has 
various forms -—- one like a lancet, a second 
called the straight bistoury, with the blade 
straight and fixed in a handle; and a third 
the crooked bistoury, shaped like a half 
moon, with the cutting edge on the inside. 

Bistre, a pigment of a transparent brown 
color. To prepare it the soot left after 
beechwood has been burned is boiled for 
half an hour, two pounds of the soot to 
each gallon of the water. Before it has 
cooled, but after it has been allowed time 
to settle, the clearer part is poured off and 
then evaporated to dryness, when the resi¬ 
duum left behind is found to be bistre. 


Bitter, Arthur, pseudonym of Samuel 
ITabersticii, a Swiss poet and story writer, 
born in Ried near Schlosswyl, Oct. 21, 1821. 
Novelettes, stories, and poems proceeded 
from his pen for many years, all character¬ 
ized by sympathy of tone and inoffensive 
realism, “ TaLes, Romances, and Poems” 
(1865-1800), being most pleasing. He died 
in Bern, Feb. 20, 1872. 

Bitter Almond, the bitter variety of 
amygdalus communis, or common almond. 

Bitter Apple, a name applied to the 
bitter gourd. 

Bitter Ash, a tree, simaruba amdra, a 
native of the West Indies, the bark of which 
is used as a tonic. Others of the same genus 
have also the same name, S. cxcclsa of 
Jamaica having wood almost as hitter as 
quassia, and being called Jamaica quassia. 

Bitter Gourd, a plant, citrullus colocyn- 
this, called also colocvnth. 

Bitter King, the soulamda amdra, a tree 
of the quassia order peculiar to the Moluc¬ 
cas and Fiji Islands, the root and bark of 
which, bruised and macerated, are used in 
the East as an emetic and tonic. 

Bitter Lakes, salt lakes on the line of 
the Suez canal. 

Bittern, the English name for the birds 
of the genus botaurus, and especially for 
the common one, botaurus stcllaris. The 
bitterns are distinguished from the herons 
proper, besides other characteristics, by 



BITTERN. 


having the feathers of the neck loose and 
divided, which makes it appear thicker than 
in reality it is. They are usually spotted 
or striped. The species are widely distribu¬ 
ted, the best known being botaurus lentigo * 




















Bittern 


Bituminous Coal 


nosus, B. stellaris, and B. minutus, inhabit¬ 
ing the temperate portions of both hemi¬ 
spheres. B. stellaris is in some localities 
named the “ mire drum ” or the “ bull of the 
bog,” etc., in allusion to its bellowing or 
drumming noise about February or March, 
during the breeding season. It is about 2^ 
feet long. The general color of its plumage 
is dull, pale yellow, variegated with spots 
and bars of black. The feathers of the head 
are black, shot with green; the bill and 
legs are pale green; the middle claw is 
serrated on the inner edge. It is nocturnal. 
It frequents wooded swamps and reedy 
marshes. B. minutus is much smaller. B. 
lentigonosus is common in this country. 

Bittern, a name given to the mother 
liquid obtained when sea water is evapo¬ 
rated to extract the salt (NaCI). Bittern 
contains sulphates of magnesium, potas¬ 
sium and sodium, also bromides. Tt is used 
as a source of bromine. Under the name of 
oil of salt, it is sometimes used to rub parts 
of the body affected with rheumatism. Bit¬ 
tern is also an old trade name for a mixture 
of quassia, cocculus indicus, etc., used many 
years ago by fraudulent brewers to give an 
appearance of strength to their beer. 

Bitter Nut, a tree of North America, of 
the walnut order, the carya amdra, or 
swamp hickory, which produces small and 
somewhat egg-shaped fruits, with a thin, 
fleshy rind; the kernel is bitter and un¬ 
eatable. 

Bitter Root, lewisia redivwa, a plant 
of Canada and part of the United States, 
order mesembryacece, so called from its root 
being bitter though edible, and indeed 
esteemed as an article of food by whites as 
well as Indians. From the root, which is 
long, fleshy, and tapering, grow clusters of 
succulent green leaves, with a fleshy stalk 
bearing a solitary rose colored flower rising 
in the center, and remaining open only in 
sunshine. Flower and leaves together, the 
plant appears above ground for only about 
six weeks. Californian bitter-root ( echino - 
cystis fabacea ) and Natal bitter-root ( ger - 
rardanthus macrorhiza) both belong to the 
gourd family. 

Bitter Root Mountains, a range of the 
Rocky Mountains, in Montana, deriving its 
name from a plant with rose colored blos¬ 
soms, whose slender roots are used by the 
Indians for winter food. The chief sum¬ 
mits are Lolo Peak and St. Mary’s Peak. 

Bitter Root River, a tributary of the 
Columbia in Montana, flowing N. into 
Clark’s river in Missoula county; length 
about 110 miles. Gold has been found in 
this region. 

Bitter Root Valley, on the E. of the 
Bitter Root Range, in Montana, is 00 miles 
long and 7 miles wide, enwalled by lofty 


mountains, and abounding in farms and 

cornfields. 

Bitters, a compound said to improve the 
appetite and assist digestion, originally pre¬ 
pared by infusing bitter herbs in water. 
Bitters are now generally prepared by 
steeping bitter and aromatic herbs in spirits 
of wine for 10 or 12 days, straining the 
liquor, and reducing it with water to the 
desired strength. The herbs generally used 
are gentian, quassia, wormwood, cascarilla, 
and orange peel. The laxness of the laws 
in the United States relative to the prepara¬ 
tion and sale of medical nostrums has 
tended to greatly multiply the number of 
proprietary bitters, and there are on the 
market specimens which their proprietors 
recommend for all the ills to which flesh is 
heir. In many instances their constituent 
formulae are much more complicated and 
dangerous than the comparatively simple 
and harmless prescription quoted above. 

Bitter Salt, Epsom salt, sulphate of mag¬ 
nesia. 

Bitter Spar, rhomb-spar, the crystallized 
form of dolomite or magnesian limestone. 

Bitter Sweet, the woody nightshade, 

soldnum dulcamara. 

Bitter Vetch, a name applied to two 
kinds of leguminous plants, (a) ervum 
ervilia, a lentil cultivated for fodder; and 
(b) all the species of orobus, e. g., the com¬ 
mon bitter vetch of Great Britain, 0. tuber - 
fisus, a perennial herbaceous plant with 
racemes of purple flowers and sweet, edible 
tubers. 

Bitter Wood, the timber of xylopia 
glabra and other species of xylopia, order 
anonacece, all noted for the extreme bitter¬ 
ness of the wood. The name is also given 
to other bitter trees, as the bitter ash. 

Bitter-Wort, yellow gentian ( gentidna 
lut&a ). 

Bitumen, a mineral substance, remarka¬ 
ble for itj inflammability and its strong, 
peculiar odor; generally, however, supposed 
to be of vegetable origin. The name, which 
was in use among the ancient Romans, is 
variously employed, sometimes to include 
a number of the substances called mineral 
resins, particularly the liquid mineral sub 
stances called naphtha and petroleum, or 
mineral oil, and the solid ones called min¬ 
eral pitch, asphalt, mineral caoutchouc, 
etc.; sometimes in a more restricted sense 
it is applied by mineralogists only to some 
of these, and by some mineralogists to the 
solid, by others to the liquid ones. All 
these substances are, however, closely allied 
to each otlmr. 

Bituminous Coal, coal which burns with 
a yellow, smoky flame, and oil distillation 



Bituminous Limestone 


Bizerta 


gives out hydrocarbon or tar. It contains 
from 5 to 15, or even 16 or 17 per cent, of 
oxygen. 

Bituminous Limestone, limestone im¬ 
pregnated with bitumen. Its color is brown 
or black; in structure it is sometimes lamel¬ 
lar, but more frequently compact, in which 
case it is susceptible of a fine polish. 
When rubbed or heated it gives out an un¬ 
pleasant bituminous odor. It is found in 
Dalmatia so bituminous that it may be cut 
like soap. The walls of houses are con¬ 
structed of it, and after being erected are 
set on fire, when the bitumen burns out and 
the stone becomes white; the roof is then 
put on, and the house afterward completed. 
Bituminous limestone is of different geo¬ 
logical ages. 

Bituminous Schist, schist impregnated 
with bitumen; occurs in the Lower Silurian 
rocks of Russia. Sir R. Murchison consid¬ 
ered that it arose from the decomposition 
of the fucoids imbedded in these rocks. 

Bituminous Shale, an argillaceous shale 
impregnated with bitumen, which is very 
common in the coal measures. 

Bitzius, Albert (better known under the 
nom de 'plume of Jeremias Gotthelf), a 
Swiss author, born in Murton, Canton of 
Freiburg, Oct. 4, 1797. As a pastor in re¬ 
tired districts, he saw the hard conditions 
of the poor, and in 1837 wrote “The Peas¬ 
ant’s Mirror,” a vividly realistic presenta¬ 
tion of peasant life — the imaginary auto¬ 
biography of one Jeremias Gotthelf; the im¬ 
mense success of the book led him to adopt 
the name as a pseudonym. He worked this 
vein with unflagging industry, “Joys and 
Sorrows of a Schoolmaster,” “ How Five 
Maids Came to Grief Through Brandy,” 
“ How Uli, the Servant, Was Made Happy,” 
and numerous others, “ tendency '* novels, 
followed swiftly. He died at Liitzelfliih, 
Bern, Oet. 22, 1854. 

Bivalves, those mollusks whose coverings 
consist of two concave shelly plates or valves 



shell, of a bivalve. 


A. The line across marks the thickness. B, a, 
anterior extremity; b, posterior; c, d, muscular 
impressions, e, f, palleal impression; g, lower 
edge of the left valve. 

60 


united by a hinge. So long as molluscous 
animals, provided with shells, were consid¬ 
ered by naturalists almost exclusively with 
respect to these, the order of bivalves, 
originally established by Aristotle, retained 
its place; and, indeed, the external character 
upon which it is founded is closely connected 
with some of the important structural 
characters according to which mollusks are 
now classified. A vast majority of recent 
bivalve shells belong to Cuvier’s testaceous 
order of asceplialous mollusca, the lamel- 



AN ATOMY OF BIVALVE MOLLUSK. 

libranchiate mollusca of Owen, although 
with them are some classed as multivalves, 
on account of accessory valves which they 
possess. There arc also mollusks of the class 
brachiopoda or palliobranchiata, which 
possess bivalve shells, as the terebratulcc, 
or lamp shells, etc. The structure of the 
shell, however, is different in these two 
classes, although its general appearance is 
much the same. A very large proportion 
of»the bivalve shells of the older fossiliferous 
rocks belong to the brachiopoda . 

Bivouac, an encampment of soldiers in 
the open air without tents, each remaining 
dressed and with his weapons at hand. It 
was the regular practice of the French revo¬ 
lutionary armies, but is only desirable 
where great celerity of movement is re¬ 
quired. 

Bizerta, a fortified seaport of Tunis, the 
most northern town of Africa; at the ex¬ 
tremity of a bay formed by Capes Ras-el- 
Zebib and El-Arid. The town is built on 
the shore of a lake which communicates 
















Bizet 


Black 


with the sea by a canal; and in the time of 
Barbarossa it was a city of great strength 
and magnificence. The lake is the chief 
source of trade, as it abounds in many valu¬ 
able kinds of fish. Beside the fishery there 
are valuable coral, grape, olive, and pottery 
industries. The port is surrounded by walls 
and defended by two castles. Bizerta stead¬ 
ily declined in commercial and political 
importance till 1892, when the French Gov¬ 
ernment began converting it into a mag¬ 
nificent naval port. Three years were oc¬ 
cupied in this work, which included the 
opening and improvement of the lake, which 
is now large enough to accommodate at one 
time all the navies of the world, and also 
the construction of a canal through the 
Isthmus of Zarzana, connecting the lake 
with the Mediterranean. The French Gov¬ 
ernment undertook to make the modern 
Bizerta a port of such strength that it 
should dominate the Mediterranean Sea, 
and already it is spoken of as the second 
Toulon. 

Bizet (be-za'), Alexandre Cesar Leo¬ 
pold (better known as Georges Bizet), a 
French composer, born in Paris, Oct. 25, 
1838; studied with HalCvy and at the Paris 
Conservatory. His operas include “ Vasco 
do Gama” (1863); “The Pearl Fishers” 
(1863) ; “ The Fair Maid of Perth ” (1867) ; 
“ Djamileh ” (1872), and “Carmen” (1875), 
his most famous composition. He also com¬ 
pleted Halevy’s opera “ Noe.” He died near 
Paris, June 3, 1875. 

Bjarme, Brynjolf, a pseudonym of Hen¬ 
rik Ibsen (q. v.). 

Bjelbog (byel'bog), in Slavonic mythol¬ 
ogy the pale or white god, as opposed to 
Tchernibog, the black god, or god of darkness. 

Bjerregaard, Henrik Anker (byer'e- 
g&r), a Norwegian dramatic poet, born at 
Ringsaker, in 1792. His position in his 
country’s literature is very influential, the 
plays, “ Magnus Barefoot’s Sons ” and “ A 
Mountain Adventure,” being national mod¬ 
els. A volume of “Poems” (1829) also 
displays genius. He died in 1842. 

Bjornson, Bjornstjerne (byern'son), a 
Norwegian novelist, poet, and dramatist, 
born at Kvikne, Norway, Dec. 8, 1832. He 
published his first story, “ Synnove Solbak- 
ken,” in 1857, and that, with “Arne” 
(1858) and “A Lively Fellow” (1860), 
established his reputation as a novelist. 
“ Halte Hulda,” “Between Battles” (1858); 
and “Sigurd Slembe ” (1862), are among 
his plays. Of his novels and romances 
since 1866 the most notable are “ The Bridal 
March,” “ Magnhild,” “ The Fisher Maiden,” 
and “ Captain Mansana.” His principal 



dramatic works are “Mary Stuart” (1864); 
“ The Editors,” “ A Bankruptcy,” “ Leon- 
arda” (1879); 


A Glove 
(1889). He 
p u b 1 i s h e d 
“ Poems and 
Songs ” in 
1870; died 
in 1910. 

B j o r n= 
s t j e r n a, 

Magnus 
Frederick 
Ferdinand 
(b y e r n'- 
s t e r n - a), 

Count, a 
S w e d i s h 
statesman, 
born in 1779. bjornstjerne bjornson. 
Having en¬ 


tered the Swedish army and risen to be Col¬ 
onel, he went with the Swedish troops to Ger¬ 
many in 1813 and took part in the battles 
of Grossbeercn, Dennewitz, the passage of 
the Elbe, the storming of Dessau, and the 
battle of Leipsic. He also received the sur¬ 
render of Liibeck and of Maestricht. After 
the capitulation of Paris he fought in Hol¬ 
stein and in Norway, at length concluding 
with Prince Christian Frederick at Moss 
the convention uniting Norway and Sweden. 
In 1826 he was made a Count, and in 1828 
Plenipotentiary to Great Britain, where he 
remained till 1846. He published works on 
“ British Rule in the East Indies/’ on the 
“ Theogony, Philosophy, and Cosmogony of 
the Hindus,” etc. He died in 1847. 


Blacas (bla-ka'), Pierre Louis Jean 
Casimir, Due de, a French statesman, 
born in Aups, Var, Jan. 12, 1771; cabinet 
minister in the time of Louis XVIII., and 
a confidential adviser of the Bourbons; 
twice Minister to Naples; Ambassador to 
Rome to negotiate the concordat of 1817; 
went into exile upon the banishment of 
Charles X.; and offered the King his for¬ 
tune, which was not accepted. He was so 
faithful to the Bourbons as to be unpopular 
with the people. He was a large collector 
of antiquities and founded the Egyptian 
Museum at Paris. He died in Austria, Nov. 
17, 1839. 

Black, the negation of all color, the op¬ 
posite of white. There are several black 
pigments, such as ivory black, made from 
burned ivory or bones; lamp black, from 
the smoke of resinous substance; Spanish 
black, or cork black, from burned cork, etc. 

Black, Adam, a Scotch publisher, born 
in Edinburgh, Feb. 20, 1784. In 1808 he 
began business as a bookseller, and later 
with his nephew, Charles B. Black, estab¬ 
lished a publishing house in Edinburgh. 
Their most famous publications were “ En- 




Black 


Black Art 


cyclopaedia Britannica,” and tlie “ Waverly 
Novels.” Adam Black was twice Lord 
Provost of Edinburgh and in 1856-1865 rep¬ 
resented that city in Parliament. He de¬ 
clined the honor of knighthood, and a statue 
was erected in Edinburgh in recognition of 
his public services, in 1877. He died Jan. 
24, 1874. 

Black, Frank Swett, an American law¬ 
yer, born in Limington, Me., March 8, 1853; 
graduated at Dartmouth College in 1875; 
was editor of the “Journal ” in Johnstown, 
N. Y. He studied law at Troy in the office 
of Pobertson & Foster, and was admitted to 
the bar in 1879. He won much popularity 
by his activity in prosecuting the men who 
murdered Bobert Boss in the election riots 
in Troy in 1892. In 1895-1897, he was a 
member of Congress, and in 1897-1899 
Governor of New York. 

Black, Jeremiah Sullivan, an American 
lawyer, born in Glades, Pa., Jan. 10, 1810; 
studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 
1831. In 1857 he was appointed Attorney- 
General of the United States by President 
Buchanan, and in 1860-1861 was United 
States Secretary of State. On the accession 
of President Lincoln he retired from public 
life. He died in York, Pa., Aug. 19, 1883. 

Black, John, a Scotch editor, born near 
Duns, Berwickshire, in 1783. He was left 
an orphan when 12 years old, and educated 
himself. After filling posts in the offices of 
a Duns writer and an Edinburgh account¬ 
ant, he went to London in 1810. There he 
became a Parliamentary reporter for the 
“ Morning Chronicle,” of which he was made 
editor in 1817. Among the contributors to 
his paper were Charles Dickens and James 
Mill. In 1843 he retired from the editor¬ 
ship. He was author of a “ Life of Tasso, 
with an Historical and Critical Account of 
His Writings,” and also translated works 
from the German, French, and Italian. He 
died in Snodland, June 15, 1855. 

Black, John Charles, an American law¬ 
yer, soldier, and statesman, born in Lexing¬ 
ton, Miss., Jan. 27, 1839; graduated at 
Wabash College, Crawfordsville; entered the 
Union army in 1861 as Colonel of the 37th 
Illinois Volunteers; was severely wounded 
in the service; and was brevetted Brigadier- 
General. After the war he was elected Con¬ 
gressman-at-large from Illinois; was ap¬ 
pointed Commissioner of Pensions by Presi¬ 
dent Cleveland during the latter’s first 
term, and United States District Attorney 
for the Northern District of Illinois during 
his second term; and became a United States 
Civil Service Commissioner in 1903. He is 
noted as an orator. 

Black, Joseph, a French chemist, born 
in Bordeaux, of Scottish parents, in 1728; 
entered Glasgow University and studied 

chemistrv under Dr. Cullen. In 1754 he 


was made an M. D. at Edinburgh, his thesis 
being on the nature of the causticity of 
lime and the alkalies, which he demonstrated 
to be due to the absence of the carbonic acid 
present in limestone, etc. In 1756 he ex¬ 
tended and republished this thesis, and was 
appointed Professor of Medicine and Lec¬ 
turer on Chemistry at Glasgow in succession 
to Dr. Cullen, whom he succeeded also in the 
Edinburgh chair in 1766. The discovery o' 
carbonic acid is of interest not only as hav¬ 
ing preceded that of the other gases made by 
Priestley, Cavendish, and others, but as 
having preceded in its method the explana¬ 
tion given by Lavoisier of the part played 
by oxygen in combustion. His fame, how¬ 
ever, chieflv rests on his theory of latent 
heat, 1757 to 1763. He died in 1799. 

Black, William, a Scottish novelist, born 
in Glasgow in November, 1841. He re¬ 
ceived his education at private schools. In 
1874 he abandoned the career of journalism, 
which he had successfully pursued, visited 
the United States in 1876, and, returning to 
London, devoted himself anew to literature. 
In addition 
to an inter¬ 
esting story, 
his novels 
contain fine 
descr i pfions 
of scenery. 

They are 
very popular, 
and include 
“Love or Mar¬ 
riage” (1867); 

“ In Silk At¬ 
tire” (1869); 

“A Daughter 
of Heth” 

(1871); “The 
Strange Ad¬ 
ventures of a 
Phaeton” (1872); “A Princess of Thule” 
(1873); “Three Feathers” (1875); “Madcap 
Violet” (1876); “Macleod of Dare” (1878); 
“White Wings: a Yachting Bomance ” 
(1880) ; “ Yolande ” (1883) ; « Judith 

Shakespeare” (1884); “White Heather” 
(1885); “The Strange Adventures of a 
House-Boat” (1888); “The New Prince 
Fortunatus ” (1890); “ Wolfenberg ” (1892); 
“Highland Cousins” (1894); “ Briseis ” 
(1896); “Wild Eelin ” (1898); besides 

others. He has also written a “ Life of 
Goldsmith” (1879). He died in Brighton, 
England, Dec. 10, 1898. 

Black Art, exorcism, the alleged ability 
to expel evil spirits from haunted houses 
or from persons bewitched; necromancy, or 
anything similar. The reason why it was 
called black was that proficients in it were 
supposed to be in league with the powers 
of darkness. A more scientific explanation 



WILLIAM BLACK. 








Black Ash 


Blackburn 


would be that such an art is called black 
because it flourishes best amid physical and 
intellectual darkness. 

Black Ash, a mixture of 25 per cent, of 
caustic soda with calcium sulphide, quick¬ 
lime, and unburnt coal, obtained in the 
process of making sodium carbonate. The 
mixture cf sodium sulphate, chalk, and 
powdered coal is fused in a furnace, gases 
escape, and the residue is the black ash, 
which is lixiviated with warm water, and 
the solution, evaporated to dryness, yields 
soda ash, an impure sodium carbonate. 

Black Assize, in English history, an 
assize held at Oxford in 1557, when the 
High Sheriff and 300 other persons died of 
infectious disease caught from the prison¬ 
ers. It was called also the fatal assize. 

Black Band, a valuable kind of clay 
iron-stone occurring in beds in the coal 
measures, and containing 10 or 15 or even 
30 per cent, of coaly matter. Most of the 
Scotch iron is obtained from it. 

Black Beetle, a popular name for the 
cockroach. 

Black Belt, an agricultural region of Ala¬ 
bama; 70 miles wide, extending entirely 
across the State, between 33° and 31° 40'; 
so called from the fact that the negroes 
greatly predominate in numbers, raising 
vast quantities of cotton from the richest 
of lands. It includes 17 counties, with 
over 500,000 inhabitants. 

Blackberry ( rubus fruticosus), a plant 
common in the northern portions of the 
United States and in most parts of Europe, 
and also in Northern Central Asia, having 
prickly stems, which somewhat resemble 
those of the raspberry. The flowers do not 
appear till the summer is considerably ad¬ 
vanced, and the fruit ripens toward the end 
of it, continuing to be produced till the 
frosts of winter set in. Jelly and jam are 
made from the berries, and a very delicate 
wine. The blackberry is rarely cultivated, 
perhaps because it is in most districts so 
abundant in a wild state; but it seems to 
deserve attention at least as much as the 
raspberry, and might probably be as much 
improved by cultivation. One or two va¬ 
rieties, such as the Lawton, show the possi¬ 
bilities. A slight rail on each side of a row 
of brambles, to restrain the straggling 
stems, affords the necessary security for 
neatness and order, and the care bestowed 
is repaid by abundance of fruit. 

Black Bird, a well known British bird, 
the turdus merula. Other English names 
sometimes given to it are the ring ousel, the 
merle, the garden ousel, or simply the ousel. 
A book name is also the black thrush. The 
male is black, with the bill yellow; the 
female is deep brown above, lighter beneath, 
the throat and foreneck pale brown with 


darker streaks; the young, dusky brown 
above with dull yellowish streaks, while 
beneath they have dusky spots. Length, 
including tail, 10 inches; expansion of 
wings, 15 inches. There are several varie¬ 
ties, one of them white. The blackbird is a 
permanent resident in England. It feeds in 
winter on snails (breaking their shells by 
dashing them against a stone), and also on 
earthworms and berries. It pairs in Feb¬ 
ruary or March. Its nest is bulky, and is 
composed externally of stalks of grasses, 
twigs, ets. Internally there is a lining of 
mud, and inside of this again fibrous roots, 
stalks of grasses, and decayed leaves. It 
lays four, five, or six (generally five) eggs, 
larger than those of the thrush. They are 
pale bluish green with darker markings. 
The song of the blackbird is much admired. 
There is no bird in the United States pre¬ 
cisely similar to the European bird here 
described. There are two American species, 
however, that somewhat resemble it, the 
red winged blackbird (arpelaius phoeniceus) 
and the crow blackbird ( quisculus versi¬ 
color) . 

Black Boy, a name for the grass trees 
(xanthorrhcea) of Australia yielding a gum 
or resin called black boy resin or akaroid 
resin. 

Blackburn, a town and parliamentary 
borough of England, 21 miles N. N. W. from 
Manchester. It is pleasantly situated in a 
sheltered valley, and has rapidly improved 
since 1850. the town hall, exchange, and 
other buildings being of recent erection. It 
has a free grammar school, founded by 
Queen Elizabeth in 1557, a free school for 
girls, founded in 17G5, and many other pub¬ 
lic schools; and a free library, a public park 
of 50 acres, etc. Blackburn is one of the 
chief seats of the cotton manufacture, there 
being upward of 140 mills as well as works 
for making cotton machinerv and steam 
engines. The cottons made in the town and 
vicinity have an annual value of about 
£5,000,000. Pop. (1001) 127,527. 

Blackburn, Henry, an English journalist 

and art critic, born at Portsea, Feb. 15, 
1830. He was educated at King’s College, 
London. Besides contributions to news¬ 
papers and magazines, he has written “ Life 
in Algeria” (1804); “Art in the Moun¬ 
tains: the Story of the Passion Play in Ba¬ 
varia” (1870); “Breton Folk” (1870), 
etc. 

Blackburn, Joseph Clay Styles, an 

American lawyer, born in Woodford county, 
Ky., Oct. 1, 1838; was graduated at Center 
College, Danville, Ivv., in 1857. He was 
admitted to the bar in 1859, and practiced 
in Chicago. During the Civil War he 
served in the Confederate army, and after 
the war resumed practice in Kentucky. In 
1871 he was elected to the Kentucky Legis- 



Blackburn 


Black Draught 


lature, and in 1874 to Congress; and was a 
United States Senator in 1885-1897 and 
1901-1907. During the presidential cam¬ 
paign of 1896 he was a leader in the free 
coinage silver movement. 

Blackburn, Luke Pryor, an American 
physician, born in Fayette county, Ivy., June 
16, 1816; was graduated at Transylvania 
University, Lexington, Ky., in 1834, and 
began practicing in that city. When 
cholera broke out in the town of Versailles 
he went there and gave his services free 
during the epidemic. In 1846 he went to 
Natchez, Miss., and in 1848, when yellow 
fever appeared in Now Orleans, as health 
officer of Natchez, lie originated the first 
quarantine against New Orleans that had 
ever been known in the Mississippi valley. 
During the Civil War he was a surgeon on 
the staff of General Price. In 1875, when 
3 ’ellow fever broke out in Memphis, he has¬ 
tened to the city and organized a corps of 
physicians and nurses, and in 1878 gave 
his services to the yellow fever sufferers at 
Hickman. Ky. He was elected Governor of 
Kentucky in 1879. He founded the Black¬ 
burn Sanitarium for Nervous and Mental 
Diseases in 1884. He died in Frankfort, 
Ky., Sept. 14, 1887. 

Blackburn, William Maxwell, an 

American Presbyterian clergyman and edu¬ 
cator, born at Carlisle, Ind., Dec. 30, 1828. 
He became President of the University of 
North Dakota in 1884 and of Pierre Uni¬ 
versity, South Dakota, in 1885, and Presi¬ 
dent-Emeritus of the last (now Huron Col¬ 
lege) in 1898. Chief works: “St. Patrick 
and the Early Irish Church”; “Admiral 
Coligny and the Pise of the Huguenots”; 
“ History of the Christian Church,” etc.; 
and the “ Uncle A lick ” series of juvenile 
stories. He died in 1900. 

Black Cap (sylvia atricapilla ), a Euro¬ 
pean passerine bird of the warbler family, 
six inches long, upper part of the head 
black, upper parts of the body dark gray 
with a greenish tinge, under parts more or 
less silvery white. The female has its hood 
of a dull rust color. The black cap is met 
with in England from April to September. 
Its nest is built near the ground; the eggs, 
from five to six, are reddish-brown, mottled 
with a deeper color. It ranks next to the 
nightingale for sweetness of song. The Am¬ 
erican black cap is a species of tit-mouse 
(paras atricapillus ), so called from the col¬ 
oring of the head. 

Blackcock, a name for the male of the 
black grouse or black game, called also the 
heathcock (tetrao tetrix ). The female is 
called the gray hen, and the young are 
poults. The blackcock, as its name imports, 
is black, having, however, white on the wing 
coverts and under the tail, the two forks of 
which are directed outward. It is about as 


large as a domestic fowl. It is found in 
some abundance in Scotland and less plenti¬ 
fully in England. The eggs are from 6 
to 10 in number, of a yellowish gray color, 
Llotched with reddish brown. The close 
time is from Dec. 10th, to Aug. 20th, except 
in the New Forest, Somerset and Devon¬ 
shire, where it is from Dec. 10th to Sept. 
1st. 

Black Death, The, one of the most mem¬ 
orable of the epidemics of the Middle Ages, 
was a great pestilence in the 14th century; 
which devastated Asia, Europe and Africa. 
It was an Oriental plague, marked by in¬ 
flammatory boils and tumors of the glands, 
such as break out in no other febrile disease. 
On account of those boils, and from the black 
spots (indicative of putrid decomposition) 
which appeared upon the skin, it has been 
generally called the black death. The 
symptoms were many, though all were not 
found in every case. Tumors and abscesses 
were found on the arms and thighs of those 
affected, and smaller boils on all parts of 
the body; black spots broke out on all parts 
of the skin, either single, united, or con¬ 
fluent. Symptoms of cephalic affection were 
frequent; many patients became stupefied 
and fell into a deep sleep, losing also their 
speech from palsy of the tongue; others 
remained sleepless without rest. The fauces 
and tongue were black, and as if suffused 
with blood. No beverage would assuage the 
burning thirst. In England the plague first 
broke out in the county of Dorset, whence 
it advanced through the counties of Devon 
and Somerset to Bristol, and thence reached 
Gloucester, Oxford, and London. From 
England the contagion was carried by a ship 
to Norway, where the plague broke out in 
its most frightful form. 

The whole period of time during which 
the black death raged with destructive vio¬ 
lence in Europe was (with the exception of 
Russia, where it did not break out until 
1351) from 1347 to 1350; from this latter 
date to 1383 there were various pestilences, 
bad enough, indeed, but not as violent as the 
black death. Ireland was much less heavily 
visited than England, and the disease seems 
scarcely to have reached the mountainous 
regions of that land; and Scotland, too, 
would perhaps have romained free from it 
had not the Scotch availed themselves of the 
discomfiture of the English to make an ir¬ 
ruption into England, which terminated in 
the destruction of their army by the plague 
and the sword and the extension of the pes¬ 
tilence through those who escaped over the 
whole country. It may be assumed that 
Europe lost by the black death some 25,000,- 
000 of people, or about one-fourth of her 
entire population. See Bubonic Plague. 

Black Draught, sulphate of magnesia 
and infusion of senna, with aromatics to 
make it palatable. 



Black Earth 


Blackheath 


Black Earth ( tchernozem of Russian 
geologists), the name given to a deposit 
which covers vast areas in South Russia, 
extending over the steppes and low lying 
plateaus that border on the Black Sea, and 
the depressed area to the N. of the Caspian, 
with a breadth from N. to S. of from 200 
or 300 to nearly 700 miles. It closely re¬ 
sembles the loess of Central Europe in tex¬ 
ture and structure, for it is fine grained, and 
is usually devoid of stratification. It va¬ 
ries in color, however, from dark brown to 
black, and in thickness from a foot or two 
up to G or 7 yards, occasionally reaching, 
it is said, even to 60 feet. It is composed 
chiefly of siliceous sand (about 70 per 
cent.), alumina and other ingredients (23 
per cent.), and organic matter (about 7 
per cent.). But the composition is variable, 
the organic matter sometimes exceeding 10 
per cent. It appears to be unfossiliferous. 
It bears the same relation to the glacial ac¬ 
cumulations of Russia that the loess of the 
Rhine, the Danube, etc., does to those of 
Central Europe, and is probably the fine 
grained silt derived from the torrents and 
flooded rivers that escaped from the melting 
snows and glaciers of the glacial period. 
According to some geologists, however, it 
may owe its origin to the action of the wind. 
It is supposed by them to be simply an ac¬ 
cumulation of wind blown dust — the finely 
sifted material being fixed by the abundant 
grasses of those steppe regions. 

Blackfeet Indians, a tribe of American 
Indians, partly inhabiting the United 
States, partly Canada, from the Yellow¬ 
stone to Hudson Bay. 

Blackfish ( taiitoga americana), a fish 
caught on the coast of the United States, 
especially in the vicinity of Long Island, 
whence large supplies are obtained for 
the New York market. Its back and sides 
are of a bluish or crow black; the under 
parts, especially in the males, are white. It 
is plump in appearance, and much esteemed 
for the table, varying in size from 2 to 12 
pounds. Another fish, the ccntrolophus 
morio, found in the Mediterranean and on 
the coasts of Western Europe, is also called 
blackfish. It belongs to the mackerel fam¬ 
ily. In Scotland the term is applied to foul 
or newly-spawned fish. In the United 
States two species of small whale of the 
genus globioccphtilus also have this name. 

Black Flags, an organization of Chinese 
rebels who established themselves in the 
Red River valley in Tonquin, after the sup¬ 
pression of the Taiping Rebellion in South¬ 
ern China (1850-1854). From their war¬ 
like character and desperate deeds they were 
called Black Flags as distinguished from 
the peaceable Yellow Flags. They assisted 
the Tonquinese and Chinese in opposing the 
French wars (1873, 1882, and 1885), with 
signal results. Their principal object was 


plunder, They were responsible for the ap* 
palling massacre, in 1884, of French mis¬ 
sionaries and native Christians, to the num¬ 
ber of 10,000. 

Black Forest, a great forest, part of the 

hercynia silva of the Roman period. It is 
situated in Baden and Wiirtemberg, near 
the source of the Danube. 

Black Friars, friars of the Dominican 

order. See Dominican. 

Black Friday, the Friday, Sept. 24, 1869, 
when the attempt of Jay Could and James 
Fisk, Jr., to create a corner in the gold 
market by buying all the gold in the banks 
of New York city, amounting to $15,000,- 
000, culminated. For several da} T s the value 
of gold had risen steadily, and the specu¬ 
lators aimed to carry it from 144 to 200. 
Friday the whole city was in a ferment, the 
banks were rapidly selling, gold was at 
16214, and still rising. Men became insane, 
and everywhere the wildest excitement 
raged, for it seemed probable that the busi¬ 
ness houses must be closed, from ignorance 
of the prices to be charged for their goods. 
But in the midst of the panic it was re¬ 
ported that Secretary Boutwell of the 
United States Treasury had thrown $4,000,- 
000 on the market, and at once gold fell, 
the excitement ceased, leaving Gould and 
Fisk the winners of $11,000,000. The day 
noticed above is what is generally referred 
to as Black Friday in the United States, 
but the term was first used in England, be¬ 
ing applied in the first instance to the Fri¬ 
day on which the news reached London, 
Dec. 6, 1745, that the young Pretender, 
Charles Edward, had arrived at Derby, cre¬ 
ating a terrible panic; and finally to May 
11, 1866, when the failure of Overend, Gur¬ 
ney & Co., London, the day before, was fol¬ 
lowed by a widespread financial ruin. 

Blackguard, a term used in the 16th 

century for the lowest menials of a noble 
house, the scullions who cleaned pots and 
pans. It was also used of the hangers-on 
of an army, camp followers, then a rabble, 
vagabonds. 

Black Gum ( nyssa multiflora, order cor - 
nacecc) , an American tree, yielding a close 
grained, useful wood; fruit a drupe of blue 
black color, whence it seems to get its name 
of black: it has no gum about it. It is 
called also pepperidge, and has been intro¬ 
duced into Europe as an ornamental tree. 

Black Hawk, a famous chief of the Sac 
and Fox Indians, born in 1767. He joined 
the British in 1812, and opposing the re¬ 
moval W. of his tribp, fought against the 
United States in 1831-1832. He died in 
1838. There are “Lives” by Patterson and 
Snell ing. 

Blackheath, a village and heath, in Kent, 
England, about 6 miles S. E. of London 




Black Hills 


Black Letter Day 


Bridge. The heath contains about 70 acres 
within its present limits, and is much re¬ 
sorted to by pleasure parties. It has been 
the scene of many remarkable events, such 
as the insurrectionary gatherings of Wat 
Tyler and Jack Cade and the exploits of 
various highwaymen. 

Black Hills, a mountainous region in the 
S. W. of South Dakota, extending into the 
E. part of Wyoming; long. 103° to 105°. 
It was purchased from the Indians in 
1876, for whom it had been one of the 
finest hunting grounds in the West. In 
1877-1878 thousands of miners went there, 
and in 1880 there had already sprung into 
existence three towns, Deadwood, Central 
City, and Leadville. Around these lay also 
groups of smaller towns and villages. From 
1880 the gold mines yielded about $4,000,- 
000 annually, and the silver mines about 
$3,000,000 annually. The region is also 
rich in copper, lead, iron and mica. Thrifty 
farmers have settled there, and many of 
them have good farms and fine improve¬ 
ments. Good sclioolhouses have also been 
built in different settlements. See South 
Dakota. 

Black Hole of Calcutta, a small cham¬ 
ber, 20 feet square, in the old fort of Cal¬ 
cutta, in which, after their capture by Su- 
rajah Dowlah, the whole garrison of 146 
men were confined during the night of June 
21, 1756. Only 23 survived. The spot is 
now marked by a monument. 

Blackie, John Stuart, a Scottish author, 
born in Glasgow in July, 1809; received his 
education in Edinburgh, Gottingen, Berlin 
and Borne; was Professor of Greek in Edin¬ 
burgh University from 1852 till 1882, and 
continued to write and lecture till his death. 
He was one of the most important men of 
his day; promoted educational reform, and 
championed Scottish nationality. He ad¬ 
vocated preserving the Gaelic language, and 
by his own efforts founded a Celtic chair in 
Edinburgh University. His books include 
translations from the Greek and German; 
moral and religious and other philosophy; 
“ Lays of the Highlands and Islands ” 
(1872) ; “ Self-Culture ” (1874) ; “ Lan¬ 

guage and Literature of the Scottish High¬ 
lands ” (1875); “Altavona: Fact and Fic¬ 
tion from My Life in the Highlands ” 
(1882) ; Wisdom of Goethe” (1883) ; “Life 
of Burns” (1888); and “Essays on Sub¬ 
jects of Moral and Social Interest” (1890). 
He died in Edinburgh, March 2, 1895. 

Blacking, for boots and shoes, etc., usually 
contains for its principal ingredients oil, 
vinegar, ivory or bone black, sugar or mo¬ 
lasses, strong sulphuric acid, and sometimes 
caoutchouc and gum arabic. It is used 
either liquid or in the form of paste, the 
only difference being that in making the 
paste a portion of the vinegar is withheld. 


Black Knight, The, a name given by 
romantic writers to various heroic char¬ 
acters. In Scott’s “ Ivanhoe ” Richard 
Coeur de Lion masquerades as the Black 
Knight. The Knight Esplandian, son of 
Amadis of Gaul and Oriana, is also so 
called. In the Arthurian legend the Black 
Knight, Sir Peread, was one of the four 
brothers who kept the passage of Castle 
Dangerous. 

Black Lead, Graphite, or Plumbago, 

a mineral consisting chiefly of carbon, but 
containing also more or less of alumina, 
silica, lime, iron, etc., to the extent of 1 
to 47 per cent., apparently mixed rather 
than chemically combined. Black lead is 
the popular name, and that by which it i 3 
generally known in the arts, though no lead 
enters into the composition of the mineral; 
graphite is that generally preferred by min¬ 
eralogists. It sometimes occurs crystallized 
in flat hexagonal tables; but generally mas¬ 
sive, and more or less radiated, foliated, 
scaly, or compact. It is of a grayish black 
color, with a somewhat metallic luster, and 
a black and shining streak, and is perfectly 
opaque. It is greasy to the touch, and is 
a perfect conductor of electricity. It occurs 
in beds and masses, laminae or scales in the 
schistose rocks (gneiss, mica schist, clay 
slate, etc.), and is sometimes in such 
abundance as to give its name to the schist 
(graphite schist) in which it appears. It 
occurs also now and again in fissures in 
granite, or in scattered scales in various 
other igneous rocks, as in syenite in Nor¬ 
way, in porphyry in the Harz, etc. Thick, 
vein-like masses of black lead are met with 
in Siberia, Spain, Canada, New Brunswick, 
United States (mines at Ticonderoga, N. Y., 
supplying almost the whole output), Cey¬ 
lon, and elsewhere; the once extensive sup¬ 
plies of Borrowdale in Cumberland are now 
exhausted. It is far more incombustible 
than even anthracite (or blind coal), burn¬ 
ing with much difficulty even before the 
blowpipe, on which account it is much used 
for the manufacture of crucibles or melt¬ 
ing-pots, which withstand a great heat. 
These are not, however, made of mere black 
lead, but of black lead in powder, mixed 
with half its weight of clay. Black lead is 
employed for making pencils. It is also 
extensively employed to give a black gloss 
to iron grates, railings, etc., and to dimin¬ 
ish the friction of belts, machinery, and 
rifle cartridges. 

Blackleg, a swindler, especially in 
cards and races. So called from game¬ 
cocks, whose legs are always black. 

Black Letter, the Gothic or German 
type. So called because of its black ap¬ 
pearance. 

Black Letter Day, an unlucky day; one 
to be recalled with regret. The Romans 




Black List 


Black River 


marked their unlucky days with a piece of 
black charcoal, and their lucky ones with 
white chalk. 

Black List, a list of bankrupts or other 
parties whose names are officially known as 
failing to meet pecuniary engagements. The 
term is also applied to a list of employes 
who have been discharged by a firm or cor¬ 
poration and against whom some objection 
is made and reported to other firms or cor¬ 
porations to prevent them obtaining em¬ 
ployment. Blacklisting is made a punish¬ 
able offense by the laws of some States. 

Blackmail, a certain rate of money, 
corn, cattle or the like, anciently paid, in 
the N. of England and in Scotland, to 
certain men who were allied to robbers, to 
be protected by them from pillage. It was 
carried to such an extent as to become the 
subject of legislation. Blackmail was lev¬ 
ied in the districts bordering the Highlands 
of Scotland till the middle of the 18th cen¬ 
tury. In the United States, the word is 
applied to money extorted from persons un¬ 
der threat of exposure in print for an al¬ 
leged offense; hush-money. 

Black Maria, a popular name in the 
United States .applied to the covered wagon, 
generally painted black, used for the con¬ 
veyance of prisoners; properly, a prison 
van. 

Black Monday. (1) A name for Easter 
"Monday, in remembrance of the dreadful 
experiences of the army of Edward III., 
before Paris, on Easter Monday, April 14, 
1300. Many soldiers and horses perished 
from the extreme cold. (2) The 27th of 

Feb., 1 8 65, 
a memorable 
day in Mel¬ 
bourne, Aus¬ 
tralia, when 
a destructive 
sirocco pre¬ 
vailed in the 
surrounding 
country. 

Blackmore, 
Sir Richard, 
an English 
physician and 
poet, born in 
Wilt s h i r e, 
about 165 0. 
Besides medi- 
c a 1 works, 
Scripture paraphrases, and satirical verse, 
he wrote in Popian couplets “ Prince 
Arthur, a Heroic Poem” (1695), and a vol¬ 
uminous religious epic, “ The Creation ” 
(1712), very successful and much praised 
then, but not now read. He died in 1729. 

Blackmore, Richard Doddridge, an 

English novelist, born in Longworth, Berk¬ 


shire, June 9, 1825. He graduattd from 
Oxford in 1847, was called to the bar in 
1852, but devoted himself to literature. 
Among his novels are “ Lorna Doone ” 
(London, 1869, by far the most celebrated, 
having reached dozens of editions, some of 
them magnificent, extra illustrated ones) ; 
“Clara Vaughan” (1864); “The Maid of 
Sker ” (1872); “Alice Lorraine” (1875); 
“ Cripps, the Carrier” (1876); “ Erema ” 
(1877) : “Mary Anerley ” H880) ; “ Cris- 
towell ” (1882') ; “ Sir' Thomas Upmore ” 
(1884) ; “ Springhaven ” (1887) ; “Kit and 
Kitty” (1889); “ Perlycross ” (1894); 

“Slain by the Doones ” (1895); and “Da- 
riel” (1897). He also published a version 
of Vergil’s “ Georgies.” He died in London, 
Jan. 21, 1900. 

Black Mountains, the group which con¬ 
tains the highest summits of the Appala¬ 
chian system, Clingman’s Peak being 6,701 
feet, Guyot’s Peak, 6,661. 

Blackpool, a much frequented watering 
place of England, on the coast of Lanca¬ 
shire, between the estuaries of the Ribble 
and Wyre. It consists of lofty houses 
ranging along the shore for about 3 miles, 
with an excellent promenade and carriage 
drive; has libraries and news rooms, two 
handsome promenade piers, a large aqua¬ 
rium, fine winter gardens, etc. Pop. (1891) 
23,846. 

Black Prince, the son of Edward III. 

See Edward. 

Black Quarter, a kind of apoplectic di¬ 
sease which attacks cattle, indicated by 
lameness of the fore foot, one of the limbs 
swelling, and after death being suffused 
with black blood, which also is found 
throughout the body. 

Black Republic, a name applied to the 
Republic of Haiti, which is under the do¬ 
minion of the African race. 

Black Republicans, in the United 

States, a name applied to members of the 
Republican Party by the Pro-Slavery Party, 
because they resisted the introduction of 
slavery into anv State where it was not 
already recognized. 

Black River, the name of several rivers 
in the United States: (1) An affluent of 
the Arkansas river, in Arkansas, 400 miles 
long. It is navigable to Poplar Bluff, 311 
miles; (2) a river in Kew York, rising in 
the Adirondacks, and emptying into Lake 
Ontario near Watertown, length 200 miles; 

(3) a river in Wisconsin, flowing S. W., and 
emptying into the Mississippi river near 
Lacrosse; length 200 miles; (4) a river ris¬ 
ing in the S. E. of Missouri, flowing nearly 
S., and entering the White river, of which 
it is the chief tributary, at Jacksonport, 
Ark.; length, 350 miles, of which 100 miles 
are navigable. ' 



SIR RICHARD BLACKMORE. 



Black Rock Desert 


Blackstone 


Black Rock Desert, a tract of nearly 
1,000 square miles, N. of Pyramid Lake, in 
Nevada. In summer it is a barren level of 
alkali and in winter covered in places with 
shallow water. Called also “ Mud Lakes.” 

Black Rod, in England, the usher be¬ 
longing to the Order of the Garter, so 
called from the black rod which he carries. 
His full title is Gentleman Usher of the 
Black Rod, and his deputy is styled the 
Yeoman Usher. They are the official mes¬ 
sengers of the House of Lords; and either 
the Gentleman or the Yeoman Usher sum¬ 
mons the Commons to the House of Lords 
when the royal assent is given to bills; and 
also executes orders for the commitment of 
parties guilty of breach of privilege and 
contempt. 

Black Rood cf Scotland, a cross of gold 
in the form of a casket, alleged to contain 
a piece of the true Cross. It was brought 
to Scotland in the 11th century by Mar¬ 
garet, Queen of Malcolm III.; was be¬ 
queathed as an heirloom, and regarded as a 
sacred relic. It was delivered to Edward I. 
in 1291, but restored to Scotland after the 
Peace of Northampton in 1328. It was 
finally taken in battle bv the English in 
1346, and hung in the Cathedral of Dur¬ 
ham until the Reformation, when it dis¬ 
appeared. 

Black Saturday, the 4tli of Aug., 1621; 
so called in Scotland because a violent 
storm occurred at the very moment the 
Parliament was sitting to enforce episco¬ 
pacy on the people. 

Black Sea (ancient Pontus Euxinus), a 
sea situated between Europe and Asia, and 
mainly bounded by the Russian and Turk¬ 
ish dominions, being connected with the 
Mediterranean by the Bosporus, Sea of 
Marmora, and Dardenelles, and by the 
Strait of Ivertsch with the Sea of Azov, 
which is, in fact, only a bay of the Black 
Sea; area of the Black Sea and the Sea of 
Azov about 175,000 square miles, with a 
depth in the center of more than 150 
fathoms and few shoals along its shores. 
The water is not so clear as that of the 
Mediterranean, and is less salt on account 
of the many large rivers which fall into it 
— the Danube, Dniester, Dnieper, Don, etc. 
Though not tidal, there are strong currents. 
The tempests on it are very violent, as the 
land which confines its agitated waters 
gives to them a kind of whirling motion, 
and in the winter it is scarcely navigable. 
During January and February the shores 
from Odessa to the Crimea are ice bound. 
It contains few islands, and those of small 
extent. The most important ports are 
those of Odessa, Kherson, Eupatoria, Sebas¬ 
topol, Batum, Trebizond, Samsun, Sinope, 
and Varna. The fisheries are of some value. 
After the capture of Constantinople the 


Turks excluded all but their own ships 
from the Black Sea until 1774, when, by 
the Treaty of Kainarji, they ceded to Rus¬ 
sia the right also to trade in it. The same 
right was accorded to Austria in 1784, and 
by the Peace of Amiens to Great Britain and 
France in 1802. The preponderance there¬ 
after gained by Russia was one of the 
causes of the Crimean War, in which she 
was compelled to cede her right to keep 
armed vessels in it, the sea being declared 
neutral by the Treaty of Paris, 1856. In 
1871, however, when France could not at¬ 
tend, owing to the Franco-Prussian War, 
the sea was, deneutralized by a conference 
of the European Powers at London in re¬ 
sponse to the Russian protest. 

Black Sheep, (Kdrd-Koin-loo ), a tribe 
of Turkomans, so called from their stand¬ 
ard. This tribe was extirpated by the 
White Sheep. 

A black sheep: a disgrace to the family; 
a mauvais sujet; a workman who will not 
join in a strike. Black sheep are looked 
on with dislike by shepherds, and are not 
so valuable as white ones. 

Black Snake (coluber constrictor), a 
common snake in North America, reaching 
a length of 5 or 6 feet, and so agile and 
swift as to have been named the racer, with 
no poison fangs, and. therefore, compara¬ 
tively harmless. It feeds on small quadru¬ 
peds, birds, and the like, and is especially 
useful in killing rats. 

Blackstone, Sir William, an English 
jurist, born in London July 10, 1723; edu¬ 
cated at the Charter House and Pembroke 
College, Oxford. In 1743 he was elected 
fellow of All-Souls College, Oxford, and in 
1746 was 
called to the 
bar; but, hav¬ 
ing attended 
theWestmins- 
ter law courts 
for seven 
years without 
success, he re¬ 
tired to Ox¬ 
ford. Here 
he gave lec¬ 
tures on law, 
which sug¬ 
gested to Mr. 

Vincr the 
idea of found¬ 
ing a profes¬ 
sorship at 
Oxford for 
the study of the common law; and Black¬ 
stone was, in 1758, chosen the first Vinerian 
Professor. In 1759 he published a new edition 
of the “Great Charter and Charter of the 
Forest;” and, during the same year, resumed 
his attendance at Westminster Hall with 
abundant success. In 1761 he wa3 elected 



SIR WILLIAM BLACKSTONE. 



Black Tin 


Blackwood 


M. P. for Hindon, made King’s Counsel and 
Solicitor-General to the Queen. He was 
also appointed Principal of New Inn Hall; 
which office, with the Vinerian Professor¬ 
ship, he soon resigned. In 1765 he pub¬ 
lished the first volume of his famous 
“ Commentaries on the Laws of England,” 
the other three volumes being produced at 
intervals during the next four years. Its 
merits as an exposition made it for a long 
period the principal text-book of English 
law. He died Feb. 14, 1780. 

Black Tin, tin ore when dressed, 
stamped, and washed ready for smelting, 
forming a black powder. 

Black Vomit. See Yellow Fever. 

Black Walnut, a valuable timber tree 
(juglans nigra) of the United States and 
its fruit. The great size often reached by 
th is tree, the richness of the dark brown 
wood, the unique beauty of the grain some¬ 
times found in burls, knots, feathers and 
in the curl of the roots, all conspire to 
make this the most choice and high priced 
of all our native woods. 

About 1870 walnut was extensively used 
in the manufacture of fine furniture and 
finishings in the United States, but after¬ 
ward manufacturers drew attention to the 
beauty of darkly stained quartered oak and 
the use of the rarer wood greatly declined, 
to become popular again in 1000. During 
this interval the search for fine black walnut 
logs went on systematically, though quietly, 
the trade attracting little attention, though 
the volume of lumber handled was very 
large. Though found to some extent in the 
Atlantic States from Massachusetts south¬ 
ward, the great source of supply has been 
the central portions of the Mississippi val¬ 
ley. The walnut is at home in the rich 
alluvial bottom lands of the Western streams 
and in the stony limestone soils of the 
hills and mountains, and in such localities 
the buyers have left few trees unsurveyed. 
During the interval of unpopularity the 
great bulk of this timber was exported to 
Europe. 

Black Warrior, a river of Alabama, 
formed by the confluence of the Locust and 
Mulberry forks; flows into the Tombigbee 
near Demopolis; navigable in its lower 
course to Tuscaloosa; 300 miles long. 

Blackwell, Mrs. Antoinette Louisa 
(Brown), an American woman suffragist 
and Unitarian minister, born at Henrietta, 

N. Y., May 20, 1825. A graduate of Oberlin 
(1847), she “ preached on her own orders,” 
at first in Congregational churches, becom¬ 
ing at length a champion of women’s rights. 
She married Samuel C., a brother of Dr. 
Elizabeth Blackwell (1856). She has writ¬ 
ten “ Shadows of Our Social System ” 
(1855); “The Island Neighbors” (1871), 


a novel of American life; “Sexes Through¬ 
out Nature” (1875), etc. 

Blackwell, Elizabeth, an American 
physician and medical and ethical writer, 
born at Bristol, England, 1821. She is the 
first woman who ever obtained the degree 
of M. D. in the United States (1849), be¬ 
ginning practice in New York ' (1851). 
With her sister, Emily, she opened the New 
York Infirmary for Women and Children 
(1854), organizing in connection with it 
the Women’s Medical College (1867). In 
1868 she became professor in a woman’s 
medical college that she had assisted in 
organizing in London. She was author of 
“Laws of Life” (1852); “Counsel to 
Parents on the Moral Education of Their 
Children ” ( 1879) ; “ Pioneer Work in Open¬ 
ing the Medical Profession to Women,” etc. 
She died June 1, 1910. 

Blackwell, Lucy Stone, an American 

woman suffragist, born in West Brookfield, 
Mass., Aug. 13, 1818; was graduated at 
Oberlin College in 1S47; became a lecturer 
on woman suffrage, and a contributor to 
the press. In 1855 she married Henry B. 
Blackwell, a merchant of Cincinnati. She 
died in Dorchester, Mass., Oct. 20, 1893. 

Blackwell’s Island, an island belonging 
to the city of New York, in the East river, 
containing about 120 acres. On it are the 
penitentiary, almshouse, lunatic asylum for 
females, workhouse, blind asylum, hospital 
for incurables, and a convalescent hospital. 
Nearly all of these buildings were erected 
from granite quarried on the island, and 
bv convict labor, the style of architecture 
being of a turreted and battlemented design 
of the feudal character. The island is bor¬ 
dered by a heavy granite sea wall, also 
built by the convicts, and a large amount 
of farming and gardening is carried on by 
inmates of the penitentiary. 

Blackwood, or Indian Rosewood, a 

leguminous tree of Hindustan (dalbergia 
latifolia), the timber of which is highly 
valued and much used in the manufacture 
of fine furniture. The Australian black- 
wood is the acacia melanoxylon. 

Blackwood, William, a Scotch pub¬ 
lisher, born at Edinburgh, Nov. 20, 1776. 
He started as a bookseller in 1804, and 
soon became also a publisher. The first 
number of “ Blackwood’s Magazine ” ap¬ 
peared April 1, 1817, and it has always been 

conducted in the Torv interest. He se- 

«/ 

cured as contributors most of the leading 
writers belonging to the Tory party, among 
them Sir Walter Scott, Lockhart, Hogg, 
Professor Wilson, De Quincey, Dr. Moir 
(Delta), Thomas Aird, Dr. Maginn, John 
Galt, and others. The work of editor he 
performed himself. After his death the 
business, which had developed into a large 
publishing concern, was carried on by his 



Bladder 


Blainville 


Rons, and the magazine still keeps its place 
among the leading periodicals. More re¬ 
cent contributors to it were Bulwer-Lytton, 
Professor Aytoun, Landor, Charles Lever, 
Sir Archibald Alison, Sir Theodore Martin, 
Mrs. Oliphant, W. W. Story, Frederick 
Locker, Lord Neaves, George Henry Lewes, 
and George Eliot. He died Sept. 16, 1834. 

Bladder, a membranous bag in man and 
the higher animals, designed for the re¬ 
ception of the urine, as it is secreted by the 
kidneys. This, being the most important 
structure of the kind in the frame, is called, 
by way of prominence, the bladder; any 
other one is distinguished from it by a word 
prefixed, as the gall bladder. The bladder 
of an ox, a sheep, etc., when dried may be 
inflated with air, and used as a float for 
nets, or for other purposes. Sometimes its 
buoyancy is taken advantage of to keep 
those learning to swim from sinking while 
as yet they are unable to support them¬ 
selves unaided in the water. 

Bladder Nut, the English name of sta- 
phylca, the typical genus of the order of 
plants called staphylcaccce (bladder nuts). 
The name is derived from the inflated cap¬ 
sules. They have five stamens and two 
Btyl es. The common bladder .nut ( staphylc.a 
pinnata) is indigenous in Eastern Europe. 
The three leaved bladder nut, staphylea 
trifolia, is found in this country. Bladder 
nuts is Lindley’s English name for an order 
of plants, the staphylea cece. 

Bladder Wort, the English name of 
utricularia, a genus of scrophulariaceous 
plants. Both the English and the scientific 
appellations refer to the fact that the 
leaves bear at their margins small blad¬ 
ders. 

Blaeu, Blaeuw, or Blauw (blou), a 
Dutch family celebrated as publishers of 
maps and books. William (1571-1638) 
established the business at Amsterdam, 
constructed celestial and terrestrial globes, 
and published “New Atlas” (6 vols.), and 
“ View of Cities and Monuments.” His son, 
John (died 1673), published the “Great 
Atlas” (11 vols.), and various topographi¬ 
cal plates and views of towns. The works 
of this family are still highly valued. 

Blaikie, William, an American athlete 
and writer on physical training, born at 
York, N. Y., in 1843. He became a lawyer 
in New York, and wrote “How to Get Strong” 
(2d ed. 1880) ; “ Sound Bodies for Our Boys 
and Girls” (1883). He died Dec. 6, 1004.' 

Blaikie, William Garden, a Scotch 
clergyman, born in Aberdeen, in 1837; was 
graduated at the University of Aberdeen; 
ordained a minister of the Established 
Church in 1842; joined the Free Church in 
1843; and was appointed Professor of 
Apologetics and Pastoral Theology in New 
College, Edinburgh, in 1868. He was a 


delegate to the Presbyterian General As¬ 
sembly of the United States in 1870; took 
a leading part in the formation of the Al¬ 
liance of the Reformed Churches; and was 
editor of the “ Free Church Magazine ” in 
1840-1853. the “North British Review” 
in 1860-1863, the “Sunday Magazine” in 
1871-1874, and the “Catholic Presbyterian” 
in 1870-18S3. His writings include “ Bible 
History in Connection with General His¬ 
tory” (1850); “Bible Geography” (1860); 
“ Glimpses of the Inner Life of David Liv¬ 
ingstone” (1880); “Public Ministry and 
Pastoral Methods of Our Lord” (1883); 
“Leaders in Modern Philanthropy” (1884); 
etc. He died in North Berwick, Scotland, 
June 11, 1809. 

Blaine, James Gillespie, an American 
statesman, born in West Brownsville, Pa., 
Jan. 31, 1830. He graduated at Washing¬ 
ton College, Pa., in 1847. In 1854 he re¬ 
moved to Augusta, Me., and engaged in 
journalism. He was one of the founders of 
the Republican Party, and in 1856 was a 
delegate to the first Republican National 
Convention, which nominated Fremont for 
the Presi¬ 
dency. In 
1858 he 
was elected 
to the Leg¬ 
islature of 
Maine, and 
in 1862 to 
the House 
of Repre¬ 
sentatives . 
of the Na¬ 
tional Con¬ 
gress. He 
became 
Speaker of 
the House 
in 1 8 6 0, 
and held james gillespie blaine. 
that office 

for six years; was a member of the Senate 
from 1876 to 1881; was twice Secretary of 
State (1881-1882 and 1889-1892). He was 
defeated for the Presidency in 1884, by 
Grover Cleveland. Besides his numerous 
speeches and writings on the public ques¬ 
tions of his dav, his best known work is 
his “Twenty Years in Congress” (2 vols., 
1884-1886), a historical production of great 
and permanent value. He died in Wash¬ 
ington, D. C., Jan. 27, 1893. 

Blainville, Henri Marie Ducrotay de 

(blan-vel'), a French naturalist, born in 
1777. After attending a military school, 
and also studying art, his interest in 
Cuvier's lectures led him to the study of 
medicine and natural history. Cuvier chose 
him for his assistant in the College of 
Fi ance and the Museum of Natural History, 










Blair 


Blake 


and in 1812 secured for him the chair of 
Anatomy and Zoology in the Faculty of 
Sciences at Paris. In 1825 he was admitted 
to the Academy of Sciences; in 1829 he 
became professor in the Museum of Natural 
History, lecturing on the mollusca, zoo¬ 
phytes, and worms; and in 1832 he suc¬ 
ceeded Cuvier in the chair of Comparative 
Anatomy there. His chief works are “Ani¬ 
mal Organism, or Principles of Comparative 
Anatomy,” “ Manual of Mollusks and Shell 
Fish,” “Manual of Actinology ” and 
“ Osteology,” a work on the vertebrate 
skeleton. He died in 1850. 

Blair, Austin, an American lawyer, born 
in Caroline, N. Y., Feb. 8, 1818; graduated 
at Union College in 1839; studied law in 
Oswego, N. Y., and removed to Jackson, 
Mich., where he was admitted to the bar 
in 1842. He was elected to the Legislature 
in 1840; became conspicuous in the conven¬ 
tion which established the Republican party 
in Michigan; and was elected Governor of 
Michigan in 18G0, becoming one of the 
War Governors. In 1806-1870 he was a 
member of Congress. He died in Jackson, 
Mich., Aug. 0, 1894. 

Blair, Francis Preston, an American 
journalist and politician, born in Abingdon, 
Va., April 12, 1791; in early life was a 
Jacksonian Democrat. He edited the 
“Washington Globe” from 1830 to 1845. 
Through his anti-slavery sentiments became 
one of the founders of the Republican Party, 
but in later years returned to the Demo¬ 
cratic faith. He died at Silver Spring, Md., 
Oct. 18, 1S70. 

Blair, Francis Preston, Jr., an Ameri¬ 
can military officer and legislator, born in 
Lexington, Ky., Feb. 20, 1821; son of the 
preceding. He was a Representative in Con¬ 
gress from Missouri in 1857-1859 and 1801— 
1863; became a Major-General in the 
Union army in the Civil War, taking an 
active part in the Vicksburg campaign and 
Sherman’s march to the sea; was an un¬ 
successful Democratic candidate for Vice- 
President in 1808, and United States Sena¬ 
tor in 1870-1873. He died in St. Louis, 
July 5, 1875. 

Blair, Henry William, an American 
legislator, born in Campton, N. H., Dec. 6, 
1834; received an academic education; was 
admitted to the bar in 1859; served through 
the Civil War, becoming Lieutenant- 
Colonel of the 15tli New Hampshire Volun¬ 
teers, and being twice wounded. After serv¬ 
ing in both branches of the State Legisla¬ 
ture he was a member of Congress in 
1875-1879 and 1893-1895, and a United 
States Senator in 1879-1891. He is the 
author of what was known as the “ Blair 
Common School Bill,” designed to distrib¬ 
ute a certain amount of Federal money for 
educational purposes among the various 


States in proportion to the number of il¬ 
literates. He was a strong opponent of 
Chinese immigration, and, when he was 
appointed and confirmed United States 
Minister to China, that government ob¬ 
jected to receiving him. He has been an 
active worker in the cause of temperance 
and other reforms. 

Blair, Hugh, a Scotch clergyman and 
educational writer, born in Edinburgh, in 
1718; was noted for the eloquence of his 
sermons, and also for “ Lectures on Rheto¬ 
ric ” (1783), which attained great popu¬ 
larity, “ Blair’s Rhetoric ” being familiar to 
all students. He died in 1800. 

Blair, John Insley, an American phil¬ 
anthropist, born in Belvidere, N. J., Aug. 
22, 1802; was in early life a merchant and 
banker; subsequently becoming the indi¬ 
vidual owner of more miles of railroad 
property than any other man in the world. 
He acquired a very large fortune; loaned 
the Federal Government more than $1,000,- 
000 in the early part of the Civil War; 
built and endowed at a cost of more than 
$000,000, the Presbyterian Academy in 
Blairstown, N. J.; rebuilt Grinnell College, 
Iowa; erected Blair Hall and made other 
gifts to Princeton University; was equally 
liberal to Lafayette College; and had 
erected more than 100 churches in differ¬ 
ent parts of the West, besides laying out 
many towns and villages on the lines of his 
numerous railroads. He died in Blairstowz, 
N. J., Dec. 2, 1899. 

Blair, Montgomery, an American law¬ 
yer, born in Franklin county, Kv., May 10, 
1813; was graduated at the United States 
Military Academy in 1835; resigned from 
the army in 1830; admitted to the bar in 
1839; began practice in St. Louis. He 
was Judge of the Court of Common Pleas 
in 1843-1849; removed to Maryland in 
1852; was United States Solicitor in the 
Court of Claims in 1855-1858. He acted 
as counsel for the plaintiff in the widely 
known Died Scott case. In 1801-1804 he 
was Postmaster-General. In 1876-1877 he 
acted with the Democratic Party in op¬ 
posing Mr. Haves’ title to the office of 
President. He died in Silver Springs, Md., 
July 27, 18S3. 

Blair, Robert, a Scotch author, born in 
Edinburgh in 1699; was ordained in 1731 
minister of Athelstaneford, where he spent 
the remainder of his life. His “ Grave ” 
was first printed in 1743, and is now 
esteemed as one of the standard classics of 
English poetical literature. He died in 
1740. 

Blake, Edward, a Canadian and British 

statesman, born in Ontario, Canada, Oct. 13, 
1833. He was educated at Upper Canada Col¬ 
lege and Toronto University; was called to 
the bar in 1850, and engaged in practice in 




Blake 


Blake 


Toronto, where he soon rose to eminence as 
an equity lawyer. He entered public life in 
1807 as member both of the Ontario Legis¬ 
lative Assembly and the Dominion House of 
Commons, as dual representation was then 
permitted. He became premier of the first 
Liberal government of Ontario in 1871-72, 
but resigned to enter the federal arena at 
Ottawa. Upon the accession to power of 
the Liberals in Dominion politics in 1873, 
Blake became a supporter of the pre¬ 
mier, Hon. Alexander Mackenzie, and was 
minister of justice in 1875-77. Resigning 
in the latter vear on account of ill health, 
he was appointed to the less onerous office 
of president of the council in 1877-78. After 
the defeat of the Mackenzie administration 
in 1878, Blake was acknowledged to be 
the ablest man in the Liberal party, and 

was elec- 
ted lea dei- 
in 1880. In 
several gen- 
eral elec- 
t i o n s be¬ 
tween 1878 
and 1801 lie 
was unable 
to oust the 
C o n s e r- 
vative pre¬ 
mier, S i r 
J o h n A. 
Macdonald, 
w h o h a d 
the faithful 
a n d often 
u n s c r u - 
pulous sup¬ 
port of the 
manufacturers in his protectionist policy. 
Wearied with these attempts, Blake re¬ 
signed the Liberal leadership in 1891. He 
had already declined the highest judicial 
appointments, including those of chancellor 
of Ontario, chief justice of Ontario, and 
chief justice of the Supreme Court of Can¬ 
ada. A new field was opened to him in 
connection with the Irish agitation for 
home rule, with which he had long sympa¬ 
thized. He accepted the invitation of the 
Anti-Parnellite faction of Irish National¬ 
ists, and was elected as the member for 
South Longford in the House of Commons 
in London. His legal arguments and poli¬ 
tical speeches were of a very high intellec¬ 
tual quality, and although his tenure of 
office was brief, his character and career 
were none the less important in making for 
a high standard of public life in Canada. 

Blake, Eli Whitney, an American in¬ 
ventor, born in Westboro, Mass., Jan. 27, 
1795; graduated at Yale University in 
1810. He began business with his uncle, 
Eli Whitney, in the manufacture of fire¬ 
arms; and in 1834 founded, near New 


Haven, Conn., the pioneer factory for the 
manufacture of domestic hardware. In 
1857 he invented the widely known stone 
and ore crusher called the Blake crusher, 
which introduced a new era in road making 
and mining industries, and is used through¬ 
out the world. He died in New Haven, 
Conn., Aug. 17, 1880. 

Blake, Lillie (Devereux), an American 
advocate of woman’s rights, and novelist; 
born at Raleigh, N. C., April 12, 1835. Her 
first husband, Frank G. Quay Umsted, died 
in 1859; in 180(5 she married Grenfill Blake, 
who died in 1890. She wrote and spoke 
much on woman suffrage and associated 
subjects, and her novels bear on this theme. 
She has written “South wold” (1859); 
“Rockford” (1803); “Fettered for Life” 
(new ed. 1885); “Woman’s Place To-Day” 
(1883), a reply to Dr. Morgan Dix’s “Len¬ 
ten Lectures on Women,” which attracted 
attention; etc. In 1900 she established the 
National Legislative League. 

Blake, Mary Elizabeth (McGrath), 

an American poet and writer of travels, born 
in Ireland in 1840. In verse she wrote 
“Poems” (1884; 2nd ed. 1890); “Youth in 
Twelve Centuries” (1880), etc. Of her 
travels may be named “On the Wing” 
(1883); “A Summer Holiday in Europe” 
(1889). She died in Boston, Mass., Feb. 
20, 1907. 

Blake, Robert, a British naval officer, 
born at Bridgewater in 1599. He was elected 
member for Bridgewater in the Parliament 
of 1040. This being soon dissolved he lost 
his election for the next, and sought to ad¬ 
vance the Parliamentary cause in a military 
capacity in the war which then broke out. 
He soon distinguished himself, and in 1049 
was sent to command the fleet with Colonels 
Deane and Popham. He attempted to block 
up Prince Rupert in Kinsale, but the Prince, 
contriving to get his fleet out, escaped to 
Lisbon, whither Blake followed him. Being 
refused permission to attack him in the 
Tagus by the King of Portugal, he took 
several rich prizes from the Portuguese, and 
followed Rupert to Malaga, where, without 
asking permission of Spain, he attacked him 
and nearly destroyed the whole of his fleet. 
His greatest achievements were, however, 
in the Dutch War which broke out in 1052. 
On May 19 he was attacked in the Downs 
by Van Tromp with a fleet of 45 sail, the 
force of Blake amounting only to 23, but 
Van Tromp was obliged to retreat. On May 
29 he was again attacked by Van Tromp, 
whose fleet was now increased to 80 sail. 
Blake had a very inferior force, and after 
every possible exertion was obliged to re¬ 
treat into the Thames. In February follow¬ 
ing he put to sea with 00 sail, and soon after 
met the Dutch Admiral, who had 70 sail and 
300 merchantmen under convoy. During 






Blake 


Blanc 


three days a running fight up the Channel 
was maintained with obstinate valor on both 
sides, the result of which was the loss of 
11 men-of-war and 30 merchant ships by 
the Dutch, while that of the English was 
only one man-of-war. In this action Blake 
was severely wounded. On June 3 he again 
engaged Van Tromp and forced the Dutch 
to retire, with considerable loss, into their 
own harbors. In November, 1654, he was 
sent with a strong fleet to enforce a due 
respect to the British flag in the Mediter- 
J ranean. He sailed first to Algiers, which 
submitted, and then demolished the castles 
of Goletta and Porto Ferino, at Tunis, be¬ 
cause the Dey refused to deliver up the 
British captives. In April, 1657, he sailed 
with 24 ships to Santa Cruz, in Teneriffe; 
and, notwithstanding the strength of the 
place, burned the ships of a Spanish plate 
fleet which had taken shelter there, and, by 
a fortunate change of wind, came out with¬ 
out loss. He died Aug. 17, 1657, and was 
buried in Westminster Abbey, whence his 
body was removed at the Restoration and 
buried in St. Margaret’s churchyard. 
Consult: Gardiner, “History of the Com¬ 
monwealth and Protectorate” (1894-1901), 
and the biographies by Dixon (1852) and 
Johnson (1792). 

Blake, William, an English poet and 
artist, born in London, Nov. 28, 1757; 
learned to draw; became a noted illustrator 
and engraver; had a printshop in London; 
and exhibited at the Royal Academy. His 
imagination was strange, powerful, gro¬ 
tesque, and poetic; and his belief was that 
his poems and drawings were communica- 

tions from 
the spirit 
w o r 1 d. His 
“ Poetical 
Sketches” 
(L o n d o n, 
1783) ; “Songs 
of Innocence” 
(1789), and 
“Songs of Ex- 
p e lienee” 
(1794), con¬ 
tain pastoral 
and lyrical 
poems of 
great beauty. 
His “ Proph- 
WILLIAM BLAKE. etic Books,” 

including 

“Book of Tliel” (1789); “Marriage of 
Heaven and Hell” (1790) ; “Book of Uri- 
zen” (1794) ; “Book of Los” (1795) ; “Book 
of Ahania’’ (1795); “Jerusalem” (1804), 
and “Milton” (1804), are famous. His 
greatest artistic work is in “Inventions to 
the Book of Job” (1826). He died in Lon¬ 
don, Aug. 12, 1827. There is a complete edi¬ 
tion by Ellis and Yeats (1893). 


Blake, William Phipps, an American 
mineralogist, born in New York city, June 
1, 1826; was graduated at the Yale Scien¬ 
tific School in 1852. He became geologist 
and mineralogist to the United States Rail¬ 
road Expedition in 1853; was mining en¬ 
gineer in connection with explorations in 
Japan, China, and Alaska in 1861-1863; 
was appointed professor of geology and 
mineralogy in the College of California in 
1864; and in 1894 became director of the 
School of Mines in the University of Arizona 
and also territorial geologist. His works in¬ 
clude “Geological Reconnoissance in Cali¬ 
fornia,” “Silver Ores and Silver Mines,” 
“Iron and Steel,” “Ceramic Art and Glass,” 
“Life of Captain Jonathan Mix.” 

Blakeley, Johnston, an American naval 
officer, born near Seaford, Ireland, October, 
1781; entered the United States navy as a 
midshipman in 1800; commanded the “En¬ 
terprise ” in the early part of the War of 
1812; and was captain of the “Wasp” when 
she captured the English “ Reindeer ” in 
June, 1814. Soon after this he sailed with 
the “Wasp” on another cruise, but the vessel 
was lost at sea with all on board. 

Blakelock, Ralph Albert, an American 
painter, born in New York city, Oct. 15, 
1847; was graduated from the College of 
the City of New York in 1869; was self- 
educated in art. His paintings include 
“ Ta-vo-kok-i; or, the Circle Dance of the 
Kavavite Indians,” “Cloverdale, Cal.,” 
“ Moonlight,” “ The Indian Fisherman,” 
“ A Landscape,” “ On the Face of the Quiet 
Waters,” “Cumule.” 

Blakey, Robert, an English writer, born 
in Morpeth, May 18, 1795; bought the New¬ 
castle “Liberator” in 1838, and got himself 
into trouble with the Government on ac¬ 
count of certain alleged seditious articles 
which he published. In 1848 he became pro¬ 
fessor of logic and metaphysics at Queen’s 
College, Belfast. Among his works are 
“Treatise on the Divine and Human Wills,” 
“ History of Moral Science,” “ Historical 
Sketch of Logic,” “Temporal Benefits of 
Christianity,” and “The Angler’s Song 
Book.” He died in Belfast, Oct. 26, 1878. 

Blanc, Mont. See Mont Blanc. 

Blanc, Anthony (blank), an American 
clergyman, born in Sury, France, Oct. 11, 
1792; was ordained to the Roman Catholic 
priesthood in 1816; went to Annapolis, Md., 
in 1817; was appointed Bishop of New Or¬ 
leans in 1835; and became Archbishop there 
in 1850. He died in New Orleans, June 
20, 1860. 

Blanc, Jean Joseph Louis ( b 1 a n' ),a 

French socialist and historian; born in Ma¬ 
drid, where his father was inspector-gen¬ 
eral of finance under King Joseph, Oct. 
29, 1811. After finishing his school educa¬ 
tion he went to study in Paris. For 





Blanc 


Blanchard 


two years he was a private tutor at Arras, 
and in 1834 returned to Paris, where he 
contributed to various political papers, 
and where in 1839 he founded the “ Revue 
du Progr&s,” in which he first brought out 
his chief work on socialism, the “ Organiza¬ 
tion of Industry/’ which, in 1840, appeared 
in a separate form. The book denounces 
the principle of competitive industry, and 
proposes the establishment of social work¬ 
shops, composed of workmen of good char¬ 
acter, and subsidized by the State. These 
workshops, conducted on the cooperative 
principle, and on the basis of an equitable 
remuneration for all engaged in them, 
would, he thought, in the process of time 
absorb all the industry of France. Next, 
in 1841-1844, Blanc published an historical 
work, entitled “ History of Ten Years 
(1830-1840),” which produced a deadly ef¬ 
fect on the Orleans dynasty. This was fol¬ 
lowed by the first volume of a “History of 
the French Revolution,” in which the au¬ 
thor’s aim was to describe from his own 
point of view not only the incidents of the 
first revolution, but the social history of 
the 18th century. On the breaking out of 
the Revolution of February, 1848, Blanc 
had an opportunity of playing a most im¬ 
portant part. His great popularity with 
the working classes led to his being ap¬ 
pointed a member of the Provisional Gov¬ 
ernment, and he was placed at the head of 
the great commission for discussing the 
problem of labor, which had its sittings in 
the Palace of the Luxembourg. At the 
same time, Marie, Minister of Public 
Works, began to establish the so-called na¬ 
tional workshops, which, however, were in 
no sense an attempt to carry out the views 
of Blanc. Blanc was accused, without 
reason, of a share in the disturbances of 
the summer of 1848, and escaped to Lon¬ 
don, where he spent many years. During 
his exile, he devoted himself to political and 
historical literature. Ho finished his “His¬ 
tory of the French Revolution,” and car¬ 
ried on a large correspondence for the 
French journals, a selection from which 
was published in the bright and charming 
“ Letters on England.” On the fall of the 
empire, Blanc returned to France, and was 
elected to the National Assembly in 1871. 
After 187G he was member of the Chamber 
of Deputies. In both these bodies he voted 
and acted with the Extreme Left, but with¬ 
out exercising any great influence on the 
course of events. He died at Cannes, Dec. 
G, 1882. 

Blanc, Marie Therese (Therese Bent- 
zon ), a French novelist and litt6rateur, 
born at Seine-Port, Sept. 21, 1840. She 
has been for many years on the editorial 
stall of the “ Revue des Deux Mondes,” to 
which she has contributed notable transla¬ 
tions and reviews of many American, Eng¬ 


lish, and German authors. Her literary es¬ 
says on these contemporaneous writers 
were collected in “ Foreign Literature and 
Customs” (1882) and “Recent American 
Novelists” (1885). Her first work to 
attract attention was “A Divorce” (1871), 
published in the “ Journal des Debats.” 
Two other novels, “A Remorse” (1879), 
and “Tony” (1889), were crowned by the 
French Academy. Other stories are “ Georg¬ 
ette ” and “Jacqueline” (1893). The fruit 
of her first visit to the United States was 
“ Condition of Woman in the United 
States” (1895). 

Blanc, Paul Joseph, a French genre 
painter; studied under Bin and Cabanel. 
He won the Grand Prize of Rome in 1867 ; 
the first class medal of the Paris Salon in 
1872; the decoration of the Legion of 
Honor in 1878; and the first class medal 
in the Paris Exposition of 1889. One of 
his best known works is a decorative com¬ 
position depicting the consecration, bap¬ 
tism, and triumph of Clovis. 

Blanchard, Edward Laman, an English 
dramatist and novelist, born in London in 
1820. His novels, “Temple Bar” and “A 
Man Without a Destiny,” evinced no special 
talent for story telling; on the other hand, 
he composed for Drury Lane Theater about 
100 “Christmas Pantomimes” in the vein 
of grotesque burlesque, among them “ Sin- 
bad the Sailor,” which were received with 
unbounded popular favor. He died in 1889. 

Blanchard, Emile (blitnsh-ar'), a French 
naturalist, born in Paris, March 6, 1819; 
especially renowned as an entomologist. He 
was the" author of many scientific works, 
including “Researches into the Organization 
of Worms ” (1837); “ Natural History of Or¬ 
thopterous and Neuropterous Insects” (1837- 
1840); “ History of Insects, etc.” (1843- 
1845). 

Blanchard, Jonathan, an American edu¬ 
cator, born in Rockingham, Vt., Jan. 19, 
1811; graduated at Lane Theological Semi¬ 
nary in 1832; and was ordained a Presby¬ 
terian minister in 1838. He was American 
Vice-President of the World’s Anti-Slavery 
Convention in London in 1843; and in 
184G became President of Knox College at 
Galesburg, Ill. He was President of 
Wheaton College, Ill., in 1880—1882; and, 
on resigning, was chosen president-emeri¬ 
tus, and subsequently gave most of his time 
to editing the “ Christian Cynosure.” He 
died in Wheaton, Ill., May 14, 1892. 

Blanchard, Thomas, an American in¬ 
ventor, born in Sutton, Mass., June 24, 
1788. His inventions include a machine 
for turning and finishing gun barrels by one 
operation; a lathe for turning irregular 
forms; a device for cutting, pointing, and 
heading tacks by one operation; another 
for cutting and folding envelopes; a steam 



Blanche 


Blanco 


wagon, built before the day of the railroad; 
a process for bending heavy timber; and a 
steamboat to ascend rapids or rivers with 
heavy currents. He died in Boston, April 
16, 1864. 

Blanche, August Theodor (blansh), a 
Swedish dramatist and novelist, born in 
Stockholm, Sept. 17, 1811. His comedies 
and farces — more particularly “Jenny, or 
the Steamboat Trip,” “ The Doctor,” “ The 
Rich Uncle,” and “The Foundling”—have 
made all Sweden laugh; while his realistic 
fictions — among them “ The Specter,” 
“ Tales of a Cabman,” and “ Sons of North 
and South”—are eagerly read. He died in 
Stockholm, Nov. 30, 1868. 

Blanche of Bourbon, a French princess, 
daughter of Pierre, Due de Bourbon; born 
about 1338. She was abandoned by her 
husband, Pedro the Cruel, of Castile, by 
whom she was charged with infidelity and 
imprisoned. It was thought that she was 
poisoned. Her death produced a profound 
impression, and has often been celebrated in 
verse. She died in Medina Sidonia, Spain, 
in 1361. 

Blanche of Castile, Queen of Louis 

VIII. of France, was daughter of Alfonso 

IX. , King of Castile, and was born in 1187. 
She was married to Louis in 1200, was 
crowned with him in 1223, and, on his 
death three years later, became Regent 
during the minority of her son, Louis IX., 
displaying great energy and address as a 
ruler. She opposed the departure of Louis 
for the crusade, but accompanied him to 
Cluni, and carried on the government in his 
stead. ITis long absence, and the rumor of 
his intention to settle in the Holy Land, 
caused her great sorrow, and she died in 
1252. 

Blanching, or Etiolation, a process of 
culture resorted to by gardeners, to pre¬ 
vent certain secretions which, in ordinary 
circumstances, take place in the leaves of 
plants, and to render them more pleasant 
and wholesome for food. Artificial blanch¬ 
ing is managed (1) by earthing up the 
leaves and succulent stems of plants, such 
as celery, asparagus, etc. For this purpose 
celery is planted in trenches, and earth is 
gradually drawn in round the stems as they 
advance in growth. (2) By tying together 
the leaves with strings of matting, as is 
sometimes done with lettuce, endive, etc. 
(3) By overlaying, which can be done with 
tiles, slates, pieces of board, or utensils 
made for the purpose. The most common 
is the blanching pot, used to exclude the 
light from seakale, rhubarb, and some other 
culinary vegetables, in which the green 
color is to be avoided. The common blanching 
pot is of earthenware, in a sugar loaf form, 
which is used in France for blanching 
lettuce, and in the Pyrenees for blanching 


celery, etc. Though so simple and easy, 
blanching is of great importance in garden¬ 
ing. Without it such a plant as seakale is 
uneatable, if not poisonous; with it the 
common dandelion has became a whole¬ 
some and even medicinal article of salad. 

BIanc=Mange, in cookery, a name of 
different preparations of the consistency of 
a jelly, variously composed of dissolved 
isinglass, arrow root, maize flour, etc., with 
milk and flavoring substances. 

Blanc, Mont. See Mont Blanc. 

Blanco, Antonio Guzman, a Venezuelan 
military officer, born in Caracas, Feb. 29, 
1828. He became prominent in the Feder¬ 
alist revolts, 1859-1863, and when his party 
triumphed, was made first Vice-President 
in 1863 under Falcon, who was deposed in 
the Revolution of 1868. Blanco led a suc¬ 
cessful counter revolution in 1870, became 
President, and retained the office till 1882. 
In 1893 he was appointed Minister to 
France, where he resided till his death, July 
29, 1899. 

Blanco, Jose Felix, a Venezuelan his¬ 
torian, born in Mariana de Caracas, Sept. 
24, 1782. At different times he acted in 
the capacity of priest, soldier, and states¬ 
man. He was one of the leaders in the 
Revolution at Caracas, April 19, 1810, and 
was the first editor of the great historical 
work, “ Documentos para la historia de la 
vida publica del Libertador,” etc. He died 
in Caracas, Jan. 8, 1872. 

Blanco, Pedro, a Bolivian statesman, 
born in Cochabamba, Oct. 19, 1795. He 
joined the Spanish army in 1812, but soon 
deserted to the patriots, and served with 
them till the end of the Revolution. In 
1828 he became a general, and in the same 
year, when Sucre fell, was made President 
of Bolivia, but was superseded in the Revo¬ 
lution of Dec. 31, 1828. He was shot in 
Sucre, in January, 1829. 

Blanco, Ramon y Arenas, Marquis de 
Pena Plata, Captain-General of the Span¬ 
ish army in Cuba during the Spanish- 
American War; was born at San Sebastian, 
Spain, in 1833, and began his military 
career at the age of 22, entering the army 
in 1855 as a Lieutenant; was promoted to 
a captain in 1858, and won the rank of 
Lieutenant-Colonel in the war with San 
Domingo. When the Spaniards were driven 
from the island Blanco went to the Philip¬ 
pines as governor of Mindanao. When he 
returned to Spain he was assigned to the 
Army of the North, and in the war with 
the Carlists made a brilliant record. He 
successfully stormed Pena Plata, for which 
achievement he was created a Marquis of 
that name. He succeeded General Weyler 
in command of the army in Cuba. His 
career has been marked by deeds of blood 




Blanco 


Blanket 


and violence. When in command at the 
Philippines he ordered 1G9 prisoners to be 
thrown into a dungeon, where they were 
left for two days. When the guard opened 
the door, they were all dead from asphyxia¬ 
tion. In the second Cuban insurrection 
1,500 defenseless prisoners were slaughtered 
by his orders. At Cavite the Spanish cap¬ 
tured several native leaders, and, by 
Blanco’s instructions, after being tortured, 
the unhappy wretches were disemboweled 
and their bleeding bodies hung on the gates 
of the city. The Spanish Government per¬ 
mitted him to resign his post in Cuba be¬ 
fore the day set for the American occu¬ 
pation. He died April 4, 1900. 

Blanco Encalada, Manuel, a Spanish- 
American military officer, born in Buenos 
Ayres, Sept. 5, 1790; distinguished himself 
in the Chilian War of Independence. He 
was chosen President of Chile in July, 182G, 
but soon resigned, and was made General 
of the army. He unsuccessfully invaded 
Peru in 1837, and was not allowed to re¬ 
tire till he had signed a treaty of peace. 
Chile annulled this treaty, and he was 
court-martialed, but freed. In 1847 he 
was Intendant of Valparaiso, and in 1853— 
1858 Minister to France. He died in San¬ 
tiago, Chile, Sept. 5, 1875. 

Blanco. Cape, a remarkable headland 
on the W. coast of Africa, in 20° 47' 1ST. 
lat., and 1G° 58' W. long., the extremity 
of a rocky ridge which projects from the 
Sahara in a westerly direction, and then 
bending southward forms a commodious 
harbor called the Great Bay. Cape Blanco 
was first discovered by the Portuguese in 
1441. Cape Blanco ( i . c., White Cape) is 
also the name of several less important 
headlands in Spain, Greece, America, and 
the Philippines. 

Bland, Richard Parks, an American 
legislator, born near Hartford, Ky., Aug. 
19, 1835: received an academical education, 
and, between 1855 and 1865, practiced law 
in Missouri, California, and Nevada, and 
was engaged for some time in mining. In 
18G5 he settled in Bolla, Mo., and practiced 
there till 1865, when he removed to Leba¬ 
non in the same State. He was a member 
of Congress in 1873-1895 and from 1897 
till his death. In 1896 he was a conspicu¬ 
ous candidate for the Presidential nomina¬ 
tion in the Democratic National Convention, 
but on the fourth ballot his name was 
withdrawn, and the vote of his State was 
cast for William J. Bryan. Mr. Bland was 
best known as the leader in the Lower House 
of Congress of the Free-Silver movement, 
and the author of the Bland Silver Bill. 
At the time of his death he was a member 
of the Committees on Coinage, Weights and 
Measures, and Expenditures on Public 
Buildings. He died in Lebanon, Mo., June 
15, 1899. See Bland Silver Bill. 

61 


Bland, Theodoric, an American military 
officer, born in Prince George county, Va., in 
1742; studied medicine in the University of 
Edinburgh, and for a time practiced in Eng¬ 
land. He returned home in 1764, and was 
active in his profession until the outbreak 
of the Revolutionary War, when he sided 
with the colonists, and became Captain of 
the First Troop of Virginia cavalry. In 
1777 he joined the main army as a Lieu¬ 
tenant-Colonel, and later became a Colonel. 
He distinguished himself at the battle of 
Brandywine, and was placed in command 
of the prisoners taken at Saratoga, who 
were marched to Charlotteville, Va. In 
1780—1783 he was a member of the Conti¬ 
nental Congress, and was a Representative 
from Virginia to the 1st Federal Congress 
in 1789. He died in New York city, June 
1, 1790. 

Bland Silver Bill, one of the most nota¬ 
ble measures of American Congressional 
history. The original bill, as introduced 
by Representative Bland and passed by the 
House late in 1877, provided simply for the 
free and unlimited coinage of silver by all 
the mints of the United States. This pro¬ 
gramme represented the full policy of the 
Silver men. The silver dollar had been de¬ 
monetized by the act of 1873, and its coin¬ 
age had been wholly abandoned. The Bi¬ 
metallists desired to restore it to perfect 
equality with gold as a standard of value, 
and the original Bland bill, permitting 
owners of silver bullion to have their com¬ 
modity coined into dollars by the mints, 
was intended as the means to accomplish 
that object. But the Senate amended the 
measure materially. The free coinage 
clause was stricken out, and, as a conces¬ 
sion to the Silver men, it was directed that 
the Secretary of the Treasury should pur¬ 
chase monthly not less than $2,000,000 and 
not more than $4,000,000 worth of silver 
bullion, at the market price of the metal, 
and coin it into standard silver dollars,- 
which should be unlimited legal tender for 
all debts. The amended bill was reported 
by Senator Allison, Chairman of the Fi¬ 
nance Committee, and hence received the 
name of the Bland-Allison Act. It was 
vetoed by President Hayes, but passed over 
his veto, Feb. 28, 1878, by 196 to 73 in 
the House, and 46 to 19 in the Senate. 
The silver purchase clause in this act was 
repealed by the Sherman Act of 1890. 

Blanket, a coarse, heavy, loosely woven, 
woolen stuff, usually napped and sometimes 
twilled, used for covering one when in bed. 
Being a bad conductor of heat it prevents 
the warmth generated by the body from 
passing off, and thus, becoming lost. The 
word is also applied to anything fitted to 
intercept vision, the allusion being to the 
fact that a blanket was formerly used as a 
curtain in front of the stage; it was so 



Blank Verse 


Bias h field 


In Shakespeare's time. In printing,- a blan¬ 
ket is a piece of woolen felt or prepared 
rubber placed between the inner and outer 
tympana, to form an elastic interposit be¬ 
tween the face of the type and the rotating 
cylinder or descending platen. 

Blank Verse, verse which is void of 
rhyme; any kind of verse in which there is 
not rhvme, blanched or omitted. The verse 
of the Greeks and Romans -—- at least such 
of it as has come down to us -—■ is without 
rhyme. The Goths are said to have intro¬ 
duced rhyme from the East into the lan¬ 
guages of modern Europe, and in the Mid¬ 
dle Ages it came to be commonly employed 
in poetical composition, both in the Latin 
and vernacular tongues, by most of the 
nations of Europe. About the 15th century, 
when the passion for imitating classical 
models became general, attempts were made 
in Italy, France, and other countries, to 
reject rhyme as a barbarous innovation. 
The first attempt at blank verse in English 
appears to have been a translation of the 
first and fourth books of the “vEneid ” by the 
Earl of Surrey, who was executed in 1547. 
Its suitability for the drama was at once 
felt, and it was in general use.in dramatic 
composition before Shakespeare began to 
write, which is supposed to have been about 
1591. It was, however, almost entirely con¬ 
fined to the drama down to the appearance 
of “ Paradise Lost,” by Milton, in 1667. 
Since Milton’s time, blank verse has come 
into use in various kinds of poetry besides 
the dramatic; but it is principally in the 
heroic meter of 10 syllables that blank 
verse is used, and, indeed, by some the term 
is restricted to that kind of meter. As an 
example of blank verse: 

Of man’s 1 first dis ! obe f dienre, and I the fruit 

Of that I forbid | den tree I whose mor | tal taste 

Brought sin | into [ the world, | and all | our woe. 

Frequently, in dramatic blank verse, a 
supernumerary syllable occurs at the end 
of the line, as — 

To be, | or not | to be, | that is | the ques | tion. 

In blank verse, the poet is less encumbered 
than in any other species of versification; 
and, hence, it is particularly adapted for 
subjects calling forth sublime and noble 
emotions. 

Blanqui, Jerome Adolphe (blfihke), 
a French economist, was born at Nice, in 
1798, and began the study of philology at 
Paris, where he became acquainted with 
J. B. Say, who induced him to turn his 
attention to political economy. In 1833, on 
the death of Say, he was appointed Pro¬ 
fessor of Industrial Economy in the Con¬ 
servatoire des Arts et Metiers, and became 
one of the editors of the “ Dictionnaire de 
ITndustrie.” In 1838 he became a member 
of the Academy of Moral and Political 


Science. Subsequently he traveled in sev¬ 
eral countries to study their economic con¬ 
dition. As a political economist, Blanqui 
was a follower of Say, and in favor of free 
trade, and he recognized the social difficult¬ 
ies of his time. In method, he is ingenious; 
in style, transparent and lively. His most 
important work is the “ Histoire de l’Econo- 
mie Politique en Europe” (1838). He died 
in Paris, Jan. 28, 1854. 

Blanqui, Louis Auguste, a French revo¬ 
lutionist, born in Nice, in 1805; brother of 
the preceding, made himself conspicuous 
chiefly by his passionate advocacy of the 
most extreme political opinions, for which 
he suffered with the pride of a martyr. He 
was one of the foremost fighters in all the 
French revolutions of the 19th century. In 
1830 he was decorated for his valor at the 
barricades. In 1848 he figured as the chief 
organizer of the popular movement under 
the Provisional Government. He took the 
lead also in the revolutionary attentat of 
May 15, the aim of which was to over¬ 
throw the Constituent Assembly. At the 
head of an excited mob, he demanded of the 
French representatives the resuscitation of 
the Polish nationality, whileoneof hisfriends 
pronounced the dissolution of the Assembly. 
For his share in these disturbances he wa3 
rewarded with 10 years’ imprisonment in 
Belleisle. In 1861 Blanqui was sentenced to 
another four years’ imprisonment. After 
the downfall of the second empire in 1870, 
Blanqui resumed his revolutionary activity, 
and, in 1871, took a prominent part in 
forming the Commune. Being too unwell 
to endure transportation to New Caledonia, 
he was condemned to imprisonment for 
life, from which he was released in 1879. 
He died Jan. 1, 1881, having spent nearly 
half his life in prison. 

Blapsidae, a family of nocturnal black 
beetles, whose wings are generally obsolete 
and their elytra soldered together. They 
frequent gloomy, damp places, and when 
seized discharge, in self-defense, a liquid of 
a peculiar, penetrating odor. Blaps morti- 
saga, or churchyard beetle, is the most 
familiar British specimen. 

Blarney, a village in Ireland, 4 miles 
N. W. of the city of Cork, with Blarney 
Castle in its vicinity. A stone called the 
Blarney Stone, near the top of the castle, 
is said to confer on those who kiss it the 
peculiar kind of persuasive eloquence al¬ 
leged to be characteristic of the natives of 
Ireland. The groves of Blarney are exten¬ 
sive and interesting, and beneath the castle 
there are also some curious natural caves 

Blashfield, Edwin Howland, an Ameri¬ 
can artist, born in New York city, Dec. 
16, 1848; studied in Paris under Leon Bon- 
nat; and began exhibiting in the Paris 
Salon in 1874. He returned to the United 




Blasphemy 


Blast Furnace 


States in 1881, and has since distinguished 
himself by the execution of large decorative 
works. Among his noteworthy productions 
in this line are one of the domes of the 
Manufacturers’ Building in the World’s 
Columbian Exposition, the great Central 
Dome of the Library of Congress, and the 
new apartment of the Appellate Court in 
New York City; besides ceiling and panel 
work in the residences of C. P. Hunting¬ 
don, W. K. Vanderbilt, and George W. C. 
Drexel, and in the Astoria ballroom and 
several club-houses in New York City. 

Blasphemy, slander or even well-merited 
blame, applied to a person or in condemna¬ 
tion of a thing; also the utterance of in¬ 
jurious, highly insulting, caluminous, or 
slanderous language against a person in 
high authority, especially against a king, 
who may be looked on as, in certain re¬ 
spects, the vicegerent of God. In the 
United States blasphemy, while not erected 
into a special crime by legislative enact¬ 
ment is punishable in all of the older States 
of the Union, under the acts against pro¬ 
fanity and indecent language, disorderly 
conduct, etc. 

The word is particularly applied to any 
profane language toward God; highly ir¬ 
reverent, contemptuous, abusive, or re¬ 
proachful words, addressed to, or spoken or 
written regarding God; or an arrogating of 
His prerogatives. In theology, blasphemy 
against the Holv Ghost means the sin of 
attributing to Satanic agency the miracles 
which were obviously from God. 

Blast Furnace, a structure built of re¬ 
fractory material, in which metallic ores 
are smelted in contact with fuel and flux, 
the combustion of the fuel being accelerated 
by air under pressure. The materials are 
fed in at the top of the furnace, and after 
the ores are reduced, the metal, or in some 
cases, the matte, and the resulting slag are 
tapped in a molten state at or near the bot¬ 
tom; as a rule, the slags, being of less spe¬ 
cific gravity than the metal, float upon it. 

The sizes of blast furnaces vary from a 
few feet to over 100 feet in height, a hori¬ 
zontal section through the structure show¬ 
ing either circular or rectangular interiors, 
the circular form being adopted for the 
larger sizes, while those of smaller height 
are often made rectangular to permit of 
introducing a number of tuyeres with air 
nozzles into a narrow hearth. 

A typical vertical section of a blast fur¬ 
nace consists of a cylindrical or rectangu¬ 
lar hearth or crucible, into which the air is 
admitted, under pressure, through tuyeres. 
On this hearth is superposed an inverted 
frustum of a cone forming the boshes, and 
on this inverted cone a right frustum of 
a cone, forming the shaft, is superposed. 
The shafts are inclosed by shells of sheet 


steel or by crinolines formed of bands and 
beams, and carried on columns. The boshes 
are usually secured by bands and the cru¬ 
cibles by sheet metal jackets. The mate¬ 
rials are charged into the shaft so that 
layers of fuel alternate with layers of ore 
and flux, the taper of the shaft being suf¬ 
ficient to permit of expansion as the mate¬ 
rials are heated, and facilitate their de¬ 
livery to the hopper formed by the boshes, 
where reduction of the ores takes place. 
The reduced ore, meeting the burning fuel 
near the tuyeres, is melted, and the liquid 
slag and met 1 drop into the hearth or cru¬ 
cible (the cinder or slag floating on the 
liquid metal), from which they are tapped 
out from time to time. By heating the 
blast before it enters the tuyeres, combus¬ 
tion is accelerated, and the furnaces produce 
increased quantities of metal with reduced 
fuel consumption per unit of product. 

The large blast furnaces smelt ores of 
iron or manganese, or of iron and manga¬ 
nese, and are from 40 to 10G feet in height, 
a cross section at the top of the boshes 
showing a circle from 10 feet to 23 feet in 
diameter. The blast is heated to 1,000°, 
and sometimes to 1,200° or 1,400° F., and is 
forced into the crucibles or hearth through 
from 6 to 20 tuyeres, at pressures from 5 to 
15, and, at times, exceeding 20 pounds per 
square inch. The blast furnaces smelting 
silver or copper ores seldom exceed 30 feet 
in height, the horizontal section being rect¬ 
angular, and the blast pressure but a frac¬ 
tion of a pound. A modern blast furnace 
will produce from 300 to GOO tons of pig 
iron daily, requiring from 1,000 to 2,000 tons 
or ore, fuel and flux to be fed into it. The 
cost for construction and equipment of one 
of these modern furnaces, with its neces¬ 
sary railroad tracks, storage-room and bins 
for receiving the raw material, the mechan¬ 
ism for elevating it to the top of the stack, 
with sufficient blowing engines, boilers, hot 
blast stoves, etc., ranges from $400,000 to 
$800,000. 

As a rule, blast furnaces smelting other 
ores than those of iron have the top of the 
furnace stack open, while in those produc¬ 
ing iron, the top is usually sealed by a 
bell closing against a hopper, to distribute 
the stock in the wide throat of the furnace 
and to control the gases which are the re¬ 
sult of the smelting operation, so as to em¬ 
ploy the calorific value of these gases for 
heating the blast or for generating steam in 
boilers to operate machinery. The prac¬ 
ticability of using these gases in engines, 
where the gas, in exploding, gives impetus 
to a piston, has also been demonstrated. 
The blast is heated in hot blast stoves, gen¬ 
erally cylinders from 14 to 25 feet in di¬ 
ameter and from 50 to 115 feet high, filled 
with checker work of fire brick. These 
stoves are placed in series; the gas being 



Blast Furnace 


Blastoderm 


admitted to and burned in a stove raises 
the temperature of the masonry, after which 
the gas is shut off and the blast forced 
through the highly heated checkers. By 
alternating a series of stoves on gas or 
blast, at intervals of one or two hours, a 
nearly uniform temperature is maintained. 

The blast, after passing through the hot 
blast stoves, is conveyed in iron or steel con¬ 
duits, lined with fire brick, to tuyeres, set in 
the walls of the crucible. These tuyeres are 
formed of an inner and outer shell with 
closed ends, water circulating between the 
two shells. The tuyeres are mostly made of 
bronze or copper and are set in larger 
tuyere blocks (also water cooled) of iron 
or bronze. Nozzles connect the lined air 
conduits to the tuyeres. The cooling water 
required by a modern blast furnace amounts 
to millions of gallons daily. A large fur¬ 
nace requires a boiler equipment of from 
3,000 to 3,500 horse power for its blowing, 
pumping and elevating machinery, electric 
plant, etc. 

Blast furnaces are numerous in the United 
States, Great Britain, Germany, France, Bel¬ 
gium, Spain, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and 
Sweden; and they also exist in Italy, India, 
China, Japan, and Canada; it is worthy of 
note that in the latter two countries they 
are multiplying rapidly. Data as to the 
numbers of these is not at hand, but the 
following statement of the pig iron produc¬ 
tion of various countries, excluding the Uni¬ 
ted States, gives an approximate idea of 
the principal centers of the activity: 


Country 


Germany and Luxemburg, 

Great Britain. 

France. 

Russia. 

Austria-Hungary. 

Belgium. 

Sweden . 

Canada . 

Spain.1. 

Italy. 


Year 

Metric Tons 

1905 

10.987,623 

1905 

9,746,221 

1905 

3,077,000 

1905 

2,125,000 

1905 

1,372,300 

1905 

1,310,290 

1905 

531,200 

1905 

475.491 

1905 

383,100 

1905 

31,300 


It is impossible to give the total number 
of blast furnaces in the United States, for 
the reason that the numbers of those used for 
producing copper, silver, etc., are not colla¬ 
ted, but lists of the furnaces employed in re¬ 
ducing iron ores are carefully reported by 
the American Iron and Steel Association. 
There were on May 1, 1907, 345 furnaces 
active in the United States. The aggregate 
pig iron production of 340 of those blast 
furnaces which were active during 1900 
amounted to the grand total of 25,307,191 
long tons. The State of Pennsylvania, in 
1900, had 132 furnaces in blast, which pro¬ 
duced 11,247,869 tons. It was followed by 
Ohio, with 57 furnaces, contributing 5,327,- 
133 tons; Illinois, with 22 furnaces, produ¬ 
cing 2,156,866 tons; Alabama, with 31 
furnaces, producing 1,674,848 tons. Vir¬ 


ginia’s 14 active furnaces furnished 483,- 
525 tons; the 13 in Tennessee, 426,874 tons. 
See articles under Steel. 

John Birkinbine. 

Blasting, the operation of breaking up 
masses of stone or rock in situ by means of 
gunpowder or other explosive. In ordinary 
operations, holes are bored into the rock of 
from one to six inches in diameter, by 
means of a steel pointed drill, by striking 
it with hammers or allowing it to fall from 
a height. After the hole is bored to the 
requisite depth it is cleaned out, the ex¬ 
plosive is introduced, the hole is tamped 
or filled up with broken stone, clay or sand, 
and the charge exploded by means of a 
fuse or by electricity. In larger operations 
mines or shafts of considerable diameter 
take the place of the holes above described. 
Shafts are sunk from the top of the rock 
to various depths, sometimes upward of 60 
feet. This shaft joins a heading, or 
gallery, driven in from the face, if possible 
along a natural joint; and from this point 
other galleries are driven some distance in 
various directions, with headings at inter¬ 
vals, returning toward the face of the rock 
and terminating in chambers for the 
charges. Enormous charges are frequently 
made use of, upward of 20 tons of gun¬ 
powder having been fired in a single blast. 
One of the greatest blasting operations ever 
attempted was the removal of the reefs in 
the East river, near New York, known as 
Hell Gate. An entrance shaft was sunk on 
the Long Island shore, from which the reef 
projected. From this shaft nearly 20 tun¬ 
nels were bored in all directions, extend¬ 
ing from 200 to 240 feet, and connected 
by lateral galleries. Upward of 52,000 
pounds of dynamite, rend rock, and powder 
were used, and millions of tons of rock were 
dislodged. Numerous important improve¬ 
ments have been made in blasting by the 
substitution of rock boring machines for 
hand labor. Of such machines, in which the 
jumper or drill is repeatedly driven against 
the rock by compressed air or steam, being 
also made to rotate slightly at each blow, 
there are many varieties. 

Blastoderm, an embryological term ap¬ 
plied to the layer or layers of cells aris¬ 
ing from the germinal disk, or the portion 
of a partially segmenting egg which under¬ 
goes division. In ova where there is a 
large quantity of nutritive material or 
yolk, as in fish or bird, the whole ovum 
cannot divide, and only a small (germinal) 
disk of formative protoplasm does so. The 
cells resulting from the division of this area 
become afterward disposed in the ordinary 
germinal layers, and are in their earlier 
stages, as they grow round the yolk, and 
become in their area of origin the seat of 
embryonic development, called the blasto¬ 
derm. 





















Blavatsky 


Bleaching 


Blavatsky, Helene Petrovna, a noted 
theosophist; born in Yekaterinoslay, .Russia, 
in 1831; founded the Theosophical Society 
in New York in 1875, and wrote “ Isis Un¬ 
veiled” (1876); “The Secret Doctrine” 
(1888); “Key to Theosophy” (1889), etc. 
She died in London, May 8, 1891. 

Blazonry, the art of describing a coat of 
arms in such a way that an accurate draw¬ 
ing may be made from the verbal state¬ 
ments given. To do this a knowledge of the 
points of the shield is particularly neces¬ 
sary. Mention should be made of the tinc¬ 
ture or tinctures of the field; of the charges 
which are laid immediately upon it, with 
their forms and tinctures; which is the 
principal ordinary, or, if there is none, then 
which covers the fess point; the charges 
on each side of the principal one; the 
charges on the centi.il one, the bordure — 
with its charges; the canton and chief, 
with all charges on them; and, finally, the 
differences or marks of the cadency and 
the baronet’s badge. 

Bleaching, the art of whitening linen, 
wool, cotton, silk, wax, also the materials 
of which paper is made, and other things. 
It is shown by experience that organic bod¬ 
ies, after being deprived of life, and becom¬ 
ing solid and dry, lose their color and be¬ 
come white by the influence of the air and 
the sunlight. Upon this fact the manner of 
bleaching which was formerly in use is 
grounded — namely, boiling the goods al¬ 
ternately in alkali and soap, scouring, and 
then exposing them to the air and sunshine, 
termed crofting. Under this tedious system 
light fabrics required from six to eight 
weeks for their completion, while heavy 
goods often took the whole summer. The 
use of chlorine as a bleaching agent was 
first proposed by Bertliollet in 1785, and 
shortly afterward introduced into Great 
Britain, where it was first used simply dis¬ 
solved in water, afterward dissolved in al¬ 
kali, and then in the form of bleaching pow¬ 
der, commonly called chloride of lime, the 
manufacture of which was suggested by Mr. 
Tennant, of St. Rollox, Glasgow, in 1798. 
At first he passed the chlorine into milk 
of lime, and thus obtained the solution 
known as bleach liquor. In 1799 he took out 
a patent for absorbing chlorine by dry lime, 
and thus obtained bleaching powder. Bleach¬ 
ing powder has little bleaching action till 
the chlorine is liberated by the action of an 
acid. The best bleaching powder contains 
about 36 per cent, of available chlorine; that 
is, chlorine which is liberated by acid. 

In the bleaching of cotton cloth, the 
pieces, after being singed, by passing them 
over a red-hot plate or a semi-cylinder of 
iron or copper, are steeped in lukewarm 
water or old lyes, till they are completely 
soaked, which loosens any paste or filth got 
during weaving; they are then well washed 


through the dash wheel, and put through 
the hydro-extractor or drying machine. 
If the cotton is in the hank, this process of 
steeping and washing is not required. 

The mechanical operations of the bleach¬ 
ing house vary considerably, according to 
the quality of the goods and the facility 
for mechanical appliances. In the chemical 
operations of whitening the cloth there is 
little variation, further than that heavy 
fabrics require longer time and more fre¬ 
quent repetition of the processes. The first 
operation, after steeping and washing, is 
boiling. The boiling liquor is made by add¬ 
ing a quantity of water to slaked lime, and 
when the grosser particles of the lime have 
settled to the bottom of the vessel, the milky 
liquor is put into the boiler, or it may be 
filtered through a cloth. Some bleachers 
use along with the lime a little carbonate 
of soda; the quantity of lime varies from 
4 pounds to 8 pounds for every 100 pounds 
of cotton, and from 1 pound to 2 pounds of 
soda ash, where this is used. The boilers 
used for boiling the goods are called lexers, 
and many kinds are used, the boiling liquid 
being made to shower over the goods and 
percolate down through them. This is ef¬ 
fected by having a false bottom or frame fit¬ 
ted inside the boiler at about one-tliird of 
its depth from the bottom, upon which the 
goods are laid. The space between the false 
bottom and real bottom of the boiler is filled 
with the liquor or lye, connected with which 
is a pipe leading to the top of the boiler. 
When the heat is applied, either by steam 
or fire,’ and the liquor begins to boil, it is 
forced up through this pipe, which is made 
to shower its contents over the surface of 
the goods. This boiling is continued, ac¬ 
cording to the quality of the goods, from 
6 to 12 hours. The goods are now re¬ 
moved from the boiler and washed in water; 
they are then passed through dilute hydro¬ 
chloric acid, again washed, and boiled for 
12 hours with dilute caustic soda, after 
which they are passed into a solution of 
bleaching powder contained in a large stone 
or wooden trough or cistern, where they are 
left for from two to four hours. 

The bleaching solution is prepared by 
first dissolving a quantity of bleaching pow¬ 
der in water in a large cask and allowing 
the whole to settle; a quantity of the clear 
liquor is then drawn from the cask and put 
into the farge bleaching cisterns, which 
have been previously nearly filled with wa¬ 
ter. To ascertain the necessary quantity 
of this strong bleaching liquor to be added 
to the troughs or cisterns, a certain meas¬ 
ure of sulphate of indigo is taken in a 
graduated vessel, termed a test glass, and 
then, according to the number of graduated 
measures of the bleaching solution required 
to decolor the sulphate of indigo, the 
strength of the bleaching liquor is regulated. 




Bleaching 


Bledsoe 


These test glasses and sulphate of indigo 
are carefully prepared for the purpose. 

Instead of dash wheels, a more improved 
method of cleaning and washing is adopted 
by some bleachers previous to boiling the 
goods. They are all sewed together, end to 
end, making one line of the whole. This 
line of pieces is drawn along by machinery 
between rollers and squeezers, with a plenti¬ 
ful supply of water, and having been thus 
thoroughly washed and cleaned, is at last 
laid out by a mechanical contrivance into 
the bleaching trough. The goods are al¬ 
lowed to steep in the bleaching liquor from 
two to four hours; they are then lifted and 
washed, either by the dash wheel or rollers, 
as before, and are then laid in a sour, made 
by adding about one pint of hydrochloric or 
sulphuric acid to every four gallons of wa¬ 
ter. After steeping in the sour for four 
hours, the goods are again washed, as be¬ 
fore, and are subjected to another boiling 
for eight hours; but this time the lye is 
caustic soda or potash, generally the former, 
which is made caustic by boiling together 
a quantity of soda ash and slaked lime, and 
allowing the sediment to settle, and using 
only the clear solution. About 8 pounds of 
soda ash suffice for 100 pounds of goods. 
After the boiling, the goods are again wash¬ 
ed and steeped in the bleaching liquor for 
eight hours, and again washed and soured 
— the sour in this case being always made 
with sulphuric acid. Light fabrics require 
no further treatment; but heavy fabrics need 
a clearing process, which is a repetition of 
the last course, the liquors being generally, 
however, a little weaker, and the processes 
shorter. Cotton, in the hank, undergoes the 
same operations, except in the washings, 
which are performed by hand, not with the 
wheel. The goods being bleached and dried 
by the extractor, are now prepared for the 
operations of finishing. For this purpose 
they are stretched by women to their 
breadth, and the folds, as much as possible, 
taken out by beating them; then they are 
stitched together by the ends with a sailor’s 
needle, and being thus prepared for the 
mangle the cloth is now starched, common 
wheat flour and a portion of porcelain clay 
being employed. It is then subjected to 
tne action of the stiffening machine, and 
having been thus impregnated with* starch, 
the superfluous portion of which is pressed 
out as it passes through the rollers above, 
the goods are then hung upon rails in an 
apartment called the stove, heated by two 
furnaces, from which flues are led through 
the room. The heat thus generated is some¬ 
times so great that the workmen, in hanging 
up the cloth, are obliged to throw off most 
of their clothes. When the goods are dried 
thoroughly, they are taken from the stove 
and carried to the damping machine, where 
they are subjected to the action of a shower 
of water. When the cloth comes from 


the damping machine, it may be seen cov¬ 
ered with wet spots, the greater portion, 
however, being dry; but after remaining 
some time it becomes uniformly damp. 
The goods are now passed through 
the calender; they are then regularly fold¬ 
ed and put into a Bramah press, with a 
sheet of pasteboard between each, and, being 
sufficiently pressed, they are then finished 
for the market. 

The process has been greatly shortened 
by the introduction of the Matlier-Thompson 
process (1884). In this process an impor¬ 
tant feature is the use of the steamer kier, 
in which the goods are submitted to the ac¬ 
tion of low-pressure steam. The material is 
passed through soda lye, squeezed, and 
washed; then through boiling caustic soda, 
squeezed, and run into a steamer kier, where 
it is boiled for four hours under a pressure 
of four pounds, washed with hot water, and 
then passed continuously through a series 
of vats containing water, bleaching pow¬ 
der solution, carbonic acid gas, water, alka¬ 
line solution, water, bleaching powder, car¬ 
bonic acid gas, water, hydrochloric acid. 

The bleaching of linen is conducted after 
a similar manner to that of cotton; but 
there is much more coloring matter in the 
former than in the latter, and it is there¬ 
fore found necessary in the bleaching of lin¬ 
en to repeat the boiling in lye and the 
steeping in chloride of lime three or four 
times. An electrolytic method of bleach¬ 
ing (the Hermite process) has recently been 
introduced. The chlorine for bleaching is 
liberated by the action of an electric cur¬ 
rent on solutions of calcium or magnesium 
chloride. 

Wool and silk cannot be bleached with 
chlorine, so sulphur dioxide, usually prepar¬ 
ed by burning sulphur, is used instead. In 
the case of wool, the material is well washed 
with water and scoured with alkaline solu¬ 
tions to remove fatty matters. It is then 
exposed, while still wet, to the action of 
sulphur dioxide in a brick chamber for six 
or eight hours — or it may be soaked for 
several hours in a solution of sulphurous 
acid — after which it is well washed. Silk 
is treated with dilute acid, then worked in 
a soap bath for about 20 minutes to 
remove the gummy matter present, after 
which it is rinsed, tied up in bags of cotton, 
and boiled for from one to three hours in 
water, and rinsed in dilute alkali and final¬ 
ly in water. The bleaching is effected by 
stoving in sulphur dioxide, exactly as in 
the case of wool. In place of sulphur diox¬ 
ide, hydrogen peroxide is coming into use 
for both wool and silk bleaching. 

Bledsoe, Albert Taylor, an American 
clergyman and writer; born in Frankfort, 
Kv., Nov. 9, 1809. He was Assistant Sec¬ 
retary of War of the Southern Confederacy, 
and both an Episcopal and a Methodist 
minister. Besides editing the “ Southern 



Bleeding 


Bleeding 


Review ” and contributing frequently to 
leading literary, scientific, and theological 
periodicals, he wrote “ Examination of Ed¬ 
wards on the Will” (1845); “Theodicy” 
(new ed. 1853); “Philosophy of Mathe¬ 
matics” (1868), etc. He died in Alexan¬ 
dria, Va., Dec. 1, 1877. 

Bleeding, or Hemorrhage, one of the 
most serious accidents which can happen 
to an animal, and constitutes the most 
anxious complication in surgical operations. 
As there is but a limited quantity of blood 
in the body (corresponding to about one- 
tenth of its weight), and as the sudden 
escape of a large portion of it is sufficient 
to cause death, every one should be in¬ 
structed as to the measures which experi¬ 
ence has shown to be the most efficient for 
preventing a dangerous loss of blood. 
Bleeding may be either from a wounded ar¬ 
tery or vein, or from a raw surface, and it 
may be in the form of a general oozing 
from the surface of a sore or a mucous 
membrane. These varieties are here con¬ 
sidered separately. 

Arterial bleeding is recognized by the 
florid redness of the blood, and by its issu¬ 
ing from the cut vessel by jerks. There are 
exceptions to this, however. When an ar¬ 
tery has been tied, and bleeding occurs from 
below the ligature, the flow of blood is con¬ 
tinuous, and of a dark color. 

The principal means of relief are: Im¬ 
mediate pressure, which may be applied by 
pressing the finger tip on the place whence 
the blood is seen to flow. This may be kept 
up by pads of lint, or a coin of convenient 
size wrapped in cloth, and secured with a 
bandage to the part. Pressure on the ar¬ 
tery above, or as it comes to the cut part. 
This requires some knowledge of anatomy, 
but not more than any intelligent person 
may easily acquire. Thus, pressure on the 
inside of the upper arm, about midway 
between its front and back, will press the 
brachial artery against the bone, and ar¬ 
rest any bleeding from wounds of the fore¬ 
arm and hand. Pressure on the middle of 
the groin with a thumb placed crosswise 
will control the stream of blood in the 
femoral artery, so that none can escape 
from any wound of the lower limb below 
where the pressure is made. This pressure 
with the finger or thumb is very difficult to 
maintain with an adequate amount of firm¬ 
ness and continuity: hence it is well to 
substitute the handle of a door key wrapped 
in cloth, for the direct pressure of the 
finger tip, which rapidly becomes relaxed 
by fatigue. Pressure on the course of the 
vessel may be very efficiently effected by 
tying a handkerchief round the limb above 
where it is injured, and then inserting a 
stick, and twisting, it sufficiently tight. 
Pressure on the main vessel leading to a 
limb is only a temporary method of stop¬ 


ping bleeding, since it is not only very 
painful to the patient, but fraught with 
danger to the limb, which may mortify if 
it be too long continued. In 5 healthy man 
such pressure may be continued for five or 
six hours with impunity in case of urgent 
necessity, but a longer suppression of the 
circulation would almost certainly be fol¬ 
lowed by partial or complete death of the 
limb. Actual cautery, or hot iron, is oc¬ 
casionally useful in bleeding from a bone, 
or at some points where pressure cannot be 
efficiently applied. It is the oldest method 
of stopping bleeding, and until the 18th 
century was much in use; but its abuse, 
and the natural horror felt for it by both 
patient and surgeon, have almost banished 
it from the list of surgical haemostatics. If 
used, the iron should be at a dull red heat, 
pressed for an instant in firm contact with 
the bleeding vessel. It causes shriveling 
of the artery, and if the latter be small, it 
effectually stops the bleeding. Ligature, or 
tying the artery, is a very old method of 
arresting hemorrhage, and certainly the 
best. It was not used generally, however, 
in operations until improved anatomical 
knowledge and more efficient tourniquets 
allowed surgeons the time necessary for its 
application. Another method was intro¬ 
duced by the late Sir James Y. Simpson, of 
Edinburgh and was termed by him acu¬ 
pressure, or pressure from a long needle 
or pin inserted from without, so as to pi ess 
the artery between it and the tissues. The 
pins are removed after 24 or 48 hours. 

Venous bleeding is recognized by the 
dark color of the blood, and its continuous 
flow. Pressure is generally found sufficient 
to arrest it, and it should be applied di¬ 
rectly over the wounded part. In this case, 
pressure higher up the limb only does harm, 
by retarding the return flow of the circu¬ 
lation. Oozing from cut surfaces partakes 
more of the characters of venous than of 
arterial bleeding, as there is no vessel suf¬ 
ficiently large to demand the application 
of a ligature. The actual cautery or cold 
may be used, or one of the many styptics 
— e. g., perchloride of iron — may be espe¬ 
cially recommended; it may be applied on 
lint or a sponge; or local astringents, such 
as alum and tannin, may be employed; 
there are also the puff ball, mushroom, 
agaric, and matico leaves, cobwebs, felt, etc., 
which act mechanically, and owe their repu¬ 
tation chiefly to the pressure used in their 
application. The best remedy for this type 
of bleeding is the application of a steady 
stream of very hot water to the injured 
surface. 

In bleeding, of whatever kind, the posture 
of the patient is a matter of great im¬ 
portance. The recumbent position is associ¬ 
ated with a diminished force of the circu¬ 
lation, and should, therefore, be adopted in 



Bleibtreu 


Blenheim 


all serious cases. If the bleeding occur in 
one of the limbs, the raising of the injured 
part is in itself often sufficient to cut short 
the loss of blood, and this postural treat¬ 
ment should in all cases be employed in 
addition to the special local remedies 
above described. Bleeding from internal or¬ 
gans, as the stomach or the lungs, is a 
very serious symptom, and must be imme¬ 
diately and carefully treated whenever it 
occurs. In any such case, the patient 
should be placed in the recumbent position 
in a cool, airy room, the dress loosened to 
allow of cooling of the surfaces of the body, 
and the application of cold, further effected 
by placing wet cloths over the chest and 
renewing them as soon as they become 
warm from contact with the body. All 
these remedies have the effect of slowing 
and reducing the strength of the circula¬ 
tion, and the patient, therefore, loses blood 
less rapidly. A tablespoonful of turpen¬ 
tine mixed with a little milk should be 
administered bv the mouth at once, and 
another tablespoonful should be added to 
a jug full of boiling water, and the patient 
caused to inhale the vapor from it. This 
acts directly on the blood vessels, tending 
to close them at the bleeding point. Keep 
the patient very quiet, and summon medi¬ 
cal aid as speedily as possible. 

Bleibtreu, Karl August (blib'troi), a 
German poet and novelist, born at Berlin, 
Jan. 13, 1859. He is one of the foremost 
representatives of the youngest German 
school in literature, and a pronounced real¬ 
ist. All his views are radical, as shown 
by the very titles of his works, e. g., “ Revo¬ 
lution in Literature” (1885); “Litera¬ 
ture’s Struggle for Life.” He also wrote 
“ Dies Ira?,” “ Napoleon at Leipsic,” “ Crom¬ 
well at Marston Moor.” His dramas are 
“ Lord Byron ” (1888) ; “ The Day of Judg¬ 
ment,” “ The Queen’s Necklace,” etc. 

Blemyes, or Blemmyes, an ancient peo¬ 
ple of Ethiopia. According to Strabo and 
the early Latin writers they were nomadic, 
wandering about Nubia and Upper Egypt. 
It was the fable that they were without 
heads, having the eyes and mouth in the 
breast, perhaps from the circumstance that 
they depressed their heads between their 
shoulders and wore their hair long, making 
the neck seem very short. 

Blends, a native sulphide of zinc (ZnS). 
Composition: Sulphur, 32.12-33.82; zinc, 

44.67—07.46; sometimes with small amounts 
of iron and cadmium. It occurs in regu¬ 
lar tetrahedra, dodecahedra, and other 
monometric forms; it is found also fibrous, 
columnar, radiated, plumose, massive, foli¬ 
ated, granular, etc. Its color is either 
white, yellow, or brown black. Varieties 
of it exist in many places in this country; 
in Derbyshire, Cumberland, and Cornwall, 


England; as well as on the continent of 
Europe, etc. One variety is called by the 
miners blackjack. Blende is called also 
sphalerite. Dana divides it into (1) ordi¬ 
nary (containing blende or shalerite, little 
or no iron) ; (2) ferriferous (containing 

10 or more per cent, of iron) ; (3) cadmi- 
ferous (containing cadmium). 

In mining, the word is applied to the 
above mentioned blackjack, treated by 
roasting and destructive distillation in 
combination with charcoal in a vessel from 
which the air is excluded. By access of air 
the metal burns and passes off in vapor 
which condenses as the white oxide, which 
is collected and forms a pigment known as 
zinc white. 

Blenheim, a village situated in the circle 
of the Upper Danube, in Bavaria, on the 
Danube. Here was fought, Aug. 13, 1704, 
the famous battle of Blenheim (or, as it is 
more commonly called on the European Con¬ 
tinent, the battle of Hochstadt, from anoth¬ 
er village of this name in the vicinity), in 
which Marlborough and Prince Eugene, 
commanding the allied forces of England 
and the German empire, gained a brilliant 
victory over the French and Bavarians. I lie 
latter armies were drawn into the engage¬ 
ment under the most unfavorable circum¬ 
stances. Both these armies were posted, 
under the command of Tallard, Marsin, 
and the Elector of Bavaria himself, between 
the village of Blenheim and that of Kinzin- 
gen, behind the Nebelbach, a small stream 
emptying into the Danube, which was on 
their right flank. They amounted to 56,000 
men, while the forces of Marlborough and 
Eugene were about 52,000. The first had 
thrown their troops chiefly into the two 
villages, which they considered as points 
of support for their wings, though they 
were at too great a distance in front of 
their main position. A large proportion 
of cavalry was in the center, since each 
army, the Bavarian as well as the French, 
had their horse on their wings, and in this 
way those of two wings must necessarily 
join each other. Both the commanders would 
undoubtedly have perceived and corrected 
this mistake, as Tallard had in Blenheim 
alone 27 battalions of infantry; but they 
expected so little to be attacked, that when 
the line of the allies began to move, Aug. 
13, at two o’clock in the morning, they 
supposed them to be marching off. The 
greatest part of their cavalry was sent to 
forage. Even at seven o’clock, when the 
heads of the eight columns with which Eu¬ 
gene and Marlborough advanced toward the 
Nebelbach were to be seen, Tallard thought 
the whole a stratagem intended to cover the 
retreat; but he soon saw his error. The 
dispersed troops were recalled in the great¬ 
est hurry, and the cannon were drawn up 
in line. The French and Bavarians made 



Blenheim 


Blenheim 


every exertion to prevent the passage of 
the enemy over the Nebelbach, and the° cap¬ 
ture of the two villages, the conquest of 
which was considered by Marlborough and 
Eugene as decisive. Their line of attack 
was uncommonly long, about 4% miles. 
Marlborough, in order to secure his right 
wing, attacked Blenheim, but without suc¬ 
cess; he then changed his plan, and threw 
himself with his principal forces into the 
wide interval between the right wing and 
the center of the enemy, leaving only as 
many troops before Blenheim as were nec¬ 
essary to check the body which occupied 
this position. At five o’clock in the after¬ 
noon he succeeded, after great efforts, in 
passing the Nebelbaeh, by which his victory 
was decided. Tallard himself was among 
the prisoners; his son was killed. The con¬ 
sequences of the battle were decisive. Ba¬ 
varia, as Marlborough had anticipated, fell 
into the power of Austria. Fortune desert¬ 
ed Louis XIV., as it did Napoleon after 
the battle of Leipsic, and though he was 
able to continue the war for almost 10 years 
longer, it was owing to the dissensions 
among the allies themselves, who contended 
about the best use of the victory till the 
opportunity to use it was lost. 

Blenheim, the name of the demesne be¬ 
stowed by national gratitude on the Duke 
of Marlborough; is situated in the parish 
of Woodstock, and county of Oxford. The 
estate of Woodstock, which had for many 
centuries belonged to the crown, having 
been conferred by Queen Anne on that great 
commander for his eminent services, Par¬ 
liament granted the sum of £500,000 to erect 
a suitable family seat. The building was 
intrusted to Sir John Vanbrugh, and called 
Blenheim, from the village where the duke 
gained his great victory. The grand ser- 
geantry by which the manor is held, con¬ 
sists in the presentation at Windsor Castle 
on each anniversary of that event, by the 
Duke of Marlborough and his descendants, 
of a flag embroidered with fleurs-de-lis. In 
this park once stood the royal palace of 
Woodstock, where Alfred is said to have 
resided, and which was the favorite resi¬ 
dence of Henry II., who erected a house in 
the park for his favorite mistress, Rosa¬ 
mond Clifford, whence the well-known le¬ 
gend of Woodstock bower, Queen Eleanor, 
and the Fair Rosamond. Here the same 
monarch received the homage of Malcolm, 
King of Scotland, and Rhys, Prince of 
Wales. Edward III. was also much attach¬ 
ed to this palace, in which his eldest son, 
the illustrious Black Prince, was born, as 
well as his youngest son, Thomas, Duke of 
Gloucester, usually called Thomas of Wood- 
stock, from that event. Richard II. like¬ 
wise kept his court here, at which time the 
poet Chaucer resided at Woodstock, in a 
house which stood near the present entrance 
to the park. When alarmed by the conspir¬ 


acy of Sir Thomas Wyat, Queen Mary 
placed her sister the princess, afterward 
Queen Elizabeth., in the palace at Woodstock, 
under . the superintendence of Sir Henry 
Bedenfield. During the civil wars of the 
1 / th century it was for some time defended 
for the king; but it ultimately surrendered, 
and was much injured and dilapidated by 
the Parliamentarians. The gate-house re¬ 
mained, and was tenanted as late as the 
leign of V illiam III., and existed until the 
commencement of the 18th century, when 
the whole was removed. 

The usual approach to Blenheim from 
V oodstock is through a triumphal arch or 
portal, from which the advance to the man¬ 
sion is very fine. In front of the building 
stands a sculptured column 130 feet high, 
surmounted by a statue of the duke, whose 
victories and achievements are recorded on 
tablets round the base. The front of the 
house measures 348 feet from wing to wing, 
and although architectural critics find many 
faults in detail, the general effect is in the 
highest degree noble and commanding. The 
interior is also extremely magnificent; the 
hall, which is supported by Corinthian pil- 
lais, is G7 feet high; and the ceiling was 
painted by Sir James Thornhill, the design 
representing Victory crowning the duke, 
the gallery and bow-window room abound 
in portraits by the most eminent masters, 
both foreign and English. On the tapestry 
°f .the latter are figured the various battles 
gained by the same great general, and more 
especially- that of Blenheim. The salon 
is a noble and spacious apartment, which 
communicates with the hall, and occupies 
the entiie breadth of the center. The low¬ 
er part is lined with marble, and six of its 
compartments are decorated with pictures 
by La Guerre, representing the inhabitants 
of the different nations of the world in ap¬ 
propriate costume. On the ceiling is a rep¬ 
resentation by the same artist, of the vic¬ 
torious duke arrested in his career by Peace 
and Time. The remaining principal sub¬ 
jects of admiration are the library, the thea¬ 
ter, the state drawing-room, the blue and 
green drawing-room, the grand cabinet, the 
dining-room, etc. Many of the treasures 
of Blenheim have latterly been sold, includ¬ 
ing the splendid “ Ansidei Madonna ” of 
Raphael, acquired by the National Gallery 
for £70,000. In the chapel, which forms one 
of the wings, is a fine marble monument by 
Rysbrack, to the great duke and his almost 
equally celebrated duchess, Sarah. The 
gardens and grounds, which are exceeding¬ 
ly spacious, were laid out by Brown, who 
contrived to make a most admirable use of 
the small river Glyme in the formation of 
a lake, or piece of water, which is justly 
deemed one. of the greatest beauties of the 
place. It is crossed by arches. At the 
grand approach is a magnificent bridge, the 
span of the center arch of which is 101 feet. 






Blennerhasset 


Bligh 


Blennerhasset, Harman, an English¬ 
man of Irish descent, noted for his connec¬ 
tion with Aaron Burr’s conspiracy, born 
in Hampshire, Oct. 8, 1704 or 17G5; was 
educated at Trinity College, Dublin; stud¬ 
ied law; and came to the United States in 
1797. In the following year he built a 
beautiful residence on a little island in the 
Ohio river, below Parkersburg, where Aaron 
Burr, after his fortunes were broken 
and he did not feel safe in New York, was 
received as a guest. Burr proposed his 
scheme for taking Mexico, where, in case 
of success, Burr was to be Emperor and 
Blennerhasset a duke and ambassador to 
England. Large sums were expended to fit 
out the expedition, and when Burr was ar¬ 
rested, and Blennerhasset as a suspected 
person with him, creditors seized the 
island and home, and Blennerhasset found 
himself bankrupt. After this, all projects 
failed with him. In his last years he was 
supported by the charity of a relative. lie 
died on the inland of Guernsey, Feb. 1, 
1831. His wife was a daughter of Governor 
Agnew of the Isle of Man, and the author 
of many poems, including “ The Deserted 
Isle,” “ The Widow and the Rock,” etc. 
After her husband’s death she petitioned 
Congress for a reparation of her losses, 
but died before any action was taken. 
Their son, Joseph Lewis Blennerhasset, was 
a lawyer in Missouri. 

Blennius, a genus of spiny-finned fishes, 
the typical one of the family Blenniidce. 
The species are small, agile fishes of no 
economic value, often left behind in pools 
by the retreating tide. They have long dor¬ 
sal and large pectoral fins, while their 
heads are often furnished with tentacles. 

Blere (blii-ra'), a French town, in the 
Department of Indre-et-Loire, on the Cher, 
15 miles E. S. E. of Tours. In the vicinity 
is the Chateau Chenonceaux, built in the 
time of Francis I., and still in excellent 
preservation. It was given by Henry IT. 
to his mistress, Diana de Poitiers, who was 
dispossessed cn the death of Henry by 
Catherine de’ Medici. In the latter part of 
the 18th century, it was frequented by Fon- 
tenelle, Voltaire, Rousseau, and all the 
wits of the time. 

Blesbok, a hartbeest of a general pur¬ 
plish color ( Alcelaphus albifrons). See 
Hartbeest. 

Blessed Thistle, The English name of 
several thistles. (1) Cnicus benedictus, for¬ 
merly called C. centaurea benedicta. It was 
once believed to destroy intestinal worms, 
to cure fevers, the plague, and even the 
most stubborn ulcers and cancers, an opin¬ 
ion for which there seems to have been 
no foundation whatever. (2) Cardviift bcvc- 
dictus [“United States Pharmacopoeia ”], 


the blessed thistle of modern medicine, in 
which it has an honorable place as a tonic 
and diaphoretic. (3) Carthamus lanatus 
is also thus called in some localities. 

Blessington, Hargaret, Countess of, 

an Irish author, born near Clonmel, Sept. 1, 

1789. She was the daughter of Edmund 
Power, an improvident man of good fam¬ 
ily, and at tne age of 15 was married to a 
Captain Farmer, who died in 1817; and a 
few months after his death his widow mar¬ 
ried Charles John Gardiner, Earl of Bless- 
ington. In 1822 they went abroad, and 
continued to reside on the Continent till the 
Earl’s death in 1829, when Lady Blessing- 
ton took up her abode in Gore House, 
Kensington. Her residence became the 
fashionable resort for all the celebrities of 
the time; and that notwithstanding a 
doubtful connection which she formed with 
Count D'Orsay, with whom she lived till 
her death. She contributed to the “ New 
Monthly Magazine,” “ Conversations with 
Lord Byron; ” wrote numerous novels, in- 
cluding»“ The Belle of a Season,” “The Two 
Friends,” “Strathern,” and the “ Victims of 
Society; ” and acted as editor for several 
years of “Heath’s Book of Beauty,” the 
“ Keepsake,” and the “Gems of Beauty.” 
She died in Paris, June 4, 1849. 

Blewfields. See Bluefields. 

BJicher, Steen Steensen (blich'er), a 
.Danish poet and novelist, born in Viborg 
in 1782. His first work was a translation 
of “Ossian” (2 vols., 1807-1809), and his 
first original poems appeared in 1814, but 
attracted little notice. He quickly won a 
national reputation with his novels, and 
in 1842 appeared his masterpiece of novel 
writing, “ The Knitting Room,” a collection 
of short stories in the Jutland dialect. He 
died in 1848. 

B!igh, William (bli), the commander of 
the English ship “Bounty” when the crew 
mutinied in the South Seas and carried her 
off, was born at Plymouth in 1753. The 
“Bounty ” had been fitted out for the pur¬ 
pose of procuring plants of the bread fruit 
tree, and introducing these into the West 
Indies. Bligh left Tahiti in 1789, and was 
proceeding on his voyage for Jamaica when 
he was seized, and with 18 men supposed 
to be well affected to him, forced into the 
launch, sparingly provisioned, and cast 
adrift not far from the island of Tofoa 
(Tonga Islands), in lat. 19° S. and long. 
184° E. By admirable skill and persever¬ 
ance, though not without enduring fear¬ 
ful hardships, they managed to reach the 
island of Timor in 41 days, after run¬ 
ning nearly 4,000 miles. Bligh. with 12 
of his companions, arrived in England in 

1790, while the mutineers settled on Pit¬ 
cairn Island, where their descendants still 
exist. Bligh became Governor of New South 



Blighia 


Blind 


Wales in 1806, but his harsh and despotic 
conduct caused him to be deposed and sent 
back to England. He afterward rose to be 
Admiral, and died in London in 1817. 

Blighia (named after Captain Bligh), a 
genus of plants belonging to the order 
Sapindacece (soapwarts). B. sapida is the 
ash-leaved akee tree. Blighia is now con¬ 
sidered only a synonym of cupania. 

Blight, a diseased state of cultivated 
plants, especially cereals and grasses. The 
term has been very vaguely and variously 
used, having, in fact, been applied by agri¬ 
culturists to almost every disease of plants 
in turn, however caused, especially when 
the plant dies before reaching maturity. 

Blimbing, the Indian name of the fruit 
of Averrhoa bilimbi, a small tree, family 
OxaUdaccce, called also cucumber tree, the 
fruit being acid and resembling a small 
cucumber. The carambola is of this genus. 

Blind, Karl (blend), a German author 
and revolutionist, born at Mannheim, 
Sept. 4, 1826; studied law at Heidelberg. 
For his share in the risings in South Ger¬ 
many in 1848 he was sentenced to eight 
years’ imprisonment, but while being taken 
to Mainz was liberated by the populace. 
After the reaction had again triumphed 
over the Continent, Blind found an asylum 
first in Belgium, and afterward in England, 
where he took an active part in Demo¬ 
cratic propaganda. An enthusiastic advo¬ 
cate of German freedom and unity, he pro¬ 
moted the Schleswig-Holstein movement. As 
an author he wrote much on politics, his¬ 
tory and mvthology, including lives of 
Ledru-Rollin, Deak, Freiligratli; also vol¬ 
umes and magazine articles on such sub¬ 
jects as “ Fire Burial,” “ Yggdrasil,” 
“ Water Tales,” “ Shetlandic and Welsh 
Folklore,” “ The Siegfried Tale,” and “ The 
New Conflict in Germany.” He died in 1007. 

Blind, riathilde, a German-English poet, 
born in Mannheim, March 21, 1847; went 
to England in 1849, and won fame by her 
writings, “ The Prophecy of St. Oran, and 
Other Poems” (London, 1881); “Life of 
George Eliot” (1883) ; “Madame Poland” 
(1886); “The Heather on Fire,” a tale 
(1886); “Ascent of Man” (1889); 
“Dramas in Miniature” (1892); “Songs 
and Sonnets” (1893), and “Birds of Pas¬ 
sage ” (1895). She died in London, Nov. 26, 
1896. 

Blind, The. Strictly speaking, the blind 
are those destitute of sight. As more 
popularly accepted, the term includes as 
well those whose vision is so defective that 
it cannot perform its normal function. 
As understood among the educational in¬ 
stitutions for the blind established through¬ 
out the country, the term includes persons 


whose sight is so defective as not to permit 
of their education on equal terms with nor¬ 
mal children in the ordinary public schools. 
Blindness may occur both before and after 
birth, but post-natal blindness is much 
more prevalent than ante-natal. In fact, 
cases of ante-natal blindness are rare. 
Hereditary blindness is infrequent, but cases 
occur as the result of the intermarriage of 
near relations, and of the marriage of scrofu¬ 
lous or syphilitic parents. Cases of con¬ 
genital blindness are said to be less fre¬ 
quent than those of congenital deafness, al¬ 
though why this should be seems hard for 
the layman to understand. Generally, in 
cases of post-natal blindness, the defect is 
caused by medical neglect, disease or acci¬ 
dent. In recent years statutes have been 
enacted in a number of States for the bet¬ 
ter safeguarding of the eyes of newly born 
babes, and already it is getting to be a 
mooted question among the educators of the 
blind whether blindness is not actually de¬ 
creasing among the young. It is very 
generally believed that blindness is in some 
degree balanced by a greater acuteness in 
the other senses, but this conclusion is not 
supported by the observation of the writer 
or by the testimony of others competent to 
testify. Only after years of careful train¬ 
ing and patient practice is the sense of 
touch brought to the high degree of use¬ 
fulness noticeable among the blind. The 
appearance of greater acuteness in this 
sense is caused by the acquired ability to 
develop concepts from it. In the matter 
of hearing they have no material advan¬ 
tage, although there can be no doubt that 
they are more alert for sounds than their 
more fortunate brethren. Their senses of 
taste and smell are not infrequently blunted, 
and, in some instances, almost destroyed. 

The first public asylum for the blind was 
established in Paris by Louis IX., better 
known as “Saint Louis,” about the middle 
of the thirteenth century. This institution, 
called “L’Hospice des Quinze-Vingts,” was 
for the benefit of soldiers whose eyes had 
been impaired during the campaigns in 
Egypt. Later a number of sporadic at¬ 
tempts were made to ameliorate the con¬ 
dition of the blind, but the first of any edu¬ 
cational importance was that of Valentine 
Haiiy, a French philanthropist, who, in 1784, 
made the beginnings of an institution espe¬ 
cially directed toward their education. 
Gradually the possibility of educating the 
blind into comparatively normal beings began 
to be realized elsewhere, and institutions of 
a restricted educational character, but with 
an educational aim, were established in the 
other countries of Europe, prominent among 
which were thoso in Amsterdam, Berlin, 
Brussels, Copenhagen, Dresden, Edinburgh, 
Liverpool, London and Vienna. Such insti¬ 
tutions have become more and more educa- 



Blind 


Blind 


tional in character until now they may bet¬ 
ter be termed schools than asylums. In this 
country, New York, Boston and Pennsyl¬ 
vania established institutions for the blind 
in the early thirties. The beneficial effects 
of the work done by these schools was soon 
recognized, and other institutions were es¬ 
tablished from time to time, until now we 
have educational institutions for the blind 
in almost all the States of the Union. Some 
of these, as for instance, the New York In¬ 
stitution in New York City, and the Mary¬ 
land School for the Blind at Baltimore, are 
legally private corporations, and although 
they receive money from the State, they are 
free from State control in their manage¬ 
ment. Some are purely State institutions, 
managed by the political body as other pub¬ 
lic utilities are. Others are controlled par¬ 
tially by the State, the property being held 
by a corporation, upon the directorate of 
which the State has a certain representa¬ 
tion. The results that have been accom¬ 
plished by these schools are well exemplified 
by some statistics taken in the State of 
Massachusetts in 1902, and published in the 
twenty-first number of the “Labor Bulletin” 
of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Ac¬ 
cording to the figures given, there were at 
that time 3,983 blind persons in the State. 
Of these, 2,267 were males and 1,716 females. 
Of the males, 1,240, or 55 per cent., and of 
the females, 540, or 31 per cent., were en¬ 
tirely self-supporting; or, in other words, 
45 per cent, of the blind population of the 
State of Massachusetts, including the aged 
and infirm, were self-supporting, and of the 
remaining 55 per cent, only 18 per cent, were 
found to be dependent on charity. Such 
figures speak worlds for the American sys¬ 
tem of education, which looks to broad in¬ 
tellectual and moral culture, health and 
physical development, love of industry and 
independence, rather than to mere mechan¬ 
ical acquirements. An eminent authority 
has said: “The institutions of America are 
not asylums, but in the truest sense of the 
word educational establishments in which 
the blind, without regard to their future, 
receive a thorough education. The blind in 
the United States are socially far above 
those of any other country; large numbers 
of them become eminent scholars and musi¬ 
cians, and even their blind workmen enjoy 
a degree of comfort unknown in England 
or on the Continent.” 

The devices for imparting knowledge to 
the blind differ from those used with per¬ 
sons endowed with sight. Those used by 
the blind must necessarily be adapted to the 
sense of touch. To this end several systems 
of raised or embossed letters have been de¬ 
signed for them, the number of which makes 
it remarkable that the blind have not long 
ago found themselves in the condition of 
the workmen on the Tower of Babel. The 


systems of printing in most common use 
are the old Line Letter, the Moon System, 
the Braille, the modified or American Braille 
and the New York Point System. Of all 
these, the last two present the strongest 
claims for recognition, and are destined to 
outlive the others. They may be written as 
well as read by the blind. They both consist 
of an arrangement of dots raised from the 
surface of the paper by the pressure of a 
pointed instrument on the opposite side. 
In the Braille systems the dots are in three 
lines, while in the New York Point System 
thev are in two, and at the same time the 
combinations for the formation of letters 
and words are simpler. The latter system 
is purely an American product, having been 
invented and largely established through the 
efforts of Mr. William B. Wait, for many 
years the principal of the New York Insti¬ 
tution for the Blind. The principal pub¬ 
lishing house for the blind is in Louisville, 
Kentucky. It receives from the general 
Government an annual subsidy of ten thou¬ 
sand dollars. By it many publications have 
been issued, comprising books for academic 
use, books for general reading, even includ¬ 
ing many of light character, and books for 
students in music. By means of the stere¬ 
ograph, also invented by Mr. Wait, the 
various schools are enabled to prepare the 
metal plates for printing in embossed char¬ 
acters such books as they desire. Recently, 
“The Standard Intermediate School Diction¬ 
ary of the English Language” has been 
transposed into tlit> point system for the use 
of the blind. The magnitude of such a work 
will readily be understood when it is said 
that such a book, which in ordinary ink 
print comprises but one volume, in the most 
compact of the embossed or raised systems 
requires eighteen volumes. Notwithstand¬ 
ing the comparatively great cost of such 
books, they have been placed in circulation 
by a number of the libraries in the large 
towns, among which may be prominently 
mentioned the Congressional Library at 
Washington, and the Enoch Pratt Free Li¬ 
brary at Baltimore. Dr. Bernard C. Steiner, 
the librarian of the latter institution, re¬ 
cently reported that he had upon his shelves 
more than 227 books printed in embossed 
type. In Maryland the State Library Com¬ 
mission has arranged that the blind through¬ 
out the State, as well as those of Baltimore 
City, may have the use of these books. 

In conclusion, it may be interesting to 
give some of the statistics from the census 
of 1900, which Mr. King, the chief statis¬ 
tician, has been kind enough to furnish. 
There were found to be in the United States 
35,645 totally blind and 29,118 partially 
blind persons. Of these, 37,054 were males 
and 27,709 were females; 56,535 were whites 
and 7,646 were blacks; 18,232 were not more 
than thirty years old, while 46,531 were 



Blind Fish 


Bliss 


older than thirty years. The greatest num¬ 
ber of blind persons were between seventy 
and seventy-nine years old. More than 
40,000 of the entire number became blind 
after they were twenty years old. 

G. C. Morrison. 

Blind Fish, the name of several species of 
fish, family ainblyopsidcz, inhabiting the 
American cave streams. They are all small, 
the largest not exceeding five inches. In 
the typical species (amblyopsis spelceus) of 
the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, the eyes 
are reduced to a useless rudiment hidden 
under the skin, the body is translucent and 
colorless, and the head and body are cov¬ 
ered with numerous rows of sensitive 
papillae, which form very delicate organs of 
touch. 

Blind Worm ( so called from the small 
size of its eyes), the English name of a 
reptile, the anguis fragilis, formerly con¬ 
sidered a serpent, but now classed with the 
most aberrant of the lizards. It is more 
commonly called the slow worm. It is not 
venomous. It feeds on slugs. 

Bliss, Cornelius Newton, an American 
merchant, born in Fall River, Mass., Jan. 
26, 1833; was educated in New Orleans; 
entered his stepfather’s counting room 
there; engaged in the commission business 
in Boston, and became head of the dry 
goods commission house of Bliss, Fabyan & 
Co., New York city, in 1881. He was a 
member of the Pan-American Conference; 
Chairman of the New York Republican 
State Committee in 1877-1878; and Treas¬ 
urer of the National Republican Commit¬ 
tee in 1892 and 1896; declined to be a 
candidate for Governor of New York in 
1885 and 1891; and was Secretary of the 
Interior Department in President McKin¬ 
ley’s cabinet in 1897-1898. 

Bliss, Daniel, an American missionary, 
born in Georgia, Vt., Aug. 17, 1823; was 
graduated at Amherst College in 1852, and 
at the Andover Theological Seminary in 
1855; was ordained a Congregational min¬ 
ister, Oct. 17, 1855; engaged in missionary 
work in Syria in 1855—1802; and in 186*6 
'became President of the Syrian Protestant 
College of Beyrout. His publications in¬ 
clude “ Mental Philosophy ” and “ National 
.Philosophy,” both in Arabic. 

Bliss, Edwin Elisha, an American mis¬ 
sionary, born in Putney, Vt., April 12, 
1817; graduated at Amherst College in 
1837, and at Andover Theological Seminary 
in 1842; was ordained as a missionary in 
1843, and joined the American Mission in 
Turkey, being stationed at Trebizond, 1843- 
1852; Marsovan, Armenia, 1852-1856;. and 
at Constantinople after 1856. In addition 
to the ordinary work of a missionary he 
edited, 1865-1892, the “Messenger,” pub¬ 
lished at Constantinople in the Turkish and 


Armenian languages, and compiled a num¬ 
ber of text books, notably the “ Bible 
Handbook,” in Armenian. He died in 
Constantinople, Turkey, Dec. 29, 1892. 

Bliss, Frederick Jones, an American 
explorer, born in Mt. Lebanon, Syria, Jan. 
23, 1859; son of Daniel Bliss; was gradu¬ 
ated at Amherst College in 1880, and at the 
Union Theological Seminary in New York 
in 1887; was principal of the preparatory 
department of the Syrian Protestant Col¬ 
lege of Beyrout for three years; was ap¬ 
pointed Explorer to the Palestine Explora¬ 
tion Fund in 1890, and is best known for 
his excavations and finds in Jerusalem in 
1894-1897. Here he unearthed an ancient 
city wall with towers, beside streets, 
drains, stairways, churches and other struc¬ 
tures. He has published “Mounds of Many 
Cities,” “Excavations at Jerusalem,” etc. 

Bliss, George, an American lawyer, born 
in Springfield, Mass., May 3, 1830; was 
graduated at Harvard College in 1851; 
studied for two years in Berlin and Paris, 
and, after his return, read law principally 
at the Harvard Law School. He estab¬ 
lished himself for practice in New York 
city. In 1859-1860 he was private secre¬ 
tary to Governor Morgan; in 1861 was 
appointed to his staff; in 1862, became 
Paymaster-General of New York; and in 
that and the following year organized three 
regiments of United States colored in¬ 
fantry under instructions from the Secre¬ 
tary of War. In 1866 he was appointed 
attorney for the Metropolitan Boards of 
Excise and Health; in 1872, United States 
Attorney for the Southern District of New 
York, and in 1881, a special assistant to 
the United States Attorney-General for the 
prosecution of the Star Route postal cases. 
He drafted the New York charter of 1873; 
drew up the New York Consolidation Act, 
and was author of the first tenement house 
act for the city. He published three edi¬ 
tions of the “ Law of Life Insurance ” and 
four editions of the “ Annotated Code of 
Civil Procedure.” He died near Wakefield, 
R. I., Sept. 2, 1897. 

Bliss, Porter Cornelius, an American 

diplomatist, born in Erie county, N. Y., Dec. 
28, 1838; was educated at Hamilton and 
Yale Colleges; became private secretary to 
James Watson Webb, United States Min¬ 
ister to Brazil; explored the Gran Chaco 
for the Argentine Government; compiled 
the various Indian dialects and investi¬ 
gated the antiquities of that region; and, 
in 1866, became private secretary to 
Charles A. Washburn, United States Min¬ 
ister to Paraguay. He was ‘commissioned 
by President Lopez to write a history of 
Paraguay, and while doing so war broke 
out between that country and Brazil, and 
he was imprisoned and tortured on bus- 




Bliss 


Block 


picion of being a Brazilian spy. It required 
the presence of an American squadron to 
effect his release. In 1870-1874 he was 
Secretary of the United States Legation in 
Mexico, and during that time made several 
archaeological explorations, and wrote on 
the opportunities of American enterprise in 
that country. In 1874-1878 he was an 
associate editor of “ Johnson’s Universal 
Cyclopaedia,” and in 1879 went to South 
America as a correspondent of the New 
York “ Herald.” He died in New York, 
Feb. 2, 1885. 

Bliss, William Dwight Porter, an Am¬ 
erican clergyman, born in Constantinople, 
Turkey, in 185G; was graduated at 
Amherst College in 1878, and the Hart¬ 
ford Theological College in 1882; was or¬ 
dained a Congregational clergyman; be¬ 
came an Episcopal priest in 1887; orga¬ 
nized the first Christian Socialist Society 
in the United States in 1889, and was Presi¬ 
dent of the National Reform League. He 
edited “The Dawn” (1889-1896); “The 
American Fabian” (1895-1896), and the 
“ Encyclopaedia of Social Reform,” and 
published “ Handbook of Socialism.” 

Blister, a topical application, which, 
when applied to the skin, raises the cuticle 
in the form of a vesicle, filled with serous 
fluid, and so produces a counter irritation. 
The Spanish flv blister operates with most 
certainty and expedition, and is commonly 
used for this purpose, as well as mustard, 
hartshorn, etc. 

Blister Fly, the name for any fly, using 
that term to designate any flying insect, 
which is employed in blistering. The more 
common blister flies are beetles, and they are 
in consequence sometimes called blister bee¬ 
tles. That most frequently employed by med¬ 
ical men for raising blisters on the skin is 
the lytta vesicatoria, formerly called cantha- 
ris vesicatorius. It feeds on the ash. It is 
indigenous in the South of Europe, and be¬ 
ing, among other places, imported from 
Spain, is often called the Spanish fly. 

Blister Steel, steel of blistered appear¬ 
ance formed by roasting bar iron in con¬ 
tact with carbon in a cementing furnace. 
Two subsequent processes convert it into 
shear steel and cast steel. 

Blizzard, a modern American word whose 
origin is in doubt. As applied to a severe 
snow storm the word came into general use 
in the American newspapers during the 
bitterly cold winter of 1880-1881, although 
some papers claim its use as early as the 
’70’s. It is employed in the Western States 
to describe a peculiarly fierce and cold wind, 
accompanied by a very fine, blinding snow 
which suffocates as well as freezes men and 
animals exposed to it. These storms come 
up very suddenly and overtake the traveler 
without premonition. The sky becomes 


darkened, <tnd the snow is driven by a ter¬ 
rible wind which comes with a deafening 
roar. One of the most severe of these 
storms recorded in the West was that of 
January, 1888, which extended from Da¬ 
kota to Texas. The thermometer in some 
places fell from 74° above to 28° below 
zero, and in Dakota to 40° below. The 
number of deaths amounted to 235. Chil¬ 
dren were frozen on their way home from 
school, and farmers in their fields, and 
travelers were suffocated by the fine snow. 
The blizzard which will long be remembered 
in the Eastern States began March 11, 
1888, and raged until the 14th, New York 
and Philadelphia being the cities most af¬ 
fected. The wind at one time blew at the 
rate of 46 miles an hour. The streets and 
roads were blocked, railroad trains snowed 
up for days, telegraphic communication cut 
off, and many lives were lost. 

Bloch, Marcus Elieser (bloch), a Ba¬ 
varian ichthyologist, born in Anspach, in 
1723. He settled in medical practice in 
Berlin, where his life was uneventful, and 
where he died, Aug. 6, 1799. He is chiefly 
remembered for his great work, the “ All- 
gemeine Naturgeschiehte der Fische ” (12 
vols., Berlin, 1782-1795, with 432 colored 
plates), long the most comprehensive work 
on ichthyology, and still valuable, espe¬ 
cially for its illustrations. 

Block, a pulley, or a system of pulleys 
rotating on a pintle mounted in its frame 
or shell with its band and strap. The pin 
or pintle of a block of pulleys is the axis 
or axle. It passes through the bushing of 
the shell and the coak of 
the sheave, and is general¬ 
ly of iron. The sheave or 
wheel is generally of lig- 
numvitje or of iron, and 
has around its circumfer¬ 
ence a groove for the rope, 
called the gorge. It has a 
bushing, called a coak, 
around the pintle hole. 

The space between the 

sheave and its block, 
through which the rope 
runs, is called the swallow 
or channel. It answers to 
the throat of some other 
machines; the pass in a 
rolling mill. The shell, 
pulley frame, or body of 
the block is made of a 
tough wood, or sometimes 
of iron; it has one or two block and 
grooves, called scores, cut tackle. 
on each end to retain the 
strap which goes around it. The shell 

is hollow inside to receive the sheave 

or sheaves, and has a hole through its 
center to receive the sheave pin, called 

the pintle; this is lined with bronze or 
gun metal, called a bouching or bushing. 












Blockade 


Block System 


When the shell is made of one piece, it is 
called a mortise block; when more than 
one are employed, it is termed a made 
block. The side plates of the shell are 
cheeks. The strap, strop, iron binding, 
grommet or cringle, is a loop of iron or 
rope, encircling the block, and affords the 
means of fastening it in its place. The 
hook of iron strapped blocks is frequently 
made to work in a swivel, so that the sev¬ 
eral parts of the rope forming the tackle 
may not become foul or twisted around 
each other. There are many kinds of 
blocks, as a pulley block, a fiddle block, a 
fish block, a fiv block, a heart block, a hook 
block, etc. A block and tackle is the block 
and the rope rove through it, for hoisting 
or obtaining a purchase. 

Blockade, the act of surrounding a city 
with a hostile army, or, if it be on the 
sea coast, of placing a hostile army around 
its landward side, and ships of w r ar in 
front of its sea defenses, so as, if possible, 
to prevent supplies of food and ammunition 
from entering it by land or water. The 
object of such an investment is to compel 
a place too strong or too well defended to 
be at once captured by assault, to surrender 
on account of famine. The investment of a 
place by sea is to prevent any ships from 
entering or leaving its harbor. The prac¬ 
tice seems to have been introduced by the 
"Dutch about a. d. 1584. 

To break the blockade is to forcibly enter 
a blockaded port, if not even to compel the 
naval force investing it to withdraw. To 
raise a blockade is to desist from blockad¬ 
ing a place or to compel the investing force 
to do so. To run a blockade is to surrep¬ 
titiously enter or leave a blockaded port 
at the risk of being captured. 

As a blockade seriously interferes with 
the ordinary commercial right of trading 
■with every place, international law care¬ 
fully limits its operation, the principle 
adopted being this: that belligerents are 
not entitled to do anything likely to in¬ 
commode neutrals more than it benefits 
themselves. Neutrals are, therefore, en¬ 
titled to disregard a blockade except it be 
effective, that is, unless the town be in¬ 
vested by a fleet sufficient to prevent the 
ingress and the exit of vessels. When on 
Nov. 21, 1806, the Berlin decree of Na¬ 
poleon I. declared the whole British Islands 
in a state of blockade, that blockade, being 
ludicrously ineffective, was illegal; so also, 
though to a somewhat less extent, were the 
British orders in council of Nov. 11 and 
21, 1807, which placed France and all its 
tributary States in a state of blockade. The 
retaliatory Napoleonic Milan decree of Dec. 
27, 1807, extending the previously an¬ 

nounced blockade to the British dominions 
in all quarters, labored to a still greater ex¬ 
tent under the same defect. More effective, 


as being more limited in area, were the 
blockades of the Elbe by Great Britain in 
1803, that of the Baltic by Denmark in 
1848-1849 and 1864, that of the ports of 
the Confederate States of America by Presi¬ 
dent Lincoln on April 19, 1861, and that of 
the Cuban ports by the United States in 
1898. A blockade should be formally de¬ 
clared before it is enforced, permission being 
granted to neutral vessels then to depart, 
carrying with them any cargo which they 
may already have on board; when it ter¬ 
minates, its cessation should also be for¬ 
mally declared. Any one running a block¬ 
ade does so at his own peril; one’s own 
government cannot by international law 
protect him from forfeiting his vessel with 
its cargo and his liberty, if he be captured 
by the blockading fleet. 

Block Books, before, and for a short 
time after, the invention of printing, books 
printed from wooden blocks each the size 
of a page and having the matter to be re¬ 
produced, whether text or picture, cut in 
relief on the surface. 

Block House, a fortified edifice of one or 
more stories, constructed chiefly of blocks 
or hewn timber. Block houses are supplied 
with loopholes for musketry and sometimes 
with embrasures for cannon, and w T hen of 
more than one story the upper ones are 
made to overhang those below, and are fur¬ 
nished with machicolations or loopholes in 
the overhung floor, so that a perpendicular 
fire can be directed against the enemy in 
close attack. Block houses are often of 
great advantage, and in wooded localities 
readily constructed. 

Block Island, an island ii the Atlantic 
off the coast of Rhode Island, to which it 
belongs; named from Adrian Block, a Dutch 
navigator who discovered it in 1616. There 
is a lighthouse at its S. E. extremity visible 
21 miles. The island forms the township of 
New Shoreham, esteemed as a summer re¬ 
sort. 

Block Printing, the method of printing 

from wooden blocks (producing block books), 
as is still done in calico printing and in 
making wall paper. See Printing. 

Block System, in railroad parlance, the 
division of a railroad into a certain num¬ 
ber of telegraphic districts, the distance be¬ 
tween which is determined by the amount 
of traffic, each block station having signal¬ 
ing instruments by which the signal man 
can communicate with the operator on each 
side of him. When a train enters any block 
a semaphore signal is lowered, and no train 
is allowed to follow until the one in front 
has reached the end of the block, when the 
signal is raised and at the same time low¬ 
ered for the block ahead, etc. The block 
systems used in Europe and in the United 



Blocks of Five 


Blois 


States generally employ mechanical and 
electrical devices for lowering and raising 
the signal. 

Blocks of Five, a political expression in 
the United States, that originated in the 
presidential campaign of 1888. A letter 
purporting to have been written by the 
treasurer of the Republican National Com¬ 
mittee to the Chairman of the Indiana 
State Committee, recommended securing 
“ floaters in blocks of five.” This was con¬ 
strued to mean the bribery of voters at 
wholesale rates. The Democratic managers 
circulated the letter as widely as possible, 
before election. Proceedings for libel were 
afterward begun but never brought to trial. 

Blodget, Lorin, an American physicist, 
born near Jamestown, N. Y., May 25, 1823; 
was educated at Hobart College; appointed 
Assistant Professor at the Smithsonian In¬ 
stitution, Washington, D. C., in charge of 
researches on climatology, in 1851; was 
employed on the Pacific Railroad Survey for 
the War Department in 1852-1856; and 
was engaged in the United States Treasury 
Department in 1863-1877. He was also 
editor of the “ North American ” of Phila¬ 
delphia, and secretary of the board of 
trade of that city from 1858-1864. He is 
credited with having laid the foundation of 
American climatology. His publications in¬ 
clude “ The Climatology of the United 
States ” (1857), a work that met high favor 
both in the United States and Europe; 
“ Commercial and Financial Resources of 
the United States; ” and about 150 vol¬ 
umes of reports and statistics. He died in 
Philadelphia, Pa., March 24, 1901. 

Blodgett, Samuel, an American inventor; 
born in Woburn, Mass., April 1, 1724. He 
took part in the French and Indian War; 
was a member of the expedition against 
Louisburg, in 1745; and subsequently be¬ 
came a judge of the Court of Common 
Pleas, in Hillsboro county, N. H. He was 
the inventor of an apparatus by which he 
recovered a valuable cargo from a sunken 
ship near Plymouth, Mass., in 1783. His 
success led him to go to Europe for simi¬ 
lar enterprises. He met with no encourage¬ 
ment in Spain, and in England proposed to 
raise the “ Royal George,” which went down 
off Spithead with 600 persons on board, but 
his proposition was not accepted. In 1793 
he began the construction of the canal 
around Amoskeag Falls in the Merrimac 
which now bears his name, but did not live 
to complete the work. He died in Haver¬ 
hill, Mass., Sept. 1, 1807. 

Blodgett, Henry Williams, an Amer¬ 
ican jurist, born in Amherst, Mass., July 21, 
1821; was educated at Amherst Academy; 
studied surveying and engineering; was ad¬ 
mitted to the bar in 1844; and settled in 
Waukegan, Ill., to practice, in the following 


year. He served in the Lower House of the 
Legislature in 1852-1854, and in the State 
Senate in 1859-1865; and was United 
States District Judge for the Northern Dis¬ 
trict of Illinois from 1869 till 1893, when 
he retired. He was appointed one of the 
counsel on the part of the United States 
before the Arbitration Tribunal on the 
Bering Sea fur seal controversy between 
the United States and Great Britain, in 
1892. He died Feb. 9, 1905. 

Bloede, Gertrude (ble'de), a German- 
American poet and novelist, better known 
as Stuart Sterne, born in Saxony, Ger¬ 
many, 1845. She has written in verse 
“Angelo” (new ed. 1879), “Giorgio and 
Other Poems” (1881), etc.; and “The 
Story of Two Lives,” a novel. 

Bloemfontein (blem-fon'tln), city and 
capital of the former Orange Free State 
(name changed by the British, May 29, 
1900, to Orange River Colony), South Af¬ 
rica; on the Modder river, 200 miles W. by 
N. of Durban, the base of British operations 
in the war against the Boers. It occupies 
an elevated site; is connected with Natal 
and Cape Colony by telegraph; and is the 
seat of an Anglican bishopric, and a college. 
In the war between Great Britain and the 
South African and Orange Free State Repub¬ 
lics in 1899-1900 it was the seat of import¬ 
ant military operations. In June, 1899, a 
conference was held here between President 
Kruger of the South African Republic and 
Sir Alfred Milner, the British Commissioner 
of Cape Colony, with a view of averting war. 
After the appointment of Lord Roberts to 
the supreme command of the British forces 
operating against the Boers, he led an expedi¬ 
tion against the city and forced its sur¬ 
render on March 13, 1900, President Steyn 
escaping capture. Soon afterward the part 
of the republic occupied by the British was 
formally placed under British administra¬ 
tion. 

Blois (blwa), the capital of the French 
Department of Loire-et-Cher, 99 miles S. S. 
W. of Paris, on the Loire. It consists of an 
upper town, a lower town, and several sub¬ 
urbs, with one of which it communicates 
by a stone bridge of 11 arches. The old 
castle, which has played an important part 
in French history, was restored by the Gov¬ 
ernment in 1845. The main entrance is by 
a fine Gothic portal opening into a quad¬ 
rangle, on the E. side of which is a pillared 
cloister, on the N. a pile of buildings in the 
Renaissance style, on the W. some unfin¬ 
ished buildings, and on the S. is the ancient 
part begun by the Dukes of Orleans. There 
is also a cathedral of late date, the Church 
of St. Nicholas (12th century), a bishop’s 
palace, Roman aqueduct, etc. The castle 
was long occupied by the counts of the 
name; and became a favorite residence of 



Blommaert 


Blood 


the kings of France. Louis XII. was born, 
Francis I., Henry II., Charles IX., and 
Henry III. held their courts in it. 

Blommaert, Philipp (blom'mart), a 
Flemish poet, historian and dramatist, born 
in Ghent, Aug. 27, 1809. His great ambition 
was to make his native Flemish tongue a 
literary language, and to unify the people 
who wrote and spoke it. His works in¬ 
clude “ History of the Belgian Lowlanders,” 
a specimen of stately prose; “ Theoophilus,” 
a poem; and “ Old Flemish Ballads.” He 
died in Ghent, Aug. 14, 1871. 

Blond, Jacques Christophe le, a Ger¬ 
man miniature painter and originator of 
color printing, born in Frankfort-on-the- 
Main, in 1070. He spent the most of his 
life and all his means in comparatively un¬ 
successful experiments in printing engrav¬ 
ings in color, and in attempts to reproduce 
the cartoons of Raphael in tapestry. He 
died in Paris, in 1741. 

Blondel, a French minstrel and poet of 
the 12th century, a confidential servant and 
instructor in music of Richard Cceur de 
Lion. While his master was the prisoner of 
the Duke of Austria, Blondel, according to 
the story, went through Palestine and all 
parts of Germany in search of him. He 
sang the king’s own favorite lays before 
each keep and fortress till the song was at 
length taken up and answered from the 
windows of the castle of Loewenstein, where 
Richard was imprisoned. This story is pre¬ 
served in the “ Chronicles of Rheims ” of the 
13th century. The poems of Blondel, with 
all the legendary and historical data relat¬ 
ing to him, were published by Prosper 
Tarb@ (Rheims, 1802). 

Blondin, Charles, a French rope dancer, 
born at St. Omer, Pas-de-Calais, in 1824, 
was trained at Lyons, where he made such 
rapid progress that he was designated “ The 
Little Wonder.” After making a several 
years’ tour of the United States, on June 
30, 1859, before a crowd of 25,000 persons, 
he crossed the Falls of Niagara on a tight¬ 
rope in five minutes; on July 4, he crossed 
blindfold, trundling a wheelbarrow; on 
Aug. 19, he carried a man on his back; on 
Sept. 14, 1800. he crossed on stilts in the 
presence of the Prince of Wales. His en¬ 
gagement at the Crystal Palace in 1802, 
where he performed on a rope 249 yards 
long, and 170 feet from the ground, drew 
immense crowds. After several years’ re¬ 
tirement, he reappeared in 1880, and in 
1888 again performed in London, where he 
died, Feb. 22, 1897. 

Blood, the red circulating fluid in the 
bodies of man and the higher animals. It 
is formed from chyle and lymph when these 
substances are subjected to the action of 
oxygen taken into the lungs by the process 
of *inspiration. It is the general material 
from which all the secretions are derived, 
62 


besides which it carries away from the 
frame whatever is noxious or superfluous. 
In man its temperature rarely varies from 



BLOOD CORPUSCLES. 

36.G° C.— 98° F., but in birds it sometimes 
reaches 42.8° C — 109° F. The blood in 
reptiles, amphibia, and fishes, and the cir¬ 
culating fluid in the invertebrata, is cold, 
that is, in no case more than a little above 
the temperature of the surrounding me¬ 
dium. The vessels which conduct the blood 
out of the heart are called arteries, and 
those which bring it back again veins. The 
blood in the left side of the heart and in 
the arteries, called arterial blood, is bright 
red; that in the right side of the heart and 
in the veins, called venous blood, is black¬ 
ish purple. Viewed by spectrum analysis, 
the haemoglobin of arterial blood differs 
from that of venous blood, the former be¬ 
ing combined with oxygen and the latter be¬ 
ing deoxidized. The density of blood is 
1.003 to 1.057. Its composition in 1,000 
parts is as follows: 


Water.780.15 to 785.58 

Fibrine. 2.10 to 8.57 

Albumen,. 65.09 to 69.41 

Coloring matter.. 133.00 to 119 63 

Crystallizable fat. 2.4*3 to 4.30 

Fluid fat. 1.81 to 2.27 

Extractive matter of uncertain | j 79 to 1 99 

Albumen with soda.. 1 £6 to 2.01 

Sodium and potassium chlorides, 1 
carbonates, phosphates and sul- >• 8.37 to 7.89 

phates ..* 

Calcium and magnesium carbon -1 
ates, phosphates of calcium mag- V 2.10 to 1.42 

nesium and iron ferric oxide .... > 

Loss. 2.40 to 2 59 


1,100 1,000 

Blood has a saline and disagreeable taste, 
and, when fresh, a peculiar smell. It has 
an alkaline reaction. It is not, as it. ap¬ 
pears, homogeneous, but under a powerful 



















































Blood 


Blood Letting 


microscope is seen to be a colorless fluid 
with little, round red bodies called blood 
disks or blood corpuscles, and a few larger 
ones called white corpuscles floating about 
in it. When removed from the body and 
allowed to stagnate it separates into a 
thicker portion called cruor, crassamentum 
or clot, and a thinner one denominated 
serum. See Bleeding: Blood Letting: 
Blood Stains, etc. 



BLOOD CRYSTALS. 


1. Human. 2. Hamster. 3. Cat. 4. Human. 

5. Guinea Pig. 6. Swine. 

In law, whole blood is descent not simply 
from the same ancestor, but from the same 
pair of ancestors, while half blood is de¬ 
scent only from the one. Thus in a family 
two brothers who have the same father and 
mother stand to each other in the relation 
of whole blood, but if the mother die, and 
the father marry again and have children, 
these stand to the offspring of the first mar¬ 
riage only in the relation of half blood. 
The corruption of blood is the judicial strip¬ 
ping it of the right to carry with it up or 
down the advantage of inheritance; its 
purification or restitution is the restora¬ 
tion to it of the privilege of inheritance. 

Blood, Thomas (commonly called Col¬ 
onel Blood), born in Ireland about 1618, 
was a disbanded officer of Oliver Cromwell, 
and lost some estates in Ireland at the 


"Restoration. His whole life was one of 
plotting and adventure, though it is prob¬ 
able that he acted a double part, keeping 
the Government informed of so much as 
might secure his own safety. His most 
daring exploit was an attempt to steal the 
crown jewels (May 9, 1671) from the 

Tower. He was seized with the crown in 
his possession, but was not only pardoned 
by Charles, but obtained forfeited Irish es¬ 
tates of £500 annual value. He died in 
London, in 1680. 

Blood Bird (myzomela sanguinolenta ), 
an Australian species of honey-sucker, so 
called from the rich scarlet color of the 
head, breast and back of the male. 

Blood, Council of, the name popularly 
applied to the Council of Troubles, estab¬ 
lished bv the Duke of Alva, in the Nether- 
«/ 

lands, in 1567. Although it had no charter 
nor authority from any source, it was om¬ 
nipotent and superseded all other authori¬ 
ties. In the first three months alone its 
victims numbered 1.800, and soon there was 
hardly a Protestant house in the Nether- 
lands that had not furnished a victim. 

Blood Flower, the English name of tho 
hcemanthus, a genus of plants belonging to 
the order amaryllidacece (amaryllids). The 
allusion is to the brilliant red flowers. The 
species, which are mostly from the Cape of 
Good Hope, are ornamental plants. 

BIood=hound, a variety of hound or dog, 
so called from the ability which it possesses 
to trace a wounded animal by the smell of 
any drops of blood which may have fallen 
from it. It is the canis familiaris, variety 
B. sagax, of Linnreus, now called variety 
sanguinaria. It is the sleuth-hound of the 
Scotch. It has large, pendulous ears, a long 
curved tail, is of a reddish tan color, and 
stands about 28 inches high. The breed is 
not now often pure. It was formerly em¬ 
ployed to track escaped prisoners and other 
fugitives from justice. There are other sub- 
varieties, especially the Cuban blood-hound, 
used in the Maroon wars in Jamaica during 
the 18th century, as well as more recently 
against escaped negro slaves in the swamps 
of the South before the abolition of slavery 
in the United States, and finallv the Afri- 
can blood-hound, used in hunting the ga¬ 
zelle. 

Blood Indians, a tribe of North Amer¬ 
ican Indians of the Siksika Confederacy, 
dwelling in the Northwest Territories of 
Canada; known also as Kino Indians. 

Blood Letting, a method of relieving the 
human system in states of general or local 
plethora by the abstraction of blood. Gen¬ 
eral plethora is best treated, according to 
this method, by withdrawing a consider¬ 
able quantity of blood from the arteries 
(arteriotomy) or veins (venesection). Lo¬ 
cal engorgement, or hypersemia, of a part 




























Blood Letting 


Blood Root 


is usually treated by abstracting blood from 
the smallest sized vessels, or capillaries, 
present in the skin, by the methods of 
scarification or leeching. In these cases, the 
removal of blood from the superficial tex¬ 
tures diverts the blood stream in part from 
underlying tissues, and thus reduces the 
tendency to inflammatory action in the 
deeper structures. In general blood letting 
the object is to reduce the strength of the 
blood stream throughout the whole system, 
and thus to diminish the acuteness of fev¬ 
erish conditions. The most usually em¬ 
ployed method of accomplishing this is by 
the opening of one of the superficial veins 
of the arm, and allowing a sufficient quan¬ 
tity of blood to escape from the blood vessel 
thus operated upon. The vein chosen for 
the operation is generally one of those near 
the front of the elbow joint, which can be 
conveniently reached in this region with¬ 
out disturbing the patient, and which can 
be closed after the operation by applying a 
dressing with the elbow bent when the op¬ 
eration is completed. In performing the 
operation, it is first essential to make the 
vein stand out clearly under the skin, and 
to do so it is necessary to remember that 
the veins return the blood from the ex¬ 
tremities to the trunk, and, therefore, that 
pressure must be applied constricting the 
arm above the elbow, thus causing the veins 
to swell from retardation of the blood flow 
within their walls. A bandage is thus 
tied tightly around the middle of the up¬ 
per arm, and, as a result of its action, the 
veins in front of the elbow joint commence 
to swell and stand out as blue cords, dis¬ 
tinctly to be seen through the delicate skin 
of this region. Selecting the largest of 
these swollen veins, the operator places his 
left thumb upon it immediately below the 
point where he desires to open it. This pre¬ 
vents any backward flow of the blood in the 
vein, and renders it yet more distinct at 
the point where it is to be opened. Now 
taking a sharp lancet in his right hand, the 
surgeon pushes its point steadily downward 
through the skin into the blue column that 
marks the position of the vein, taking care, 
however, only to divide its outer wall and 
not to transfix it completely. Having by 
this means made a slit about half an inch 
long in its outer wall, he withdraws the in¬ 
strument and removes his left thumb from 
the vein. A steady flow of dark blood now 
takes place from the wound ; this is received 
into a graduated glass vessel, by which the 
operator may gauge accurately the amount 
of blood removed. Should the flow of blood 
tend to diminish, the patient is requested to 
grasp some hard object tightly with the 
hand of the side operated upon, and an im¬ 
mediate increase will occur in the blood 
flowing from the wound. When a suf¬ 
ficiency of blood has been abstracted by 


this means, the operator places a large and 
firm pad of lint over the wounded vein, and 
bending the arm at the elbow to a right 
angle, bandages it firmly in that position, 
observing especially that the pad of lint is 
tightly pressed against the wound in the 
skin. When the bandaging is complete, and 
only then, the constricting band around the 
upper arm may be removed. There is 
danger in removing it earlier, since air may 
enter at the wound in the vein; and, being 
sucked upward into the chest may cause 
sudden cessation of the heart’s action, and 
a considerable risk of immediate death. On 
account of this danger, it is not advisable 
for unskilled persons to attempt the opera¬ 
tion. When the bandage and pad are firmly 
applied, and when the constricting band is 
removed, the patient’s arm is placed in a 
sling and kept at rest for a week, when the 
wound in the skin and the vein is generally 
healed, and the patient may be permitted 
to use his arm again without incurring any 
risk. In children the veins in the arm are 
too small to be operated on satisfactorily, 
hence the external jugular vein of the neck 
must be selected in such cases; but the 
danger of the entrance of air is still greater 
in this region than in the arm; the opera¬ 
tion should, therefore, be reserved for very 
urgent cases, and only performed with the 
utmost caution. The amount of blood ac¬ 
tually abstracted in blood letting must de¬ 
pend on the age of the patient and the na¬ 
ture of the case. The operation would be 
scarcely necessary if less than a quarter of 
a pint is to be removed, and it is now rare 
to remove more than one pint at one opera¬ 
tion, however severe the case in which it is 
employed. See Bleeding. 

Blood Poisoning, a name loosely used 
of pyaemia aod allied diseases. It is also 
used popularly in a wider sense for the re¬ 
sults on the human system of poison germs 
from malaria, bad drains, etc.; or for the 
condition of the blood caused by such ail¬ 
ments as Bright’s disease of the kidneys, 
etc. 

Blood Rain, rain nearly of the color of 
blood, and which many of the unscientific 
suppose to be actual blood. It arises either 
from minute plants, mostly of the order 
algcc, or from infusorial animalcule. It is 
akin to red snow, which is similarly pro¬ 
duced. The word also applies to a bright 
scarlet alga or fungus, called palmclla pro - 
digiosa, sometimes developed in very hot 
weather on cooked vegetables or decaying 
fungi. 

Blood Root (sanguinaria canadensis), 
a plant of Canada and the United States, 
belonging to the poppy order, and so named 
from its root stock yielding a sap of a 
deep orange color. Its leaves are heart 
shaped and deeply lobed, the flower grows 





Blood Stains 


Blood Stains 


on a scape and is white or tinged with rose. 
The plant has acrid narcotic properties, and 
has been found useful in various diseases. 
(jGurn canadense, another American plant 
used as a mild tonic, is also known as blood- 
root. 

Blood Stains, Detection of, an import¬ 
ant subject in connection with forensic 
medicine. On criminal trials the guilt of 
prisoners has frequently been established by 
the discovery of these stains. The follow¬ 
ing scheme shows the various methods em¬ 
ployed in the investigation: Visual—aided 
by (a) ordinary lens; (b) microscope; (c) 
spectroscope; (d) artificial light. Chemical 
— (a) heat — positive (1, change of color; 
2, coagulation); (b) ammonia — negative; 
(c) hoematin test; (d) guaiacum test. 

Blood, when liquid, stains all articles 
with which it comes in contact. It sinks 
into woven textures and such material as 
soft wood, but on metallic surfaces and on 
hard woods it forms a film of greater or 
less thickness, and quickly dries. At first 
it is of a reddish brown color, but in the 
course of a few Aveeks this deepens and be¬ 
comes almost black. Looked at with a lens 
of low power — say 10 or 20 diameters — 
the blood, if in any quantity, and coagu¬ 
lated, and if it has not sunk into the texture 
of the cloth, is observed to present an ir¬ 
regular surface, and entangled in it have 
frequently been detected foreign materials 
which have afforded a clue to the culprit, 
and to the manner in which the crime has 
been committed. Thus hairs, fragments of 
cotton, epithelial scales from the throat, and 
minute fragments of bird’s feathers have 
often been noted. This preliminary inves¬ 
tigation concluded, the attempt is now 
made to discover the peculiar corpuscles of 
the blood (see Blood). This is a matter 
of great difficulty when the blood has 
stained such articles as linen or cotton 
stuffs and become dry, but when spilt on 
hard surfaces, or when it is in such quan¬ 
tity as to form a distinct coagulum, the 
corpuscles are generally easily determined 
by the following process. The object is, by 
breaking up the coagulum to dissolve out 
the corpuscles in some medium as nearly 
as possible of the same density as the 
liquor sanguinis of the circulation. Numer¬ 
ous media, have, from time to time, been pro¬ 
posed, such as solutions of sugar, phosphate 
of soda, iodide of potassium, etc., but the one 
generally employed is a solution of glycerine 
in water of specific gravity 1.028. If this 
solution be applied, for example, to the 
stained blade of a knife, or if a minute por¬ 
tion of dried blood clot be gently dissolved 
in it, a reddish fluid is obtained which under 
a high power of the microscope (300 diam¬ 
eters) rarely fails to exhibit numerous cor¬ 
puscles which by their peculiar appearance 
are at once recognized to be mammalian blood 


disks. In the case of stained linen, etc., 
there is greater difficulty. The stained por¬ 
tion must be thoroughly moistened with the 
solution, and then squeezed over a glass 
rod. When the reddish fluid reaches the 
surface, it must be removed with the blade 
of a knife, placed on glass, and submitted 
to the microscope. By this simple process, 
unless the stain be of great age, its char¬ 
acter is determined. Human blood in these 
circumstances, however, cannot be distin¬ 
guished from the blood of the other mem¬ 
bers of the great class of the mammalia, 
with the solitary exception of the camel 
tribe, which present an oval blood corpuscle. 

Of late years, the interesting fact has 
been discovered that blood possesses a dis¬ 
tinct spectrum, so that it is possible to de¬ 
termine that a reddish fluid is really blood, 
although the corpuscles may not have been 
discovered owing to their accidental destruc¬ 
tion. The stained portion of cloth or a 
portion of blood clot is digested in distilled 
water, and, as the result, a liquid of a red¬ 
dish color is obtained. This should be 
placed in a deep, narrow cell and examined 
by a spectroscopic eve-piece with a low 
power of the microscope. Two dark bands 
make their appearance, one in the middle 
of the green rays, and the other at their 
junction with the yellow. These are hinhlv 
characteristic of the presence of the blood 
of some red blooded animal. 

Lastly, under this head of the visual de¬ 
tection of blood, the presence of blood stains 
may unexpectedly be discoA T ered with arti¬ 
ficial licrht, by examining the furniture and 
especially the Avails of an apartment on 
AA r hich blood has fallen. During the day the 
spots of blood remain undetected, but at 
night, and with artificial light, they are 
clearly Ausible. It is especially on papers 
Avith dark blue figuring that this interest¬ 
ing fact has been obserA r ed. 

The chemical relations of blood are very 
definite. All stains due to blood are solu¬ 
ble, and this fact enables us at once to dis¬ 
tinguish them from insoluble stains AA r hich 
closely resemble them, and Avliich haA r e fre¬ 
quently been mistaken for them, such as 
paint and iron mold. The stain to be ex¬ 
amined is cut out and suspended by means 
of thread in a glass tube filled Avith dis¬ 
tilled AA^ater. Should the stain be at all 
recent, it immediately dissoh’es, and long 
filmy streaks of coloring matter are dis¬ 
charged and descend in wavy lines to the 
bottom of the tube, Avhere ultimately a 
stratum of reddish fluid of greater or less 
intensity is collected. The clear supernat¬ 
ant fluid is poured off, and the colored por¬ 
tion is divided into two parts. One part 
is boiled, and if the fluid contain blood, the 
folloAving peculiar changes take place. The 
color is discharged, the redness disappears 
and gives way to a grayish green, and in 



Blood Stone 


BIood=vesseIs 


addition a distinct coagulum is formed. 
Both these changes are highly characteristic 
of blood. Should some liquor potass* be 
now added, the coagulum is redissolved, and 
shows a green color by reflected light. This 
may be described as a positive test of the 
presence of blood. The action of ammonia 
supplies us with a valuable negative one. 
If this volatile alkali be added to a solu¬ 
tion of blood, no change of color is pro¬ 
duced. All other soluble stains are more 
or less altered in color, such as those from 
the juices of fruits, etc., which have fre¬ 
quently been mistaken for blood, and thus 
have given rise to grave suspicions. Ex¬ 
periments were made in France to form a 
fluid which in its chemical reactions, it was 
expected, could not be distinguished from 
blood. Mixtures of madder and other color¬ 
ing matters with white of egg were pro¬ 
posed, but while they coagulated with heat, 
there was no alteration in the color of the 
liquid. If a particle of dried blood can be 
removed from a weapon or any surface, an 
attempt may be made to prove that it is 
blood by the formation of blood or hcematin 
crystals. The procedure is as follows: the 
particle is placed on a microscopic glass 
slide and moistened with glacial acetic acid. 
The glass is now gently heated over a 
spirit lamp, when ebullition occurs, the 
blood particle dissolves, and ultimately a 
reddish brown stain is left. If this stain is 
examined by the microscope, peculiar pris¬ 
matic crystals are visible among the dried 
debris. 

Lastly, in several interesting medico¬ 
legal cases where it was suspected that arti¬ 
cles of clothing had been washed in order 
to obliterate the traces of blood, its pres¬ 
ence has been determined by its reaction 
with the resin of guaiacum. On the sus¬ 
pected site of the blood stain are placed a 
few drops of a spirituous solution of guai¬ 
acum freshly prepared. The resin is at 
once observed to separate on the surface of 
the cloth; if to this is now added a small 
quantity of peroxide of hydrogen, a beauti¬ 
ful sapphire blue color is struck. 

Such are the chief means employed to de¬ 
tect blood. It is important to remember 
that they do not enable us to distinguish 
human from other mammalian blood — with 
the exception already mentioned — nor ar¬ 
terial from venous, nor male from female, 
nor adult from that of the young; but the 
blood disks of birds and cold, blooded ani¬ 
mals generally, from their size and other 
peculiarities, cannot be mistaken for those 
of man. 

Bloodstone, a jaspery variety of quartz 
of a dark green color, variegated with red 
spots, like drops of blood. It is frequently 
made into seal and ring stones, and other 
small ornamental articles. Certain kinds 
of liematitic iron ore were called blood¬ 


stones by the ancients because, as Theo¬ 
phrastus says, they seemed “ as if formed 
out of concerted blood.” At the present day 
the term is more especially restricted to the 
hard and compact hematite, which is made 
into burnishers, and which possesses the 
valuable property of laying on gold or silver 
leaf without fraying or tearing it; it should 
be of a deep red color, free from flaws, close- 
grained, and susceptible of a fine polish. 

BIood=vessels, the tubes or vessels in 
which the blood circulates. They are divided 
into two classes — arteries and veins — 
which have two points of union or connec¬ 
tion— the first in the heart, from which 
they both originate, and the other in the 
minute vessels or network in which they 
terminate. The arteries arise from the 
heart and convey the blood to all parts 
of the body; the veins return it to the 
heart. The arteries distribute throughout 
the body a pure red blood, for the purposes 
of nourishment; while the veins return to 
the heart a dark-colored blood more or less 
loaded with impurities and deprived of 
some of its valuable properties. But this is 
not returned again to the body in the same 
state. For the heart is wisely divided into 
two portions or sides, a right and left, one 
of which receives the impure blood from 
the veins and sends it to the lungs to be 
defecated and freshly supplied with oxygen 
or vital air, while the other receives the pure 
red blood from the lungs, and circulates 
it anew through the arteries. The arteries 
arise from the left ventricle of the heart 
by one large trunk nearly an inch in diam¬ 
eter. This is gradually subdivided into 
smaller ones, as it proceeds toward the 
limbs, till they terminate at last in vessels 
so small as to be almost invisible, and in 
a fine network of cells extending through 
the whole body, in which the blood is pour¬ 
ed out, and nutrition, or the increase of the 
body, takes place, and from which the resi¬ 
due is taken up by the small veins, to be 
returned to the heart. The arteries and 
veins are widely different in their structure 
as well as their uses. The former are com¬ 
posed of very strong, firm, elastic coats or 
membranes, which are four in number. The 
external covering and the internal lining 
of the arteries, though belonging to dif¬ 
ferent classes of membranes, are both very 
thin and soft. The second coat is very thick, 
tough, and elastic, being that which chiefly 
gives their peculiar appearance to the ar¬ 
teries. The third is formed of fibers, ap¬ 
parently muscular, arranged in circular 
rings around the tube of the vessels. It is 
well known that the pulse of the heart is 
felt in the arteries alone, though in the 
bleeding of a vein we sometimes see the 
blood start as if in unison with the beating 
of the heart. The pulse is produced by 
the wave or stream of blood which is driven 
by the heart through the arteries, distending 



Blood Wood 


Bloomfield 


and slightly elevating them, after which 
they instantly contract from their elasticity, 
and thus force the blood into the smaller 
vessels. The pulse varies in its character 
with the general state of the health. When 
arteries are cut or wounded the firmness 
of their coats prevents their closing, and 
hence arises the fatal nature of wounds 
of large vessels, which will remain open 
till they are tied up, or till death is pro¬ 
duced. 

The veins commence in small capillary 
tubes in every part of the body, and by their 
gradual union form large trunks till they 
at last terminate in two (one ascending 
from the lower parts of the body, the other 
descending from the head and arms), which 
pour their contents into the heart. Their 
structure is much less firm than that of the 
arteries. They are very thin and aoft, con¬ 
sisting of only two thin coats or membranes. 
The- inner or lining membrane is frequently 
doubled into folds, forming valves, which 
nearly close the passage in the veins, and 
thus give very material support to the blood 
as it is moving up in them toward the heart. 
These valves are not found in the veins of 
the bowels, the lungs, or the head. The 
number of the veins is much greater than 
that of the arteries, an artery being often 
accompanied by two veins. They differ also 
in this, that while the arteries are deeply 
seated in the flesh, to guard them from in¬ 
jury, the veins are very frequently super¬ 
ficial, and covered only by the skin. The 
veins, it is well known, are the vessels com¬ 
monly opened in blood-letting, although in 
cases which render it necessary a small 
artery is sometimes divided. 

There are two portions of the venous sys¬ 
tem which do not correspond exactly with 
our general description; these are the veins 
of the bowels and of the lungs. The former 
circulate their blood through the liver be¬ 
fore it returns to the heart, and the latter, 
the pulmonary veins, convey red blood 
from the lungs to the heart. It should also 
be mentioned that the large vein which 
brings back the blood from the lower part 
of the body, receives from the lymphatic 
and lacteal vessels the chyle from the bow¬ 
els which supplies the waste of the blood 
and nourishes the body, and the serous and 
other watery fluids which are taken up by 
the absorbents in all parts of the body. See 
Heart. 

Blood Wood, a name of several trees. 
Indian blood wood (Lagerstroemia regince ), 
is a large tree of the henna family, with 
wood of a blood-red color, used for many 
purposes. It is called also jarool. 

Blood Wort, same as blood root ( san - 
guinaria). 

Bloody Assizes, the name given by the 
people to those courts which were held in 
England by the infamous -Judge Jeffreys, 


in 1G85, after the suppression of the 
Duke of Monmouth’s rebellion. Upward 
of 300 persons were executed after short 
trials; very many were whipped, imprisoned 
and fined; and nearly 1,000 were sent as 
slaves to the American plantations. 

Bloody Falls, the lowest cataract of the 
Copper Mine river in the Northwest Terri¬ 
tories of Canada; so named because of a 
massacre here of Eskimos by Chippewa In¬ 
dians, in 1770. 

Bloody Mary, an epithet popularly ap¬ 
plied to Mary, Queen of England, on ac¬ 
count of the persecutions of the Protestants 
during her reign. 

Bloom, a lump of puddled iron, which 
leaves the furnace in a rough state, to be 
subsequently rolled into the bars or other 
material into which it may be desired to 
convert the metal. Also a lump of iron 
made directly from the ore by a furnace 
called a bloomery. 

Bloomer, Amelia Jenks, an American 
reformer, born in Homer, N. Y., May 27, 
1818; was married in 1840 to Dexter C. 
Bloomer, of Seneca Falls, N. Y., where for 
several years, she and her husband were 
engaged in publishing a semi-monthly peri¬ 
odical. In 1849 she began publishing “ The 
Lily ” in the interests of temperance re¬ 
form and women’s rights; in 1853, on re¬ 
moving to Mt. Vernon, O., she resumed its 
publication.there, and also became associate 
editor of “The Western Home Journal.” 
In 1855 the couple removed to Council 
Bluffs, la., where Mr. Bloomer became an 
organizer of the Republican Party in that 
State, and a Federal official and a judge. 
She carried on for many years her reforma¬ 
tory work. Mrs. Bloomer will be remem¬ 
bered longest because of her personal adop¬ 
tion and her active advocacy of a costume 
of a short skirt and Turkish trousers, which 
had been devised by Mrs. Elizabeth Smith 
Miller, and which became more popularly 
known as the Bloomer costume. She died 
in Council Bluffs, la., Dec. 30, 1894. 

Bloomfield, a township in Essex co., 
N. J.,- on the Delaware, Lackawana and 
Western and the Erie railroads, the Morris 
canal, and trolley lines connecting with 
Newark, the Oranges, Jersey City, and other 
cities; 10 miles N. W. of New York. It was 
founded in 1G85, under the name of Watses- 
son, and received its present name from 
Gen. Joseph Bloomfield, in 1796. The oldest 
church in the town dates from this year. 
Bloomfield once ranked as an educational 
center. Here were located in addition to 
other similar institutions, the Bloomfield 
Classical School, Madam Cooke’s Female 
Seminary, and a Presbyterian Theological 
Seminary, the edifice of the latter being 
now occupied by a German Theological Sem¬ 
inary. It has a fine Mountainside Hos- 




Bloomfield 


Blount 


pital; contains the residences of many New 
York business men; and is engaged in the 
manufacture of church, and cabinet organs, 
woolen goods, hats, shoes, rubber goods, tis¬ 
sue and photographic paper, saddlery, hard¬ 
ware, electric elevators, and a variety of 
brass goods. It has a National bank, daily 
and weekly newspapers, an assessed prop¬ 
erty valuation of nearly $4,000,000, and a 
total debt of about $250,000. Pop. (1890) 
7,708; (1900) 9,0(58; (1910) 15,070. 

Bloomfield, Maurice, an American edu¬ 
cator, born in Bielitz, Austria, Feb. 23, 
1855; came to the United States in' 1857; 
entered the University of Chicago, and was 
graduated at Furman University, in Green¬ 
ville, S. C., in 1877; took a course in Sans¬ 
krit and comparative philology in Yale 
College, in 1877-1878; and was a fellow of 
Johns Hopkins University in 1878-1879. 
He continued his studies in Berlin and 
Leipsic, in 1879-1881; became an Associate 
in Johns Hopkins University in 1881; and 
subsequently Professor of Sanskrit and 
Comparative Philology there. He published 
numerous grammatical and philological pa¬ 
pers; edited for the first time from the or¬ 
iginal Sanskrit MSS. the “ Supra of Kan- 
cika; ” translated the “ Atharva-Veda ” in 
the “Sacred Books of the East;” and in 
1900 was engaged in compiling a “Concor¬ 
dance of the Vedas.” 



Bloomfield, Robert, 

born at Honington, Dec. 


an 

3. 


English poet, 


ROBERT BLOOMFIELD. 

‘ssayed a longer flight 
3ov” (1800), by which 
:itie to rank among the 
lied in Shefford, in 1823. 


1706. Appren¬ 
ticed to a 
shoemaker in 
London, he 
chanced upon 
odd volumes 
of the poets, 
and thus 
was awaken¬ 
ed his native 
poetic genius. 
He first came 
into public 
notice with 
“The Milk 
Maid,” and 
good fortune 
attended his 
“The Sailor's 
Return.” He 
in “ The Farmer’s 
he established his 
minor poets. He 


Bloomington, city and county-seat of 
McLean co., Ill.; on several important rail¬ 
roads; 00 miles N. N. E. of Springfield. It 
is the seat of the Illinois Wesleyan Uni¬ 
versity (Methodist Episcopal), a Roman 
Catholic College, two hospitals, three sani¬ 
tariums, and the general offices of the Chi¬ 
cago and Alton railroad. The Illinois 


State Normal University and the State 
Soldiers’ Orphans’ Home are located at 
Normal, two miles from the city. Bloom¬ 
ington has electric light and street railway 
plants, waterworks supplied from an ar¬ 
tesian well, public library, 3 National 
banks, railroad shops, and manufactories 
of machinery, stoves, farming implements, 
patent medicines, brick and tile, etc. Bop. 
20,484; (1900) 23,280; (1910) 25,708. 

Bloomington, city and county-seat of 
Monroe co., Ind.; on the Louisville, New 
Albany, and Chicago railroad; 00 miles S. 
S. W. of Cincinnati. It is in a limestone 
and quarrying region; is the seat of the 
Indiana State University; and besides its 
farming and quarrying interests has im¬ 
portant manufacturing concerns, especially 
in the lines of leather and hardware. The 
city has the Monroe County Library, a 
National bank, several daily and weekly 
periodicals, and a property valuation of 
over $1,500,000. Pop. (1890) 4,018; (1900) 
0,400; (1910) 8,838. 

Bloomsburg, a town and county-seat of 
Columbia co., Pa.; on the Susquehanna 
river, the Pennsylvania canal, and several 
railroads; 40 miles W. of Wilkesbarre. It 
is in an iron and limestone region; contains 
a number of iron furnace foundries, silk 
mills, brass and copper tube works, furni¬ 
ture and desk factories, carpet factories, 
etc.; is the seat of the State Normal School 
and a literary institute, and has an as¬ 
sessed property valuation of about $2,- 
500,000. Pop. '(1900) 6,170; (1910) 7,413. 

Blouet, Paul (blo-a'), (Max O'Rell), 
a French lecturer and author, born in 
Brittany, France, March 2, 1848. During 
his early life he was an officer of cavalry in 
the French army, but in 1873 went to Eng¬ 
land and became a teacher. After the 
publication of his first book, “John Bull 
and His Island” (1883), he abandoned 
teaching and devoted himself to literature. 
He made several lecturing tours of the United 
States. Works: “John Bull and His Daugh¬ 
ters” (1884); “Jonathan and His Con¬ 
tinent” (1888, with Jack Allyn) ; A 
Frenchman in America” (1891); “John 
Bull & Co.” (1894). lie died May 24, 1903. 

Blount, Charles, an English deist, born 
in Holloway, London, April 27, 1654. He 
became noted for his contiibutions (oitcn 
but flippant) to the political, literary, and 
theological controversies of the times, some 
of his" works being “Anima Mundi,” a 
translation of the first two books of “ Apol¬ 
lonius Tyanaeus,” “ Great is Diana of the 
Ephesians,” “ Janua Scientiarum,” and 
“Vindication of Learning.” His miscella¬ 
neous works, with preface by Gildon, ap¬ 
peared in 1695. Despairing of marriage 
with his deceased wife s sister, he died by 
his own hand in 1693. 



Blount 


Blowing Machine 


Blount, James H., an American legisla¬ 
tor, born in Macon, Ga., Sept. 12, 1837. 
He made his first appearance in public 
affairs in 1872, when he was elected to 
Congress from the Sixth District of Georgia. 
He held his seat by successive re-elections 
till 1893, when he declined a further term. 
As he finished his last term the House paid 
him the unusual honor of suspending its 
proceedings to give the members an op¬ 
portunity to testify to their appreciation 
of his worth. In his last term he was 
Chairman of the Committee on Foreign 
Affairs, and his familiarity with American 
relations with other countries led Presi¬ 
dent Cleveland to appoint him a Special 
Commissioner to Hawaii in March, 1893, 
for the purpose of investigating the depo¬ 
sition of the royal government and the 
establishment of the American protectorate 
over the kingdom. On his arrival in Hono¬ 
lulu he at once caused the American flag 
to be hauled down from the Provisional 
Government House, and the United States 
marines to be withdrawn from the locality. 
This proceeding led to considerable excite¬ 
ment in the United States; the withdrawal 
of United States Minister Stevens from 
Honolulu; the appointment of Commis¬ 
sioner Blount as his successor; and a re¬ 
newal both in Washington and Honolulu of 
the agitation for the annexation of Hawaii 
to the United States. On the completion of 
his mission he resumed practice. He died 
March 8, 1903. See Hawaii. 

Blow Fly, the name popularly given to 
such two winged flies as deposit eggs in the 



flesh of animals, thus making tumors arise. 
Several species of musca do this, so do 
breeze flies, etc. 

Blowing Machine, an apparatus for pro¬ 
ducing an air blast for metallurgical pur¬ 
poses. The earliest blowing machine was, 
doubtless, some form of the common bellows. 

Blowing Engines .—For blast furnaces 
and for Bessemer steel converters, blowing 
engines of large size are employed. In the 
former, the strength of the blast sometimes 
is as high as 10 pounds per square inch. 


For the Bessemer converter, where a much 
greater pressure is required, it occasion¬ 
ally reaches 30 pounds per square inch. 
A blowing engine consists of a steam 
cylinder, an air cylinder, and a large air 
chamber, to insure a uniform blast. Some¬ 
times the latter is dispensed with, and large 
main pipes used instead. The blowing 
cylinder is of cast iron, with an air tight 
piston, which, as it ascends and descends 
with the motion of the engine, alternately 
inhales and expels the air at each end. To 
effect this, a series of valves are provided, 
and these are arranged as follows: Inlet 
valves are placed on the top of the cylinder, 
and also on three sides of the box, but on 
the fourth side there are two outlet valves. 
These valves consist of numerous openings, 
against which leather flaps lie when they 
are shut. Valves of a similar nature are 
placed at the bottom of the cylinder. When 
the piston descends, it would create a 
vacuum in the upper portion of the cylinder, 
provided there were no openings in it; but 
the external air pressing on the inlet 
valves, opens them, and fills the space above 
the piston; at the same time, the outlet 
valves, which only open outward, are 
tightly closed by the air pressing inward 
from the pipe. Again, when the piston 
ascends, it compresses the air above it. and 
exactly reverses the action of the valves; 
that is to say, it shuts the inlet waives, 
opens the outlet valves, and allows the com¬ 
pressed air to pass along the outlet pipe, 
which is made of large size,, so as to offer 
as little resistance as possible to the pas¬ 
sage of the air. The valves at the bottom 
of the cylinder work exactly in the same 
way, the inlet valves opening when the 
piston ascends, and shutting when it de¬ 
scends, thus compelling the inhaled air to 
pass into the pipe, by the lower outlet 
valves. The air is conducted by the pipe 
into a receiver of large capacity, which 
serves to equalize the blast before it passes 
to the tuyers. A blast engine at Shelton 
Ironworks, in England, with a blowing 
cylinder 8 feet 4 inches in diameter, 
has a 9-foot stroke, working with 186 
horse power, and making 32 single strokes 
of the piston per minute, inhales 15.700 
cubic feet of atmospheric air per minute; 
but this is compressed by the blowing 
cylinder to a pressure of 3 pounds per 
square inch above the atmosphere, which 
reduces the volume supplied by the cylinder 
to 13,083 cubic feet. Its volume, however, 
is largely increased again, when raised to 
the hot blast temperature, before entering 
the furnace. 

Trompe .— In the Catalan forges of Spain, 
the South of France, and some parts of the 
United States, there is a very ingenious 
water blowing machine in use called a 
trompe; but it can only be advantageously 




Blowing Machine 


Blowpipe 


employed where a fall of a few yards of 
water is available. A cistern to act as a 
reservoir for the water; pipes (generally 
two in number), through which it descends; 
and a wind chest to allow the air and water 
to separate, constitute the essential parts 
of the apparatus. It is put in operation by 
lifting the wedge with a lever; this allows 
the- water to rush down the pipe, and, in 
doing so, draws in air through sloping 
holes, called aspirators, at the throat of the 
pipe. A continuous current of water and 
air is thus supplied to the wind chest, which 
is provided with an opening for the escape 
of the water, while the air passes out in a 
regular stream by the nozzle pipe. The 
height from which the water falls deter¬ 
mines the tension of the blast; but the 
height seldoms exceeds 27 feet, which gives 
a pressure of from 1 y 2 to 2 pounds to the 
square inch. The separation of the air 
from the water is greatly promoted by the 
current impinging on the platform. 

Fans .— The fan is another machine for 
producing blasts of air. It is employed for 
such purposes as the melting of pig iron 
in foundries and for forge fires. It is also 
used as an exhaust to withdraw foul air 
from mines, public buildings, and ships. 
For mines it is occasionally of a very large 
size. The winnowing of corn is another 
application of it. The common blast fan is 
like a wheel with the arms tipped with 
vanes or blades, instead of being joined by 
a rim, and it is placed usually in an ec¬ 
centric position, inside a chest, with central 
openings on each side for the admission of 
air. It is generally driven by steam power, 
and as it revolves, air is sucked in at the 
center, drawn toward.the tips, and impelled 
forward through the exit pipe. Blast fans 
seldom exceed 3 feet in diameter. The 
number of revolutions made per minute 
ranges from 700 to 1.800; but the pressure 
of the fan blast does not usually go beyond 
6 ounces per square inch for ordinary 
foundry cupolas. Schiele’s fan has numer¬ 
ous curved blades, and is nearly noiseless. 
It does not require much power to drive it, 
and has been very much used. Lloyd’s fan 
has also curved blades, but they are fewer 
in number than in Schiele’s. 

Rotary Pressure Bloioers .— These are 
machines introduced in comparatively re¬ 
cent years. They act by regular displace¬ 
ment of the air at each resolution, since 
their pistons or drums closely fit their 
cases. In this respect they differ from fans, 
because, although there were no outlet for 
the blast, a fan could be kept revolving, 
but in such a case a pressure blower would 
stop. The rotary blower of Boots, of Con- 
nersville, Ind., is one of the best known, 
and is now very largely used for producing 
blasts in metallurgical operations, as well 
as for other purposes# in the United States 


and Europe. Its most improved form con¬ 
sists of a pair of horizontal shafts travers¬ 
ing a case of the form of two semi-cylinders, 
separated by a rectangle equal in depth to 
the diameter of the semi-cylinders, and In 
width to the distance between the centers 
of the shafts. These shafts carry a pair 
of solid arms or pistons, the relative posi¬ 
tions of which are maintained by external 
gearing at both ends provided with safety 
coverings. Each has a section somewhat 
resembling the figure “ 8 ” and the action 
of which, as they revolve, takes the air 
in by an aperture at the bottom of the. 
machine, and expels it with considerable 
pressure, if required, at the top. It gives 
a much greater pressure of blast than is 
attainable by the fan. Another machine of 
this kind, designed by J. G. Baker, of 
Philadelphia, is employed for the same pur¬ 
poses as Boot’s. It has a central drum 
with two vanes fairly fitting the two ends 
and the bored semi-cylindrical top of the 
case. Two lower drums, crescent shaped 
in section, work by external gears at double 
the velocity of the central drum, the varies 
of which move successively through the 
opening in each of the lower drums. The 
latter turn so as alternately to form abut¬ 
ments to prevent escape of air from either 
the entrance or delivery side. These rotary 
blowers produce blasts from a few ounces 
up to 3 pounds per square inch. 

Blowitz, Henry Georges Stephane 
Adolphe Opper de, a French journalist, 
born in Pilsen, Austria, Sept. 28, 1832; 
settled in France; was successively ap¬ 
pointed Professor of German in the Lvc£e 
of Tours and at Limoges, Poitiers, and 
Marseilles; was naturalized a French citi¬ 
zen in 1870; and became the Paris corre¬ 
spondent of the London “Times” in 1871. 
He was noted for his success in obtain¬ 
ing secret and important information long 
before it was ready for official promulga¬ 
tion; and for his personal interviews with 
the most eminent men of the time in 
Europe. Many of his disclosures in his 
letters to the “ Times,” such as the text of 
the Treaty of Berlin, which he forwarded 
before it had been signed, created much 
excitement throughout Europe. ' He con¬ 
tributed more than 4.000 columns to the 
“ Times;” was made an officer of the Legion 
of Honor, an officer of the Institute of 
France, and a doctor of philosophy; and 
published several works on the affairs of 
Europe. He died Jan. 18, 1903. 

Blowpipe, a small instrument used in 
the arts for glass blowing and soldering 
metals, and in analytical chemistry and 
mineralogy, for determining the nature of 
substances by the action of an intense and 
continuous heat. Its utility depends on the 
fact, that when a jet of air or oxygen is 
thrown into a flame, the rapidity of com- 



Blowpipe 


Blowpipe 


bustion is increased, while the effects are 
concentrated by diminishing the extent or 
space originally occupied by the flame. 

The blowpipe generally consists of a 
conical tube of metal, about eight inches 
long, closed at the wider or lower end, 
but open at the narrow or upper end, which 
latter constitutes the mouthpiece, and is 
turned over to admit of the lips closing 
perfectly round it. Near the lower end, a 
small tube, fitted with a small platinum 
tip, is inserted in the large tube — the 
space below being intended as a chamber for 
condensing the moisture of the breath, 
and through this tip, a fine current of air 
can be projected against the flame experi¬ 
mented with. 

The use of the mouth blowpipe, so as 
to sustain a prolonged steady blast, re¬ 
quires some skill, and is at first very fa¬ 
tiguing to the learner. In breathing, the 
manipulator involuntarily closes the back 
of the mouth, retaining in the expanded 



Fig. 1. 

BLOWPIPE. 

Fig. 1.—A, conical tube. B, small tube. C, platinum 
tip. D, mouth piece. 

Fig. 2. — Blow-pipe in use. A—B, oxidizing flame. 

C, reducing flame. 

cheeks sufficient air to last till the lungs 
have been replenished through the nose. 
Where high temperatures are required me¬ 
chanical blowpipes are resorted to. 

When a current of air from the blowpipe 
is directed against a candle or gas jet, the 
flame almost entirely loses its luminosity, 
owing to the perfect combustion of the 
gases evolved from the source of heat, and 
is projected in a lateral direction, as a 
long, pointed cone, consisting of three dis¬ 
tinct parts. The first or central cone is of 
a dark blue color, and there the combustion 
is complete from the excess of air thrown 
in from the small nozzle. The second cone, 
or that immediately surrounding the first, 
is somewhat luminous; and here the oxygen 
being insufficient for the combustion of the 
carbon, any metallic oxide subjected to the 
action of this portion of the flame is de¬ 
prived of its oxygen, and reduced to the 
condition of metal; for this reason the 


luminous cone is generally termed the 
reducing flame of the blowpipe. Beyond 
the second cone, or where the flame comes 
freely in contact with the atmosphere, and 
abundance of oxygen is present to effect 
complete combustion of the gases, is a 
third, or pale yellow envelope, containing 
excess of atmospheric air at a very high 
temperature, so that a portion of metal, 
such as lead or copper, placed at this point, 
becomes rapidly converted into its oxide; 
this outer part of the flame is on this 
account called the oxidizing flame of the 
blowpipe. 

Substances under examination before the 
blowpipe are generally supported either on 
wood-charcoal or platinum —- the latter in 
the condition of wire or foil. In applying 
the blowpipe test, the body to be examined 
is either heated alone, or along with some 
flux or fusible substance; this being added, 
in some cases, for the purpose of assisting 
in the reduction of metals from their ores 
and other compounds: in others, for the 
production of a transparent, glassy bead, 
in which different colors can be readily 
observed. When heated alone, a loop of 
platinum wire, or a piece of charcoal, is 
generally employed as a support; the for¬ 
mer when the color of the flame is to be 
regarded as the characteristic reaction, the 
latter when such effects as the oxidation 
or reduction of metallic substances are to 
be observed. 

The following are examples of the differ¬ 
ence in color communicated to the flame 
by different substances: Salts of potash 
color the flame violet; soda, yellow; lithia, 
purplish red; baryta, yellowish green; 
strontia, carmine; lime, brick red; com¬ 
pounds of phosphoric acid, boracic acid, 
and copper, green. The commonly occur¬ 
ring metallic oxides reducible by heating 
on charcoal alone in the inner flame of 
the blowpipe are the oxides of zinc, silver, 
lead, copper, bismuth, and antimony; the 
principal ores not so reducible are the 
alkalies and alkaline earths, as also the 
oxides of iron, manganese, and chromium. 
The fluxes generally used in blowpipe ex¬ 
periments are either carbonate of soda, 
borax (biborate of soda), or the ammonia 
phosphate of soda, otherwise called micro- 
cosmic salt. The carbonate of soda, when 
heated on platinum wire in the oxidizing 
flame, forms with silica a colorless glass; 
with oxide of antimony, a white bead, etc. 
The following metals are reduced from their 
compounds when heated with carbonate of 
soda on charcoal in the inner flame of the 
blowpipe: viz., nickel, cobalt, iron, molyb¬ 
denum, tungsten, copper, tin, silver, gold, 
and platinum. When compounds of zinc, 
lead, bismuth, arsenic, antimony, tellurium, 
and cadmium are similarly treated, these 
metals are also formed, but being volatile, 









Blowpipe 


Bliicher 


pass off in vapor at the high temperature 
to which they are exposed. 

Borax, as a llux, is generally mixed with 
the substance under examination, and 
placed on platinum wire. When thus heated 
in either of the flames, baryta, strontia, 
lime, magnesia, alumina, and silica yield 
colorless beads; cobalt gives a fine blue 
color; copper, a green, etc. With micro- 
cosmic salt, the results obtained are gener¬ 
ally similar to those with borax, and need 
not be especially mentioned, as the test is 
applied in the same way. The blowpipe 
has been long used by goldsmiths and jewel¬ 
ers for soldering metals, and by glass 
blowers in fusing and sealing glass tubes, 
etc.; it has also been applied in qualitative 
analysis for many years, but more recently 
chemists (especially Plattner) have de¬ 
voted their attention to its use, and have 
even employed it with great success in 
quantitative chemical»analysis; the advan¬ 
tages being that only a very small quan¬ 
tity of material is required to be operated 
upon, while the results may be obtained 
with great rapidity and considerable ac¬ 
curacy. 

The oxyhydrogen blowpipe is an arrange¬ 
ment by which a jet of oxygen and hydro¬ 
gen, in the proportions to form water, is 
ignited and directed against any object. 
The most intense heat is produced, most 
of the metals being volatilized when placed 
in it, and even the diamond changes into 
ordinary carbon, and is burned when ex¬ 
posed to its flame. When a cylinder of 
quicklime is heated by it, a most dazzling 
light is produced, rivalling the electric light 
in brilliancy, and known as the calcium 
light. 

Blowpipe, a kind of weapon much used 
by some of the Indian tribes of South 
America, both in war and for killing game. 
It consists of a long, straight tube, in which 
a small poisoned arrow is placed, and forci¬ 
bly expelled by the breath. The tube or 
blowpipe, called gravathna, pucuna, etc., is 
8 to 12 feet long, the bore not generally 
large enough to admit the little finger. It 
is made of reed or of the stem of a small 
palm. Near Para, it is in general very 
ingeniously and nicely made of two stems 
of a palm (iriartea setigera) of different 
diameters, the one fitted into the other. 
In some places the inner tube is formed of 
the thin stem of a reed, protected by an 
outer one of this palm. A sight is affixed 
to it near the end The arrows used in 
that district are 15 to 18 inches long, made 
of the spines of another palm, sharply 
pointed, notched so as to break off in the 
wound, and their points covered with curari 
poison. A little soft down of the silk 
cotton tree is twisted round each arrow, so 
as exactly to fit the tube. In Peru, arrows 
of only to 2 inches long are used, and 


a different kind of poison seems to be em¬ 
ployed. An accidental wound from one of 
these poisoned arrows not infrequently 
proves fatal. In the hand of a practiced 
Indian, the blowpipe is a very deadly 
weapon, and particularly when directed 
against birds sitting in the tops of high 
trees. As his weapon makes no noise, the 
hunter often empties his quiver before he 
gathers up the game, and does more exe¬ 
cution than an English sportsman could 
with his double barreled fowling piece. In 
Borneo, the Dyaks have a similar blowpipe 
called a sumpitan. It, however, has an iron 
spear head tied on the end so that it can 
be used as a spear. It is employed both in 
war and hunting. Small arrows, which 
have on their end a piece of pith adapted 
to the bore of the tube, are used. These 
are pointed with sharp fish teeth and 
poisoned with upas. They are blown with 
great accuracy; and if the upas juice is 
fresh, a wound from an arrow, fired at a 
distance of 40 yards, proves fatal to man. 

Blubber, the fat of whales and other 
large sea animals, from which train oil is 
obtained. The blubber lies under the skin 
and over the muscular flesh. It is eaten by 
the Eskimos and the seacoast races of the 
Japanese Islands, the Kuriles, etc. The 
whole quantity yielded by one whale ordi¬ 
narily amounts to 40 or 50, but sometimes 
to 80 or more hundred weights. 

Bliicher, Gebhard Leberecht von (bltt- 

cher), a distinguished Prussian General, 
born at Rostock, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
Dec. 16, 1742. He entered the Swedish 
service when 14 years of age and fought 
against the Prussians, but was taken pris¬ 
oner in his first campaign, and was induced 
to enter the Prussian service. Discon¬ 
tented at the promotion of another officer 
over his head, he left the army, devoted 
himself to agriculture, and by industry and 
prudence acquired an estate. After tbo 
death of Frederick II. he became a Major 
in his former regiment, which he com¬ 
manded with distinction on the Rhine 
in 1793 and 1794. After the battle of 
Kirrweiler in 1794 he was appointed Major- 
General of the Army of Observation sta¬ 
tioned on the Lower Rhine. In 1802, in the 
name of the King of Prussia, he took pos¬ 
session of Erfurt and Miihlhausen. Oct. 
14, 1806, he fought at the battle of Auer- 
stadt. After the Peace of Tilsit he served 
in the Department of War at Konigsberg 
and Berlin. He then received the chief 
military command in Pomerania, but at the 
instigation of Napoleon was afterward, with 
several other distinguished men, dismissed 
from the service. In the campaign of 1812, 
when the Prussians assisted the French, he 
took no part; but no sooner did Prussia 
rise against her oppressors than Blffcher, 



Blue 


Blue 


then 70 years old, engaged in the cause 
with all his former activity, and was ap¬ 
pointed commander-in-chief of the Prus¬ 
sians and the Russian corps under General 
Winzingerode. His heroism in the battle 
of Liitzen (May 2, 1813), was rewarded by 
the Emperor Alexander with the Order of 
St. George. The battles of Bautzen and 
Hanau, those on the Katzbacli and Leipsic, 
added to his glory. He was now raised to 
the rank of Field-Marshal, and led the 
Prussian army which invaded France early 
in 1814. After a period of obstinate con¬ 
flict the day of Montmartre crowned this 
campaign, and, March 31, Bliicher entered 
the capital of France. His King, in re¬ 
membrance of the victory which he had 
gained at the Katzbach, created him Prince 
of Wahlstadt, and gave him an estate in 
Silesia. On the renewal of the war in 
1815 the chief command was again com¬ 
mitted to him, and he led his army into 
the Netherlands. June 15 Napoleon threw 
himself upon him, and Bliicher, on the 16tli, 
was defeated at Lignv. In this engagement 
his horse was killed, and he was thrown 
under his body. In the battle of the 18th 
Bliicher arrived at the most decisive mo¬ 
ment upon the ground, and taking Napoleon 
in the rear and flank assisted materially in 
completing the great victory of Belle Al¬ 
liance or Waterloo. He was a rough and 
fearless soldier, noted for his energy and 
rapid movements, which had procured him 
the name of Marshal Vorwiirts (Forward). 
He died at Ivrieblowitz, Silesia, Sept. 12, 
1819. 

Blue, one of the seven colors into which 
the rays of light divide themselves when 
refracted through a glass prism, seen in 
nature in the clear expanse of the heavens; 
also a dye or pigment of this hue. The 
blue pigments in common use by artists 
are few in number, and consist of native 
and artificial ultramarine, cobalt, indigo, 
and Prussian blue. Genuine ultramarine, 
prepared from the mineral lapis lazuli, and 
ordinary cobalt blue, sold for artists’ work, 
are permanent colors. They are used either 
alone, or mixed with other pigments, chiefly 
for skies and distances in landscape, and 
by themselves, or to make up grays ana 
other mixed tints in figure painting. Ow¬ 
ing to the exceptionally high price of real 
ultramarine, the artificial color, which is 
of doubtful permanency, is usually substi¬ 
tuted for it. Prussian blue and indigo are 
highly useful colors, since it is only these 
that yield dark blues, and only from them, 
mixed with yellows or browns, that strong 
greens can be obtained. It is unfortunate 
accordingly that both are more or less 
fugitive. All the blues above named are 
used both in oil and water color painting, 
but indigo less than the others in oil, since 
it is most apt to fade in that medium. 


A number of different names are used in 
commerce for what is essentially the same 
pigment, or for pigments closely resembling 
one another. The following statement gives 
some explanation of these: Cobalt blues 
are mixtures of cobalt with earthy or 
metallic bases, which have been subjected 
to the action of heat, and have received 
the following names: Cobalt blue, cerulean 
blue, royal blue, Dumont’s blue, Saxon blue, 
Thenard’s blue, Leithner’s blue, Hungary 
blue, Zaffre or enamel blue, Vienna blue, 
azure blue, and Paris blue. The last name 
is also applied to a Prussian blue, and azure 
is also given to a variety of ultramarine 
blue. Smalt is a powdered cobalt glass used 
in illumination and flower painting. Arti¬ 
ficial ultramarine is also called French 
ultramarine, French blue, new blue, and 
permanent blue. Coarse qualities of this 
color are largely used by house painters. 
Intense blue is a refined indigo. Prussian 
blue (sesqui-ferrocyanide of iron) is other¬ 
wise named Berlin blue, Paris blue, and 
ferrocyanide of iron. The name Paris blue 
is also given to a cobalt color. Antwerp 
blue is a variety of Prussian blue made 
lighter by the addition of an aluminous 
base, and not so permanent. Blue ochre 
(hydrated phosphate of iron) is a subdued 
permanent blue, but not much employed. 
Blue verditer is a hydrated oxide of copper 
which changes and ultimately blackens by 
time. It is used in distemper work and 
paper staining. 

Blue, Victor, an American naval officer, 
born in Marion, S. C., Dec. 6, 1865; en¬ 
tered the United States Naval Academy in 
1883; was commissioned a passed naval 
cadet in 1887; transferred to the Engineer 
Corps in 1889, and promoted to Ensign, 
Dec. 12, 1892. After serving on the “Al¬ 
liance ” and “ Thetis ” he was assigned to 
duty at the Naval Academy in *18-96, and 
early in 1898 was promoted to Lieutenant, 
junior grade. Soon after the declaration of 
Avar against Spain he Avas promoted to full 
Lieutenant, and was assigned to the gun¬ 
boat “ SuAvanee.” During the bombardment 
of the harbor defenses of Santiago de Cuba, 
Commander Delehanty of the “ SuAvanee,” 
being ordered by Rear-Admiral Sampson 
to get positiA 7 e assurance of the presence of 
the Spanish ships under Cervera in the 
blockaded harbor, assigned the task to his 
second officer, Lieutenant Blue. The latter 
landed at AserA^aderos and Avent inland to 
the camp of the insurgent General, Rabi, 
Avho furnished him Avith a guide and a mule 
and sent him on to an insurgent post nearer 
Santiago. There he found three other 
guides Avith Avhom he made his way through 
the Spanish lines to a hill top overlooking 
the bay, where he discovered the vessels as 
was supposed. He was back at Rabi’s camp 
the next evening and reported on the 



Blue Beard 


Bluefields 


“ Suwanee ” the following morning after a 
daring journey of 72 miles through the 
enemy’s country. For this feat he was 
highly commended both by Rear-Admiral 
Sampson and the Secretary of the Navy. 
He subsequently made a second trip into 
the interior, on a confidential mission to 
the insurgent General, Gomez. After the 
war he was presented with a gold medal by 
the women of South Carolina and with a 
handsome sword by the Legislature of his 
native State. 

Blue Beard, the name of the blood thirsty 
husband in the familiar tale of “ Blue 
Beard,” best described in Perrault’s “Tales” 
(1097). The original of this montrous per¬ 
sonage was a character celebrated in Breton 
legend, Gilles de Laval, Baron de Retz 
(1390-1440), famous in the wars of Charles 
VII. According to tradition he used to 
entice the children of peasants into his 
castle, and there sacrifice them to the Devil 
and practice sorcery with their remains. 
After 14 years of such a course he grew 
so bold that his crimes were discovered, and 
a heap of children’s bones found in his 
castle. He was condemned to death, 
strangled, and his corpse burned at the 
stake at Nantes in 1440. Another Breton 
legend represents de Retz with a red beard 
about to marry a beautiful girl after hav¬ 
ing already made away with seven wives. 
The bride expostulates at the altar. De 
Reiz offers her fine clothes, castles, all his 
possessions, finally his body and soul. “ I 
accept! ” shrieks the bride, turning into a 
blue devil and making a sign which trans¬ 
forms de Retz’s beard from red to blue. 
Henceforth he belonged to Hell, and became 
the dread of the country round, under the 
name of Blue Beard. Frescoes of the 13th 
century have been found in Morbihan, Brit¬ 
tany, representing scenes from the similar 
legend of St. Trophime. The story of Blue 
Beard has been the subject of numerous 
plays. 

Bluebell (so called from the color and 
shape of the flowers), the English name of 
the plant genus agraphis, and especially of 
the wild hyacinth ( agraphis nutans of 
Link, scilla nutans of Smith, hyacinthus 
nonscriptus of Linnams). The bluebell of 
Scotland is the round leaved bell flower or 
harebell ( campanula rotundifolia ). 

Blue Berry, a name given in the United 
States to the genus vacciniuni, that which 
contains the bilberry, called in Scotland the 
blae berry ( vacciniuni myrtillus ). The 
commonest species are V. pcnnsylvanicum 
and V. resinosum. 

Blue Bird, a beautiful bird, the sylvia 
sialis of Wilson. Its whole upper parts are 
sky blue, shot with purple, with its throat, 
neck, breast, and sides reddish chestnut, 
and part of its wings and its tail feathers 


black. It is about 714 inches long. It has 
a soft, warbling note, which is one of the 
first harbingers of spring. 

Blue Book, a printed volume, issued by 
authority of the British Parliament con¬ 
taining a report. This application of the 
term has since been extended to include a 
great variety of English Governmental pub¬ 
lications, reports and documents. The ori¬ 
gin of the term is sufficiently obvious, blue 
covers having characterized the Parliament¬ 
ary reports in England for centuries. In 
the United States and in many English 
colonies, the word blue book is sometimes 
employed in a sense akin to that attached 
to it in the mother country. 

Blue Bottle, a two-winged fly, musca 
( lucilia) ccesar, the body of which lias 
some faint resemblance to a bottle of blue 
glass. Also the centaurea cyanus, more 
fully named the corn blue bottle, from its 
being found chiefly in corn fields. It be' 
longs to the order asteracecc (composites), 
and the sub-order tubuliflorce. It is from 
2 to 3 feet high, with florets of the 
disk, which are small and purple, and those 
of the ray few, larger and bright blue. It 
is common in the United States and Eu¬ 
rope. 

Blue Disease, a condition in which the 
most prominent symptom is a peculiar dis¬ 
coloration of the skin and mucous mem¬ 
branes, due to the circulation of dark or 
venous blood in the vessels. It is also called 
cyanosis. 

Blue Eye ( entomyza cyanotis), a beau¬ 
tiful little bird, abundant and very gen- 
erally dispersed in New South Wales, al¬ 
though not found in Victoria. It is one of 
the honey eaters, or honey suckers, and is 
sometimes called the blue cheeked honey 
eater. It seeks its food almost exclusively 
among the blossoms and small leafy 
branches of gum trees, and finds it partly 
in insects and partly in nectar, though per¬ 
haps also in berries. It is a bold and 
spirited bird, of most elegant and graceful 
movements. Numbers are often seen to¬ 
gether clinging and hanging in every va¬ 
riety of position, frequently at the extreme 
ends of the small thickly flowered branches, 
bending them down with their weight. 

Bluefields, town, seaport, and capital of 
the former Mosquito Indian Reservation; 
now the Department of Zelaya, Nicaragua, 
on the Atlantic coast near the mouth of the 
Bluefields river, and 165 miles E. of Mana¬ 
gua. The reservation lies along the Atlan¬ 
tic coast extending S. almost to Graytown, 
one of the termini of the projected Nic¬ 
aragua canal. For many years Great 
Britain maintained a protectorate over the 
reservation, which at one time belonged to 
Honduras. The interest of the United 



Blue Fish 


Blue Mantie 


States in the proposed interoceanic canal 
long ago gave its people much concern 
about the future of the reservation and its 
capital. In 1893, when the war broke out 
between Nicaragua and Honduras, the 
United States Government sent a war ves¬ 
sel to Bluefields to protect the large Ameri¬ 
can commercial interests there. Early in 
the following year Nicaragua took posses¬ 
sion of the town and proclaimed martial 
law. Chief Clarence protested to Great 
Britain against the usurpation of his rights 
and British war vessels were sent to the 
reservation and re-established Clarence in 
authority. During 1893-1896 the reserva¬ 
tion and its capital were the subjects of 
much controversy between the United States, 
Great Britain, Nicaragua, and the natives 
of the reservation. On Nov. 20, 1894, a 
convention of Mosquito delegates agreed to 
submit to the authority and laws of Nic¬ 
aragua and changed the name of the reser¬ 
vation to the Department of Zelaya in 
honor of the President of Nicaragua. The 
deposed Chief, Clarence, was taken from 
Bluefields to Jamaica in a warship and has 
since lived there under an allowance of 
the British Government. 

Blue Fish, a species of coryphcena found 
in the Atlantic; also, a fish like a mackerel 
but larger, found on the Atlantic coast, and 
sometimes called horse mackerel and salt 
water tailor. 

Blue Gowns, the name commonly given 
to a class of privileged mendicants in Scot¬ 
land. The proper designation of these 
paupers was the King’s Bedesmen, or Beads¬ 
men. In ancient times, a beadsman was 
a person employed to pray for another. 
From practices of this kind, there sprang 
up a custom in Scotland of appointing 
beadsmen with a small royal bounty, who 
ultimately degenerated into a class of au¬ 
thorized mendicants. Each of the beads¬ 
men on his majesty’s birthday received a 
gown or cloak of blue cloth, with a loaf 
of bread, a bottle of ale, and a leathern 
purse containing a penny for every year 
of the king’s life. Every birthday, an¬ 
other beadsman was added to the number, 
as a penny was added to each man’s purse. 
The most important part of the privilege 
was a large pewter badge, attached to the 
breast of the gown, which, besides the name 
of the bearer, had the inscription, “ Pass 
and Repass.” This inferred the privilege 
of begging, and bespoke the kindly con¬ 
sideration of all to whom the beadsman ap¬ 
pealed for an alms or a night’s lodging. 

Blue Grass, a grass cultivated for pas¬ 
turage in Northern and Central Kentucky, 
deriving its name from the underlying 
strata of blue limestone which gives it a 
luxuriant growth, and distinguished from 
other species by flat panicles, smooth culms 


and sheaths, and short, blunt ligules. The 
blue grass region, which occupies about 
10,000 square miles in Northern Kentucky, 
is an undulating and fertile plateau sur¬ 
rounded by hills. The soil is very rich, and 
agriculture, especially the raising of to¬ 
bacco and hemp, is carried on with great 
success. Its characteristic feature, how¬ 
ever, consists of the celebrated pastures of 
blue grass, which support the horses and 
other live stock for which Kentucky is fa¬ 
mous. Stock farms abound throughout the 
whole district, especially in the neighbor¬ 
hood of Lexington. 

Blue Hen State, a sobriquet for the 
State of Delaware. During the War for 
Independence, a certain popular officer of 
Delaware, named Captain Caldwell, as¬ 
serted that a game cock to be unconquer¬ 
able must be “ a blue hen’s chicken.” This 
name was at once applied to his regiment 
and later to the State and its people. 

Blue Jay (cyanocitta cristata), a com¬ 
mon North American bird of the crow fam¬ 
ily, and occupying in the New World the 
place held by the jays ( garrulus ) of the 
Old. In the United States the blue jay is 
sometimes persecuted, sometimes protected, 
becoming as shy and cunning in the one 
case as he is familiar and impudent in the 
other. They are mischievous birds, but de¬ 
vour large numbers of injurious caterpil¬ 
lars. The length of the bird is almost a 
foot; the color is grayish purple above, 
black on the neck, lilac brown to white 
below. The common blue jay has a wide 
distribution, and there are several other 
North American species. The long tailed blue 
jays belong to a rarer genus ( Xanthura ) 
found in Central and in South America. 

Blue Laws, a name given to certain rul¬ 
ings or decisions of colonial magistrates! 
reported by Rev. Samuel A. Peters, a 
Church of England clergyman, of Connecti¬ 
cut, as the actual laws of the New Haven 
colony. Though one of them forbade a wo¬ 
man to kiss her child on the Sabbath or a 
fast day, and another provided in what 
fashion men should cut their hair, they 
have been soberly accepted by great num¬ 
bers of people as actually enacted laws, 
illustrative of Puritan illiberality. They 
appear in Peters’ “ General History of Con¬ 
necticut,” and were evidently a somewhat 
spiteful satire upon the Puritan legislation, 
which contained many statutes concerning 
Sabbath observances and the vices of drink¬ 
ing and gambling that would now be 
deemed inquisitorial. The term is generally 
applied to any law one does not like that 
affects personal habits. 

Blue Light. See Bengal Light. 

Blue Mantle, one of the English pursui¬ 
vants at arms, connected with the Heralds’ 
College. 



Blue Monday 


Blum 


Blue Monday, in Bavaria and some other 
parts of Europe, a name formerly given 
to the Monday before Lent, when the 
churches were decorated with blue. It was 
kept as a holiday by classes whose ordinary 
avocation required them to labor on Sun¬ 
days. As this led to violent disturbances 
the custom was legally abolished. The term 
now signifies a Monday of depression, or 
blue spirits, particularly among clergymen, 
but is very loosely used. 

Blue Mountains, a beautiful wooded 
range of mountains in Oregon, from 8,000 
to 9,000 feet high, which, with the Powder 
River Mountains, separate the Columbia 
vallev from the Great Basin. 

Blue Mountains, the central mountain 
range of Jamaica, the main ridges of which 
are from 6,000 to 8,000 feet high. Also a 
mountain chain of New South Wales, part 
of the great Dividing Range. The highest 
peaks rise over 4,000 feet above the sea. 
The range is now traversed by a railway, 
which attains a maximum height of 3,494 
feet. 

Blue Peter (a corruption of blue re¬ 
peater, one of the British signal flags), a 
flag, blue with a white square in the center 
used as a signal for sailing, for recalling 
boats, etc. 

Blue Pill (pilula hydrargyri), a pill made 
by rubbing two ounces of mercury with 
three of confection of roses till the globules 
disappear, and then adding one of liquorice 
root to form a mass. It is given when the 
secretion of the liver is defective as a 
“ chologogue purgative,” i. e., as a purgative 
designed to promote evacuation of the bile. 

Blue Point, the S. extremity of Pateh- 
ogue Bay, Long Island, N. Y., which lends 
its name to the well known oysters — 
blue points. 

Blue Print, a positive photographic print 
from a transparent negative. 

Blue Print Paper, paper sensitized by 
potassium ferricyanide and citric acid; 
used for making blue print photographs and 
print plans, mechanical drawings, etc., giv¬ 
ing white lines on blue ground. 

Blue Ridge, the most easterly range of 
the Alleghany Mountains. It forms the 
continuation of the chain called South 
Mountain in Pennsylvania and Maryland. 
It is known as the Blue Ridge till it crosses 
the James river; thence to North Carolina 
as Alleghany Mountains; and in North 
Carolina again as Blue Ridge. 

Blue Stocking, a literary woman, gener¬ 
ally with the imputation that she is more 
or less pedantic. Boswell, in his “ Life of 
Johnson,” states that in his day there were 
certain meetings held by ladies to afford 
them opportunity of holding converse with 
eminent literary men. The most distin¬ 


guished talker at these gatherings was a 
Mr. Stillingfleet, who always wore blue 
stockings. His absence was so felt that the 
remark became common, “ We can do noth¬ 
ing without the blue stockings.” Hence 
the meetings at which he figured began to 
be called sportively Blue Stocking Clubs, 
and those who frequented them blue stock¬ 
ings. 

Blue Tit, or Blue Titmouse, a bird, 
called also blue tomtit, blue cap, blue bon¬ 
net, hick mall billy biter and ox eye. It is the 
yarns cceruleus of Linnreus. It has the upper 
part of the head light blue, encircled with 
white; a band around the neck and the 
spaces before and behind the eye of a 
duller blue; cheeks white; back light, yel¬ 
lowish green, the lower parts pale, grayish 
yellow; the middle of the breast dull blue. 
The male is more brightly colored than the 
female. Average length to end of tail, 
which is rather long: male 4% inches; ex¬ 
pansion of wings, 7%; female, 4 7-12 
inches; expansion of wings, 7%. It builds 
its nest in the chink of a wall, under eai^es 
or thatch, or in a hole of a tree, and lays 
from 6 to 8, some say 12 or even 20, eggs 
of a slightly reddish color, marked all over 
with irregular small spots of light red. 

Blum, Ernest (bliim), a French dra¬ 
matist, born in Paris, Aug. 15, 1836. 

Either alone or in collaboration with other 
dramatists he is author of many highly 
successful plays. The drama of “ Rose 
Michel” (1877), of his own composition, 
insured his place among the most success¬ 
ful French dramatists of the time. Among 
his later compositions are “Adam and 
Eve” (1886); “The Nervous Woman” 
(1888) ; “End of the Century” (1890). 

Blum, Robert, a German Liberal leader, 
born in very humble circumstances at 
Cologne, Nov. 10, 1807 ; was secretary and 
treasurer of a theater at Cologne, and sub¬ 
sequently at Leipsic, until 1847, when he 
established himself as bookseller and pub¬ 
lisher. His leisure was devoted to literature 
and politics, and in 1840 he founded at 
Leipsic the Schiller Society, which cele¬ 
brated the poet’s anniversary, as a festival 
in honor of political liberty. When the 
revolutionary movement broke out in 1848, 
Blum was one of its most energetic leaders. 
He was elected one of the Vice-Presidents 
of the Provisional Parliament at Frank¬ 
fort, and as such ruled that turbulent as¬ 
sembly by presence of mind and a stentorian 
voice. In the National Assembly he became 
leader of the Left, and was one of the 
bearers of a congratulatory address from 
the Left to the people of Vienna, when they 
rose in October. At Vienna ho joined the 
insurgents, was arrested, and was shot on 
Nov. 9. Blum was a man of strong char¬ 
acter, great natural intelligence, and stir- 



Blumenbach 


Bluntschli 


ring eloquence. The news of his execution 
excited great indignation among the Demo¬ 
crats in Germany, who, besides instituting 
commemorations for the dead, made an 
ample subscription for his widow and chil¬ 
dren. 

Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich (blo'- 
men-ba6h), a German naturalist, born in 
Gotha, May 11, 1752. He studied at Jena 
and Gottingen, and wrote, on the occasion 
of his graduation as M. D., a remarkable 
thesis on the varieties of the human race. 
He became Professor of Medicine, Librarian, 
and Keeper of the Museum at Gottingen in 
1778, where he lectured for 50 years. His 
principal works are the “ Institutions 
Physiologies,” long a common text book; 
“ Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie ” 
(“ Handbook of Comparative Anatomy ”), 
the best treatise that had appeared up to 
its date; and “ Collectio Craniorum Di- 
versarum Gentium.” The last work, pub¬ 
lished between 1790 and 1828, gives descrip¬ 
tions and figures of his extensive collec¬ 
tion of skulls, still preserved at Gottingen. 
He advocated the doctrine of the unity of 
the human species, which he divided into 
five varieties, Caucasian, Mongolian, Negro, 
American, and Malay. His anthropological 
treatises, and memoirs of his life by Marx 
and Flourens, were translated into English. 
He died in Gottingen, Jan. 22, 1840. 

Blumenreich, Franziska (blo'men-rich), 
a German novelist, born in Bohemia, April 
2, 1849. Among her very numerous novels 
the more notable are “ At the Abyss of 
Marriage ” (1888) ; “ Freighted with Bliss ” 
(1890); “ Storms in Port” (1892). She 
is a zealous advocate of woman’s rights. 

Blumenthal, Oskar (blo'men-tal), a Ger¬ 
man dramatist and critic, born in Berlin, 
March 13, 1852. Sprightliness of dialogue 
is the most distinguishing character of his 
plays; the most successful of them are “ The 
Big Bell,” “ A Drop of Poison,” “ The Black 
Veil.” He has published several volumes 
of critical and miscellaneous essays. 

Blumlisalp (blumTes-alp), a group of 
mountain peaks in the Bernese Oberland in 
the S. of Switzerland, S. W. of the Jungfrau. 
The highest peak, the Bliimlisalphhorn, is 
about i2,000 feet in altitude. 

Blunderbuss, a short gun, unrifled and 
of large bore, widening toward the muzzle. 
It is by no means to be ranked with arms 
of precision, but is loaded with many balls 
or slugs, which scatter when fired, so that 
there is a certainty of some one of them 
hitting the mark. 

Blunt, Edmund March, an American 
author, born in Portsmouth, N. H., June 
20, 1770; was noted for his publication of 
the “ American Coast Pilot” (1796), de¬ 
scribing all the coasts of the United States, 
and containing a vast amount of invalua¬ 


ble information for seamen. More than 30 
editions of this work have been published, 
and it is still in use in the United States 
and the principal European countries, hav¬ 
ing been translated into nearly every for¬ 
eign language. He also compiled a number 
of nautical books and charts. He died in 
Sing Sing, N. Y., Jan. 2, 1862. 

Blunt, George William, an American 

hydrographer, born in Newburyport, Mass., 
March 11, 1802; a son of Edmund March 
Blunt. He went to sea when 14 years old 
and served as a sailor till nearly 21; and 
in 1822-1866 was a publisher of charts and 
nautical books in New York. He made 
original survevs of many American har- 
bors; was one of the committee that or¬ 
ganized the present system of pilotage for 
New York city; made several revisions of 
the “ American Coast Pilot; ” and was in¬ 
fluential in causing the Federal Govern¬ 
ment to adopt the French system of light¬ 
houses and to organize the Lighthouse 
Board. He died in New York city, April 
19, 1878. 

Blunt, Stanhope English, an Ameri¬ 
can military officer; born in Boston, Mass., 
Sept. 29, 1850; was graduated at the United 
States Military Academy and commissioned 
2d lieutenant in 1872. He rose through 
the ranks to major in the ordnance depart¬ 
ment. He served at various posts and ar¬ 
senals in the West; was a member of sever¬ 
al boards, including that which selected the 
Krag-Jorgensen rifle for use in the army; 
and had command of the Rock Island Ar¬ 
senal, Ill. He wrote “ Firing Regulations 
for Small Arms,” and numerous papers on 
the use of small arms. 

Blunt, Wilfrid Scawen, an Irish poet, 

born at Crabbet Park, Sussex, in 1840. He 
was attache of legation at The Hague, 
Athens, Madrid, Buenos Ayres, and else¬ 
where. He supported Arabi Pasha in the 
revolt in Egypt in 1881; and was imprisoned 
in 1888 for his insurrectionary actions in 
Ireland. He is author of “ Sonnets and 
Songs by Proteus” (London, 1875); “The 
Love Sonnets of Proteus” (1881; new ed. 
1885); “The Future of Islam” (1882); 
“ The Wind and the Whirlwind,” political 
poems (1884); “Ideas About India” 
(1885); and “Esther: a Young Man’s 
Tragedy” (1895). 

Bluntschli, Johann Kaspar (blontsh'le), 
a Swiss jurist and statesman, born in 
Zurich, March 7, 1808; became professor in 
the newly founded university in that city 
in 1833. He took an active part in the 
political struggles that divided his country, 
and at first inclined to the party of reform, 
until the events of 1839 induced him to join 
the Conservatives, of whom he was, for a 
time, a leader. He was a Councilor of 
State, and became a member of the Govern- 



Blushing 


Boa 


ment and of the Federal Directory, and 
afterward worked for the formation of a 
moderate Liberal Conservative Party in 
Switzerland. In 1848 he went to Munich 
as Professor of Civil and International 
Law. There he published his “ Allgemeines 
Straatsrecht ” (5th ed., 1S76), on which his 
reputation as a jurisconsult chiefly rests; 
“Deutsches Privatrecht ” (3d ed., 1864); 
and, in conjunction with Arndts and Pozl, 
“ Kritische Ueberschau der Deutschen Ge- 
setzgebung und Rechtswissenschaft ” (6 

vols. 1853-1858). In 1861 he removed to 
Heidelberg University, and became a Privy 
Councilor of Baden, actively forwarding all 
Liberal measures in the State. Liberty in 
ecclesiastical matters he had equally at 
heart; he acted several times as president 
of the Protestantenverein, and it was after 
delivering a closing speech at the general 
synod of Baden that he died suddenly at 
Karlsruhe, Oct. 21, 1881. He was the au¬ 
thor of valuable histories of Zurich and of 
the Swiss Confederation, and of a number of 
works on law, being especially an authority 
in international law. 

Blushing, a sudden reddening of the 
skin, induced by various mental states, par¬ 
ticularly those involving shame or humilia¬ 
tion, shyness or modesty. It usually af¬ 
fects only the face and neck; rarely among 
civilized peoples the breast and other parts 
of the bodv. But “ the men of certain races, 
who habitually go nearly naked, often blush 
over their arms and chests, and even down 
to their waists” (Darwin). It is often ac¬ 
companied by expressive movements; the 
face is turned aside, the eyes cast down or 
restlessly moved. It causes increased heat 
of the parts affected, with a sensation of 
heat and tingling, and often a general feel¬ 
ing of discomfort. It does not occur in 
young children. 

Blushing is an excellent illustration of 
the control exercised over the circulation 
of the blood by the nervous system. Un¬ 
der ordinary circumstances, the muscular 
coat of the small arteries throughout the 
body is constantly maintained in a state of 
partial contraction by means of the nerves 
distributed to it. The blood propelled into 
them by the heart is thus prevented from 
distending them to their full extent, and its 
passage to the capillaries in connection with 
them is controlled. When, however, from 
any cause the action of these nerves is sus¬ 
pended, the arteries under their influence .at 
once dilate, the corresponding capillaries 
become fuller, and the tissues. containing 
them appear much redder than in their or¬ 
dinary condition. 

Under the influence of shyness, shame, 
etc., an alteration takes place in the nerv¬ 
ous influence proceeding from the brain, 
which, for the time, lessens or stops the ac¬ 
tion of the nerves controlling the arteries 
63 


of the skin of the face and neck, and blush* 
ing is the consequence. Why it should re¬ 
sult from these and not from other mental 
states, and why the efFect should be confined 
in general to the face and neck, are much 
more intricate questions, which cannot be 
discussed here. For one answer to them, 
with many interesting facts on the sub¬ 
ject, see Darwin’s “ Expression of the Emo¬ 
tions,” chap. xiii. 

Bluthgen, August Edward Viktor 

(blut'gen), a German novelist, born at Zor- 
big, near Halle, Jan. 4, 1844. He has won 
high distinction as a writer for the young. 
Among his stories for boys and girls are 
“The Hogues’ Looking Glass” (1876); 
“The Battle of Frogs and Mice” (1878); 
and with these is to be classed the letter- 
press (verses) of 0. Pletscli’s “Picture 
Books.” Of novels and romances he is author 
of a great many, e. g., “The Peace Breaker” 
(1883) ; “The Step-Sister” (1887) ; “Mad¬ 
ame the Countess” (1892), etc. 

Blyden, Edward Wilmot a negro au¬ 
thor, born at St. Thomas, W. I., Aug. 3, 
1832. After vainly seeking, in 1845, ad¬ 
mission to some college in the United 
States, he went to Liberia, and graduated 
at the Alexander High School, of which he 
afterward became principal. In 1880 he 
became President of Liberia College, has 
held important government positions, and 
was commissioner to the Presbyterian Gen¬ 
eral Assembly of the United States in 1861 
and 1880. He is proficient in many lan¬ 
guages, including Latin, Greek, Spanish, 
Hebrew and Arabic. He has published 
“Liberia’s Offering” (1873); “ From West 
Africa to Palestine” (1873); “The Negro 
in Ancient History,” etc. 

Blythe, Herbert (better known as 
Maurice Barrymore), an American actor; 
born in India in 1847; was graduated at 
Cambridge University, England; studied for 
the civil service; was admitted to the bar 
but did not practise this profession, giving 
it up for the stage. His first engagement 
in the United States was in New York, and 
he has since been the leading man in many 
companies. He was also the author of many 
plays, including “ Nadjeska ” (written for 
Mme. Modjeska) and “The Robber of the 
Rhine ” (libretto). He died March 25, 1905. 

Boa, the name of a genus of reptiles 
belonging to Cuvier’s tribe of serpents prop¬ 
er, having the tympanic bone or pedicle of 
the lower jaw movable, which is itself al¬ 
most always suspended to another bone an¬ 
alogous to the mastoid, attached the skull 
by muscles and ligaments, which contribute 
to its mobility. The branches of this jaw 
are not united, and those of the upper jaw 
are attached to the intermaxillary bone 
only by ligaments, so that these animals 
can dilate the mouth sufficiently to swal- 




Boa 


Boabdil 


low bodies larger than themselves. Their 
palatal arches partake of this mobility. In 
the species of this tribe not possessed of 
venom, the branches of the upper and lower 
jaw throughout their entire length, as well 
as the palate bones, are armed with pointed, 
recurved, solid, and permanent teeth, form¬ 
ing four nearly equal rows above, and two 
below. 

The genus Boa comprises all those ser¬ 
pents which, in addition to the preceding 
characters, have the scuta on the under 
part of the tail single; a hook on each side 
of the vent; the tail prehensile; the body 
compressed and largest in the middle, and 
with small scales, at least on the posterior 
part of the head. 

The species properly belonging to this ge¬ 
nus are among the largest of the serpent 
tribe, some of them, when full grown, being 
30, and even 40 feet long. Though desti¬ 
tute of fangs and venom, nature has endow¬ 
ed them with a degree of muscular power 
which renders them terrible. Happily, they 
are not common in situations much fre¬ 
quented by mankind, but are chiefly found 
in the vast marshy regions of Guiana and 
other hot parts of the American continent. 

Though these enormous serpents are 
not inactive Y/hen fasting or hungry, 
they become very sluggish and inert 
after having gorged their prey, at which 
time they are most easily destroyed. 
In order to obtain their food, the boas of 
largest size attach themselves to the trunk 
or branches of a tree, in a situation likely 
to be visited by quadrupeds for the sake of 
pasture or water. There the serpent swings 
about in the air, as if a branch or pendent 
of the tree, till some luckless animal ap¬ 
proaches; then, suddenly relinquishing its 
position, swift as lightning he seizes the 
victim, and coils his body spirally round its 
throat and chest, till, after a few ineffec¬ 
tual cries and struggles, the animal is suf¬ 
focated, and expires. In producing this ef¬ 
fect, the serpent does not merely wreathe 
itself around its prey, but places fold over 
fold, as if desirous of adding as much 
weight as possible to the muscular effort; 
these folds are then gradually tightened 
with enormous force, and speedily induce 
death. The animals thus destroyed by the 
larger boas are deer, dogs, and even bullocks. 
The prey is then prepared for being swal¬ 
lowed, which the creature accomplishes by 
pushing the limbs into the most convenient 
position, and then covering the surface with 
a glutinous saliva. The reptile commences 
the act of deglutition by taking the muzzle 
of the prey into its mouth, which is capable 
of vast extension; and, by a succession of 
wonderful muscular contractions, the rest 
of the body is gradually drawn in with a 
steady and regular motion. As the mass 
advances in the gullet the parts through 
which it has passed resume their former 


dimensions, though its immediate situation 
is always betrayed by external protuber¬ 
ance. 

As already mentioned, the species of boa 
are peculiar to the hot parts of South Amer¬ 
ica, though nothing is more common than 
the error of confounding the great serpents 
of India, Africa, etc., with the proper boa. 
The great serpents of the old Continent be¬ 
long to the genus Python , and will be treat¬ 
ed of under that title. It is nevertheless 
true that Pliny has spoken of the huge ser¬ 
pents of India, and afterward of large ser¬ 
pents of Italy, which were called boae, the 
name being derived according to him from 
the fact of their sometimes sucking cows. 

Among the most celebrated species is the 
boa constrictor, distinguished by a large 
chain, formed alternately of large, blackish, 
irregular hexagonal spots, with pale, oval 
spots, notched at their two extremities, 
along the back. This is the largest species 
of the genus, but several other large Amer¬ 
ican serpents, whose habits are the same, 
are also called boas, though included in 
different genera. Among these are the 
ringed boa, which was worshiped in ancient 
times by the Mexicans and propitiated by 
human sacrifices, and the dog-headed boa. 
The anaconda is also included by some in 
the genus. The other species are of smaller 
size, and some do not much exceed that of 
the largest common snakes. We cannot re¬ 
flect upon the natural history of these great 
reptiles without being struck with their pe¬ 
culiar adaptation to the situations in which 
they are commonly most abundant. In re¬ 
gions bordering on great rivers, which inun¬ 
date vast tracts, these serpents live secure¬ 
ly among the trees with which the soil is 
covered, and are capable of enduring very 
protracted hunger without much apparent 
suffering or diminution of vigor. Noxious 
as such districts are to human life, they 
teem with a gigantic and luxuriant vegeta¬ 
tion, and are the favorite haunts of numer¬ 
ous animals, preyed upon, and to a certain 
degree restricted in their increase, by the 
boas. As their prey comes within their 
reach, they require no deadly apparatus of 
poison to produce their destruction, since 
nature has endowed them with vast muscu¬ 
lar strength. Once fairly involved in the 
crushing folds of a boa, the strength of the 
strongest man is of no avail. 

Boabdil (properly Abu-Abdallah, and 
nicknamed Ez-Zogoiby, “the unlucky”), 
the last Moorish King of Granada, de¬ 
throned his father, Abu-l-Hasan, in 1481, 
and two years later was defeated and taken 
prisoner by the Castilians near Lucena. He 
was set free on condition of paying tribute, 
and returned to Granada to struggle with 
his father and with his heroic uncle, Ez- 
Zaghal, for the throne. Thus the Moors 
wasted the strength they sorely needed for 



Boadicea 


Boat 


the final struggle with the Christians. The 
fall of Malaga and llaza was but the pre¬ 
lude to the loss of the capital. After leav¬ 
ing the palace of the Alhambra and yield¬ 
ing the keys of Granada to Ferdinand, 
Boabdil rode to the mountainside to take 
his farewell view of the city. The spot 
where he turned his horse is known as “ El 
ultimo sospiro del 1/oro,” “ the Last Sigh of 
the Moor.” It is said that his mother 
taunted him with weeping like a woman 
over what he could not defend like a man. 
Going to Africa, he there Hung away his 
life in battle. 

Boadicea, Queen of the Iceni, in Britain, 
during the reign of Nero. Having been 
treated in the most ignominious manner by 
the Romans, she headed a general insurrec¬ 
tion of the Britons, attacked the Roman 
settlements, reduced London to ashes, and 
put to the sword all strangers to the number 
of 70.000. Suetonius, the Roman general, 
defeated her in a decisive battle (a. n. 02), 
and Boadicea, rather than fall into the 
hands of her enemies, put an end to her own 
life by poison. 

Boanerges, a Greek word translated in 
Mark iii: 17, “sons of thunder.” It is of 
doubtful etymology, but is probably the 
Aramaic pronunciation of Hebrew beni rcg~ 
esh, regesh in Hebrew meaning tumult or 
uproar, but in Arabic and Aramaean 
thunder. It is an appellation given by 
Christ to two of His disciples, the brothers 
James and John, apparently on account of 
their fiery zeal. 

Boar, the uncastrated male of the swine 
(sus scrofa) , or of any other species of 
the genus. The wild boar is the male of a 
swine either aboriginally wild or whose an¬ 
cestors have escaped from domestication. 
The common wild boar is sus scrofa; var¬ 
iety, aper. It is of a brownish black color; 
but the young, of which six or eight arc 
produced at a birth, are white or fawn 
colored, with brown stripes. It is wild in 
Europe, Asia and Africa, lives in forests, 
sallies forth to make devastations among 
the crops adjacent, is formidable to those 
who hunt it, turning on any dog or man 
wounding it, and assaulting its foe with its 
powerful tusks. Sus larvatus is the masked 
boar. 

Boardman, George Dana, an American 
missionary, born in Livermore, Me., Feb. 
8, 1801. He studied at Andover and was 
ordained in the Baptist Church. In 1825 
he went to Burma, where he labored assidu¬ 
ously in spreading Christianity. The mis¬ 
sion planted by him became the central 
point of all Baptist missions in Burma. 
He died in Burma, Feb. 11, 1831. 

Boardman, George Dana, an American 
clergyman and author, born in Tavoy, Brit¬ 


ish Burma, Aug. 18, 1828; son of the Amer¬ 
ican Baptist missionary of the same name. 
He was educated in the United States, 
graduating at Brown University in 1852, 
and at Newton Theological Institution in 
1855. Ho became pastor at Barnwell, S. C.; 
afterward at Rochester, N. Y., till 18G4, 
when he became pastor of the First Baptist 
Church in Philadelphia. Besides sermons 
and essays, his chief works are “ Studies in 
the Creative Week ” (1878) “ Studies in the 
Model Prayer” (1879) ; “Epiphanies of the 
Risen Lord” (1879); “The Kingdom” 
(1898). He died April 28, 1903. 

Boardman, Richard, an English mission¬ 
ary, born in 1738. He became a member of 
Wesley’s conference in 17G3, and volun¬ 
teered for service in America in 17G9. He 
preached in New York and through the 
Middle States till 1774, and then, returning 
to England, continued his itinerant min¬ 
istry. He is known as one of the founders 
of Methodism in the United States. He 
died in Cork, Ireland, Oct. 4, 1782. 

Boar Fish (capros ), a genus of fishes 
in the carangidm or horse mackerel family 
of acanthopterygii or bony fishes with spi¬ 
nous rays. The protrusible mouth presents 
a resemblance to a hog’s snout, as the name 
suggests. The body has an oval, compressed 
form like that of the related John Dory, 
from which it differs conspicuously in the 
absence of spines at the base of dorsal and 
anal fins, and of long filaments on the 
dorsal spines. The common boar fish ( C. 
aper) is a well known inhabitant of the 
Mediterranean, rarely caught on the coasts 
of England. The eyes are very large, and 
placed far forward; the body is of a car¬ 
mine color, lighter below, and with seven 
transverse orange bands on the back. The 
flesh is little esteemed. 

Boas, Franz (bo'az), a German ethnolo¬ 
gist, born in Minden, Westphalia, July 9, 
1858; studied at Heidelberg, Bonn, and 
Kiel Universities, in 1877-1882; traveled in 
the Arctic regions in 1883—1884; was as¬ 
sistant in the Royal Ethnographical Mu¬ 
seum in Berlin, and privat docent in geog¬ 
raphy at the University in 1885-1SSG; and 
teacher of anthropology in Clark Univer¬ 
sity, Worcester, Mass., in 1888-1892. He 
has spent much time among various Amer¬ 
ican Indian tribes, and, among other works, 
has published “ Baffin Land ” (1885) ; “ The 
Central Eskimo,” in the “ Annual Report ” 
of the United States Bureau of Ethnology 
(1888); “Indians of British Columbia” 
(1888-1892); etc. 

Boat, a small open vessel or water craft 
usually moved by oars or rowing. The 
forms, dimensions and uses of boats are 
quite varied and some of them carry a 
light sail. The boats belonging to a ship of 
war are the launch or long boat, which is 



Boat Bill 


Bob-o=link 


the largest, the barge, the pinnace, the 
yawl, cutters, the jolly boat and the gig. 
The boats belonging to a merchant vessel 
are the launch or long boat, before men¬ 
tioned, the skiff, the jolly boat or yawl, the 
stern boat, the quarter boat and the cap¬ 
tain’s gig. 

Boat Bill, the English name of cancroma , 
a genus of birds belonging to the sub-family 
ardeina, or true herons, and especially of 
the cancroma cochlearia. The bill, from 
which the English name comes, is very 
broad from right to left, and looks as if 
formed by two spoons applied to each 
other on their concave sides. The G. coch¬ 
learia is whitish, with the back gray or 
brown and the belly red; the front is white, 
behind which is a black cap, changed into 
a long crest in the adult male. It inhabits 
the hot and humid parts of South America. 

Boat Fly, the English name of the water 
bugs of the genus notonecta, so called be¬ 
cause they swim on their backs, thus pre¬ 
senting the appearance of boats. 

Boatswain (bosn), an officer on boaid 
a ship, whose function it is to take charge 
of the rigging, cables, cordage, anchors, 
sails, boats, flags and stores. He must 
inspect the rigging every morning and keep 
it in good repair; and must either by 
himself or by deputy steer the life boat. 
If on a ship of war he must call the men 
to their duty by means of a silver whistle 
given him for the purpose; besides taking 
into custody those condemned by a court 
martial, and, either by himself or by 
deputy, inflict on them the punishment 
awarded. 

Boaz, a Bethleliemite of means, who took 
upon himself the duty of providing for 
Ruth, as the near relation of her dead hus¬ 
band Elimelech. From him Jesus Christ 
was directly descended. 

Bobadilla, Francisco de, a Spanish 
statesman, appointed plenipotentiary con¬ 
cerning the State of Hispaniola, in 1500. 
Having sent its governor, Columbus, to 
Spain in chains, he was censured, and re¬ 
called, but was drowned on the return voy¬ 
age, in 1502. 

Bobbin, a reel or other similar contriv¬ 
ance for holding thread. It is often a 
cylindrical piece of wood with a head, on 
which thread is wound for making lace; or 
a spool with a head at one or both ends, 
intended to have thread or yarn v r ound on 
it, and used in spinning machinery (when it 
is slipped on a spindle and revolves there¬ 
with) and in sewing machines (applied 
within the shuttle). 

Bobbin Net, a machine made cotton net, 
originally imitated from the lace made by 
means of a pillow and bobbins. 

Boboli (bob'o-le), Gardens, the famous 

grounds of the Pitti Palace at Florence. 


They contain many fine statues and the 
Isoletto fountain, designed by Jean de 
Rologne. 

Bobolina, a Greek woman, celebrated for 
her courage in aid of the Greek revolt. Af¬ 
ter her husband had been slain by the Turks 
in 1812, she resolved to avenge his death. 
In 1821, she equipped three vessels at her 
own expense, fought with extraordinary 
courage at Tripolitiza and Naupha and was 
killed in action, in 1825. 

Bob=o=link, Boblink, Reed Bird, or 
Rice Bird ( dolichonyx oryzivorus or icterus 
acripennis) , a common American bird found 
from Paraguay to Canada, the only one 
of its kind, and that difficult to classify. 
Some place it near the Baltimore bird 
[icterus), others near starlings, but both 
the characteristics and the character of the 
bob-o-link exhibit much that is unique. The 
beak is short and straight; the nostrils 
surrounded by a fold of skin; the wings are 
long, especially in their first feather; the 
tail feathers are stiff pointed. The plum¬ 
age is unusually conspicuous for a ground 
bird. In the male the head, lower sur¬ 
face, and tail are black, vdiile the upper 
surface is lighter, yellowish w r hite in front, 
black with yellow r streaks behind. The 
color and the note change with the seasons 
and with the functions of the bird. The 
female is much plainer — yellowish brown 
with darker streaks above, and pale grayish 
yellow below. 

The name'—originally Bob Lincoln— is 
an imitation of the bird’s note. In song, 
the full throated male bob-o-link is unique, 
rivaling the lark, inimitable by the mock¬ 
ing bird, “ in qualities of hilarity and musi¬ 
cal tintinnabulation,” according to Bur¬ 
roughs (“Birds and Poets”), quite un¬ 
equaled. His volubility borders on the bur¬ 
lesque. In disposition also the male is in¬ 
teresting; he affords the “most marked ex¬ 
ample of exuberant pride, and a glad, rol¬ 
licking, holiday spirit, that can be seen 
among American birds.” His love making 
emotions appear to be unusually strong, as 
strong indeed as his Quaker mate is shy, 
retiring and indifferent. The change of the 
male in color and form at the breeding time 
is very striking. He becomes black and 
white more emphatically, so as sometimes 
to be called the skunk bird, and acquires a 
broad form and a curious, mincing gait. 
Robert o’ Lincoln becomes an ornithological 
coxcomb of the highest order. He sings on 
brier and weed, or jerking up and down in 
the air, while his mate may be brooding in 
a simple nest among the grass. The bob-o- 
link is said to exhibit the common trick of 
seeking by exaggerated fuss in some other 
quarters to lead intruders away from the nest. 

The bob-o-link is a bird of passage, spend¬ 
ing the winter in the West Indies. In sum¬ 
mer it is found as far N. as the banks of 



Bob White 


Boccage 


the Saskatchewan, in 54° lat., but is most 
plentiful in the Atlantic States and other 
Eastern parts of the United States, where it 
is to be seen in every meadow and cornfield. 
It renders good service by the destruction 
of insects and their larvae; but in the South, 
both in April and August, at seed time and 
harvest, its ravages seriously cripple the 
rice growing industry, and destroy about a 
fourth of the crop. Thousands of men and 
boys are then employed to shoot the tres¬ 
passers, who are killed in great numbers 
for the table; their flesh is delicate, and 
resembles that of the ortolan. On account 
also of their beauty and powers of song, 
many are caught, caged and sold in the 
markets. 

Bob White, popular name of a small 
game bird of the United States, given be¬ 
cause of its peculiar call. In the Northern 
States it is known as Quail (q. v. ), and in 
the Southern as Partridge (q. v.). 

Bocage, Manoel do (bok'iizh or bos'azh), 
a Portuguese poet, born in 1766. He is es¬ 
teemed the most original and most truly 
national of his country’s modern poets. His 
sonnets are the finest in the language. He 
died in 1806. 

Bocardo, the old North gate of Oxford, 
England, occasionally used as a prison. Here 
Cranmer was incarcerated, and through it 
went Ridley and Latimer to meet death by 
fire in 1555. The term was used generally 
to denote any prison. 

Boccaccio, Giovanni (bo-katch'yo), an 
Italian novelist and poet, son of a Floren¬ 
tine merchant, was born in 1313, in Cer- 
taldo, a small town in the valley of the 
Elsa, 20 miles from Florence. He spent 
some years unprofitably in literary pursuits 
and the study of the canon law, but in the 
end devoted himself entirely to literature. 
He found a congenial atmosphere in Naples, 
where many men of letters frequented the 
court of King Robert, among the number 
being the great Petrarch. In 1341 Boccac¬ 
cio fell in love with Maria, an illegitimate 
daughter of King Robert, who returned his 
passion with equal ardor, and was immor¬ 
talized as Fiammetta in many of his best 
creations. His first work, a romantic love 
tale in prose, “ Filocopo,” was written at 
her command; as was also the “ Teseide,” 
the first heroic epic in the Italian language, 
and the first example of the ottava rima. 
In 1341 he returned to Florence at his 
father’s command, and during a three years’ 
stay produced three important works, 
“ Ameto,” “ L’amorosa Visione ” and 
“ L’amorosa Fiammetta,” all of them con¬ 
nected with his mistress in Naples. In 
1344 he returned to Naples, where Gio- 
vanna, the granddaughter of Robert, who 
had succeeded to the throne, received him 
with distinction. Between 1344 and 1350 


most of the stories of the “ Decameron ” 
were composed at her desire or at that of 
Fiammetta. This work, on which his fame 
rests, consists of 100 tales represented to 
have been related in equal portions in 10 
days by a party of ladies and gentlemen at 
a country house near Florence while the 
plague was raging in that city. The stories 
in this wonderful collection range from the 
highest pathos to the coarsest licentious¬ 
ness. They are partly the invention of the 
author, and partly derived from the fab¬ 
liaux of mediaeval French poets and other 
sources. On the death of his father, Boc¬ 
caccio returned to Florence, where he was 
greatly honored, and was sent on several 
public embassies. Among others he was 
sent to Padua to communicate to Petrarch 
the tidings of his recall from exile and the 
restoration of his property. From this time 



GIOVANNI BOCCACCIO. 


an intimate friendship grew up between 
them which continued for life. They both 
contributed greatly to the revival of the 
study of classical literature, Boccaccio 
spending much time and money in collect¬ 
ing ancient manuscripts. In 1373 he was 
chosen by the Florentines to occupy the 
chair which was established for the expo¬ 
sition of Dante's “ Divina Commedia.” His 
lectures continued till his death. Among 
his other works may be mentioned “ Filos- 
trato,” a narrative poem ; “ II Ninfale Fieso- 
lano,” a love story; “II Corbaccio, ossia II 
Labirinto d’Amore,” a coarse satire on a 
Florentine widow; and several Latin works. 
The first edition of the “ Decameron ” ap¬ 
peared without date or place, but is believed 
to have been printed at Florence in 1469 or 
1470. The first edition with a date is that 
of Valdarfer. Venice, 1471; what is, perhaps, 
the only existing perfect copy of this was 
sold in London, in 1812, for £2,200. He 
died in Certaldo, in 1375. 

Boccage (bok-azhO, Marie Anne Fiquet 

du ( nee Le Page ), a French poet, born in 

Rouen, Oct. 22, 1710. She published a 










































Bock 


Bodenstedt 


email volume of verse in 1746; next an imi¬ 
tation of Milton, “ Paradis Terrestre,” in 
1748; and,’ in 1756, her most important 
work, “ La Colombiade.” Her letters to her 
sister, written while traveling through Eng¬ 
land, Holland and Italy, are her most inter¬ 
esting work. During her lifetime she was 
excessively bepraised by men so great as 
Voltaire and Fontenelle; but modern read¬ 
ers cannot help thinking that her beauty 
must have recommended her verses. She 
was elected a member of many learned 
academies, and died Aug. 8, 1802. 

Bock, Karl Ernst, a German anatomist, 
born in 1809; died in 1874. At the out¬ 
break of the Polish Revolution he went to 
Warsaw, where ho acted as hospital physi¬ 
cian, first in the Polish service and later in 
the Russian. On his return home he was 
elected Extraordinary Professor in the Uni¬ 
versity of Leipsic. His title to fame vests 
chiefly on his “ Handbook of Human An¬ 
atomy.” 

Bock Beer, a kind of strong beer, the 
first drawn from the vats in the spring 
when the winter’s brew of lager beer is 
broached. So called on account of the Ger¬ 
man legend which affirms that, in a competi¬ 
tive trial of the strength of beers brewed 
by two rival brewers, in which each drank 
the product of the other, the defeated candi¬ 
date declared that it was not the beer of his 
rival which had made him unsteady on his 
legs and overthrew him, but a young he 
goat which some children were chasing and 
which ran against him and overturned him. 
As the bock was blamed for his fall (al¬ 
though many suspected the beer) that par¬ 
ticular variety of beer has been named 
bock beer in commemoration of the occur¬ 
rence. 

Bockh, Philipp August (bech), a Ger¬ 
man classical antiquary, born at Carlsruhe, 
in 1785. He was educated at Carlsruhe and 
Halle, and obtained, in 1811, the chair of 
Ancient Literature in the University of 
Berlin, where he remained for the rest of 
his life. He opened a new era in philology 
and archaeology by setting forth the prin¬ 
ciple that their study ought to be an histori¬ 
cal method intended to reproduce the whole 
social and political life of any given people 
during a given period. Among his chief 
works are an edition of “ Pindar” (1811— 
1822) ; “The Public Economy of the Athe¬ 
nians” (1817), translated into English and 
French; “Investigations into the Weights, 
Coins and Measures of Antiquity” (1838) ; 
and “ Documents Concerning the Maritime 
Affairs of Attica” (1840). The great 
“ Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum ” was be¬ 
gun by him with the intention of giving in 
it every Greek inscription known in print 
or manuscript. He died in Berlin, in 
1867. 


Bode, Johann Elert, a German astron¬ 
omer, born in Hamburg, Jan. 19, 1747; be¬ 
came astronomer of the academy in Berlin, 
in 1772, and, in 1786, director of the ob¬ 
servatory there. He published numerous as¬ 
tronomical works, including “ Sternkunde ” 
(3d ed., 1808), and “ Uranographia ” (2d 
ed., ISIS), and founded the “ Astronomische 
Jahrbucher.” He died Nov. 23, 1826. The 
arithmetical relation subsisting between the 
distances of the planets from the sun, called 
after him Bode's law, may be thus stated: 
Write, in the first instance, a row of fours, 
and under these place a geometrical series 
beginning with 3, and increasing by the 
ratio of 2, putting the 3 under the second 
4; and by addition we have the series 4, 7, 
10, etc., which gives nearly the relative dis¬ 
tances pi the planets from the sun. 

444444444 
3 6 12 24 48 96 192 384 

4 7 10 16 28 52 100 196 388 

Thus, if 10 be taken as the distance of the 
earth from the sun, 4 will give that of 
Mercury, 7 that of Venus, and so forth. The 
actual relative distances are as follows, 
making 10 the distance of the earth: 


3 

o 

© 


s * 

a t 

© Cft 

> w 


OB 

*4 

c3 

a 


c ti 

2 

o 

u* 

© 

+-» 

CO 


u 

© 

q. 

3 

*-5 


3 

u 

3 

3 

W 


. ® 

3 3 

a *? 

CJ ft 

Sh 4) 


3.9 7.2 10 15.2 27.4 52.9 95.4 192 300 

Close as is the correspondence between the 
law and the actual distances, no physical 
reason has been given to account for it, al¬ 
though there is little room for doubt that 
such exists. Bode’s law is, therefore, in 
the present state of science, empirical. 
Kepler was the first to perceive the law, 
and Bode argued from it that a planet 
might be found between Mars and Jupiter, 
to fill up the gap that existed at the time 
in the series. The discovery of the plane¬ 
toids has proved the correctness of this pre¬ 
diction. 

Bodenstedt, Friedrich Martin, a Ger¬ 
man poet and miscellaneous writer, born 
in 1819. Having obtained an educational 
appointment at Tiflis he published a work 
on the peoples of the Caucasus (1848) and 
“A Thousand and One Days in the East,” 
which were very successful. In 1854 he was 
appointed Professor of Slavic at Munich, and 
in 1858 was transferred to the chair of 
Old English. He was afterward a theatrical 
director at Meiningen and traveled in the 
United States, etc. Among the best of his 
poetical works are the “ Songs of Mirza- 
Schafify,” purporting to be translations from 
the Persian, but really original, which have 
passed through more than 100 editions. He 




Bodin 


Body 


translated Shakespeare’s “ Sonnets,” and 
with other writers issued a translation of 
Shakespeare’s works. He died April 19, 
1892. 

Bodin, Jean (bo-dan'), a French politi¬ 
cal writer; born in 1530, or 1529. He stud¬ 
ied law at Toulouse, delivered lectures on 
jurisprudence there, and afterward went to 
Paris and practised. Being unsuccessful in 
his profession, he turned his talents to lit¬ 
erary labors; was invited by Henry III. to 
his court; and afterward traveled with the 
king’s brother, Francis, Duke of Alengon 
and Anjou, to Flanders and England, where 
he had the gratification of hearing lectures 
in Cambridge on his work “ De la Repub- 
lique,” originally written in French, but af¬ 
terward translated by Bodin himself into 
Latin. His great work “ De la Republique ” 
(1576) has been characterized as the ablest 
and most remarkable treatise on the philoso¬ 
phy of government and legislation produced 
from the time of Aristotle to that of Mon¬ 
tesquieu. According to his view, the best 
form of government is a limited monarchy. 
Toward the latter part of his life. Bodin 
sided with the adherents of Henry VI. He 
died in Laon in 1596. 

Bodle, a copper coin formerly current in 
Scotland, of the value of two pennies Scotch, 
or the sixth part of an English penny. 

Bodleian, or Bodleyan, Library, a lib¬ 
rary founded at Oxford, England, by Sir 
Thomas Bodley, in 1597, who presented to 
it about $50,000 worth of books, and in¬ 
duced others also to become donors to the 
institution. The library was opened to the 
public on Nov. 8, 1602. The first stone of 
a new building to accommodate it was laid 
on July 10, 1610. At present it contains 
about 300,000 volumes. All members of Ox¬ 
ford University who have taken a degree are 
allowed to read in it, as are literary men of 
all countries. 

Bodley, Sir Thomas, the founder of the 
Bodleian Library at Oxford, was born at 
Exeter, in 1544. He was educated partly 
at Geneva, whither his parents, who were 
Protestants, had retired in the reign of 
Queen Mary. On the accession of Elizabeth 
they returned home, and he completed liis 
studies at Magdalen College, Oxford. He 
traveled much on the Continent, and was 
employed in various embassies to Denmark, 
Germany, France, and Holland. In 1597 he 
returned home, and dedicated the remainder 
of his life to the re-establishment and aug¬ 
mentation of the public library at Oxford. 
He expended a very large sum in collecting 
rare and valuable books, besides leaving an 
estate for the support of the library. He 
was knighted at the accession of James I. 
He died in London in 1612. 

Bodmer, Georg, a Swiss inventor, born 
in Zurich, Dec, 6., 1786. He invented the 


screw and cross wheels; and made valua* 
ble improvements in fire arms and in vari¬ 
ous kinds of machinery, particularly in that 
of wool spinning. He died in Zurich, May 
29, 1864. 

Bodmer, Johann Jakob, a Swiss literary 
critic, born near Zurich, July 19, 1698; was 
the first to make English literature known 
in Germany; 
a nd wrote 
dramas, and 
the epics, 

“The Del¬ 
uge ” (1751) 
and “ Noah ” 

(1752). He 
published two 
volumes of 
‘‘Critical Let- 
ter s,” a n d 
prepared edi¬ 
tions of an¬ 
cient German 
poetry ^‘Spec¬ 
imens of Thir¬ 
teenth Cen¬ 
tury Suabian 
Poetiy ” “ Fables from the Time of the 
Minnesingers,” “ Kriemhilde’s Revenge,” etc. 
He died Jan. 2, 1783. 

Bodoni, Giambattista, an Italian printer, 
born at Saluzzo, in 1740. In 1758 he went 
to Rome, and was employed in the printing 
office of the Propaganda. He was afterward 
at the head of the ducal printing house in 
Parma, where he produced works of great 
beauty. His editions of Greek, Latin, and 
French classics are highly prized. Ho died 
at Parma in 1813. 

Bodtcher, Ludwig (bet'che), a Danish 
lyrist, born in Copenhagen, in 1793; spent 
many years in Italy, and nature and man 
in Italy equally with nature and man in 
Denmark are the themes of his finest poems, 
— notably “Bacchus,” and the collection 
called “Poems Old and New.” He died in 1874. 

Body, the material framework of man 
or of any of the inferior animals, including 
the bones, the several organs, the skin, with 
hair, nails, and other appendages. The fol¬ 
lowing is a list of the quantities of the 
various elements found in a human body 
weighing 154 pounds: 

lbs. oz. grs. 

Oxygen.Ill 0 0 

Hydrogen . 15 0 0 

Carbon. 20 0 0 

Nitrogen. 3 9 0 

Phosphorus. 1 12 F9 

Sulphur. 0 2 217 

Calcium. 2 0 0 

Fluorine. 0 2 0 

Chlorine. 0 2 3S2 

Sodium. 0 2 116 

Iron. 0 0 l'*0 

Potassium . 0 0 290 

Magnesium. 0 0 12 

Silicon. 0 0 2 



JOHANN JAKOB BODMER. 


















Body Color 


Brchmeria 


The organic, non-metallic, and metallic 
elements are not found in the body in their 
pure state, but are mixed together, form¬ 
ing the following compounds, the aggregate 
of which, as in the preceding table, amounts 
to 154 pounds: 

lbs. oz. grs. 


Water. Ill 0 0 

Gelatine.. 15 0 0 

Fat. 12 0 0 

Albumen. 4 3 0 

Fibrine. 4 4 0 

Phosphate of lime. 5 13 0 

Carbonate of lime. 1 0 0 

Fluoride of calcium. 0 3 0 

Chloride of sodium. 0 3 376 

Chloride of potassium. 0 0 10 

Sulphate of soda. 0 1 170 

Carbonate of soda. 0 1 72 

Phosphate of soda. 0 0 400 

Sulphate of potash. 0 0 403 

Peroxide of iron. 0 0 150 

Phosphate of potash. 0 0 105 

Phosphate of magnesia. 0 0 75 

Silica. 0 0 3 


Body Color, a term applied to such pig¬ 
ments as have body enough to be opaque, 
as distinguished from those which are 
transparent. As a general rule, pigments 
have more body the nearer they approach 
to white; consequently the light parts of 
pictures in oil are in body color to give 
them brightness and strength, while the 
dark parts are transparent to give them 
depth. Water color painting, when exe¬ 
cuted by mixing the pigments with water 
after the manner of an oil painting, is said 
to be painted in body color. 

Boece, or Boyce (bois), Hector, a 
Scottish historian, born in Dundee about 
1465. He studied first at Dundee, and then 
at the University of Paris, where he became 
Professor of Philosophy in the College of 
Montaigu, and made the acquaintance of 
Erasmus. About 1500 he quitted Paris to 
assume the principalship of the newly 
founded university of King’s College, Aber¬ 
deen. In 1522 he published in Paris a his¬ 
tory in Latin of the prelates of Mortlach 
and Aberdeen. Five years afterward ap¬ 
peared the work on which his fame chiefly 
rests, the “ History of Scotland ” in Latin 
•—“ Scotorinn Historic^ a prim a gentis 
oi'igine,” etc. It abounds in fable, but the 
narrative seems to have been skilfully ad¬ 
justed to the conditions of belief in his own 
time. In 1536 a translation of the history 
was published, made by John Ballentyne 
or Bellenden, for James V. He died in 
1536. 

Boehm, Sir Joseph Edgar (bem), a 
British sculptor, born in Vienna, July 6, 
1834; was educated at Vienna, and 1848- 
1851 in England; he studied in Italy also, 
and for three years in Paris. He made his 
home in England in 1862, and resided there 
till his death. Boehm received the first 
imperial prize at Vienna in 1856; was 
elected member of the Academy of Flor¬ 


ence in 1875, Associate of the London Royal 
Academy in 1878, Royal Academician in 
1882; created baronet in 1883. Among his 
very numerous works are a colossal statue 
in marble of Queen Victoria, 1869; colossal 
statue of John Bunyan, 1872; colossal 
equestrian statue of the Prince of Wales, 
1877; statue of Thomas Carlyle; horse 
group in bronze for Eton; colossal eques¬ 
trian statues of the Duke of Wellington, 
of Lord Napier of Magdala, and of Lord 
Northbrook; statue of King Leopold I. 
of Belgium; recumbent statues of General 
(Chinese) Gordon and of many church 
dignitaries. At the Royal Exhibition, 1889, 
Boehm exhibited “ The British Guardsman 
of 1818,” and “ The Inniskillen Dragoon of 
1815.” Notable among his works are a 
life size bull, with his leader, in marble, 
and a large equestrian bronze group of “ St. 
George and the Dragon; ” several race 
horses; a colossal lion and lioness; a sea 
lion in black marble, etc. He executed busts 
of Gladstone, John Bright, John Ruskin, 
etc., and designed the effigy of Queen Vic¬ 
toria for the coinage commemorative of the 
50th year of her reign. He died in London, 
Dec. *12, 1890. 

Boehme, Jakob (be'me), a German 
mystical writer, born in 1575. He was 
apprenticed to a shoemaker in his 14th 
year, and 10 years later he was settled at 
Gorlitz as a master tradesman, and married 
to the daughter of a thriving butcher of 
the town. He was much persecuted by the 
religious authorities, and at his death the 
rites of the Church were but grudgingly 
administered to him. Raised by contem¬ 
plation above his circumstances, a strong 
sense of the spiritual, particularly of the 
mysterious, was constantly present with 
him, and he saw in all the workings of 
nature upon his mind a revelation of God, 
and even imagined himself favored by Di¬ 
vine inspirations. His first work appeared 
in 1616, and was called “Aurora.” It con¬ 
tains his revelations on God, man, and 
nature. Among his other works are “ De 
tribus Prineipiis,” “ De Signatura Rerum,” 
“ Mysterium Magnum,” etc. His writings 
all aim at religious edification, but his 
philosophy is very obscure and often fan¬ 
tastic. The first collection of his works 
was made in Holland in 1675 by Henry 
Betke; a more complete one in 1682 by 
Gichtel (10 vols., Amsterdam). William 
Law published an English translation of 
them, two vols., 4to. A sect, taking their 
name from Boehme, was formed in England. 
He died in 1624. 

Bcehmeria, a genus of plants, order 
urticacece. From several species valuable 
fibers are obtained. B. frutescens, or puya, 
a plant growing wild in Nepaul and Sik¬ 
kim, is the source of the celebrated Pooah 
fiber, which rivals the best European flax 





















Boeotia 


Boerhaave 


for tenacity. This species attains the 
height of six or eight feet; but the stem is 
usually very slender. It is cut donna for 
use when the seed is formed; the bark is 
then peeled off, dried, boiled with wood 
ashes, and beaten with mallets, to separate 
its component fibers. B. speciosa, the wild 
rhea, also yields a very strong fiber, which 
is much used in the East. B. nivca, the 
tchou via of the Chinese, is now known to 
yield the fiber used in the manufacture of 
the beautiful fabric called Chinese grass 
cloth. The most important species, B. nivea 
or tenacissima, will be examined under its 
common name, Ramie ( q. v ). 

Boeotia (be-o'slia), a division of ancient 
Greece, lying between Attica and Pliocis, 
and bounded E. and W. by the Euboean 
Sea and the Corinthian Gulf respectively, 
had an area of 1,119 square miles. The 
whole country is surrounded by mountains, 
on the S., Mts. Cithseron and Parnes, on 
the W., Mt. Helicon, on the N., Mt* Parnas¬ 
sus and the Opuntian Mountains, which 
also closed it in on the E. The N. part is 
drained by the Cephissus, the waters of 
which form Lake Copais; the S. by the 
Asopus, wlr'ch flows into the Euboean Sea. 
The country originally had a superabun¬ 
dance of water, but artificial drainage works 
made it one of the most fertile districts 
of Greece. The inhabitants were of the 
iEolian race; most of the towns formed a 
kind of republic, of which Thebes was the 
chief city. Epaminondas and Pelopidas 
raised Thebes for a time to the highest 
rank among Grecian States. Refinement 
and cultivation of mind never made such 
progress in Boeotia as in Attica, and the 
term Boeotian was used by the Athenians 
as a synonym for dullness, but somewhat 
unjustly, since Hesiod, Pindar, the poetess 
Corinna, and Plutarch were Boeotians. 
Along with Attica, Boeotia now forms a 
nomarchy of the Kingdom of Greece, with 
a population (1896) of 313,069. 

Boerhaave, Hermann, a celebrated 
Dutch physician, one of the most influential 
medical authorities living in the 18th cen¬ 
tury; born in YVoorhout, near Leyden, Dec. 
13, 1668. Boerhaave received from his father 
a liberal education. In 1682 he was sent 
to Leyden to study theology. Here he gave, 
at the age of 20, the first public proof of 
his learning and eloquence. In 1688 he re¬ 
ceived a gold medal from the city for an 
academic oration, in which he attacked the 
doctrines of Spinoza. In 1689 he received 
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, and 
maintained an inaugural dissertation, “ De 
Distinctione Mentis a Corpore,” in which he 
attacked Epicurus, Hobbes, and Spinoza 
(Leyden, 1690) He now commenced, at 
the age of 22, the study of medicine. Dre- 
1 incourt was his first and onlv teacher. 
From him he received only a little instruc¬ 


tion; and by his own solitary study he 
learned a science on which he was afterward 
to exert so important an influence. His first 
study was anatomy, which he pursued from 
books rather than from observation. He 
attended dissections, indeed, but his writ¬ 
ings show a deficiency of practical knowl¬ 
edge. Still he exercised a salutary influence 
on the study of anatomy, as the use he made 
of mechanical illustrations induced anato¬ 
mists to apply themselves to a more accu¬ 
rate study of the forms of the organs. After 
this preliminary study, Boerhaave read all 
the works, ancient and modern, on medi¬ 
cine, in the order of time, proceeding from 
his contemporaries to Hippocrates, with 
whose superior excellence and correct meth¬ 
od he was forcibly struck. He also studied 
botany and chemistry, and although still 
preparing himself for the clerical profes¬ 
sion, was made in 1693 Doctor of Medicine 
at Harderwyck. His dissertation was “ De 
Utilitate Explorandorum Excrementorum 
in iEgris, ut Signorum.” 

After his return to Leyden, some doubts 
being raised as to his orthodoxy, he finally 
determined to follow the profession of medi¬ 
cine. In 1701 the University of Leyden 
chose him, on the death of Drelincourt, to 
deliver lectures on the theory of medicine; 
on which occasion he pronounced his disser¬ 
tation “ De Commendando Studio Hippocra- 
tico.” In this he eulogizes the method of 
Hippocrates, which was that of experimental 
philosophy, to which Bacon had recently re¬ 
called the scientific world, but to which 
Boerhaave himself did not always adhere. 
Boerhaave now began to develop those great 
and peculiar excellencies which make him a 
pattern to all who undertake the office of 
instruction. Pupils crowded from all quar¬ 
ters to hear him. In 1703 he delivered an¬ 
other dissertation, “ De Usu Ratiocinii Me- 
chanici in Medicina ” (Leyden, 1703). In 
this he began to deviate from the Hippo¬ 
cratic method, and to introduce the first 
principles of a defective system, to which 
his eminent talents gave afterward exclusive 
currency. His method was eclectic, com¬ 
bining the speculations of opposing schools, 
and led him to attach too much importance 
to mechanical and chemical theories of vital 
actions. In 1709 the University of Leyden 
appointed him successor to Hotton, in the 
chair of medicine and botany. On this 3c- 
casion he delivered a dissertation, “ Qua Re- 
purgatse Medicinoe facilis asseritur Simplic- 
itas,” which deserves to be placed by the 
side of those in which he recommends the 
study of Hippocrates. 

The course of instruction to which Boer¬ 
haave was now devoted induced him to 
publish two works, on which his fame still 
rests, viz.: “ Institutiones Medicse in Usus 
Annuae Exercitationis Domesticos”; and 
“ Aphorismi de Cognoscendis et Curandis 
Morbis in Usum Doctrinae Medicinae.” In 




Boers 


Boers 


the former, which is a model of comprehen¬ 
sive erudition and clear method, he unfolds 
his system in its fullest extent; in the lat¬ 
ter he undertakes the classification of dis¬ 
eases, and discourses separately on their 
causes, nature, and treatment. The profes¬ 
sorship of botany, which he also filled, con¬ 
tributed no less to his reputation. He ren¬ 
dered essential services to botany by his 
two catalogues of plants in the garden of 
Leyden, the number of which he had very 
much increased. We are indebted to him 
for the description and delineation of sev¬ 
eral new plants, and the introduction of 
some new species. In 1714 he was made 
rector of the university, and at the close 
of his term of office delivered an oration, 
“ De Comparando certo in Physicis,” one of 
his best pieces. At the end of this year he 
succeeded Bidloo in the chair of practical 
medicine, which he occupied for more than 
10 years. In this office he had the merit 
of introducing clinical instruction, that is, 
of lecturing to his students at the bedside 
of patients in hospital, for the first time 
in Europe. The university conferred on 
him, at the death of Lemort, the professor¬ 
ship of chemistry, which science he had 

taught since 1703. His “ Elements of Cliem- 
© _ 

istry ” is one of his finest productions, and 
notwithstanding the entire revolution which 
lias taken place in this branch of science, 
is still highly valuable. Ill health compell¬ 
ed him to resign the professorships of chem¬ 
istry and botany, which lie had held for 2.0 
years. In 1730 he was again appointed rec¬ 
tor. He died Sept. 23, 1738. 

Boers (Dutch, bocr , a peasant or hus¬ 
bandman), the name commonly applied to 
the South African colonists of Dutch de¬ 
scent. The Cape Colony was founded by 
the Dutch in 1050. The Dutch were at this 
period the leading maritime power of 
Europe, and their African colonies assumed 
great importance. When Holland was re¬ 
duced to the last extremity by the invasion 
of Louis XIV., serious thoughts were enter¬ 
tained of making the Cape Colony the final 
refuge of Dutch independence, but this 
crisis passed away with the advancing pow¬ 
er of William. The colony subsequently fell 
into comparative neglect, and the colonists, 
left to their own resources, began to develop 
a character of their own. The troubles in 
which the parent State was involved by 
European wars now began also to affect 
them. The colony was taken possession of 
by the English in 1795, restored at the 
peace of Amiens in 1802, taken again in 
1806, and finally ceded to England in 1815. 
The last change was highly distasteful to 
the colonists. Naturally distrustful of a 
foreign government, they had formed from 
their experience of the country and its in¬ 
habitants a policy and habits of their own, 
into which the newcomers could not be ex¬ 
pected at once to enter. The Boers, more¬ 


over, were strongly conservative, believing 
that they understood the situation better 
than anyone else, and they had acquired in 
their struggles with the natives a reckless 
daring, which, added to the coolness and 
caution of the Dutch character, was likely 
to make them formidable opponents to any 
government which provoked their hostility. 

The policy of the British governors was 
not always adapted to the circumstances, 
and the attempts of the British missionaries, 
encouraged by the colonial government, 
to convert and civilize the natives excited 
the jealousy of the Boers, who thought their 
own interests compromised by the encour¬ 
agement given to the converts. The govern¬ 
ment on various occasions sided with the 
Kaffirs against the Boers, which, whatever 
the merits of the particular disputes, was 
not calculated to conciliate the latter. The 
emancipation of their slaves in 1833, and 
the cession to the Kaffirs in 1835 of a fron¬ 
tier district of neutral territory in the E., 
filled up the measure of provocation, and 
the Boers resolved to place themselves by 
emigration beyond the British rule. A first 
band set out by land in 1835 for Port ISlatal, 
but being ignorant of the passes of the 
country, went out of their way. Part of 
them settled in the district near the Zout- 
pansberg or Salt-pan mountain, part pro¬ 
ceeded to Algoa bay, but did not succeed 
in forming a permanent settlement. Anoth¬ 
er band also proceeding to Natal was at¬ 
tacked by the Matebele Kaffirs, and obliged 
to fall back on the Modder river. After re¬ 
ceiving reinforcements they again advanced, 
and settling in the Orange river district, 
formed a commonwealth under Peter Retief. 
This colony was in 1837 invited to join the 
British settlers who had in the meantime 
taken possession of Port Natal. Crossing 
the Quathlamba mountains for this pur¬ 
pose, Retief and some of his principal fol¬ 
lowers were treacherously murdered in an 
interview with the chief of the Zulu Kaffirs. 
The remainder turned S., and formed the 
settlement of Peter Maritzburg. Under the 
leadership of Pretorius they defeated the 
Zulus, but the colonial government denied 
their right to form an independent commu¬ 
nity in this district. 

In 1842 a British force was landed, and 
the Boers were compelled to retire from the 
coast and acknowledge the British sover¬ 
eignty. Many of them recrossed the moun¬ 
tains, and settled in the Vaal district, fur¬ 
ther disagreements with the colonial 
government, which had now possession of 
Natal, led to another emigration to the N. 
of the Klipp river. Here they struggled suc- 
cessfullv with the Kaffirs till 1845, when 
the colonial government proclaimed the Buf¬ 
falo river the N. boundary of Natal. The 
Boers openly resisted, but finding their 
strength unequal to the conflict, again emi¬ 
grated to the Vaal country. In 1848 the 




Boethus 


Bog 


colonial government likewise annexed by 
proclamation the Orange river settlement. 
The Boers, headed by Pretorius, took up 
arms, but being defeated retired beyond the 
Vaal, and with the previous settlers formed 
the Transvaal republic. Those who re¬ 
mained continued their resistance to the 
British authority until, in 1851, on the 
outbreak of the Kaffir war, the British re¬ 
linquished the Orange river territory, and 
recognized the independence of the Orange 
Free State. See Cape Colony: Transvaal: 
Orange River Colony : Soutii African 
War. 


extracting 

thorn 


Boethus (b5-e'thus), a Greek sculptor, 
born in Chalcedon in the 2d century b. c. 
~ He is celebrated for 

his statues of children. 
“ The Boy with the 
Swan ” was his most 
famous work. A girl 
playing with dice and 

a 

were sub¬ 
jects of other 
masterpieces by 
him. 

Boethius, An= 
i c i u s Manlius 
Severinus, a Ro- 

m a n statesman 
and philosopher, 
called “ the last 
of the classic 
writers”; born in 
Rome or Milan, 
of an ancient 
family, 
about a. d. 
470; was 
educated in 
Rome, in a 
manner well 
calculated to 



BOY WITH SWAN. 


develop his extraordinary abilities. Theod- 
oric, King of the Ostrogoths, then 
master of Italy, loaded him with marks 
of favor and esteem, and raised him 
to the first offices in the empire. 

He was the oracle of his sovereign and 
the idol of the people. The highest honors 
were thought inadequate to reward his vir¬ 
tues and services. But Theodoric, as he 
grew old, became irritable, jealous, and dis¬ 
trustful of those about him. The Goths 
now indulged in ail sorts of oppression and 
extortion, while Boethius exerted himself in 
vain to restrain them. He had already 
made many enemies by his strict integrity 
and vigilant justice. These at last suc¬ 
ceeded in prejudicing the king against him, 
and rendering him suspicious of Boethius. 
His opposition to their unjust measures 


was construed into a rebellious temper, and 
lie was accused of a treasonable corre¬ 
spondence with the court of Constantino¬ 
ple. He was arrested, imprisoned, and exe¬ 
cuted a. d. 524 or 526. His occupations as 
a statesman did not prevent Boethius from 
devoting himself assiduously to the study 
of philosophy. He made many laborious 
translations of the Greek philosophers, par¬ 
ticularly of Aristotle. These translations, 
and especially his commentaries on Aris¬ 
totle, caused him to be regarded up till the 
14th century as the highest authority in 
philosophy. His treatise, “ De Musica,” 
also supplied for many centuries the place 
of Greek originals. He was long considered 
a Catholic saint, but there is no evidence 
that he was even a Christian. His fame 
now chiefly rests on his “ Consolations of 
Philosophy,” written in prison, a work of 
elevated thought and diction. It is written 
partly in prose and partly in verse. The 
oldest edition of this work was published at 
Nuremberg in 1473. It was translated by 
King Alfred and Chaucer, and was Highly 
prized during the Middle Ages. 

Bog, a piece of wet, soft, and spongy 
ground, where the soil is composed mainly of 
decaying and decayed vegetable matter. Such 
ground is valueless for agriculture un¬ 
til reclaimed, but often yields abundance 
of peat for fuel. A bog seems usually to bo 
formed as follows: A shallow pool induces 
the formation of aquatic plants, which 
gradually creep in from the borders to the 
deeper center. Mud accumulates round 
their roots and stalks, and a semi-fluid mass 
is formed, well suited for the growth of 
moss, particularly sphagnum, that absorbs 
water, and shoots out plants above as 
the old decay beneath; these are conse¬ 
quently rotted, and compressed into a solid 
substance, gradually replacing the water by 
a mass of vegetable matter. A layer of 
clay, frequently found ov'm gravel, assists 
the formation of bog by its power of re¬ 
taining moisture. When the sub-soil is 
very retentive, and the quantity of water 
becomes excessive, the superincumbent peat 
sometimes bursts forth and floats over adja¬ 
cent lands. Bogs are generally divided into 
two classes: red bogs, or peat mosses, and 
black bogs, or mountain mosses. The for¬ 
mer class are found in extensive plains fre¬ 
quently running through several counties, 
such as chat moss in Lancashire, and the 
Bog of Allen in Ireland, the depth varying 
from 12 to 42 feet. Their texture is light 
and full of filaments. The lower parts, 
more entirely decayed, approach nearer to 
the nature of the humus than the upper 
portion, and, being more carbonaceous, 
are more valuable for fuel. Black bog 
is formed by a more rapid decomposition 
of plants. It is heavier and more homo¬ 
genous in quality, but Is usually found in 
limited and detached portions, and at high 









Bogaers 


Bog Rush 


elevations where its reclamation is difficult. 
In Ireland bogs frequently rest on a cal¬ 
careous subsoil, which is of great value in 
reclaiming them. In the reclamation of 
bog land a permanent system of drainage 
must be established; the loose and spongy 
soil must be mixed with a sufficient quan¬ 
tity of mineral matter to give firmness to 
its texture and fertilize its superabundant 
humus; proper manures must be provided 
to facilitate the extraction of nutriment 
from the new soil, and a rotation of crops 
adopted suitable for bringing it into per¬ 
manent condition. The materials best 
adapted for reclaiming peat are calcareous 
earths, limestone gravel, shell marl, and 
shell sand. Thoroughly reclaimed bogs are 
not liable to revert to their former condi¬ 
tion. Trunks of trees are often found in 
bogs, as are also bones of extinct animals. 

Bogaers, Adriaan (bo'gars), a Dutch 
poet, born at The Hague, in 1795. He holds 
an eminent place among the many disciples 
of Tollens, and surpasses his master in 
correctness of taste. He long withheld his 
compositions from publication, and not till 
1832 did he become known to his country¬ 
men ; he then published his first lyric poem, 
“ Volharding ”—an appeal to his country¬ 
men to stand fast in the struggle with 
Belgium ■— together with other patriotic 
pieces. His first poem of any considerable 
compass, the epic “ Jocliebed,” and his 
masterpiece, “ The Voyage of Heemskerk to 
Gibraltar,” were first formally published in 
1860-1861, though they had had for many 
years a private circulation among friends. 
He afterward published three volumes, 
“ Ballads and Romances,” “ Flowers of 
Poesy from Abroad,” and “ Poems.” He 
died in 1870. 

Bogardus, Everardus, a minister of the 
Dutch Reformed Church in New Amster¬ 
dam, now New York; husband of Anneke 
Jans. The latter owned a farm of 60 
acres, comprising now one of the most valu¬ 
able sections of New York city. The Bo¬ 
gardus heirs have for many years endeav¬ 
ored unsuccessfully, to recover this prop¬ 
erty, which is held by the corporation of 
Trinity Church. He died Sept. 27, 1647. 

Bogardus, James, an American inventor, 
born in Catskill, N. Y., March 14, 1800; 
was apprenticed to a watchmaker, and 
early showed the bent of his mind by im¬ 
provements in the construction of eight- 
day clocks, and by the invention of a deli¬ 
cate engraving machine. The dry gas meter 
is his invention, as is also the transfer 
machine to produce bank note plates from 
separate dies; and in 1839 his plan for 
manufacturing postage stamps was accepted 
by the British Government. Later he in¬ 
troduced improvements in the manufacture 
of india rubber goods, tools, and machinery; 
and invented a pyrometer, a deep sea sound¬ 


ing machine, and a dynamometer. He died 
in New York, April 13, 1874. 

Bog Butter, a fatty, spermaceti-like min¬ 
eral resin found in masses in peat bogs, 
composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. 

Bogdanovich, Ippolit Feodorovich 
(bog-da-no'vich), a Russian poet, born in 
Little Russia, in 1744. His early poems, 
written when he was a boy, won for him 
admission to the university. His most cele¬ 
brated work is a charming free elaboration 
of Lafontaine’s “ Loves of Psyche and 
Cupid.” He also wrote dramas and come¬ 
dies, and published a collection of “ Prov¬ 
erbs.” He died in 1803. 

Bogdandvich, Modest Ivanovich, a 

Russian military historian and commander, 
born in 1805; was a very able soldier, and 
even abler with the pen; his “ Bonaparte’s 
Campaign in Italy, 1796 ” (2d ed., 1860), 
and “ History of the Art of War,” and par¬ 
ticularly his “ History of the Campaign of 
1812 ” (2d ed.. 1861), having attracted wide 
notice. He died in Oranienbaum, Aug. 6, 
1882. 

Boggs, Charles Stuart, an American 

naval officer, born in New Brunswick, N. J., 
Jan. 28, 1811; entered the navy in 1826; 
served on the “ Princeton ” in the Mexican 
War; was assigned to the gunboat “ Va¬ 
nina ” in Farragut’s Gulf Squadron in 
1861. In the attack on Forts St. Philip 
and Jackson, in April, 1862, he destroyed 
six Confederate gunboats and two rams, 
and in the last moments of the fight his 
own vessel was sunk. In 1869-1870 he 
served with the European Squadron; in the 
latter year was promoted to Rear-Admiral; 
and in 1873 was retired. He died in New 
Brunswick, April 22, 1888. 

Boghead Coal, a broAvn cannel coal of 
Scotland, found at Boghead, near Bathgate, 
and very valuable for gas and oil making. 

Bogh, Erik (bech), a Danish poet and 
dramatist, born in Copenhagen, Jan. 17, 
1822. He is best known for his witty 
stanzas and epigrams in periodicals, for 
“ This and That,” a collection of humorous 
essays, and for a hundred or so of plays 
and farces. A novel, “ Jonas Tvarmose’s 
Vexations,” has merit. He died in 1899. 

Bog Iron Ore, or Bog Ore, a variety of 
limonite. It occurs in a loose and porous 
state in marshy places, often inclosing 
wood, leaves, nuts, etc., in a semi-fossilized 
state; also a variety of limnite. 

Bog Pimpernel, a species of pimpernel, 

anagallis tenella. It is found in bogs, and 
not like its congener, the scarlet pimpernel 
(A. arvensis ), in corn fields. It is a small 
creeping plant with rose colored flowers. 

Bog Rush, an English book name for 
schcenus, a genus of the order ct/peracece 
(sedges). As now limited it contains only 



Bogomilian 


Bohemia 


the black bog rush, a plant found on wet 
moors, and recognizable on account of its 
dark brown, nay, almost black, heads of 
flowers. It is also the name of a species 
of warbler about the size of a wren. 

Bogomilian, a Sclavonic Christian sect, 
founded in the 12th century by a monk 
called Basil. His tenets were akin to those 
of the Manicheans and of the Gnostics. He 
believed that the human body was created 
not by God, but by a demon whom God had 
cast from Heaven. Basil was burned alive 
at Constantinople, for his tenets, under the 
Emperor Alexius Comnenus. 

Bogota, under Spanish rule Santa Fe 
de Bogota, in South America, the federal 
capital of the United States of Colombia. 
It is situated within the limits of the 
province of Cundinamarca, on a tableland 
which, at an elevation of 8,694 feet above 
the sea, separates the basin of the Magda¬ 
lena from that of the Orinoco. The table¬ 
land has an area of about 400 square miles, 
and is bounded on all sides bv mountains, 
which, though lofty enough to give shelter, 
are yet below the line of perpetual snow. 
This extensive plain — a temperate zone on 
the verge of the equator, with a salubrious 
climate and an average temperature of 60° 
F. — is exceedingly fertile, being as rich in 
pasture as in grain. The greater number 
of its people, however, are sunk in poverty. 
This is largely due to the heavy cost and 
difficulty of transport, which hamper all 
industries. Bogota is 65 miles from its 
port, Honda, the head of navigation on the 
Magdalena; and from this point, although 
a railway has been projected, at present 
goods must be conveyed over the mountains 
in packages of not more than 125 pounds. 
The transport of heavy machinery is thus 
impossible. The few manufactures of the 
place include soap, leather, cloth, and arti¬ 
cles made from the precious metals. Bo¬ 
gota was founded in 1538, and in 1598 be¬ 
came the capital of the Spanish Vice-Roy¬ 
alty of New Granada; since 1554 it has been 
the seat of an archbishop. In 1800 it con¬ 
tained 21,464 inhabitants, and in 1821, 30,- 
000; in 1905 about 120,000. The river 
Bogota, otherwise called the Funcha, is in 
itself an object of physical interest. It is 
the single outlet of the waters of the table¬ 
land, which, both from geological features 
and from aboriginal traditions, appears to 
have once been a land locked basin, some¬ 
what like the still loftier and larger pla¬ 
teau of Titicaca. Be this as it may, the 
river has found, if it has not forced, a pas¬ 
sage for itself toward the Magdalena. At 
the cataract of Tequendama the waters 
plunge over a precipice 700 feet high, their 
force having hollowed out a well 130 feet 
deep in the rock below; and the clouds of 
spray clothe the adjacent ground with the 


most luxuriant vegetation. Some miles 
from the fall stands the natural bridge of 
Icononzo, formed as if by the fortuitous 
jamming of rocks from the opposite sides 
of the cleft; and the plateau also contains 
a lake, Guatavita. 

Bog Spavin, an encysted tumor filled 
with gelatinous matter inside the hock of 
a horse. 

Bog Stalker, an idle and stupid vagrant. 

Bogue, David, one of the founders of the 
London Missionary Society, was born in 
Berwickshire, in 1750. He studied at Edin¬ 
burgh and was licensed to preach by the 
Church of Scotland, but went to London 
to teach in 1771. He afterward became 
minister of an Independent chapel at Gos¬ 
port, and here he also took a tutorship in 
a seminary, for Independent students of 
theology. This became a great school of 
missionaries, and out of it grew the scheme 
for foreign missions realized in the London 
Missionary Society. Bogue also took an 
active part in the establishment of the Brit¬ 
ish and Foreign Bible Society and the Re¬ 
ligious Tract Society. He was on the point 
of going as a missionary to India in 1796, 
when the East India Company refused to 
sanction the scheme. Bogue died at 
Brighton, Oct. 25, 1825. He published nu¬ 
merous books, including an “ Essay on the 
Divine Authority of the New Testament.” 
In conjunction with Dr. James Bennet, he 
wrote a “History of Dissenters” (3 vols., 
1809), of great value, though somewhat 
impaired by partisan prejudices. 

Boguslavski, Adalbert (bo-go-slav'ske), 
a Polish dramatist, born near Posen, in 
1759. He composed the first opera ever 
written in the Polish language. For sev¬ 
eral years he was director of theaters in 
various towns, and in 1790 became director 
of the National Theater at Warsaw. As an 
actor he excelled alike in tragedy and in 
comedy, and he formed many pupils who 
gained high distinction on the stage. The 
best of his dramatic compositions is the 
popular melodrama, “ The Wonder, or the 
Men of Krakau and the Mountaineers.” He 
died in 1829. 

Bohemia, a former Kingdom,now a Prov¬ 
ince of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy 
(Austrian or Cisleithan portion), bounded 
by Bavaria. Saxony, the Prussian Province 
of Silesia, Moravia, and the Archduchy of 
Austria; area 20,223 square miles; popu¬ 
lation (1900), 6,318,697, of whom more 
than 2,000,000 are Germans, the rest mostly 
Czechs. The prevailing religion is the Ro¬ 
man Catholic, the country being an arch¬ 
bishopric with three bishoprics. The lan¬ 
guage of the country is the Czech dialect of 
the Slavonic in some districts, and in most 
of the cities, German is spoken. Bohemia is 
surrounded on all sides by mountains, and 



Bohemia 


Bohemond 


has many large forests. Its plains are 
remarkably fertile. The chief rivers are the 
Elbe and its tributary the Moldau, which is 
even larger. 

Productions .— All sorts of grain are pro¬ 
duced in abundance, as also large quanti¬ 
ties of potatoes, pulse, sugar beet, flax, hops 
(the best in Europe), and fruits. Wine is 
not abundant, but in some parts is of quite 
good quality. The raising of sheep, horses, 
swine and poultry is carried on to a con¬ 
siderable extent. The mines yield silver, 
copper, lead, tin, zinc, iron, cobalt, arsenic, 
uranium, antimony, alum, sulphur, plum¬ 
bago and coal. There are numerous min¬ 
eral springs, but little salt. Spinning and 
weaving of linen, cotten and woolen goods 
are extensively carried on; manufactures of 
lace, metal and wood work, machinery, 
chemical products, beet root sugar, pottery, 
porcelain, etc., are also largely developed. 
Large quantities of beer (Pilsener) are ex¬ 
ported. The glassware of Bohemia, which 
is known all over Europe, employs 50.000 
workers. The trade, partly transit, is ex¬ 
tensive, Prague, the capital, being the cen¬ 
ter of it. The largest towns are Prague, 
Pilsen, Reichenberg, Budweis, Teplitz, Aus- 
sig and Eger. The educational establish¬ 
ments include the Prague University and 
upward of 4,000 ordinary schools. The 
Province sends 110 representatives to the 
Austrian Parliament; the Provincial Diet 
consists of 242 members. 

Literature .— Bohemia possesses a litera¬ 
ture of considerable bulk, including in it 
also works written in Czech by Moravian 
and Hungarian writers. The earliest frag¬ 
ment is doubtfully referred to the 10th cen¬ 
tury, and it was not till after the 13th cen¬ 
tury that it attained to any development. 
The next century was a period of great ac¬ 
tivity, and to it belong versified legends, 
allegorical and didactic poems, historical 
and theological works, etc. The most flour¬ 
ishing period of the older literature falls 
within 1400-1G20, John Huss (1369-1415) 
having initiated a new era, which, however, 
is more fertile in prose works than in 
poetry. The following period, up to the be¬ 
ginning of the 19th century, was one of 
decline, but in recent times there has been 
a great revival, and in almost all depart¬ 
ments Bohemian writers have produced 
works of merit. 

History .— Bohemia was named after a 
tribe of Gallic origin, the Boii, who were ex¬ 
pelled from this region by the Marcomans 
at the commencement of the Christian era. 
The latter were in turn obliged to give place 
to the Germans, and these to the Czechs, 
a Slavic race, who had established them¬ 
selves in Bohemia by the middle of the 5th 
century, and still form the bulk of the 
population. The country was at first di¬ 
vided into numerous principalities, Chris¬ 


tianity was introduced about 900. In 1092 
Bohemia was finally recognized as a king¬ 
dom under Wratislas II. In 1230 the mon¬ 
archy, hitherto elective, became hereditary. 
The monarchs received investiture from the' 
German Emperor, held one of the great of¬ 
fices in the imperial court, and were recog¬ 
nized as among the seven Electors of the 
Empire. Frequently at strife with it3 
neighbors, Bohemia was successively united 
and disunited with Hungary, Silesia, Mo¬ 
ravia, etc., according to the course of wars 
and alliances. Ottokar II. (1253-1278) had 
extended his conquests almost from the 
Adriatic to the Baltic, when he lost them 
and his life in contest with Rudolph, the 
founder of the house of Hapsburg. After 
the close of the Przemysl dynasty (which 
had held sway for about six centuries) by 
the assassination of Ottokar’s grandson, 
Wenceslas III., the house of Luxemburg 
succeeded in 1310, and governed Bohemia 
till 1437, the reign of Charles II. (1346- 
1378) being especially prosperous. Toward 
the close of this second dynasty civil wars 
were excited by the spread of the Hussite 
movement, the central figure of the strug¬ 
gle being John Ziska, the leader of the 
Taborites. A temporary union between the 
moderate Hussites and the Catholics having 
proved a failure, the Reformed Party elected 
as king, in 1433, the Protestant noble, 
George Podibrad. On his death, in 1471, 
they chose Wladislas, son of Cassimir, King 
of Poland, who also obtained the crown of 
Hungary. His son Louis lost both crowns 
with his life in the battle of Mohacz against 
the Turks, and Ferdinand of Austria be¬ 
came, in 1527, sovereign of both kingdoms. 
Bohemia then lost its separate existence, 
being declared a hereditary possession of the 
house of Austria; and its subsequent his¬ 
tory pertains to that of the Austrian Em¬ 
pire. In 1848 an attempt was made to 
assert its ancient independence against the 
Austrian dominion; a conflict took place, 
Prague was bombarded, and the insurrection 
suppressed. 

Bohemian Brethren, a religious society, 
instituted in Prague, about the middle of 
the 15th century, originally composed of 
remnants of the Hussites. In 1453 they 
settled on the borders of Silesia and Mo¬ 
ravia. The Thirty Years’ War entirely 
broke up the societies of the Brethren; but 
afterward they united again, though per¬ 
secuted. Their exodus and settlement, in 
1722, on the estates of Count Zinzendorf, in 
Saxony, occasioned the formation of the 
Herrnhuters. See Moravians. 

Bohemond, or Boemond, first sovereign 
of Antioch, was son of Robert Guiscard, and 
distinguished himself in the first crusade, 
in 1096. He besieged and took Antioch, of 
which he was made Prince by the Crusad¬ 
ers, and established there a little kingdom, 



Bohlan 


Boies 


which existed nearly 200 years. Besieged 
by the Saracens, he completely defeated 
them; but was soon after captured, and re¬ 
mained their prisoner two years. He sub¬ 
sequently visited Europe, married a 
daughter of the King of France, and got 
the emperor to acknowledge his title. Died 
in Italy in 1111. Six princes of his name 
succeeded him in the sovereignty of An¬ 
tioch, the last, Bohemond VII., being de¬ 
throned in 1288. 

Bohlan, Helene, a German novelist, 
born at Weimar, Nov. 22, 1859. She shows 
now and then a leaning toward the ro¬ 
mantic school, but oil the whole her high 
power of description is realistic and her 
writings are imbued with passion. Among 
her novels are “Under Death’s Ban” (1882); 
“Guilty of a Pure Heart” (1888); “In 
Fresh Water ” (1891). 

Bohlen, Peter von (bo'len), a German 
Orientalist, born in 1796. Having devoted 
himself to the Oriental languages, he ob¬ 
tained an appointment at Konigsberg, in 
1825, as Extraordinary, and in 1830, as Or¬ 
dinary, Professor of Oriental Literature. 
The most important of his writings is “ Das 
alte Indien ” (“'Ancient India”). He died 
in 1840. 

Bohlen Lectures, a lecture course on a 
foundation of $10,000 furnished by John 
Bohlen, a lay member of the Protestant 
Episcopal Church. They are delivered each 
year in Philadelphia, Pa., by eminent rep¬ 
resentatives of that Church. Among the 
most notable are those upon “ The Influence 
of Jesus,” by Bishop Brooks, and the “ Fit¬ 
ness of Christianity,” by Bishop Huntington. 

Bohol (bo'hol). one of the Philippine 
Islands, belonging to the Visayas or Bis- 
ayas group. It has an area of about 1,300 
square miles and a population (U. S. census, 
1903) of 269,223. Sugar cane is grown 
and the island is reputed rich in gold de¬ 
posits. The most important town is Tag- 
bilaran, a port on the S. W. coast. In the 
N. is Calape. These ports were officially 
declared open to commerce, Dec. 11, 1899. 
The Visayas dialect prevails throughout Bo¬ 
hol. 

Boiardo (bo-y&r'do), Matteo Maria, 
Count of Scandiano, one of the greater 
Italian poets, was born in 1434 at •Scandi¬ 
ano, a village situated at the foot of the 
Lombard Apennines. He studied at the 
University of Ferrara, and, in 1462, mar¬ 
ried the daughter of the Count of Norellara. 
He lived principally at the court of Fer¬ 
rara on terms of intimate friendship with 
Duke Borso and Duke Ercole, by the latter 
of whom he was employed on important dip¬ 
lomatic missions, and appointed, in 1481, 
Governor of Modena, and, in 1487, Gover¬ 
nor of Reggio. As an administrator he 
was distinguished for his clemency, and is 


said to have held that no crime should be 
visited with capital punishment. He died 
at Reggio, in 1494. Boiardo has been called 
the “ Flower of Chivalry.” His fame rests 
on the “Orlando Innamorato ” (1486), a 
long narrative poem in which the romances 
of the Carlovingian cycle are recast into 
“ ottava rima.” Full of rich and graceful 
fancy, this is the only work in which the 
spirit of chivalry is found in union with 
the spirit of the Renaissance. The chief 
characters, the Paladins of Charlemagne, 
are led in a maze of adventure from Paris 
to Spain, Hungary, Africa and the far 
Fast; Orlando, whose love for the Eastern 
princess Angelica is the central subject, 
being none other than the hero of the old 
“ Chanson de Roland.” Ariosto adopted 
Boiardo’s characters and magic machinery, 
and brought his narrative to a close in the 
“ Orlando Furioso,” by which the fame of 
the earlier poem has been unfairly obscured. 
After going through 16 editions before 
1545, Boiardo’s work became almost for¬ 
gotten, its vigorous but rough and provin¬ 
cial style being uncongenial to the Floren¬ 
tine taste. Boiardo’s other works comprise 
various Latin eclogues, a versification of 
Lucian’s “ Timon,” translations of Herodo¬ 
tus, the “ Ass ” of Lucian, and the “ Golden 
Ass” of Apuleius, and a series of sonnets 
and “ Canzoni ” (Reggio, 1499). 

Boidae, a family of ophidice (serpents) 
belonging to the suborder colubrina. They 
have no poison fangs. They have the rudi¬ 
ments of hind limbs. The chief genera are 
boa, python and eryx. 

Boieldieu, Francois Adrien (bwal-dve), 
a French musical composer, born in 1775; 
author of numerous well known operas: 
“ Le Calife de Bagdad,” “ Jean de Paris,” 
etc.; “ La Dame Blanche ” is, however, es¬ 
teemed his chef d'oeuvre. His style is 
characterized by a sweet and natural mel¬ 
ody, much imaginative gayety, and simple 
but pleasing accompaniments. Boieldieu 
was a member of the Institute. He died in 
1835. 

Boies, Horace, an American lawyer, 
born in Aurora, Erie co., N. Y., Dec. 7, 
1827; went to Wisconsin Territory in 1844; 
and after working on a farm returned to 
Erie countv, where he studied law and was 
admitted to the bar in 1849. He practiced 
at and near Buffalo till 1867, becoming ac¬ 
tive in Republican politics during this 
period; and in the last year removed to 
Waterloo, la., where he continued law prac¬ 
tice. His opposition to the tariff and pro¬ 
hibition policy of the Republican Party 
caused him to unite with the Democrats; 
and, in 1890-1894, he served two terms as 
Governor of Iowa, being defeated for a 
third term in 1893. He was a conspicuous 
candidate for the presidential nomination 




Boil 


Boiler 


in the National Democratic Conventions in 
1892 and 189G; and in the campaign of 
189G he supported Mr. Bryan. 

Boii, a powerful Celtic people who dwelt 
originally in Transalpine Gaul, part of 
whom settled in the modern Bohemia, and 
bequeathed their name to that country. 

Boil, a disease called by medical men 
furunculus. It is a phlegmonous tumor, 
which rises externally, attended with red¬ 
ness and pain, and sometimes with a vio¬ 
lent, burning heat. Ultimately it becomes 
pointed, breaks, and emits pus. A sub¬ 
stance called the core is next revealed. It 
is purulent, but so thick and tenacious that 
it looks solid, and may be drawn out in the 
form of a cylinder, more pus following. 
The boil then heals. A blind boil is one 
which does not suppurate. 

Boileau, Nicolas (bwa-lo'), a French 
poet, born at Paris, Nov. 1, 1636. He was 
educated at Beauvais, and received both a 
legal and a theological training. In his 
21st year, however, he inherited a compe¬ 
tence, and decided to follow a life of purely 
literary activity. In his youth he appears 
to have been most generally known by the 
surname Despreaux, which he had taken in 



accordance with a practice of the time. He 
published his satirical “ Adieux d’un Poete 
h la Ville de Paris,” in 1GG0, and, in 1663, 
we find him united with Moliere, La Fon¬ 
taine and Racine, in the famous “ society of 
four.” In 1GGG he published a collection of 
satires from which the royal privilege was 
for a time withdrawn, through the influ¬ 
ence of Chapelain, one of the writers whom 
he had gibbeted. Boileau, however, soon 


gained the favor of the king, who awarded 
him various pensions, and in 1G77 appointed 
him, along with Racine, to the post of 
royal historiographer. “ L’Art Poetique,” 
which contains the exposition of his liter¬ 
ary creed, and which was imitated by Pope 
in the “ Essay on Criticism,” was published 
in 1G74, along with four cantos of the 
“ Lutrin,” a clever serio-comic description 
of an ecclesiastical squabble over a reading 
desk. Two cantos, concluding the poem, ap* 
peared in 1681. Between 1669 and 1677 
Boileau published nine epistles, written, 
like his satires, on the Horatian model. To 
celebrate the capture of Namur in 1692, he 
composed an ode which remains a glaring 
example of servile flattery and bad verse. 
This deplorable production was admirably 
burlesqued by Prior. In his last years 
Boileau retired to Auteuil, where he died 
March 13, 1711. 

Boiler, the name applied to any vessel 
or cauldron for boiling large quantities of 
liquor, but most commonly used as the des¬ 
ignation of a metallic vessel in which water 
is converted into steam by the action of 
fire, the steam being intended by its ex¬ 
pansive force to give motion to a steam 
engine, or to be used for a variety of man¬ 
ufacturing purposes. Boilers may be sub¬ 
divided into the following classes: (a) 

Shell or tank boilers. (&) Water-tube 
boilers. 

Shell or tank boilers consist of a large 
shell or tank, usually cylindrical in form 
with flat ends. Within this shell are con¬ 
tained the water and steam, so that the 
whole of the shell is exposed to the full 
pressure of the steam. In some cases the 
furnaces are external, but generally they 
are contained within the shell. The follow¬ 
ing are examples of shell boilers (see ac¬ 
companying plate) : Cornish and Lan¬ 
cashire boilers (Fig. 7), ordinary marine 
boilers (Figs. 1, 2), and locomotive boilers. 
Boilers may also be classified as flue boil¬ 
ers and multitubular boilers; and multi- 
tubular boilers may be subdivided into fire- 
tube boilers and water-tube boilers. The 
Lancashire boiler is an example of the flue 
type of boiler, because there are internal 
flues of large diameter passing through it. 
Ordinary marine and locomotive boilers are 
examples of multitubular fire-tube boilers, 
because the products of combustion flow 
through a large number of tubes of small 
diameter. In water-tube boilers the water 
flows through the tubes, and the products 
of combustion flow over the outsides. Ex¬ 
amples of water-tube boilers are shown in 
plate. 

We will now give a brief description of 
the different types of boilers: 

Lancashire Boiler (Fig. 7).—-Boilers of 
this type are usually from 7 to 8 feet in di¬ 
ameter, and they may vary in length from 2C 



























Boiler 


Boiler 


to 30 feet. Within the boiler are two cyl¬ 
indrical Hues, at the front ends of which 
are the two furnaces. Conical “ Galloway ” 
tubes are usually fitted into the internal 
flues, as shown, for the purpose of improv¬ 
ing the circulation of the water. At the 
rear end of the fire grate is a fire-brick 
bridge, which serves to prevent the fuel fall¬ 
ing over the end of the grate, but the main 
object of which is to cause the gases to mix 
more rapidly in order to facilitate rapid 
and complete combustion. The length of 
the fire grate should not exceed 6 feet, as 
with a longer grate it is impossible to en¬ 
sure a uniform distribution of the fuel over 
the surface of the grate. The bulk of the 
air for combustion passes through the fire, 
and the rest of it is admitted through 
gratings in the furnace doors. If the fire 
is thick it is impossible to insure complete 
combustion without this additional supply 
above the fires. The boiler is cased in 
brick-work built in such a way as to form 
external flues at the sides and beneath the 
boiler. The products of combustion after 
leaving the internal flues pass down to the 
bottom flue, along which they flow to near 
the front end of the boiler; they then flow 
through the side flues to the rear end, and 
from thence into the flue leading to the econ- 
omizer or chimney. The feed-water is sent 
by means of a pump or an injector into the 
boiler through the vertical pipe shown at 
the left-hand side of the front end, and it is 
discharged into the boiler through the per¬ 
forations in the long horizontal pipe shown. 
The steam is collected by the upper perfor¬ 
ated pipe which is shown under the stop 
valve. The other important fittings are the 
pressure gauge, the water-level gauges, the 
safety valves, and the scum and blow-oil’ 
cocks. 

The marine boiler, illustrated in Figs. 1 
and 2, has three furnaces, each with a sepa¬ 
rate combustion chamber. The products of 
combustion flow from the combustion cham¬ 
bers c into the small diameter tubes d, 
through which they flow to the front end 
of the boiler, where they are discharged 
into the uptake. The plain tubes are ex¬ 
panded into the tube plates by cold rolling, 
but a certain proportion of the tubes are 
used as stay tubes, and these are screwed 
into the tube plates and have nuts screwed 
on them. 

In a locomotive boiler it is usual to 
have a fire-brick arch dividing the fire-box 
into two compartments, the upper of which 
serves as a combustion chamber. The gases 
flow from the fire-box through the small- 
diameter tubes to the smoke-box at the front 
end. As a high chimney cannot be used, the 
draught has to be obtained artificially, and 
in locomotives it is always obtained by 
means of a steam blast, the exhaust steam 
from the engine cylinders being used for 
the purpose, 

64 


Water-tube Boilers .— In Fig. 8 a boiler of 
the Babcock and Wilcox type is shown. The 
upper drum is kept about half full of water, 
and the space above it is the steam space. 
The feed-water is fed into the upper drum. 
The main heating tubes are expanded into 
front and rear headers, which are sinuous 
in form in order that the tubes may not be 
in vertical planes. This arrangement in¬ 
sures complete mixing of the gases as they 
flow between the tubes, and thus tends to 
increase the efficiency of the boiler. The 
front and rear headers are connected to 
the upper drum by the tubes shown, and a 
mud drum is connected to the lower ends 
of the rear headers. The circulation of the 
water within the boiler is due to the dif¬ 
ference in density between the water in the 
rear headers and their connecting pipes, 
and the water and the steam in the main 
tubes and front headers. The flow is, there¬ 
fore, from front to rear in the upper drum, 
down the rear pipes and upward through 
the main inclined tubes and the front head¬ 
ers. A modified form of boiler is being 
built by this firm for marine purposes, and 
a large number have been adopted. 

The Belleville boiler is illustrated in 
Figs. 5 and 0. The steam drum, n, is of 
very small diameter, about 20 inches in full- 
sized boilers. The heating surface consists 
of a number of tubes arranged in elements, 
and all the tubes in the same element are 
connected up in series. Each element may 
therefore be regarded as a flattened helix. 
The boiler shown contains eight of these el¬ 
ements. The water is fed into the steam 
drum, from which it flows down a pipe at 
each end of the boiler into a mud-box. At 
the lower end of each down-take pipe a« 
non-return valve is provided. The water 
flows from the mud-box into a feed-dis¬ 
tributing tube, from which it flows upward 
through the various elements from which 
the water and steam are discharged into 
the upper drum. The steam and water are 
separated in the upper drum by a very 
elaborate arrangement of baffles. 

In the economizer type of Belleville boil¬ 
er the feed-water is heated before being sent 
into the drum, in tubes arranged similarly 
to those in the boiler and placed above 
them. When this arrangement is adopted, 
the number of tubes in each boiler element 
is reduced, and a space is left between the 
boiler and the economizer to form a second¬ 
ary combustion chamber. Combustion above 
the fire and in the secondary combustion 
chamber is facilitated by the use of jets 
of air at a high velocity, which serve 
to rapidly mix the gases. A Thornyeroft 
boiler of the Daring ” type is shown in 
Figs. 3 and 4. One of the most important 
features is the arrangement of the tubes 
so that the discharge of water and steam 
into the upper drum takes place above the 
water-level. This insures systematic and 




Boiler 


Boiler 


definite circulation, and that each tube shall 
do its own duty and no more. The tubes 
in which the steam is generated are usually 
about iy$ inches in diameter. A boiler of 
the Yarrow type has an upper steam and 
water drum, and two lower semi-cylindrical 
water chambers; the latter are connected 
with the former by a series of straight gen¬ 
erating tubes. The main advantages of this 
type of boiler are its simplicity and its 
straight tubes. Both the Thornycroft and 
the Yarrow types of boilers are largely 
used for torpedo boats and other vessels in 
which high speed is of the greatest im¬ 
portance. 

Green’s Economizer. — This is an arrange¬ 
ment of vertical cast-iron tubes which is 
generally attached to Lancashire boilers for 
the purpose of heating the feed-water by 
means of the products of combustion after 
they leave the boiler. The products of com¬ 
bustion flow round the outsides of these 
tubes, and the tubes are kept clean by au¬ 
tomatic scrapers, which continuously re¬ 
move the soot from the outsides of the 
tubes. 

Importance of Circulation of Water in 
Boilers. — Rapid, free, and uniform circula¬ 
tion of the water in a boiler is of the great¬ 
est importance, because it insures all parts 
of the boiler being at approximately the 
same temperature, and thus prevents un¬ 
equal expansion. It also diminishes the 
chances of sediment settling on the heating 
surfaces, as the sediment settles most rap¬ 
idly where the velocity of flow is least. 
Some special place should be provided with¬ 
in the boiler, and away from the heating 
surface, where the water in its circuit may 
be brought approximately to rest, in order 
that the sediment may settle out in this 
place. Rapid circulation of the water dim¬ 
inishes the chances of corrosion, because 
the oxygen and carbonic acid gas, which are 
always in solution in natural water, are 
swept off the surfaces immediately they 
are liberated from solution. If the various 
currents of water within the boiler inter¬ 
fere with one another there will be practi¬ 
cally still water in some places or at some 
times, and excessive commotion in other 
places, or at other times, and this excessive 
commotion may cause serious priming. 
Priming is said to take place when some 
of the water is carried along with the 
steam from the boiler. The efficiency of 
steam engines is greatly reduced whenever 
priming takes place. 

Superheated Steam. — The temperature of 
saturated steam depends on the pressure. 
For example, the temperature of ordinary 
steam at atmospheric pressure is 212° F., 
and when the pressure is 130 pounds per 
square inch by gauge the temperature is 
356° F. Steam is said to be superheated 
when it is raised to a higher temperature 
than that which corresponds to its pres¬ 


sure. If superheated steam is brought into 
contact with water it at once takes up some 
of the water, becomes saturated, and its 
temperature falls to that corresponding to 
its pressure. The superheating of steam is 
therefore effected by supplying heat to it 
after it leaves the boiler, and this is usually 
done by passing it through tubes which 
are heated on the outside by products of 
combustion. By superheating the steam 
initial condensation within the engine cylin¬ 
der is greatly diminished or entirely obvi¬ 
ated, and in this way the efficiency of the 
engine is greatly increased. The saving in 
coal due to superheating may amount to as 
much as 25 per cent, even in first-class en¬ 
gines, and to more than this in common en¬ 
gines. The saving is seldom less than 15 
per cent, even with moderate degrees of 
superheating. The difficulties encountered 
when superheating was tried, about the year 
1800, are now past, and it seems certain that 
superheating will be adopted where economy 
in coal is of importance. 

Materials TJscd in the Construction of 
Boilers. — Boilers are now generally con¬ 
structed of mild steel having a tensile 
strength of about 28 tons per square inch. 
In locomotive boilers the fire-boxes are al¬ 
most always constructed of copper, although 
in some cases, especially in the United 
States, mild steel is used for this purpose. 
The tubes of locomotive boilers are made of 
brass, usually about 1% inches diameter. 
Copper tubes were at first used for the wa¬ 
ter-tube boilers of torpedo boat destroyers, 
but they have been found to be unsuitable 
for this purpose, and mild steel is now al¬ 
ways used, and the tubes are best when 
solid drawn. The tubes of marine boilers 
are usually of wrought iron or mild steel. 

Selection of Type of Boiler. — Before de¬ 
ciding which type of boiler to adopt in any 
given case it is necessary to consider what 
are the controlling features: such as, in the 
case of land boilers, the space available, the 
ease or otherwise with which a boiler can 
be put into the building provided for it, 
safety, efficiency, the kind of water avail¬ 
able, the rate of fluctuation in the demand 
for steam, the facility with which steam 
can be raised, the pressure at which the 
steam is required, the first cost, and the 
cost of maintenance. In locomotive and 
marine work it is of the greatest impor¬ 
tance that the weight and bulk of the boilers 
shall be as small as possible consistent 
with the other controlling conditions. For 
most purposes on land the Lancashire type 
of boiler is still generally preferred (where 
sufficient space can be provided for it and 
where it can be easily put into the works), 
for the following reasons: (a) Its first 
cost and cost of maintenance are compara¬ 
tively low; (6) it can be easily and thor¬ 
oughly inspected and cleaned, hence dirty 
feed-water may be used with greater 





BOILER. 


FIG. 

1, 2. Common Type of Cylindrical Boiler. 
3, 4. Thorneycroft Boiler. 

5, 6. Belleville Boile’r 

7. Lancashire Boiler. 

8. Babcock <Sc Wilcox Boiler. 









































































































































































































































































































OTHER SIDE. 



























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































. 




■ 














Boiling 


Boiling 


safety than in the case of boilers which can¬ 
not be as readily cleaned and inspected; 
(c) the fluctuation of steam pressure is less 
under irregular conditions of working than 
with boilers which contain a smaller quanti 
ty of water, because the water in the boiler 
acts as a heat reservoir. The efficiency of 
this type of boiler is low under ordinary 
working conditions, unless it is worked in 
conjunction with a Green’s economizer, the 
cost of which considerably increases both 
the first cost and the cost of maintenance 
of the plant. The great length of time re¬ 
quired to raise steam in this type of boiler, 
owing to the great mass of water and brick¬ 
work which has to be heated, renders it un¬ 
suitable for those cases where steam is re¬ 
quired intermittently for short periods. 
Water-tube boilers of the Babcock and Wil¬ 
cox type are now being largely adopted for 
electric light and power stations for the 
following among other reasons: (a) 

Small floor space required, (b) the ease 
with which they can be placed in the build¬ 
ing, (c) the facility with which steam can 
be raised, ( d ) their safety from disastrous 
explosions. This type of boiler requires 
more careful stoking than other types. 

Boiling, in general, the change of a 
substance from the liquid to the gaseous 
state which takes place throughout the 
liquid. The boiling point, in science, is 
the point or degree of the thermometer at 
which any liquid boils. The boiling point 
of any liquid is always the same, if the 
physical conditions are the same. It is al¬ 
tered by adhesion of the liquid to the sur¬ 
face of the vessel in which it is contained, 
or solution of a solid in the liquid raises the 
boiling point. Increase, the pressure raises, 
while diminution of atmospheric pressure 
lowers, the boiling point. The boiling point 
of distilled water under pressure of 700 
millimeters is 100° C., or 212° F. A dif¬ 
ference of height of about 327 meters low¬ 
ers the boiling point of water about 1° C., 
or 507 feet ascent lowers it 1° F. The boil¬ 
ing point of organic compounds is gener¬ 
ally higher as the constitution is more com¬ 
plex. In a homologous series the boiling 
point rises about 19° for every additional 
CH 3 in normal alcohols, and 22° in the 
normal fatty acids, as ethylic alcohol, 
C 2 II 5 (OH) 78.4°; propylic alcohol, C 3 II 7 (OH) 
07°; acetic acid, CH 3 .CO.OH. 118°; pro¬ 
pionic acid, C 2 H 5 .CO.OII 149.G°. The sec¬ 
ondary and tertiary alcohols have lower 
boiling points than the primary alcohols. 
The replacement of hydrogen in a hydro¬ 
carbon by chlorine, or by a radical raises 
the boiling point, as benzene 82°, 

chlorbenzene C R H 5 bl. 135°, amidobenzene 
C„H 5 (NH 2 ) 182°. 

Liquids are not increased in heat after 
they once begin to boil; a fierce fire only 


makes them boil more rapidly. The follow¬ 
ing boiling points have been stated: 

Deg. 

Fahr. 


Mercury,,,,. 662 

Sulphuric acid. 610 

Olive oil. 600 

Phosphorus. 664 

Iodine.,.... 347 

Naphtha. 320 

Oil of turpentine... 814 

Water. 212 

Nitric acid. 210 

Alcohol. 173 

Sulphuric ether. 113 

Muriatic ether. 52 


In cookery, an important preliminary 
rule in boiling rests on the fact that water 
cannot be heated in an open vessel, or in 
one with the ordinary fitting lid of a cook¬ 
ing utensil, to a higher point than 212° F. 
When a vessel, then, has once begun to 
boil, a stronger fire than is just sufficient to 
keep it boiling will only evaporate, or 
waste, the water in steam, but will not cook 
the food any faster. To boil a joint of meat 
successfully, it is necessary to place it in 
water already heated to the boiling point, in 
order that the albuminous matters of the 
skin, etc., may be coagulated as speedily as 
possible. 

The meat should be trimmed, washed and 
dried before it is placed in the water. As 
it simmers, the water should be kept well 
skimmed, but with due remembrance of the 
fact that raising the lid of the vessel low¬ 
ers the temperature of the water; and the 
preservation of an equal degree of heat 
throughout the operation is of the great¬ 
est importance. For fresh meat, 20 min¬ 
utes is the allowance for each pound. The 
weather must also be considered; in frosty 
weather, or with very thick joints, extra 
20 minutes should be given. Mutton loses 
in boiling, in 1 pound, 3 L /z ounces; beef, 
in 1 pound, 4 ounces. Meat that has been 
salted and dried has its outer coat already 
sealed up; it requires, therefore, to be 
thoroughly washed, soaked for two hours in 
cold water, dried, and put to boil in cold 
water, gradually brought to the boiling 
point, and kept simmering for a time pro¬ 
portioned to the size of the piece. Hams 
and tongues to be eaten cold, should be al¬ 
lowed to cool in the water in which they 
have been boiled. The following is a time 
table for the cooking of these meats, reckon¬ 
ing from the time the water boils: A ham 
of 16 pounds takes 5 hours; a tongue of 16 
1 pounds, 2 to 4 hours; a pig’s face of 6 
pounds, 2 hours; a piece of bacon of 4 
pounds, 2 hours. 

Before boiling poultry or fish, it is ad¬ 
visable to rub the outside skin with a cut 
lemon. This insures a snowy white ap¬ 
pearance in the cooked food. Fish should 
be placed in cold water, in which a table- 















Boisard 


Boissy 


spoonful of salt and one of vinegar is mixed; 
should be gradually brought to the boiling 
point, and simmered carefully, lest the outer 
part should crack before the thick part is 
done. If on drawing up the fish plate, a 
thin knife will easily divide the flesh from 
the bone in the thick parts, and if the eyes 
contract, and become like balls, the fish is 
sufficiently cooked. Drain by laying the 
plate across the kettle covered with the lid, 
and dish perfectly dry on the strainer, 
which should be covered with a napkin. 

Vegetables require generally to be well 
washed, and placed in boiling water, in 
which is mixed a large spoonful of salt. To 
preserve the green color they are best boiled 
in a pan without a cover. When they sink 
they are done. Green vegetables should be 
well picked, soaked in salt and water, 
drained and boiled in plenty of water, in a 
vessel without a lid. Cabbage requires two 
waters; spinach, very little, as it is full of 
moisture. Peas and beans should not 
soak, but be merely rinsed in a colander. 
Winter potatoes should soak for an hour 
or more. 

Boisard, Francois Marie (bwa-zhr'), a 
French fabulist, Dorn in 1774. Of all the 
French fabulists he is least an imitator 
of the great Lafontaine. His “ Fables ” 
were at first published in the newspaper 
“ Mercure de France,” and afterward gath¬ 
ered in two collections. His “ Ode on the 
Deluge ” was crowned by tne Pouen Acad¬ 
emy, 1790. He died in 1833. 

Bois d’Arc (bwa-dark') (sometimes cor¬ 
rupted into Bodock), also bow-wood, or os- 
age orange (maclura nurantiaca ), a tree 
belonging to the arlocarpaccce, suborder 
moracece, is a native of the Southern United 
States. Its large, beautiful orange like 
fruits are scarcely eatable, but its spines 
make it useful as a hedge plant. Its wood 
is strong, and hard, and elastic, and lienee 
was used by the Indians in the manufac¬ 
ture of their bows. 

Bois de Boulogne (bwa de bo-lon'), a 
pleasant grove near the gates on the W. of 
Paris, so named after the suburb Boulogne- 
sur-Seine. Its trees were more or less de¬ 
stroyed during the Franco-Prussian War. 
It is still, however, one of the pleasantest 
Parisian holiday promenades and a famous 
dueling ground. 

Boise, city, capital of the State of Idaho, 
and county-seat of Ada co.; on the Boise 
river and the Union Pacific railroad; 45 
miles S. W. of Idaho City. It occupies the 
site of a former trading post of the Hudson 
Bay Company; is in an agricultural and a 
rich mining region; and is supplied with 
pure hot water from a flowing boiling well. 
The city is said to be the only one in the 
world having a natural supply of hot water. 
It contains the State Capitol, erected in 


1885-1887, St. Teresa Academy, an Epis* 
copal school for girls, a penitentiary, 
United States Assay Office, State library, 
high and graded schools, and 2 National 
banks. The assessed property valuation ex¬ 
ceeds $2,000,000. Pop. (1890) 2,311; 

(1900) 5,957; (1910) 17,358. 

Boise, James Robinson, an American 

educator, born in Blandford, Mass., Jan. 
27, 1815; was graduated at Brown Uni¬ 
versity, in 1840; and served there as tutor 
of Latin and Greek and as Professor of 
Greek till 1850. In 18G2, he became Pro¬ 
fessor of the Greek Language and Litera¬ 
ture in the University of Michigan; in 18G8, 
was called to the same chair in the Uni¬ 
versity of Chicago; and, in 1877, became 
Professor of New Testament Interpretation 
in the Baptist Union Theological Seminary. 
On the establishment of the new University 
of Chicago he was made Professor-Emeri¬ 
tus of New Testament Greek. He published 
several classical text books, including edi¬ 
tions with original notes of Xenophon’s 
“ Anabasis ” and the first six books of 
Homer’s “ Iliad,” besides “ Notes ” on the 
Epistles to the Galatians, Romans, Ephe¬ 
sians, Colossians, Philemon, and Philip- 
pians. He died in Chicago, Feb. 9, 1895. 

Boisgobey, Fortune Abraham du (bwa- 
go-ba'), a French novelist, born in Gran¬ 
ville, Sept. 11, 1821. In 1844-1848 he was 
paymaster in the army at Algiers, and 
began to ^write in 18G8, somewhat on the 
lines of Emile Gaboriau. His novels were 
popular, and include “ The Scoundrels ” 
(Paris, 1873); “Chevalier Casse-Con ” 
(1873) ; “The Mysteries of Modern Paris” 
(1876) ; “The Demi-Monde Under the Ter¬ 
ror” ( 1877) ; “The Old Age of M. Lecoq ” 
(1878); “The Cat’s Eye” (1888); and 
“The Cold Hand” (1879). He died in 
February, 1891. 

Bois=le=Duc (bwa-le-dilc'), a fortified 
city of North Brabant, Holland, founded by 
Godfrey of Brabant in 1184, at the point 
where the Dommel and Aa unite to form the 
Diest; has manufactures of cloth, hats, 
cotton goods, etc., and a good trade in 
grain, its water traffic being equal to that 
of a considerable maritime port. The for¬ 
tifications are of little modern value, but 
the surrounding country can be readily in¬ 
undated at need. The cathedral is one of 
the finest in the Netherlands. Pop. (1897) 
30,355. The Duke of York was defeated 
here by the French in 1794. 

Boisseree (bwas-ra'), Gallery, a cele¬ 
brated gallery of pictures in the Pinako- 
thek or picture gallery at Munich, collected 
by the brothers Sulpice (1783-1854) and 
Melchior Boisseree. In 1827 King Ludwig 
of Bavaria purchased it for 120,000 thalers. 

Boissy d’Anglas, Francois Antoine, 
Comte de, a French statesman of the 




Bok 


Bokhara 


revolutionary period; born in Saint Jean- 
la-Chambre, near Annonay, in 1750. He 
studied at Annonay, and was admitted as 
an advocate to the Parliament of Paris. In 
1780 he was elected at Annonay to the 
States-General, where lie was a moderate ad¬ 
vocate of revolutionary principles, in sup¬ 
port of which he wrote at this time various 
brochures. In 1792 he was returned as a 
deputy to the Convention. He voted against 
the death of Louis XVI., and after the fall 
of Robespierre he was appointed secretary 
of the Convention, and a member of the 
Committee of Public Safety, and intrusted 
with the provisioning of Paris at a time 
of famine, a task which he does not appear 
to have executed satisfactorily. He was 
made a member of the Council of Five Hun¬ 
dred in 1795, president of the Tribunate in 
1803, senator and commander of the Legion 
of Honor in 1805, was created a peer by 
Louis XVIII. in 1814, but supported Na¬ 
poleon during the Hundred Hays, and was 
consequently expelled from the peerage by 
a royal ordinance, but shortly afterward 
reinstated. He was from 1803 a member 
of the consistory of the Reformed Church, a 
member of the Institute from its commence¬ 
ment, and on its reconstruction in 1816 he 
became a member of the Academy of In¬ 
scriptions. He wrote an essay on the life 
and writings of Malesherbes (Paris, 1819- 
1821); “Etudes Litteraires et PoStiques 
d’un Vieillard ” (5 vols. Paris, 1825). 

The fame of Boissy d.’Anglas rests chiefly 
on a scene in the Convention in 1795, when 
the hall was invaded by an angry mob, de¬ 
manding bread and the constitution of 1793. 
Called temporarily to take the chair, in the 
absence of the president, Boissy had pre¬ 
sented to him the head of a deputy, Feraud, 
which had been cut off by the insurgents 
and placed on the end of a pike. He sa¬ 
luted it, and continued calmly facing the 
mob, and to his courage and firmness the 
safety of the Convention at this crisis is 
attributed. Such is the popular version of 
a story of which the most various and con¬ 
tradictory accounts are given. It has been 
said that Boissy d’Anglas exhibited no such 
courage as has been attributed to him, and 
that he was merely kept in his place by the 
pressure of the mob. His enemies, who ac¬ 
cused him of reactionary tendencies, even 
said the insurrection was got up by the re¬ 
actionary party to discredit the revolu¬ 
tion, and that Boissy was in understanding 
with the leaders of the mob. For this last 
accusation there appears to be no founda¬ 
tion, but it is quite likely the scene may 
have been represented in a more dramatic 
form than it actually occurred. 

Bok, Edward William, an American 
editor; born in 1863. He edited the “ Ladies’ 
Home Journal,” and wrote “The Young 
Man in Business/’ and “ Suceessward.” 


Boker, George Henry, an American poet 
and dramatist; born in Philadelphia, Pa., 
Oct. 6, 1823. He graduated from Prince¬ 
ton in 1842; studied law; and was United 
States minister to Turkey in 1871-1875, and 
to Russia in 1875-1879. His plays include: 
“ Calaynos ” (1848) ; “ Anne Boleyn ” 

(1850) ; “Francesca di Rimini”; “The Be¬ 
trothed”; and “All the World’s a Mask.” 
Collected plays and poems (Boston, 1856). 
Also “Poems of the War” (1864) ; “ Kon- 
igsmark and other Poems” (1869); “The 
Book of the Dead ” (1882) ; and “ Sonnets” 
(1886). He died Jan. 2 ; 1890. 

Bokhara, a khanate of Central Asia, 
practically vassal to Russia, bounded on the 
N. by Russian Turkestan, W. by Khiva and 
the Russian Trans-Caspian Territory, S. by 
Afghanistan, and E. by Russian Turkestan. 
It formerly occupied considerably more ter¬ 
ritory than it does now, having been reduced 
by the conquests and encroachments of Rus¬ 
sia, which have been only partially com¬ 
pensated by some additions. The present 
area of the khanate is estimated at about 
92,000 square miles. The country is to a 
great extent occupied by deserts and low 
and naked ranges of mountains, and the 
cultivated portions of it are confined to the 
valley of the rivers, especially the Oxus or 
Amoo Daria, which forms the S. boundarv 
for a considerable distance, and then flows 
from S. E. to N. W. parallel to and not far 
from the frontier of the country. Bokhara 
lies between lat. 37° and 41° N., and in 
greater part is no more than 1,100 or 1,200 
feet above the level of the sea, but in the 
extreme E. is mountainous. The climate is 
subject to great extremes, being warm in 
summer and very cold in winter. There is 
very little rain, on which account it is nec¬ 
essary to resort to artificial irrigation. Be¬ 
sides cereals, cotton, tobacco, and vegeta¬ 
bles are cultivated, and there is abundance 
of fruit. The total population amounts to 
about 2,250,000, and consists of the Uzbecks, 
who are the ruling race, and to whom the 
emir belongs; the Tajiks, who form the ma¬ 
jority in the capital; the Kirghizes, less nu¬ 
merous than the Tajiks; about 60,000 Ara¬ 
bians, descendants of the soldiers who were 
brought into the country by the third 
caliph of Bagdad on the occasion of the 
conquest of Turkestan; Persians who have 
chiefly been brought as slaves to Bokhara; 
Turcomans, Hindus, and about 10,000 Jews 
who live in the towns beyond the protec¬ 
tion of the law, and accordingly oppressed 
by the other inhabitants. Since the sep¬ 
aration of Samarcand there are now only 
two towns of any importance in Bokhara, 
namely, the chief town Bokhara, with 
a pop. of about 75,000; and Karshi, 
with about 25,000. Besides these there 
are a few small towns and some hundred 
villages in the country. The capital, ac¬ 
cording to Vambery the center of Tartar 






Bokhara 


Bokhara 


civilization, is ill built and lias a gloomy 
aspect, and in luxury of dress and mode of 
life is far behind the towns of Western 
Asia. Among the people there reigns the 
utmost moral corruption along with a rig¬ 
orous adherence to outward forms. The 
country is distinguished from the other 
countries of Central Asia by its numerous 
schools, and in the same proportion by the 
amount of culture diffused among the peo¬ 
ple generally; but the women are even more 
degraded than in other Mohammedan coun¬ 
tries. The rule of the emir is absolute, 
though he is to some extent under the in¬ 
fluence of the clergy. The manufactures 
are unimportant, but there is a very con¬ 
siderable caravan trade, cotton, rice, silk, 
and indigo being exported, and woven goods, 
sugar, iron, etc., being imported. There is 
also now a trade by railway, since the 
making of the line from the Caspian to 
Samarcand. Bokhara is remarkable for its 
religious fanaticism, and various European 
travelers have been exposed to danger. Af¬ 
ter Alexander Burnes had visited Bokhara 
on a commission from the government of 
India in 1832, the British ambassador in 
Teheran sent Colonel Stoddart in 1838 to 
obtain from the Emir Nasrulla the deliv¬ 
erance of the Russian prisoners that he had 
taken on his predatory incursions into Rus¬ 
sian territory. Nasrulla, however, irritated 
at the neglect to answer his letter to the 
Queen of England, ordered Colonel Stoddart 
to be thrown into prison, and after treating 
him with great cruelty, compelled him to 
acknowledge the Mohammedan creed. Cap¬ 
tain Conolly, who had been with a similar 
object in Khiva and Khokand, came in 
1841 to Bokhara, and after having to sub¬ 
mit to the same treatment as Colonel Stod¬ 
dart, was executed along with him in 1842. 
Information of their fate was brought to 
Europe by the missionary Wolff who had 
been sent to Bokhara in 1843 for this pur¬ 
pose. 

In 1850 the Russians established them¬ 
selves at the mouth of the Sir (Jaxartes), 
where it flows into the Sea of Aral, and in 
1864 they found it necessary to proceed 
further up the river. They made themselves 
masters of the two towns Turkestan and 
Aulie-ata, and after bringing them into 
communication with one another, invested 
Chemkend, Nrazbek, and Chinab. The land 
thus occupied, which up to that time had 
formed the N. half of the khanate of Kho¬ 
kand, was, along with some other districts 
that had previously been annexed to Russia, 
erected into the Russian government of 
Turkestan, and incorporated with the gen¬ 
eral government of Orenburg, by the ukase 
of Feb. 14 (26), 1865. By a subsequent 
ukase, dated July 11 (23), 1867, this ter¬ 
ritory was constituted a general govern¬ 
ment. Soon after the Khan of Khokand 
invaded the Russian territory, in conse¬ 


quence of which the Russians advanced still 
farther S. and attacked Tashkend, which 
they took on June 28, 1865. They did not, 
however, incorporate Tashkend with the 
Russian territory, but declared it an inde¬ 
pendent khanate under the protection of 
Russia. This arrangement was opposed by 
Muzaffer-Eddin, Emir of Bokhara, where¬ 
upon the Russian general Romanovski again 
assumed the offensive, and marching into 
Bokhara took Khojend by storm on June 5, 
1866. In this way Russia came into the 
possession of the whole basin of the Sir. 
Not long after Tashkend was incorporated 
with the Russian territory by the desire 
of the inhabitants. Meanwhile the war 
with Bokhara still went on, and peace was 
not concluded till the beginning of 1867. 
This peace, however, did not last long. The 
war was renewed in the spring of the fol¬ 
lowing year, and it was only in July, 1868, 
that the terms of peace between Russia and 
Bokhara were finally agreed upon. Bok¬ 
hara was to give up Samarcand and Katti 
Kurghan, along with the surrounding dis¬ 
tricts (constituting the tract of land wa¬ 
tered by the Zerafshan), and at the same 
time promised to pay an indemnity to Rus¬ 
sia and tc protect her trade. Since then 
the peace has not been broken, but the Emir 
of Bokhara has sunk more and more into a 
position of entire dependency on Russia. 
During the autumn the Russians intervened 
against the emir’s son, who had risen in 
revolt against him, and on Oct. 12 in the 
following year the emir sent an embassy 
with presents (tribute) to the czar at St. 
Petersburg. In the meantime Muzaffer- 
Eddin had fallen into a dispute with Af¬ 
ghanistan. Shere Ali Khan, of Kabul, had 
given a favorable reception to the rebellious 
son of the emir, and Muzaffer-Eddin, proba¬ 
bly in consequence of encouragement from 
Russia, now thought himself able to make 
good his former claim to Badakshan, and 
the territory lying about the sources of the 
Oxus, especially since the Khan of Kabul 
seemed to have but a slight hold of these 
parts. He had accordingly already sent 
out an army with the view of conquering 
those parts, when, toward the end of 1869, 
pressure being put upon him by Russia, he 
concluded a treaty w ith Kabul by which the 
Oxus was fixed as the boundary of the con¬ 
terminous States, and this boundary was 
afterward recognized by Russia and En¬ 
gland. After the Russian expedition to 
Khiva in 1873 an agreement was come to be¬ 
tween Russia and Bokhara on Sept. 28 of 
that year, according to which Bokhara re¬ 
ceived a portion of the territory that had 
been ceded by Khiva to Russia, while the 
Russians received various privileges in re¬ 
turn. Muzaffer-Eddin died in 1885, and was 
succeeded by his son Abd-ul-Ahad. Bokhara 
will probably soon be completely placed 
under Russian administration, for what lit- 



Bokhara 


Bolingbroke 


tie power it had lapsed in 1884 by the prac¬ 
tical absorption of the country, resulting 
from the annexation of Merv. Since 1885 
the troops, which were formerly ill trained 
and badly armed, have been drilled by Rus¬ 
sian instructors and armed with lilies. 

Bokhara, the capital of the above 
khanate, in lat. 39° 48' N.; Ion. G4° 26' E.; 
is 8 or 9 miles in circuit, and is surrounded 
by a mud wall. It is poorly built, consist¬ 
ing of extremely narrow streets and paltry 
houses. The principal edifices are the pal¬ 
ace of the khan, crowning a height near the 
center of the town and surrounded by a 
brick wall 70 feet high; and numerous 
mosques, the largest of which is enameled 
with tiles of azure blue, and has a tower 
210 feet high. The trade was formerly 
large with India, but has now been almost 
completely absorbed by Russia. The pop. 
is estimated at 75,000. 

Bolas, a kind of missile, consisting of a 
single stone at the end of a rope, two or 
more stones connected by a rope, or any¬ 
thing similar, one kind or other of which is 
used by the Patagonians, the Paraguay In¬ 
dians and the Spanish and Portuguese in¬ 
habitants of South America. In war a 
Patagonian uses a one-stone bolas, hurling 
the stone at his adversary while retaining 
the string in his own hand. The Eskimo 
bolas is made of a number of walrus’ teeth 
at the end of strings knotted together. 

Boldrewood, Rolf, pseudonym of Thomas 
Alexander Browne, an Australian author, 
born in England in 1827. He is a son of 
Capt. Sylvester J. Browne, a founder of 
Melbourne, Australia. He was educated in 
Sidney College, and has written “ Ups and 
Downs: a Story of Australian Life” (Lon¬ 
don, 1879); “Robbery Under Arms: Life 
and Adventures in the Bush” (1888) ; “A 
Squatter’s Dream Story” (1890); and “A 
Modern Buccaneer ” (1894). 

Boleyn, Anne, second wife of Henry 
VIII. of England, was the eldest daughter 
of Sir Thomas Boleyn, and Elizabeth How¬ 
ard, daughter of the Duke of Norfolk. Si.j 
was born according to some accounts, in 
1507, but according to more probable ones 
about 1501. She attended Mary, sister of 
Henry, on her marriage with Louis XII., to 
France, as lady of honor. On the return of 
that princess, after the king’s death, she 
entered the service of Queen Claude, wife of 
Francis I., and after her death that of the 
Duchess of Alencon, sister of the French 
king. Young, beautiful, gay, and witty, 
she was an object of great attraction in the 
gallant court of Francis I. She returned 
to England about 1522, and became lady of 
honor to Queen Catharine, whom she soon 
supplanted. The king, passionately enam¬ 
ored of her, found an unexpected opposition 
to his wishes, and Anne firmly declared 
that she could be had on no terms but those 


of marriage. She knew that the king al¬ 
ready meditated a divorce from his wife, 
Catharine of Arragon; but she also knew 
what difficulties the Catholic religion op¬ 
posed to the execution of this plan. Cram 
mer offered his services to bring about the 
accomplishment ot the king’s wishes, and 
thus gave the first occasion to the separa¬ 
tion of England from the Roman Church. 
But the impetuous Henry did not wait for 
the ministers of his new religion to confirm 
his divorce; on the contrary, he married 
Anne in January, 1533, having previously 
created her Marchioness of Pembroke. When 
her pregnancy revealed the secret, Cranmer 
declared the first marriage void, and the 
second valid, and Anne was crowned queen 
at Westminster with unparalleled splendor. 
In 1533 she became the mother of the fa¬ 
mous Elizabeth. She could not, however, re¬ 
tain the affections of the king, as inconstant 
as he was tyrannical; and as she had sup¬ 
planted her queen while lady of honor to 
Catharine, she was now supplanted herself 
by Jane Seymour, her own lady of honor. 
Suspicions of infidelity were alleged, which 
appear to have had no foundation in truth, 
but were doubtless eagerly laid hold of by 
Henry as a color for his violent proceedings. 
In 1535 she was accused, and brought be¬ 
fore a jury of peers. Smeaton, a musician, 
who was arrested with others, asserted that 
he had enjoyed the queen’s favors, and May 
17, 1536, she was condemned to death by 2G 
judges. Anne in vain affirmed that she had 
long before been contracted to the Duke of 
Northumberland, and therefore had never 
been the lawful wife of Henry. Cranmer in 
vain declared the marriage void. The sen¬ 
tence of death was executed by the command 
of the inflexible Henry, who esteemed it a 
great exercise of clemency to substitute the 
scaffold for the stake. The last day of the 
life of this unhappy woman, May 19, 1536, 
presents many interesting moments. She 
sent for the wife of the lieutenant of the 
Tower, threw herself upon her knees before 
her and said, “ Go to the Princess Mary 
(daughter of Catharine) in my name, and 
in this position beg her forgiveness for all 
the sufferings I have drawn upon her and 
her mother.” “ She sent her last message to 
the king,” says Hume, “ and acknowledged 
the obligations which she owed him in uni¬ 
formly continuing his endeavors for her ad¬ 
vancement.” “ From a private gentlewoman 
you have made me first a marchioness, then 
a queen, and as you can raise me no higher 
in this world, you are now sending me to be 
a saint in heaven.” 

Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, Vis¬ 
count, an English statesman and political 
writer; born in Battersea, near London, of 
an ancient family, in 1678. He completed 
his studies at Oxford, where he early ex¬ 
hibited uncommon talents and attracted 
general attention. On entering the world he 





Bolingbroke 


Bolingbroke 


displayed a rare union of brilliant parts 
and elegance of manners, with beauty of 
person, dignity, and affability, and such 
fascinating eloquence that, according to the 
unanimous testimony of his contemporaries, 
nobody could resist him. Unfortunately the 
passions of his youth opposed the develop¬ 
ment of his talents; and in his 23d year he 
was distinguished principally as an accom¬ 
plished libertine. His parents, supposing 
that marriage would have a salutary influ¬ 
ence upon him, proposed to him the daugh¬ 
ter of Sir Henry Winchcomb, a lady the 
heiress of a million, who united with a 
charming figure a cultivated mind and noble 
birth. But the young couple had lived but 
a short time together when irreconcilable 
disputes arose between them, in conse¬ 
quence of which they separated forever. 
Another plan was adopted to give a better 
direction to the impetuous character of 
Bolingbroke. By the influence of his father 
he obtained a seat in the House of Com¬ 
mons. Here his eloquence, his acuteness, 
and the strength of his judgment attracted 
universal attention. His former idleness 
was changed at once into the most incessant 
activity. In 1704 he was made secretary of 
war, and came into immediate connection 
with the Duke of Marlborough, whose tal¬ 
ents he discerned and whose enterprises he 
supported with all his influence. When, 
however, the Whigs gained tire ascendency 
in 1708, Bolingbroke gave in his resignation. 
Now followed, as he said himself, the two 
most active years of his life, in which he de¬ 
voted himself to study, but by no means 
neglected public affairs. He continued to 
maintain a constant intercourse with the 
queen, who preferred him to her other coun¬ 
sellors. The Whig ministry was over¬ 
thrown to the astonishment of all Europe in 
1710, and Bolingbroke received the depart¬ 
ment of foreign affairs. In 1712 he was 
called to the House of Lords bv the title of 
Viscount Bolingbroke, and in 1713, against 
much popular opposition, he concluded the 
peace of Utrecht, of which he was always 
proud. In concluding this peace everything 
was unfavorable to him — the Whigs, the 
peers, the bank, the East India Company, 
Marlborough, Eugene, the emperor, Hol¬ 
land, the jealousy of all the European pow¬ 
ers, the weakness of his own queen, the ir¬ 
resolution, imprudence, and even the envy 
of his colleagues. Bolingbroke afterward 
became a prey to the impetuosity of his 
passions, and exhibited a fickleness of con¬ 
duct that has rendered his loyalty, his pat¬ 
riotism, and his whole character suspected. 
The collision of the Whigs and Tories pro¬ 
duced such a general excitement that the 
ministers were attacked, the peace was de¬ 
cried as disastrous, and the Protestant suc¬ 
cession was declared in danger. At this mo- 
ment a fatal contention broke out between 
the lord-high-treasurer (the Earl of Ox¬ 


ford) and Bolingbroke, immediately after 
the conclusion of the peace. Swift, the 
friend of both, but particularly intimate 
with the lord-high-treasurer, accused Bo¬ 
lingbroke of having principally contributed 
to the ruin of their party. Be this as it 
may, Queen Anne, provoked to the utmost 
by Oxford, dismissed him four days before 
her death, and made Bolingbroke prime min¬ 
ister. But the death of Anne changed the 
whole scene. George I. of Hanover ascend¬ 
ed the throne, and the Whigs triumphed 
more completely than ever. Bolingbroke, 



who could not impose on the Hanoverian 
court by his plausible pretences, and who 
was as much envied as he was hated, was 
dismissed by King George while yet in Ger¬ 
many, and fled to France in March, 1715. 
In August of the same year he was attaint¬ 
ed. James III., the Pretender, as he was 
called, invited him to Lorraine, and made 
him his secretary of state. But when Louis 
XIV. died Bolingbroke lost all hope of the 
success of the Pretender, and repented of 
having entered into so close a connection 
with him. Whatever the feelings and plans 
of Bolingbroke may have been, his inten¬ 
tions with regard to James III. were doubt¬ 
less honest. Nevertheless, the latter de¬ 
prived him of his dignity and transferred it 
to the Duke of Ormond. Thus it was the 
strange fate of Bolingbroke to be charged 
with treachery both by the king and the 
Pretender. Offers were made to him by 
King George, on condition of his revealing 
the secrets of the Pretender. This pro¬ 
posal he at first declined, but he afterward 
yielded so far as to promise a decisive 
blow against the cause of the Pretender on 
condition of the total oblivion of what had 
already passed, and of an entire confidence 
for the future. Walpole, however, was 
afraid of Bolingbroke’s influence in Parlia¬ 
ment, and opposed his recall. Bolingbroke, 









Bolivar 


Bolivia 


in order to forget his situation, applied him¬ 
self to writing philosophical consolations 
after the manner of Seneca, but soon found 
sweeter ones in his marriage with a rich and 
amiable lady, niece of Madame de Mainte¬ 
non. In 1723 the Parliament which had 
been so hostile to Bolingbroke was at length 
dissolved, and he was permitted to return 
to England. His estates, however, were 
not restored until two years after by a par¬ 
ticular act of Parliament. On his return 
he lived at first retired in the country, 
maintaining, however, a correspondence 
with Swift and Pope. But no sooner was 
the voice of opposition heard in Parliament 
than he hastened to London, and, as the 
restoration of his seat in the House of 
Lords was still denied him, attacked the 
ministry during eight years in the journals 
or in pamphlets with great success. He 
drew himself powerful enemies, against 
whom he directed his “ Treatise on Parties,” 
which is considered as his masterpiece. He 
then returned to France with the inten¬ 
tion, as even Swift supposed, of throwing 
himself into the arms of the Pretender’s 
party, against which charge Pope defended 
him, and declared that he had himself ad¬ 
vised his noble friend to leave an ungrate¬ 
ful country, by which he was suspected 
and persecuted. In France, Bolingbroke 
wrote (1735) his “Letters on the Study 
and Use of History,” which are admired 
even at the present day, but in which the in¬ 
dividual character of the author appears to 
the exclusion of general views, and which 
were blamed, in particular, for attacking 
revealed religion, which he had once warm¬ 
ly defended. In 1729 in the midst of his 
contest with Walpole, he had suggested to 
Pope his “ Essay on Man,” and supplied him 
with the most important materials. He 
wrote (1738) his “ Idea of a Patriot King” 
under the eyes of the heir-apparent. From 
1746 he lived in Battersea, where he died 
in 1751. 

Bolivar, Simon, an American military 
officer and statesman (named El Liberta- 
dor, from his having rescued Central South 
America from the Spanish yoke), born in 
Caracas, July 24, 1783. He descended from 
a noble and wealthy family, received his 
university education at Madrid, traveled ex¬ 
tensively on the European continent, mar¬ 
ried, and returned to South America, where, 
shortly after his arrival, his wife died, 
when he once more visited Europe, and did 
not return till the following year, when he 
dedicated himself to the freedom of his 
country, and, at Venezuela, entered upon 
his military career as a colonel in the ser- 
ice of the newly founded republic. In June, 
1810, he was in London, endeavoring to 
induce the British cabinet to assist the In¬ 
dependent Party against the Loyalists and, 
in the following year, he was acting as 


Governor of Puerto Cabello, the strongest 
fortress of Venezuela. He was now fairly 
committed to the revolutionary cause, serv¬ 
ing under General Miranda, whom he after¬ 
ward accused as a traitor, and who subse¬ 
quently died in a dungeon in Spain. The 
war continued to rage, and, after many re¬ 
verses and changes, he gradually won his 
way. At length, in 1821, the Independent 
troops were successful in the battle of Cara- 
bobo, where the Loyalists lost upward of 
6,000 men, and which decided the cause 
against Spain. On Aug. 20 of the same 
year a Lepublican Constitution was 
adopted, and decreed to continue, as then 
defined, till 1834. Bolivar was chosen 
President, and he turned his attention to 
the internal administration of the country. 
In 1823 he assisted the Peruvians to obtain 
their independence, and was declared their 
liberator, and invested with supreme au¬ 
thority. On Feb. 10, 1825, however, he 
convoked a Congress, and resigned his dic¬ 
tatorship. He now visited the Upper Prov¬ 
inces of Peru, which, calling a convention 
at Chuquisaca, gave the name of Bolivia to 
their country, in honor of their liberator, 
and appointed him Perpetual Protector, and 
to draw up a constitution. On May 25, 
1826, he presented his Bolivian code to 
the Congress of Bolivia, which was after¬ 
ward adopted, with some dissatisfaction, 
however, although it was also subsequently 
adopted by the Congress of Lima, where, 
under its provisions, he himself was elected 
President for life. He now set out for 
Colombia, where disaffection and party 
strife were at their height. His conduct 
here was misconstrued, and he was supposed 
to be assuming the powers of a dictator. 
In 1829 new disturbances arose, and, in 
1830, a convention was called for the pur¬ 
pose of framing a new constitution for 
Colombia. The proceedings were begun by 
Bolivar, who once more tendered his resig¬ 
nation. This was his last act which had re¬ 
lation to public affairs. He died at San 
Pedro, near Carthagena, Dec. 17, 1830. 

Bolivia, a republic of South America; 
bounded on the N. by Peru and Brazil; on 
the E. by Brazil and Paraguay; on the S. 
by the Argentine Lepublic and Chile; and 
on the W. by Peru and Chile; area 734,390 
square miles; pop., English (based on cen¬ 
sus of Sept. 1, 1900, and estimates in 1908, 
excluding the aboriginal Indians), 2,049,083 ; 
capital, La Paz. 

Topography .— The country is divided 
into two very marked regions, the high or 
Andean in the S. W. portion, and the low¬ 
lands of the E. and W., which extend into 
Paraguay and Brazil. The first of these re¬ 
gions is the highest on the American con¬ 
tinent, the Plateau of Oruro having an 
average height of 13,000 feet. This extreme 
mountainous district was wholly within the 




Bolivia 


Bolivia 


area of Bolivia prior to the treaty of 1884. 
In this region is Lake Titicaca, having an 
area of more than 3,200 square miles, and a 
depth of 120 fathoms; and containing sev¬ 
eral islands, the largest of which was the 
home of the founder of the Empire of the 
Incas. The highest elevation of Bolivia 
to-day is found in the Eastern Cordillera 
range, from which extend a large number of 
spurs inclosing some of the richest valleys 
of the country. The Bio Desaguadero, with 
a course of 100 miles, connects Lake Titi¬ 
caca with the salt lake and swamps of 
Aullagas or Paria, and somewhat to the 
left lies the Laguna de Coiposa, a basin 
covered in the dry season with a thick crust 
of salt. The southern and lower tableland 
is chieflv a desert, where the mountain 
streams either sink into the sand, or flood, 
in the rainy season, what are salt pampas 
throughout the rest of the year. The east¬ 
ern edge of the Eastern Cordillera is a 
series of terraces descending to the plain of 



Eastern Bolivia, which in the N. belongs to 
the Amazon basin; and in the S. to the 
pampas of the Plata. 

Climate and Productions. — Bolivia pos¬ 
sesses a remarkable range of climate and 
productions. The regions with an elevation 
of over 11,000 feet are called punas, while 
the puna brava is the region of snow and 
ice, above 12,500 feet. Here the climate is 
cold and dry but generally healthful. Vege¬ 
tation is scanty and cultivation is princi¬ 
pally confined to potatoes, barley and coarse 
grasses. The cabezeras de valles are the 
heads of valleys descending to the lowlands, 
between 9,500 and 11,000 feet; the medio 
yungas, or deeper valleys, have an altitude 
ranging from 5,000 to 9,500 feet. The first 
of these regions has a temperate climate, 


and produces wheat and maize in large 
quantities; and in the second tropical fruits 
begin to flourish. The yungas, or plains 
under 5,000 feet, have numerous streams, 
and in fertility and resources surpass most 
of the countries in South America. Agri¬ 
culture is still in a backward condition. 
Wheat, maize, barley, beans, and potatoes 
are produced for local consumption; cof¬ 
fee is raised chiefly for export; sugar cane 
is grown for distillation; and rubber, cin¬ 
chona, and cocoa are important and increas¬ 
ing products. Cattle, sheep, and llamas are 
extensively bred. Bolivia has a very large 
mineral wealth in silver, copper, tin, lead, 
zinc, antimony, bismuth, gold, borax and 
salt. In a single year the production of 
silver, the most .valuable mineral resource, 
aggregated 14,579,290 ounces. 

Commerce. — Official reports for 1897 
showed imports to the aggregate value of 
24,407,100 bolivianos (1 boliviano = 42.7 
cents in United States gold), chiefly hard¬ 
ware, wine and spirits and cotton, linen, 
woolen, and silk goods; exports, 23,121,320 
bolivianos, chiefly silver, tin and bismuth, 
copper, rubber, wool, hides, and skins, gold, 
coffee, cocoa and cinchona. The import 
trade in 1900 was chiefly in the hands of 
Germans. 

Finances. — The revenue for 1898 was 
estimated at 5,194,593 bolivianos, and the 
expenditures at 5,713,891 bolivianos. The 
principal expenditures are for public in¬ 
struction, public works, finances, and de¬ 
fense. The provincial revenue is about 000,- 
000 bolivianos, and is applied to maintain¬ 
ing provincial authorities, and executing 
local works. The external debt, in 1898, 
was 1,084,555 bolivianos, to the extinction 
of which 40 per cent, of the customs col¬ 
lected at Arica is devoted. The internal 
debt was 3.707,541 bolivianos. 

Communication. — A railway connects the 
Chilian port of Antofagasta with the Bo¬ 
livian frontier at Ascotan, whence it pro¬ 
ceeds on Bolivian territory as far as Uyuni. 
From the latter point branches have been 
completed to Huanchaca and Oruro, mak¬ 
ing nearly 500 miles of this railway on 
Bolivian territory. In 1900 concessions had 
been granted for four other lines, and a 
route for an international railway from Bo¬ 
livia to the Argentine Eepublic was being 
surveyed. Non-metal roads were being con¬ 
structed in many parts of the republic, and 
a number of suspension and other bridges 
had either been recently built or contracted 
for. There were 2,200 miles of telegraph 
lines and 328 postoffices in operation. 

Government. — The constitution (Oct. 28, 
1880) vests the executive power in a Presi¬ 
dent, elected by direct popular vote, for a 
term of four years, and ineligible for re-elec¬ 
tion at the end of his .term of office. The 
legislative authority rests in a Congress, 




Bolivia 


Bolo 


comprising a Senate of 18 members, elected 
for six years, and a Chamber of Deputies of 
G4 members, elected for four years. There are 
also two Vice-Presidents, and a Ministry 
divided into the Departments of Foreign 
Relations and Worship, Finances and In¬ 
dustry, Government and Colonization, Jus¬ 
tice and Public Instruction, and War. The 
suffrage is possessed by all who can read 
and write. The republic is divided into 
eight departments and these into provinces 
and cantons. The Roman Catholic is the 
recognized religion of the republic, and the 
exercise of other forms of worship is per¬ 
mitted. Primary instruction is free and 
nominally obligatory, and is under the care 
of the several municipalities. Late reports 
gave a total of 5G9 public and private pri¬ 
mary and industrial schools, and 36,690 
pupils. For secondary instruction there 
were 8 colleges, 5 clerical institutions, and 
4 private lycees, with, in all, 91 teachers 
and 2,057 pupils; 4 superior institutions, 
6 universities, a military school, and 3 
schools of arts and trades. Public libra¬ 
ries are maintained in all the departmental 
capitals, and there is an interesting museum 
in La Paz. The judicial power is vested in 
a Supreme Court, eight District Courts, and 
the courts of local justices. 

History .— It is believed that the oldest 
civilized empire on the American continent 
existed in the Titicaca basin, and that it 
was disrupted about the 8th century, a por¬ 
tion of the people remaining in the high¬ 
lands of Bolivia till the 14th century, when 
thev were subdued by the Incas of Cuzco. 
In 1559 this region was formed into the 
audiencia of Charcas, or Upper Peru, which 
was governed by judges under the direction 
of the Viceroy of Peru. Charcas was made 
a province of Buenos Ayres in 1776. Under 
long existing discontent the people revolted 
in 1809, but the effort for freedom was 
speedily crushed. The country was fre¬ 
quently invaded by patriotic armies from 
Buenos Ayres and Peru during 1811-1821, 
but all these movements also failed. Under 
the direction of Simon Bolivar (q. v.), the 
Spanish troops in Charcas were subdued 
in 1823. On Aug. G, of that year, the 
people declared their independence and 
adopted the name of Bolivia, in honor of 
their liberator, and made General Sucre 
their first President. In 1836 a Federal re¬ 
public was established comprising the States 
of North Peru, South Peru, and Bolivia; 
but this confederation was dissolved by a 
revolution in 1839. The country was agi¬ 
tated by revolutions and internal dissen¬ 
sions for many years. In 1879 Chile de¬ 
clared war against Bolivia. Peru came to 
the aid of the latter and the Chilians de¬ 
feated their allied opponents. As a result 
of this war Bolivia mortgaged to Chile the 
Littoral Department, which has an area of 


29,910 square miles, and contains the im¬ 
portant port of Antofagasta, thus losing her 
entire seacoast. Conditions under this ces¬ 
sion of territory, particularly those relat¬ 
ing to the future nationality of a consider¬ 
able portion, had not been fulfilled up to 
1901. 

Bollandist, pertaining to Bolland, a 
Jesuit of Tillemont, in Flanders, who com¬ 
menced a large work, the “ Acta Sanc¬ 
torum,” of which vol. I. was published 
in 1643. Five more were issued during his 
lifetime. After his death, in 1665, the work 
was continued by Hensclien, a Jesuit of 
Antwerp, who died in 1682, and Papebroch, 
also an Antwerp Jesuit, who died in 1714. 
The word is also applied to the continuators 
of Bolland’s work. A new association was 
formed in 1837 under the patronage of the 
Belgian government, and the publication of 
the “ Acta Sanctorum ” has been continued. 

Bolo, a short, broad, lance shaped 
weapon; used by the Filipinos in their op¬ 
erations against the American troops. The 
blade is about 18 inches in length by nearly 
3 inches in breadth at its broadest dimen¬ 
sion. It tapers from the middle toward the 
haft as well as toward the point, making 
it strongly resemble the ancient short 
sword. It is 
not double 
edged, however, 
but tapers from 
a thick back to 
an extremely 
keen edge. A 
magnif icen t 
specimen of the 
bolo was sent 
by Brigadier- 
General 
Sell wan, from 
the Philippines, 
to A d j u t a n t- 
General Cor¬ 
bin, the handle 
of which lias a 
heavy silver 
ferrule, heavily 
chased, and is 
made of a beau¬ 
tiful piece of 
native mahog¬ 
any, cunningly 
carved to fit 
the handle, and 
terminating 
with an ex¬ 
quisite speci¬ 
men of ornate 

carving in a conventional design. The scab¬ 
bard of the bolo is made of a native wood 
with rough outlined designs carved upon it. 
The whole weapon is much more beautiful 
in outline and more formidable than the 
famous Cuban machete. 



FILIPINO BOLO. 

























Bologna 


Bolton 


Bologna (bo-lon'yii), one cf the oldest, 
largest and richest cities of Italy, capital 
of the Province of same name, in a fertile 
plain at the foot of the Apennines, between 
the rivers Reno and Savena, surrounded by 
an unfortified brick wall. It is the see of 
an archbishop, and has extensive manufac¬ 
tures of silk goods, velvet, artificial flowers, 
etc. The older quarters are poorly, and the 
modern handsomely, built. There are colon¬ 
nades along the sides of the streets, afford¬ 
ing shade and shelter to the foot passen¬ 
gers. Among the principal buildings are the 
Palazzo Pubblico, which contains some mag¬ 
nificent halls adorned with statues and 
paintings; the Palazzo del Podesta; and the 
Church or Basilica of St. Petronio. Among 
the hundred other churches, St. Pietro, St. 
Salvatore, St. Domenico, St. Giovanni in 
Monte, St. Giacomo Maggiore, all possess 
rich treasures of art. The leaning towers, 
Degli Asinelli and Garisenda, dating from 



the 12tli 
century, are 
among the 
m o s t re¬ 
in a r k a b 1 e 
objects in 
the city; 
and the 
market is 
adorned 
wit h the 
colossa 1 
bronze Nep¬ 
tune of Gio- 
v a n li i d i 
Bologna. 
An arcade 
of 640 arches 
leads to the 
Church of 
Madonna di 
St. Lucca, 
palace IN bologna. situated at 

the foot of 

the Apennines, near Bologna, and the re* 
sort of pilgrims from all parts of Italy. 
Bologna has long been renowned for its 
university, claiming to have been founded 
in 1088, and having a library, at one time in 
the care of Cardinal Mezzofanti, which 
numbers over 200,000 volumes and 9,000 
MSS. The Instituto delle Scienze has a li¬ 
brary which numbers about 160,000volumes, 
with 6,000 MSS. The Church of St. Dom¬ 
enico has a library of 120,000 volumes. 
The Academy of Fine Arts has a rich col¬ 
lection of paintings by native artists, such 
as Francia, and the later Bolognese school, 
of which the Caraccis, Guido Reni, Domeni- 
chino, and Albano were the founders. Bo¬ 
logna was founded by the Etruscans under 
the name of Felsina; became, in 189 b. c., 
the Roman colony Bononia; was taken by 
the Longobards about 728 a. d. ; passed into 


the hands of the Franks, and was made a 
free city by Charlemagne. In the 12th and 
13th centuries it was one of the most 
flourishing of the Italian republics; but the 
feuds between the different parties of the 
nobles led to its submission to the papal 
see in 1513. Several attempts were made to 
throw off the Papal yoke, one of which, in 
1831, was for a time successful. In 1849 
the Austrians obtained possession of it. In 
1860 it was annexed to the dominions of 
Victor Emmanuel. Pop. (1901) 152,009. 

Bolognese School, an Italian school of 
painting, founded in the 14th century, prob¬ 
ably by Franco. The great master of the 
school was Francesco Francia, a contempo¬ 
rary of Raphael, celebrated for the purity 
and serenity of his Madonnas. The Car- 
acci, who painted the frescoes of the Far- 
nese Palace, were the leaders of the later 
school, and introduced a reformed style pat¬ 
terned somewhat on that of Correggio. 

Bolometer, a most sensitive electrical in¬ 
strument invented by Langley in 1883 for 
the measurement of radiant heat. 

Bolor Tagh, also Bilaur, or Belut Tagh, 

a mountain range formerly imagined to 
exist in Central Asia between Eastern and 
Western Turkestan, as the axis of the con¬ 
tinent. At that point, however, there is 
really a lofty tableland called the Pamir. 

Bolsas, a river of Mexico, which, after 
flowing W., enters the Pacific Ocean, 225 
miles S. W. of Mexico City. 

Bolsena (ancient Vulsinium ), a walled 
town of Central Italy, Province of Viterbo, 
11 miles W. S. W. of Orvieto, on a lake of 
the same name. It is only noticeable for the 
ruins of the Etruscan goddess Nortia, a 
granite sarcophagus, ornamented with has 
reliefs, and other remains of antiquity. 
This was anciently a place of great wealth 
and luxury, and Pliny says that when taken 
by the Romans, 266 b. c., it contained no 
less than 7,000 statues. 

Bolswert, Boetius Adam, a Dutch en¬ 
graver, born in Friesland in 1580; spent 
his life at Antwerp. His most noteworthy 
plates are “ The Last Supper ” and “ The 
Resurrection of Lazarus.” He died in 1634. 

Bolton, or Bolton=le=Moors, an import¬ 
ant English manufacturing town and par¬ 
liamentary and municipal borough in South 
Lancashire, on the Croal, 11 miles N. W. of 
Manchester. The river Croal divides the 
town into Great and Little Bo 1 ton. It was 
celebrated as far back as the time of Henry 
VIII. for its cotton and its woolen manufac¬ 
tures, introduced by Flemish clothiers in 
the 14th century. Emigrants from France 
and the Palatinate of the Rhine subse¬ 
quently introduced new branches of manu¬ 
facture; and the improvements in cotton 
spinning in the middle of the I8th century 
















































Bolton Abbey 


Bombardment 


rapidly increased the trade of the town. It 
is the birthplace of the daily evening press 
(“Bolton Evening News”), and has three 
evening and three weekly newspapers. Dur¬ 
ing the Civil War, the Parliament garri¬ 
soned Bolton; in 1644 it was stormed by the 
Earl of Derby. A canal was opened from 
Manchester to Bolton in 1791. Pop. (1901) 
1G8,748. 

Bolton Abbey, a notable English struc¬ 
ture in Yorkshire; in a highly picturesque 
district on the river Wharfe, 6 miles E. of 
Skipton, and 21 N. W. of Leeds. Founded 
for Augustinian canons about 1150, it has 
been celebrated by Wordsworth in “ The 
White Doe of Pylstone ” and “ The Force of 
Prayer.” 

Bolton, Charles Knowles, an American 
poet and miscellaneous .writer, son of Mrs. 
Sarah Knowles Bolton, born in Ohio, in 
1867; became librarian of the Boston 
^Ethenamm; and published in prose “Gos¬ 
siping Guide to Harvard,” “ Saskia, the 
Wife of Rembrandt,” etc.; in verse, “The 
Wooing of Martha Pitkin,” “ Love Story of 
Ursula Wolcott,” etc. 

Bolton, Henry Carrington, an Ameri¬ 
can scientific writer, born in New York, in 
1843; became Professor of Chemistry and 
Natural Science at Trinity College. Hartford, 
Conn. Besides works on chemistry he was 
author of “ The Counting-Out Rhymes of 
Children, a Study in Folk-Lore” (1888); 
“ Literature of Manganese,” and “ Students’ 
Guide in Quantitative Analysis.” D. 1903. 

Bolton, Sarah Knowles, an American 
author, born in Farmington, Conn., Sept. 
15, 1841. She married Charles E. Bolton, 
a merchant and philanthropist, and resides 
in Cleveland, O. She is the author of a 
number of books, including “ Girls who Be¬ 
came Famous” (1886); “Famous Ameri¬ 
can Authors” (1887); “Famous American 
Statesmen ” (1888) ; “ Famous Types of Wo¬ 
manhood ” (1892); etc. 

Bolton, Sarah Tittle, an American poet, 
born in Newport, Ky., Dec. 18, 1815. She 
is known for her patriotic and war poems, 
including “ Paddle Your Own Canoe,” “ Left 
on the Battlefield,” etc. “Poems” (New 
York, 1865; Indianapolis, 1886). She died 
in Indianapolis, Ind., Aug. 4, 1893. 

Boma, city and capital of the Kongo Free 
State, on the left bank of the Kongo river, 
till 1876 was the extreme inland post of the 
Dutch and Portuguese traders. It contains 
the establishment of the governor-general 
and also the local government of the ad¬ 
ministrative district of the same name. 

Bomb, in ordnance, the same as a bomb 
shell; a hollow iron ball, spheroid, or any¬ 
thing similar, filled with gunpowder, and 
provided with a time or percussion fuse. It 
is fired from a mortar or howitzer. Bombs 


were used at the siege of Naples in 1434. 
Mortars for throwing bombs were first cast 
in 1543. Bombs are now generally called 
shells, though the word bomb is not the 
least obsolete in the words bombard, bomb¬ 
shell, bombardier, etc. 

Modern political upheavals have induced 
a traffic in packages of explosives, which 
have been christened bombs. These terrific 
agents of destruction have been used witV. 
murderous effect in the larger European 
cities: St. Petersburg, Madrid and Paris; 
also in Chicago. The anarchists have reg- 
larly established factories for the produc¬ 
tion of these missiles, in which the elements 
are combined with great nicety and scien¬ 
tific precision. The usual method of con¬ 
struction is to fill a hollow sphere with 
some high explosive together with pieces of 
scrap iron, nails, bullets, or anything that 
will wound. The explosives used are gener¬ 
ally nitroglycerine, fulminate of mercury, 
etc. The most deadly of all the agents, how¬ 
ever, is a bomb made with chlorate of pot¬ 
ash and picric acid. These substances are 
separated by a wadding of raw cotton 
(soaked in sulphuric acid) which acts as a 
time fuse; for when the picric acid soaks 
through the cotton and reaches the potash 
a terrific explosion ensues. The usual way 
of packing these bombs is in a tin cylinder 
with two glass compartments inside, one 
(the bottom one) containing the liquid acid 
and the top one the potash. To cause tho 
explosion reverse the can and let the liquid 
soak through. 

Bomba, a title popularly conferred upon 
King Ferdinand II. of Naples and by which 
he will be recorded in history. This appel¬ 
lation he received from the violation of his 
solemn oath to the citizens of Palermo, 
which city he perfidiously bombarded in 
1849; thus outraging his own plighted 
word, the laws of humanity, and the con¬ 
stitutional policy he had sworn to observe. 

Bombardier Beetle, a name applied to 
many coleopterous insects of the tribe cara- 
bidee. They are divided into two genera — 
the brachinus, and the aptinus; the latter 
has no membranous wings under the wing 
sheath. Those found near the tropics are 
large and brilliantly colored, but those 
found in this country are generally small. 
They are called bombardier beetles on ac¬ 
count of a remarkable property they pos¬ 
sess of violently expelling from the anus a 
pungent acrid fluid, which, if the species be 
large, has the power of producing discolora¬ 
tion of the skin, similar to that produced 
by nitric acid. It also changes blue vege¬ 
table colors to red, and then to yellow. 

Bombardment, an attack with bombs. 
Specifically, the act of throwing shells and 
shot into a town, fort, or ship. Sometimes 
carcasses, stink pots, rockets, hot shot, and 



Bombax 


Bomb Lance 


other incendiary missiles are used for this 
purpose. The bombardment of a town 
takes more effect upon the civilians than 
the garrison, as the latter, in any well con¬ 
structed fortified place, are lodged in 
bomb proof buildings. Before bombarding 
a town, it is customary to give notice 
thereof, to allow women, children, and non- 
combatants to leave it. 

Bombax, also known as the silk cotton 
tree; a genus of plants belonging to the 
order sterculiacece (sterculiads) and the 
section bombacece. B. pentandrum is the 
cotton tree of India. The fruit is larger 
than a swan’s egg, and when ripe opens in 
five parts, displaying many roundish, pea¬ 
like seeds enveloped in dark cotton. This, 
tree yields a gum, given in conjunction 
with spices in certain stages of bowel com¬ 
plaints. B. ceiba, the five leaved silk cotton 
tree, rises to a great height. Its native 
country is South America and the adjacent 
West India Islands, where its immense 
trunk is scooped into canoes. 

Bombay, a Presidency and one of the 
eight great Provinces of British India; be¬ 
tween lat. 14° and 29° N., and long. 

06° and 77° E. It stretches along the 
west of the Indian peninsula, and is irregu¬ 
lar in its outline and surface, presenting 
mountainous tracts, low, barren hills, val¬ 
leys, and high tablelands. It is divided 
into a Northern, a Central, and a Southern 
Division, the Sind Division, and the town 
and island of Bombay. The Northern Di¬ 
vision contains the districts of Ahmedabad, 
Kaira, Panch Mahals, Broach, Surat, 
Thana, Kolftba; the Central Khandesh, 
Nasik, Ahmednagar, Poona, Sholapur, 
Satara; the Southern, Belgaum, Dharwar, 
Kaladgi, Kanara, Batnagiri. Total area, 
125,778 square miles; pop. (1901) 
18,584,496, including the city and territory 
of Aden in Arabia, 70 square miles (pop. 
44,079). The native or feudatory States 
connected with the presidency (the chief be¬ 
ing Kathiawar) have an area of 69,045 
square miles and a pop. of 8,059,298. 
The Portuguese possessions, Goa, Daman, and 
Diu, geographically belong to it. Many 
parts, the valleys in particular, are fertile 
and highly cultivated; other districts are 
being gradually developed by the construc¬ 
tion of roads and railroads. The southern 
portions are well supplied with moisture, 
but great part of Sind is the most arid 
portion of India. The climate varies, being 
unhealthful in the capital, Bombay, and its 
vicinity, but at other places, such as 
Poonah, very favorable to Europeans. The 
chief productions of the soil are cotton, 
rice, millet, wheat, barley, dates, and the 
cocoa palm. The manufactures are cotton, 
silk, leather, etc. The great export is cot¬ 
ton. The administration is in the hands of 
a Governor and council. The chief source 


of revenue is the land, which is largely held 
on the ryotwar system. Like Bengal anti 
Madras, the Presidency has its own army. 

Bombay, the chief seaport on the W. 
coast of India, and capital of the Presidency 
of the same name; at the southern extrem¬ 
ity of the island of Bombay; is divided into 
two portions, one known as the Fort, and 
formerly surrounded with fortifications, on 
a narrow point of land with the harbor on 
the E. side and Back Bay on the W.; the 
other known as the City, a little to the N. 
W. In the Fort are Bombay Castle, the 
Government offices, and almost all the mer¬ 
chants’ warehouses and offices; but most of 
the European residents live outside of the 
mercantile and native quarters of the city 
in villas or bungalows. Bombay has many 
handsome buildings, both public and pri¬ 
vate, as the cathedral, the university, the 
secretariat, the high court, the post and 
telegraph offices, etc. Various industries, 
such as dyeing, tanning, and metal working, 
are carried on, and there are large cotton 
factories. The commerce is very extensive, 
exports and imports of merchandise reach¬ 
ing a total value of over $300,000,000 an- 
nuallv. The harbor is one of the largest 
and safest in India, and there are commo¬ 
dious docks. There is a large traffic with 
steam vessels between Bombay and Great 
Britain, and regular steam communication 
with China, Australia, Singapore, Mau¬ 
ritius, etc. The island of Bombay, which 
is about 11 miles long and 3 miles broad, 
was formerly liable to be overflowed by the 
sea, to prevent which substantial walls 
and embankments have been constructed. 
The harbor is protected by formidable rock 
batteries. After Madras, Bombay is the 
oldest of the British possessions in the 
East, having been ceded by the Portuguese 
in 1661. Pop. (1901) 776,006. 

Bombazine, a mixed silk and woolen 
twilled stuff, the warp consisting of silk 
and the weft of worsted. Black bombazine 
has been much in use for mourning gar¬ 
ments. 

Bomb Chest, a kind of chest filled with 
bombs, or in some cases only with gun¬ 
powder, buried in the earth, and designed 
to be exploded at a predetermined moment 
and blow up those who may be above and 
around. 

Bombidae, a family of hymenopterous 

insects, containing the humble or bumble bees. 

Bomb Lance, a harpoon used in whale 
fishing which carries a charge of explosive 
material in its head. In one form of the 
weapon the arrangement is that when the 
harpoon strikes the fish, the bar, which is 
pivoted obliquely in the head of the instru¬ 
ment, shall serve to release a spring acting 
on the hammer, which then explodes the 
cap and bursts the charge chamber. 



Borabon 


Bonaparte 


Bombon, a large, fresh water lake in 
Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 50 miles 
S. of Manila. It is 105 square miles in 
area. There is a small island in the center, 
from which rises the volcano of Taal, the 
lowest in the world, its height being only 
850 feet. The waters of the lake find an 
outlet to the sea through the Pansipit river. 

Bombyx, the genus of moths to which 
the silk worm moth (Ft. mori) belongs. 

Bom»Fim, a town of Brazil, Province of 
Bio Janeiro, G5 miles W. of the city of 
the same name. There are several places 
of this name in Brazil. 

Bomilcar, a Carthagenian general, lived 
about 310 b. c. Not satisfied with enjoy¬ 
ing the highest dignity the republic could 
bestow, he aspired to sovereign power; and, 
taking advantage of the public alarm oc¬ 
casioned by the invasion of Agathocles, he 
entered Carthage at the head of 1,000 mer¬ 
cenaries, about 308 b. c. After being pro¬ 
claimed king, his hireling troops turned 
against him, made him prisoner, and put 
him to death by crucifixion. 

Bomilcar, a Numidian adventurer, died 
about 107 b. c. He was a favorite of 
Jugurtha, and the instrument of many of 
his cruelties. Having by his order mur- 
dered Massina, grandson of Massinissa, he 
fled to Africa. Here he had an interview 
with Metellus, who promised him immunity 
for his crime if he would either kill or be¬ 
tray Jugurtha. To this condition Bomil¬ 
car consented; but the plot having been 
discovered by Jugurtha, he caused Bomil¬ 
car and his accomplices to be put to death. 

Bonacci=Brunamonti, Maria Alinda 

(bo-na'elie bro-na-mon'te), an Italian poet, 
born in Perugia, in 1842. She was only 14 
years old when her first “ Collection of 
Poems ” appeared and attracted much atten¬ 
tion. Her “National Songs” (1859-1878) 
were inspired by Italy’s struggle for free¬ 
dom. 

Bona Dea, a mysterious Italian goddess 
of fertility, who is variously described as 
the wife, sister, or daughter of Faunus. 
She was worshipped at Rome from the 
most ancient times, but only by women, 
even her name being concealed from men. 
Her sanctuary was a grotto on Mons 
Aventinus; but her festival (the 1st of 
May) was celebrated in the house of the 
consul. The solemnities were performed 
generally by high born vestals. At this 
celebration, no males were allowed to be 
present; even portraits of men were veiled. 
During the celebration in the house of 
Caesar"’ (G2 b. c.), the infamous Clodius 
was discovered disguised as a female mu¬ 
sician. The symbol of the goddess was a 
serpent, indicating her healing powers. 


Bona Fides, literally, good faith; hon¬ 
esty, as distinguished from mala fides (bad 
faith). The law requires all persons in 
their transactions to act with good faith; 
and a contract, when the parties have not 
acted bona fide , is void at the pleasure of 
the innocent party. 

Bonald, Louis Gabriel Ambroise, Vi- 
comte de, a French philosopher, born in 
1754. During the Revolution he joined the 
Royalist army under the Bourbon princes. 
He returned to France under Napoleon; be¬ 
came co-editor of the “ Mercure ” with Cha¬ 
teaubriand and Fi£vee, and, in 1808, was ap¬ 
pointed Minister of Public Instruction. 
After the Restoration — as the deputy for 
his department — he voted with the Ultra¬ 
montane or Theocratic Party in the Cham- 
bre Introuvable, and in his political career, 
as in his philosophical works, was the ar¬ 
dent advocate of absolutism, of the infalli¬ 
bility of the Pope, and of the Jesuits. In 
1830, he refused to take the oath of allegi¬ 
ance to the new dynasty. He died in 1840. 

Bonanno, an Italian architect and sculp¬ 
tor of the 12th century. In 1174 he com¬ 
menced, with Wilhelm of Innsbruck, the 
famous Leaning Tower of Pisa. Ho was 
also the designer of the celebrated bronze 
doors of the cathedral of that city, which 
were, all but one, destroved bv a conflagra¬ 
tion in 1596. 

Bonaparte (pronounced in Italian in 
four syllables; in French and English in 
three), the name of a famous family, which 
was spelt Buonaparte by the Emperor Na¬ 
poleon and his father till 1796, though the 
more usual, modern form also occurs in 
old Italian documents. In the 13th cen¬ 
tury and afterward, several families named 
Bonaparte figure with distinction in Italian 
records — at Florence, San Miniato, Sar- 
zano, and Genoa. But as the name of 
Bonaparte occurs in Corsica as early as the 
10th century, it is probable that the island 
may have been their original home. In the 
16th century mention is again found of the 
Bonapartes * in Corsica, where in Ajaccio 
they occupied a respectable position as a 
patrician or leading family. In the 18th 
century this famiiy was represented by 
three male descendants, all residing at 
Ajaccio: the archdeacon, Lttcten Bona¬ 
parte: his brother, Napoleon Bonaparte; 
and his nephew, Charles. 

Charles Bonaparte, father of the Em¬ 
peror Napoleon, was born at Ajaccio in 
1746; studied law at Pisa; and married, in 
1767— without the consent of his uncles — 
a beautiful young patrician lady, named 
Letizia Ramolino. In 1768 he removed with 
his family to Corte, in order to assist Gen¬ 
eral Paoli in defending the island against 
the French invasion. As the French pre¬ 
vailed, and further resistance was useless, 



Bonaparte 


Bonaparte 


Charles Bonaparte attached himself to 
the French interest, and in 1771 was in¬ 
cluded by Louis XV. in the election of 400 
Corsican families to form a nobility. In 
1773 Charles Bonaparte was appointed 
royal counselor and assessor of the town 
and Province of Ajaccio. In 1777 he was 
a member of the deputation of Corsican 
nobles to the Court of France. In this ca¬ 
pacity he resided for some time in Paris, 
where he gained for his son Napoleon, 
through the interest of Count Marbceuf, a 

free admis¬ 
sion into 
the military 
school at 
Brienne. In 
1779 he re¬ 
turned to 
Corsica, and 
in 1785 went 
to Mont¬ 
pelier, for 
the bene¬ 
fit of his 
health, 
w here h e 
died the 
same year. 
He was a 
man of no¬ 
ble presence 
and amiable 
character. 
By his marriage with Letizia he left eight 
children: Joseph Bonaparte, King of Spain; 
Napoleon (q. v.), Emperor of the French; 
Lucien Bonaparte, Prince of Canino; Maria 
Anna (afterward named Elise), Princess of 
Lucca and Piombino, wife of Prince Bac- 
ciochi; Louis Bonaparte, King of Hol¬ 
land; Carlotta (afterward named Marie 
Pauline) ; Princess Borghese Annunci- 
ata (afterward named Caroline), wife of 
General Leclerc, afterward of Murat, King 
of Naples; Jerome Bonaparte, King of 
Westphalia. These members of the Bona¬ 
parte family, with the children of Beau- 
harnais (q. v.), adopted by the Emperor 
Napoleon when he married Josephine, are 
distinguished as the Napoleonidce of modern 
French history. By a decree of the Senate 
(1804), the right of succession to the throne 
was restricted to Napoleon and his broth¬ 
ers, Joseph and Louis, with their offspring. 
Lucien and Jerome were excluded on ac¬ 
count of their unequal marriages. As Jo¬ 
seph, the eldest brother of the Emperor, 
had no son. the descendants of Louis became 
nearest heirs to the throne. 

Maria Letizia Ramolino, mother of 
Napoleon I., lived to see her family placed 
on the thrones of Europe, and also wit¬ 
nessed their downfall. She was born at 
Ajaccio in 1750. After the death of her 
husband she lived for some time in Corsica, 
and in 1703., when the island came under 


British rule, removed with her family to 
Marseilles, where she lived in poverty, 
mainly supported by the pension given to 
Corsican refugees. After her son became 
First Consul she removed to Paris, and 
when her son was crowned in 1804 received 
the title Madame Mere, and was made 
patroness of all the benevolent institutions 
of the empire. A brilliant court household 
was given to her, which, however, was never 
pleasing to her modest tastes. Remember¬ 
ing former adversities, and foreboding re¬ 
verses of the splendid success of her sons, 
she was prepared for all that followed. 
After the downfall of Napoleon, Letizia 
lived with her stepbrother, Cardinal Fesch, 
in winter at Rome, and in summer at Al- 
bano, and submitted to her change of for¬ 
tune with remarkable dignity. She died in 
1836, leaving a considerable property, the re¬ 
sult of saving habits during her prosperity. 

Joseph Bonaparte, eldest brother of Na¬ 
poleon, was born at Corte, in Corsica, in 
1768. On the death of his father he ex¬ 
erted himself to support the younger mem¬ 
bers of the family, and in 1793 removed 
with them to Marseilles, where he prepared 
for the bar. In 1797 he was elected a 
member of the Council of Five Hundred, 
and, in the same year, was sent as Ambas¬ 
sador from the republic to Rome. In 1800, 
after he had proved his ability in several 
offices of State, he was chosen by the First 
Consul as Plenipotentiary to conclude a 
treaty of friendship with the United States 
of America. He signed the Treaty of Peace 
at Luneville, 1801, and that of Amiens, 
1802; and, with Cretet and Bernier, con¬ 
ducted the negotiations relative to the 
concordat. After the coronation of Na¬ 
poleon new honors fell to the share of Jo¬ 
seph Bonaparte, who was made commander- 
in-chief of the army of Naples; in 1805, 
ruler of the Two Sicilies; and in 1806, King 
of Naples. Though, during his reign, many 
beneficial changes of government were ef¬ 
fected, these reforms were not managed 
judiciously; and his humane feelings 
brought him into frequent collision with 
his imperious brother, a fact which did not 
conduce to the efficiency of his rule. In 
truth, he was far too fond of the fine arts 
to be a vigorous ruler in stormy times; and 
he is accused of leaving affairs too much 
in the hands of his Minister, the subtle 
Salicetti. In 1808 Joseph Bonaparte was 
summarily transferred bv his brother to 
the throne of Spain, and Murat took his 
place as King of Naples. For Joseph, this 
was no favorable change; he found himself 
unprepared to cope with the Spanish in¬ 
surgents, and after the defeat of the French 
at Vittoria in 1813, he returned to his 
estate at Morfontaine. in France. 

After the battle of Waterloo he accom¬ 
panied Napoleon to Rochefort, whence they 




Bonaparte 


Bonaparte 


intended to sail separately for North 
America. In his last interview with Na¬ 
poleon, Joseph generously offered to give 
up the vessel hired for his own escape, but 
meanwhile Napoleon had determined to sur¬ 
render himself into the hands of the Eng¬ 
lish. Joseph became an American citizen, and 
lived for some years at Bordentown, N. J., 
where he employed himself in agriculture, and 
was highly esteemed by his neighbors. In 
1832 he returned to Europe, and he died at 
Florence in 1844. Joseph was the only 
one of his brothers for whom Napoleon 
professed to care anything. He was a hand¬ 
some, intelligent looking man, distinguished 
by the elegance of his manners and conver¬ 
sation. His wife, Julia Marie Clary, 
born in 1777, was the daughter of a 
wealthy citizen of Marseilles, and the sister- 
in-law of Bernadotte, King of Sweden. She 
was a quiet, unambitious woman, with no 
taste for the splendors of royalty which fell 
to her share during a few weeks only at 
Naples, for she never went to Spain. Ill 
health appears to have prevented her ac¬ 
companying her husband to America. She died 
at Florence in 1845. By her marriage with 
Joseph Bonaparte she had two daughters. 

Lucien Bonaparte, Prince of Canino, 
and brother of Napoleon, was born at Ajac¬ 
cio in 1775, and received his education in 
the college of Autun, the military school at 
Brienne, and the seminary at Aix. In 1798 
he was made a member of the Council of 
Five Hundred, and formed a party favorable 
to the views of his brother Napoleon. 
Shortly before the 18th Brumaire he was 
elected President of the Council of Five 
Hundred, and was the hero of that day. 
During the ferment which followed Na¬ 
poleon’s entrance, Lucien left his seat, 
mounted his horse, and, riding through the 
ranks of the assembled troops, called upon 
them to rescue their general from assassins. 
Afterward appointed Minister of the In¬ 
terior, he was active in the encouragement 
of education, art, and science, and or¬ 
ganized the prefectures. As Ambassador to 
Madrid (1800) he contrived to gain the 
confidence of King Charles IV. and his 
favorite, Godoy, and to undermine the Brit¬ 
ish influence, which had until then been 
exercised at the .Court of Spain. Lucien 
was a Republican in opinion, and, therefore, 
opposed to the absolute rule of his brother; 
and his second marriage to the widow of a 
stockbroker did not improve their relations. 
On condition that he would divorce his 
wife, the crowns of Italy and Spain were 
offered him; but he refused them, and pre¬ 
ferred living in retirement at his estate of 
Canino, in the Province of Viterbo, near 
the frontiers of Tuscany, where he devoted 
his time to art and science. Here he en¬ 
joyed the friendship of the Pope, who cre¬ 
ated him Prince of Canino and Musignano; 

65 


but, having denounced in his private capac¬ 
ity the arrogant and cruel policy of his 
brother toward the Court of Rome, he was 
advised to leave the city in which he was 
at that period residing. In 1810 he took 
ship for America, but fell into the hands 
of the English. After the defeat at Water¬ 
loo, Lucien Bonaparte alone seems to have 
preserved his presence of mind. He imme¬ 
diately advised his brother to dissolve the 
Chambers, and assume the place of abso¬ 
lute dictator. After the second ascent, of 
the throne by Louis XVIII., Lucien lived 
in and near Rome, and died at Viterbo in 
1840. He possessed considerable talents and 
firmness of character. He was in his early 
years a keen Republican, but the weakness 
of the Directory convinced him that a mili¬ 
tary consulship was necessary to allay the 
social anarchy of France. He wrote poems 
of no particular merit. Lucien had a nu¬ 
merous family. By his first wife he had 
only two daughters. 

Ilis eldest son was Charles Lucien 
Jules Laurent Bonaparte, Prince of Can¬ 
ino and Musignano, born at Paris in 
1803. He never exhibited any inclination 
for political life, preferring the more quiet 
and wholesome pursuits of literature and 
science. He acquired a considerable repu¬ 
tation as a naturalist, and especially as & 
writer on ornithology. He died in 1857. 
He was a member of the principal academies 
of Europe and the United States. His chief 
publications are a continuation of Wilson’s 
Ornithology of America,” and “ Inconogra- 
fia della Fauna Italica.” The second son, 
Paul Marie Bonaparte, born in 1808, 
took a part in the Greek War of Liberation, 
and died by the accidental discharge of a 
pistol in 1827. The third son, Louis Lu¬ 
cien Bonaparte, born in 1813, at Thorn- 
grove, Worcestershire, during his father’s 
imprisonment in England, early devoted 
himself with equal ardor to chemistry, 
mineralogy, and the study of languages, and 
became an authority of the first rank in 
Basque, Celtic, and comparative philology 
generally. His election for Corsica in 1848 
was annulled, but he was sent to the Con¬ 
stituent Assembly for the Seine Department 
next year, and was made Senator in 1852, 
with the title of Highness in addition to 
that of Prince, which he already possessed 
from his birth. Most of his contributions 
to linguistic science have been privately 
printed, and, according to a “ Catalogue ” 
(8 parts, 1858-1888), the total number of 
separate books written either by himself 
or at his instigation and encouragement, 
amounted to no less than 222. Among 
these are a translation of St. Matthew’s 
version of the parable of the sower into 
72 languages and dialects of Europe (1857); 
a linguistic map of the seven Basque Prov¬ 
inces, showing the delimitation of the “ Eus* 



Bonaparte 


Bonaparte 


cara,” and its division into dialects, sub¬ 
dialects, and varieties (1863); a Basque 
version of the Bible in the Labourdin dia¬ 
lect (1865); a masterly treatise on the 
Basque verb (1869); besides many papers 
of profound learning in the philological 
journals. A great work produced under his 
patronage from 1858 to 1860, was a version 
of the Song of Solomon in 22 different 
English dialects, besides four in Lowland 
Scotch, and one in Saxon. He long lived 
in England, where a Civil List pension of 
$1,250 was granted to him in 1883. The 
fourth son, Pierre Napoleon Bonaparte, 
born in 1815, passed through many changes 
of fortune in America, Italy, and Belgium, 
and returned to France in 1848. In 1870 
he shot a journalist, Victor Noir, a deed 
which created great excitement in Paris; 
and, being tried, was acquitted of the 
charge of murder, but condemned to pay 
$5,000 to Victor Noir’s relatives. He died 
in 1881. The youngest son, Antoine Bona¬ 
parte, born in 1816, fled to the United 
States after an affair with the Papal troops 
in 1836, and returned to France in 1848, 
where he was elected to the National As¬ 
sembly in 1849; he died in 1883. 

Louis Bonaparte, third brother of Napo¬ 
leon, born in 1778, was educated in the artil¬ 
lery school at Chalons, where he imbibed anti- 
Republican principles. After rising from 
one honor to another he was made King of 
Holland in 1806; but, in fact, was never 
more than a French Governor of Holland, 
subordinate to the will of his brother. Yet 
he seems to have done his best to govern in 
the interests of his Dutch subjects, and 
when he found his efforts useless, he re¬ 
signed in favor of his son in 1810. He 
returned to Paris in 1814, where he was 
coldly received by the Emperor. After liv¬ 
ing for some years in Borne — where he 
separated from his wife — he removed in 
1826 to Florence, where he lived in retire¬ 
ment. He died at Leghorn in 1846. Louis 
Bonaparte was the writer of several works, 
“Marie, ou les Hollandaises ” (1814), a 
novel, giving sketches of Dutch manners; 
“ Documents Historiques sur le Gouvern- 
ment de la Hollande ” (3 vols. London, 

1821); “ Histoire du Parlement Anglais'” 
(1820) ; and a critique on M. de Norvins’ 
“ History of Napoleon.” Louis Bonaparte 
was married in 1802 to Ilortense Beau- 
harnais, daughter of General Beauharnais 
by his wife, Josephine, afterward Empress 
of the French. 

The amiable and accomplished Hortense 
Eugenie Beauharnais, the adopted daugh¬ 
ter of Napoleon, Queen of Holland and 
Countess St. Leu, was born at Paris in 
1783. After the execution of her father, 
she lived for some time in humble circum¬ 
stances, until Napoleon’s marriage with 


Josephine. In obedience to the plans of her 
step-father she rejected her intended hus¬ 
band, General Desaix, and married Louis 
Bonaparte in 1802. She lived mostly apart 
from her husband, even as Queen of Hol¬ 
land ; and, on the downfall of the Napoleons, 
passed her time in various countries. She 
at last settled at Arenenberg, a mansion in 
the Canton Thurgau, Switzerland, where 
she lived in retirement, sometimes spending 
a winter in Italy. In 1831, when her two 
sons had implicated themselves in the 
Italian insurrection, the Countess traveled 
in search of them through many dangers, 
and found the elder deceased, and the 
younger, the late Emperor of the French, 
ill at a place near Ancona. She died at 
Arenenberg in 1837, and was buried near 
the remains of her mother, Josephine, at 
Ruel, near Paris. She was the author of 
“ La Reine Hortense en Italie, en France, 
et en Angleterre, pendant l’annee 1831,” 
and wrote several excellent songs. She like¬ 
wise composed some deservedly popular airs, 
among others, the well known “ Partant 
pour la Syrie,” which the late Emperor of 
the French, with a delicate union of politi¬ 
cal tact and filial pride, made the national 
air of France. Of her three sons, the eld¬ 
est, Napoleon Louis Charles, born 1803, 
died in childhood in 1807. The second, 
Louis Napoleon, born in 1804, Crown 
Prince of Holland, married his cousin 
Charlotte, daughter of Joseph Bonaparte, 
and died in 1831. The third, Charles 
Louis Napoleon, became Emperor of the 
French. See Napoleon III. 

Jerome Bonaparte, youngest brother of 
Napoleon, was born at Ajaccio in 1784. 
After receiving his education in the college 
at Juilly, he served as naval lieutenant in 
the expedition to Haiti. When war broke 
out between France and England in 1803, 
Jerome was cruising off the West Indies, 
and was compelled to take refuge in the port 
of New York. While in the United States 
he married Elizabeth Patterson (1785-1879), 
daughter of a merchant in Baltimore. He 
fought in the war against Prussia, and in 
1807 was made King of Westphalia. His 
administration of his kingdom was care¬ 
less, extravagant, and burdensome to his 
subjects. The battle of Leipsic brought the 
reign of Jerome to a close. He fought by 
the side of the Emperor at Waterloo. After 
his brother’s abdication he left Paris and 
visited Switzerland and Austria, but ulti¬ 
mately settled in Florence. At the out¬ 
break of the February Revolution (1848), 
Jerome Bonaparte was in Paris, where he 
was appointed Governor of the Invalides, 
and in 1850 was made a French marshal. 
He died in 1860. 

His marriage with Elizabeth Patterson 
having been declared null by Napoleon, 

Jerome was forced, after he had gained the 



Bonaparte 


Bonaparte 


Westphalian crown, to marry Catharine, 
daughter of King Frederick I. of Wiirtem- 
berg. After the battle of Waterloo, her 
father wished to annul the marriage; but 
she declared her resolution to share through 
life the fortunes of her husband. Jerome 
Bonaparte left in the United States one son, 
Jerome Napoleon (1805—1870), by his first 
marriage, who was a wealthy resident, though 
he never became a naturalized citizen. He 
left two sons, ( 1 ) Jerome Napoleon 
Bonaparte, born in Baltimore in 1832. 
He served with credit in the United States 
and French armies. (2) Charles Jo¬ 
seph Bonaparte, born in Baltimore in 
1851; graduated at Harvard, and became a 
lawyer. He has taken a prominent part in 
public affairs. By his second wife Jerome 
Bonaparte had three children. The elder 
son, Jerome Bonaparte, born in 1814, died 
in 1847. Mathilde Bonaparte, Princess 
of Montfort, born at Trieste, 1820. married 
the Russian Count Anatol Demidoff, and 
lived at the court of Louis Napoleon during 
his Presidency. The younger son. Napoleon 
Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte, born 
at Trieste in 1822, passed his youth in Italy; 
entered the military service of Wiirtemberg 
in 1837; afterward traveled in several coun¬ 
tries of Europe; and was banished from 
France (1845) on account of his intercourse 
with the Republican Party. After Febru¬ 
ary, 1848, he was elected to the National 
Assembly. He commanded an infantry di¬ 
vision at the battles of Alma and Inker- 
mann. In 1859 he married the Princess 
Clotilde, daughter of Victor Emmanuel, 
by whom he had two sons and a daughter. 
After the fall of the Empire he took up 
his residence in England, but returned 
to France in 1872. On the death of 
the Prince Imperial, son of the Emperor 
Louis Napoleon, in Zululand in 1879, the 
eldest son of Prince Napoleon became the 
heir of the Bonapartist hopes. When, in 
1886, the chiefs of the Bourbon family were, 
by a vote of both chambers, expelled from 
France, Prince Napoleon and his eldest son 


were exiled also as pretenders to the 
throne. He died in 1891. See Napoleon. 

The Bonaparte Pretenders .— Of the Em¬ 
peror Napoleon I. and his brothers, Joseph 
and Louis, male issue is now extinct. The 
Emperor’s brothers, Lucien and Jerome, are 
represented by the following living descend¬ 
ants, and they constitute the present Im¬ 
perialist House of France: 

Prince Victor Napoleon (of the house 
of Jerome), born July 18, 1862, is the son 
of the late Prince Napoleon (who died 
March 18, 1891) and the Princess Clotilde^ 
sister of King Humbert of Italy. The 
Prince has been recognized by his party 
as the undisputed head of the Bonaparte 
family. He lives in Brussels and is un¬ 
married. His only brother, Prince Louis 
Napoleon, born in 1864, is an officer in the 
Russian army. His sister, born in 1866, is 
the widow of Prince Amadeus of Italy, her 
own uncle, bv whom she had a son, Prince 
Humbert, born in 1889. 

The living aunt of Prince Victor Na¬ 
poleon is the Princess Mathilde, born in 
1820, married, in 1840, Prince Demidoff, of 
Russia; now a widow without children. 

Prince Charles Napoleon, brother of the 
late Cardinal Bonaparte, who died Feb. 12, 
1899, was the last representative of the 
eldest son of Napoleon’s brother, Lucien, in 
the male line. He was born in 1839; was 
married and had two daughters — Marie, 
wife of Lieutenant Giotti, of the Italian 
army, and Eugenie, unmarried. He had 
three sisters, married, respectively, to the 
Marquis.of Roccagivoine, Count Primoli, and 
Prince Gabrelli. 

Prince Roland Bonaparte is the only 
living male cousin of Prince Charles Na¬ 
poleon. He is a soil of the late Prince 
Pierre Napoleon Bonaparte; was born in 
1858; married in 1880. the daughter of 
Blanc, the proprietor of the Monte Carlo 
gambling establishment. His wife died in 
1882, leaving him a daughter and a fortune. 
He has one sister, Jeanne, born in 1861, and 
married to the Marquis de Villeneuve. 


THE BONAPARTE FAMILY. 
Charles Bonaparte. 


(D Joseph, (2) Napoleon I. 

King of 1304-1814; 

Spain, died 1821. 

died 1844. | _ 

Duke of | 

Reichstadt Charles, 


(3) Lucien, 
Prince of Canino, 
died 1840. 


I 


(4) Louis, 
King of Holland, 
died 1846. 


Pjul Louis pierre 
(Napoleon II.), died 1827.died 1827. Lucien, died 1881. 


died 1832. 


died 1891. 


Napoleon Louis 
Charles, Napoleon 
died 1807. CNapo- 


(6) Jerome, King 
of Westphalia, 
died 1860. 

\ 

Prince Napoleon, 
died 1891 


Lucien, Charles, 
Cardinal, died 1899. 
died 1895. 


Roland Jeanne 


leon III.), Victor. Louis Marie. 
1850-1870; | 

died 1873. Prince 

j Hum- 

Napoleon bert. 

Louis 
(Prince 
Impe¬ 
rial) , 
died 1879. 









Bonar 


Bond 


Bonar, Horatius, a celebrated Scotch 
hymnist, born in Edinburgh, Dec. 19, 1808; 
wrote “ Hymns of Faith and Hope,” many 
of which have been taken into the hymnals 
of most of the Protestant Churches. He 
also wrote more than 20 volumes on theo¬ 
logical and religious subjects. He died 
July 31, 1889. 

• 

Bonaventura, St., an Italian friar of the 
Order of St. Francis, born in Tuscany in 
1221. He was sent by his superiors to 
Paris, where he, as well as Thomas Aquinas, 
of the Dominican Order, became involved in 
contentions with the university, w r hich de¬ 
nied A he academical honors to individuals 
of the mendicant orders. It was not till 
1257 that he received his doctors degree. 
He haa already been elected General of his 
Order, in which capacity he enforced a strict 
discipline, giving himself the first example 
of implicit adherence to the monastic rule. 
He retired to the convent of Alt. Alvernia 
in Tuscany, where he wrote “ Vita Santi 
Francisco,” and also an ascetic work, 
“ Itinerarium mentis in Deum,” for which 
last he received the appellation of the 
“ Seraphic Doctor.” He died July 15, 1274, 
from sheer ascetic exhaustion. Dante, who 
wrote shortly afterward, places him among 
the saints of his “ Paradiso.” In 1482, he 
was formally canonized by Sixtus IV., and 
in 15S7 was ranked by Sixtus V. as the 
6th of the great doctors of the Church. 

Bona Vista, a bay, cape, and town on 
the E. coast of Newfoundland. The town is 
a port of entry, and one of the oldest set¬ 
tlements in the island. 

Bonchamp, Charles (bon-shan'), Mar=> 
quis de, a Vendean leader, was born in An¬ 
jou, May 10, 1760. He served as a volun¬ 
teer in the American Revolutionary War, 
and was a captain in the French army at 
the outbreak of the French Revolution. A 
strong Royalist, he naturally disliked the 
Revolution, and consequently lived in re¬ 
tirement until chosen leader of the Anjou 
insurgents. In conjunction with La Roche- 
jaequGein and Cathelineau he fought with 
great bravery and frequent success, but his 
superior knowledge of military tactics was 
not sufficiently made use of by the insur¬ 
gent army. In the encounter at Cholet, 
Oct. 17, 1793, Bonchamp received a fatal 
shot in the breast, and when his followers 
vowed to revenge his death on 5,000 Re¬ 
publican prisoners, the dying hero ex¬ 
claimed : “ Spare your prisoners. I com¬ 

mand it! ” This last command was obeyed. 

Bond, a written acknowledgment or bind¬ 
ing of a debt under seal. The person who 
gives the bond is called the obligor, and he 
to whom it is given the obligee. A bond is 
called single when it does not contain a 
penalty, and an obligation when it does. 
If two or more per&ous bind themselves in 


a bond jointly and severally, the obligee 
may sue them jointly or single out any 
one of the number he pleases to sue; but 
if they are bound jointly, and not severally, 
he must sue them jointly or not at all. 
Bonds of an immoral character are void 
at law. 

Bond, in masonry, a stone or brick which 
is laid with its length across a wall, or ex¬ 
tends through the facing course into that 
behind, so as to bind the facing to the back¬ 
ing. Such stones are known also as binders, 
bond stone, binding stones, through stones, 
perpent stones and headers. In brick lay- 


MASONRY BOND. ENGLISH BOND. 

ing, a bond is a particular mode of dispos¬ 
ing bricks in a wall so as to tie and break 
joint. The English bond has courses of 
headers alternating with courses of stretch¬ 
ers. In the Flemish bond each course has 
stretchers and headers alternating. 

Bond, George Phillips, an American 
astronomer, born in Dorchester, Mass., May 
20, 1825; a son of William Cranch Bond; 
assisted his father in the Harvard College 
Observatory, and at the time of the latter’s 
death was appointed director. He discov¬ 
ered independently 11 new comets, and -was 
the author of an elaborate memoir on the 
appearance of Donati’s comet in 1858, and 
of important investigations on the subject 
of perturbations of cometary orbits, as well 
as an investigation into the theory of the 
constitution of Saturn’s rings. H.s drawing 
of the nebula in Orion, of which a fine 
steel plate engraving was made, was also 
remarkable work, and astronomical photog¬ 
raphy received its first impulse at his 
hands. He died Feb. 17, 1865. 

Bond, William Cranch, an American 
astronomer, born in Portland, Me., -Sept. 9, 
1789; began life as a watch maker, and con¬ 
structed the first ship’s chronometer made 
in the United States. He established a 
private observatory at Dorchester, Mass., 
which was at the time the finest in the 
country. Invited to move his observatory 
to Cambridge, he accepted the invitation 
of the Harvard College authorities, and in 
1840 was appointed Astronomical Observer 
to the university, and later to the director¬ 
ship of the observatory erected there in 
1843-1844. He was the inventor of the 
method of registering the beats of a clock 
by galvanic circuit, together with the ob¬ 
served transits of stars over the wires of a 
transit instrument, upon a chronograph, 
and he invented the spring governor, which 








Bonded Warehouses 


Bone 


bears his name, for controlling the mo¬ 
tion of the chronograph barrel. His 
most important work was in connection 
with the determination of longitudes, both 
of points in the United States from the 
Harvard College Observatory, and that of 
the observatory itself from Greenwich by 
the observation of a vast number of occulta- 
tions of stars by the moon, both at Dorches¬ 
ter and Cambridge. While the observatory 
was under his direction the dusky ring of 
Saturn was discovered there as well as its 
satellite, Hyperion. He died Jan. 29, 1859. 

Bonded Warehouses, places where tax¬ 
able imports or manufactures may be left 
in government custody, under bond for pay¬ 
ment of the duty, till the importer or man¬ 
ufacturer is prepared to make full payment 
of duty. The system was designed to pro¬ 
mote commerce and certain manufactures 
by lessening the pressure on the importer 
or manufacturer by means of instalment 
payments of duty. 

Bondi, Clemente, one of the most popular 
poets of modern Italy; born in Mizzano, in 
the duchy of Parma, June 27, 1742; be¬ 
came Jesuit shortly before the suppression 
of the order, and was appointed Professor 
of Eloquence in the University of Parma. 
He afterward provoked the hostility of the 
order by publishing an ode in praise of their 
suppression, and was obliged to seek an 
asylum in the Tyrol, where the Archduke 
Ferdinand took him under his protection, 
appointed him his librarian at Briinn, and 
intrusted him with the education of his 
sons, one of whom afterward succeeded to 
the duchy of Modena. In 1816 Bondi was 
appointed Professor of History and Litera¬ 
ture at Vienna. He was an easy and ele¬ 
gant versifier, and cultivated with success 
almost all varieties of poetry. Among the 
most important poems are: “ La Giornata 
Villereccia,” “ La Conversazione,” and “ La 
Felicita.” He also executed a metrical ver¬ 
sion of the “ iEneid,” which some consider 
his best work. He died in Vienna, June 20, 
1821. 

Bond Spring Governor, a device in¬ 
vented by William C. Bond for controlling 
the motion of a chronograph barrel or any 
moving train of wheels, a light revolving 
arm being slightly checked at each revolu¬ 
tion by a stop on the rod of a pendulum, 
and the slight shock which would otherwise 
be given to the constant motion of the tiain 
being smoothed out by having this arm at¬ 
tached to a long spiral, spring through 
which the control check is transmitted to 
the train, the impulse given to the pen¬ 
dulum as the arm slides off the stop being 
also sufficient to maintain a nearly constant 
arc vibration of the pendulum. 

Bondu, a country of West Africa, belong¬ 
ing to the French territory of Senegal, on 


the W. of the Faleme, a tributary of that 
river. Its length is about 115 miles, its 
breadth about 100. Its surface is but little 
diversified, and the land as a whole is not 
very fertile, nor is the climate good. The 
ordinary African animals occur, but the lion 
is becoming scarce. The ass is the chief 
domestic animal. The population, which 
consists of Fulahs and other tribes, is rather 
sparse, having been reduced by frequent 
wars, but under French rule is beginning to 
increase. Agriculture, manufactures, and 
commerce are alike unimportant. 

Bone. The bones are the hardest and 
most solid parts of animals; they consti¬ 
tute the frame, serve as points of attach¬ 
ment to the muscles, and afford support to 
the softer solids. They are the instruments, 
as muscles are the organs, of motion. In 
the mammalia, birds, fish, and reptiles, the 
whole system of bones united by the verte¬ 
bral column is called the skeleton. In the 
"xtus they are first a vascular gelatinous 
substance, in different points of which 
earthy matter is gradually deposited. This 
process is perceptible toward the end of 
the second month, and, at the time of ma¬ 
turity, the bone is completely formed. After 
birth the bones become gradually more solid, 
and, in the temperate zones, reach their 
perfection in men between the ages of 15 
and 20. From this age till 50 they change 
but slightly; after that period they grow 
thinner, lighter, and more brittle. Those 
of the two first classes of animals are hard¬ 
er on their exterior than they are internally. 
Their material is nearly the same through¬ 
out. Their structure is vascular, and they 
are traversed by the blood-vessels and the 
absorbents. They are hardest at the sur¬ 
face, which is formed by a firm membrane 
called the periosteum; the internal parts 
are cellular, containing a substance called 
marrow. The use of the marrow is to pre¬ 
vent the too great dryness and brittleness 
of the bones. 

Chemistry decomposes bone into gelatin, 
fat, cartilage, and earthy salts. A fresh 
bone boiled in water, or exposed to the ac¬ 
tion of an acid, gives out its gelatin; if 
boiled in water, on cooling the decoction a 
jelly is formed which makes a good portable 
soup. The earth of bones is obtained by 
calcination; that is, by exposing them to a 
red heat, by which they are deprived of the 
soft substances. It consists principally of 
calcic phosphate, with small quantities of 
magnesic phosphate, and of calcic carbonate 
and fluoride. The composition of human 
bones, as analyzed by Berzelius, is: 

Animal matter soluble by boiling. 32.17 

Vascular substance . .... 1.13 

Calcium phosphate, with a little calcium fluor¬ 
ide . 53.04 

Calcium carbonate. 11.30 

Magnesium phosphate...... 1.16 

Soda, with a little common salt. 1.20 


100.00 











Bone 


Bongabong 


The bones of animals contain slightly differ¬ 
ent proportions. Bones are now very exten¬ 
sively used as fertilizing agents. See Bone 
Manure. 

Bone, or Bona, a town and seaport of 
Algiers, 85 miles N. E. of Constantine, at 
the mouth of the Seybouse river. It is 
built on the site of Aphrodisium, the port 
of ancient Hippo. The Vandals having 
destroyed Aphrodisium, an Arab town arose 
on its ruins. The city having outgrown its 
former limits, the present ramparts are be¬ 
yond the old walls. Bone has been modern¬ 
ized to some extent, many old buildings be¬ 
ing removed to make room for new ones. 
The surface is irregular and some of the 
streets steep. There are mosques, a cathed¬ 
ral and other churches and a synagogue. 

Bone Ash, ash made of calcined bones. It 
consists chiefly of tricalcic phosphate Ca" 3 - 
(PCMa'", mixed with about one-fourth its 
weight of magnesium phosphate and calcic 
carbonate. 

Bone Bed, in geology, a bed containing 
numerous fragments of fossil bones, teeth, 
etc. Excepting teeth, no part of a verte- 
brated animal is more indestructible than 
bones, and these are so correlated to the 
teeth, digestive organs, external covering, 
etc., that in many cases the finding of a 
single bone will enable a skilled anatomist 
to reconstruct the whole animal. 

Bone Black, animal charcoal. It is ob¬ 
tained by charring bones. It contains about 
10 per cent, of finely divided carbon dis¬ 
seminated through the porous phosphate of 
calcium. It has the power of absorbing 
gases, removing the coloring matter and alka¬ 
loids, etc., from their solutions. It is used 
to disinfect ulcers, etc., also to decolorize 
sugar and other organic substances; its 
properties can be restored by heating it to 
redness in closed vessels. If treated with 
dilute hydrochloric acid, HC1, for two days 
the mineral matters are removed, and a 
black, pulverent substance is obtained, 
which has been used as an antidote in cases 
of poisoning with vegetable alkaloids. 

Among the volatile products obtained 
when bones are calcined in close vessels is 
a peculiar oil, which is burned in lamps 
in close chambers; while the soot which ac¬ 
cumulates on the sides is collected and 
forms the pigment known, according to 
quality, as bone black or ivory black. Bone 
black cleaning apparatus is a device for 
purifying, screening, and cooling bone black 
after treatment in the revivifying retort; 
bone black cooler, an apparatus for cooling 
animal charcoal after its removal from the 
furnace; bone black furnace, a form of fur¬ 
nace for revivifying bone black; bone black 
kiln, a chamber or retort mounted in a fur¬ 
nace for reburning bone black to remove 
impurities with which it has become satu¬ 


rated or impregnated during its use as a 
defecator and filtering material. 

Bone Manure, one of the most import¬ 
ant fertilizers in agriculture. The value of 
bones as manure arises chiefly from the 
phosphates and nitrogenous organic matters 
they contain; and where the soil is already 
rich in phosphates bone is of little use as 
manure. It is of most service, therefore, 
where the soil is deficient in this respect, or 
in the case of crops whose rapid growth or 
small roots do not enable them to extract 
a sufficient supply of phosphate from the 
earth, turnips, for instance, or late sown 
oats and barley. There are several methods 
for increasing the value of bones as 
manure, by boiling out the fat and gela¬ 
tine, for instance, the removal of which 
makes the bones more readily acted on by 
the weather and hastens the decay and dis¬ 
tribution of their parts, or by grinding 
them to dust or dissolving them in sul¬ 
phuric acid, by which latter course the 
phosphates are rendered soluble in water. 
Bones have long been used as manure in 
some parts of England, but only in a rude, 
unscientific way. It was in 1814 or 1815 
that machinery was first used for crushing 
them in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, and 
bone dust and dissolved bones are now 
largely employed as manures, great quan¬ 
tities of bones being now imported into 
Great Britain for this purpose. Before 
being utilized in agriculture they are often 
boiled for the oil or fat they contain, 
which is used in the manufacture of soap 
and lubricants. 

Boner, John Henry, an American poet 
and literary worker, born at Salem, N. C., 
Jan. 31, 1845. A contributor to the maga¬ 
zines, he was on the editorial staff of the 
“ Century Dictionary ” and the “ Standard 
Dictionary,” and was once literary editor 
of the New York “ World.” He has writ¬ 
ten “Whispering Pines” (1883), a volume 
of verse. 

Boneset, or Thoroughwort ( eupatorium 
perfoliaturn), a useful annual plant, nat¬ 
ural order compositce, indigenous to the 
United States, and easily recognized by its 
tall stem. 4 or 5 feet in height, passing 
through the middle of a large, double, hairy, 
leaf, and surmounted by a broad, flat head 
of light purple flowers. It is much used as 
a domestic medicine in the form of an in¬ 
fusion, having tonic and diaphoretic prop¬ 
erties. 

Bongabong, a town in the S. E. part of 
Luzon, Philippine Islands, with an esti¬ 
mated population of 20,000. It lies in a 
mountainous district, and attained military 
importance as the headquarters of a regi¬ 
ment of United States troops. The town 
has a municipal government based upon 
popular election. 



Bonghi 


Boni 


Bonghi, Ruggero (bon'ge), an Italian 
scholar and publicist, born in Naples, March 
21, 1826. The commencement of his bril¬ 
liant career indicated scholarly activities 
only, for he made fine studies and versions 
of Aristotle and Plato; but latterly he 
took up such subjects as “ The Financial 
History of Italy, 18G4-18G8” (1868) ; “The 
Life and Times of Valentino Pasini ” 
(1867), and “The Life of Jesus” (1890); 
the popularity and value of these and other 
works giving him great prominence. He 
held professorships in several Italian uni¬ 
versities; was Minister of Public Instruc¬ 
tion in 1874-1876; and presided over the 
International Peace Congress held in Rome 
in 1891. He died Oct. 22, 1895. 

Bongo, or Obongo, the name of a ne¬ 
groid people in the basin of the Ogowe 
river, in the French Kongo. 

Bonheur, Rosalie (bon-er'), commonly 
called Rosa, a French artist, born in Bor¬ 
deaux, March 22, 1822. Her studies were 
directed by her father, himself an artist of 
ability, and her first two pictures, “ Chevres 
et Moutons,” and “ Les Deux Lapins,” which 
were exhibited in 1841, attracted much at¬ 
tention. In 1849 a fine work, “ Labour- 
ages Nivernais,” by her, was purchased by 
the French Government for 3,000 francs 

and placed in 
the Luxem¬ 
bourg collec¬ 
tion. In 1855 
“ The Haymak¬ 
ing Season in 
Auvergne” was 
hung at the 
Universal Expo¬ 
sition in Paris, 
and in the same 
year she sent the 
“ Horse Fair ” 
to the French 
Exhibition in 
London, where 
it was the cen¬ 
ter of attrac¬ 
tion for the sea¬ 
son. It is now 
in the Metropo¬ 
litan Museum in 
New York. After this woU: she stood at the 
very head of delineators of animal life, show¬ 
ing" a wonderful power of representing spir¬ 
ited action. Near her studio she had an ante¬ 
chamber as a stable for the convenient study 
of animals, of which she collected some 
noble specimens. She also attended horse 
markets and fairs : generally wearing mas¬ 
culine dress, which was not unbecoming to 
her strong and marked features. After 
1849 she directed the Free School of De¬ 
sign for Young Girls in Paris. During the 
siege of Paris the Crown Prince of Prussia 
especially ordered that her studio and resi¬ 


dence at Fontainebleau should be spared and 
respected. She received a first class medal at 
the FrenchSalon in 1849. and another in 1855; 
and the decoration of the Legion of Honor 
in 1865; was made a member of the Insti¬ 
tute of Antwerp in 186S; received the 
Leopold cross from the King of Belgium in 
1880, and the same year received from the 
King of Spain the Commander’s Cross of 
the Royal Order of Isabella the Catholic. 
In 1892 a celebrated painting by her, en¬ 
titled “ Horses Threshing Corn,” was sold 
for $60,000. It is the largest animal pic¬ 
ture ever painted, showing ten horses 
large as life. In 1896, on her 74th birth¬ 
day, she furnished a painting representing 
the historical combat between two stallions 
to which Lord Godolphin invited his friends 
in 1734. She died at Fontainebleau, May 
25, 1899. 

Bon Homme Richard (bon-um-re-shar'), 
a famous American warship, that, under 
the command of John Paul Jones, engaged 
in a terrific battle with the British ship 
“Serapis” in British waters, off Flamborough 
Head, on Sept 23, 1799. Jones lashed the 
vessels together and compelled the “ Ser¬ 
apis ” to strike her colors. The “ Bon 
Homme Richard ” sank two days after¬ 
ward. 

Boni, a State on the E. coast of the S. 1 
W. peninsula of the island of Celebes, in 
the Pacific Ocean, with an estimated area 
of 935 square miles. It was formerly the 
most powerful State in Celebes, but since 
1859 has been practically a Dutch depend¬ 
ency. In the N. the scenery is fine, and the 
soil fertile—rice, sago, and cassia being 
produced. The inhabitants, called Bugis, 
have an allied language to the Macassars, 
with a literature of their own. Their towns 
and villages dot the coast, and as enterpris¬ 
ing merchants and sailors the Bugis are 
found in every port of the East Indian 
Archipelago; they also engage in agricul¬ 
ture and in the manufacture of cotton and 
articles of gold and iron, in which they have 
a large trade. They are well built, active, 
and brave, and are lighter skinned, as well 
as superior in honesty and morality to other 
Malay races. Their institutions, said to be 
very ancient, partake of the character of a 
constitutional monarchy. The British have 
twice attacked the Bonese for injuring their 
commerce, and selling the crews of British 
ships into slavery. In the second attack, 
in 1814, the Bonese king was killed. The 
number of the population is unknown; 
some estimates give as much as 200,000. The 
capital, called Boni, stands on the coast of 
the S. W. peninsula. The Gulf of Boni 
separates the S. E. and S. W. peninsulas 
of Celebes. It is 200 miles long, and 40- 
80 miles broad. 








Boniface 


Bonington 


Boniface I., a Pope, elected after the 
death of Zozimus, 418, and maintained in 
the pontifical chair by the Emperor Hon- 
orius, against his rival Eulalius. He died 
in 422. 

Boniface II. succeeded Felix IV., in 
530. He was born at Rome, his father being 
a Goth. He compelled the bishops in a 
council to allow him to nominate his suc¬ 
cessor, and accordingly he named Vigil; 
but another council disavowed the proceed¬ 
ings of the first. He died in 532. 

Boniface III. succeeded Sabinianus, in 
607, and died a few months after his elec¬ 
tion; but he obtained from the Emperor 
Phocas the acknowledgment that the See of 
Rome was supreme over all other churches. 

Boniface IV. was the son of a physi¬ 
cian, and came to the tiara in 608. He con¬ 
verted the Pantheon into a church. He died 
in 615. 

Boniface V. succeeded Adeodatus in 617, 
and died in 625. 

Boniface VI. succeeded Formosus in 
89G, and died 18 days after his election. 

Boniface VII., whose surname was Fran- 
cone, assumed the chair after murdering 
Benedict VI. and John XIV. He was ac¬ 
knowledged sovereign pontiff in 974, and 
died in 984. His corpse was exposed in the 
public streets, and trodden under foot. 

Boniface VIII., in 1294, terrified his 
predecessor Celestine into a resignation, by 
denouncing to him, at midnight, eternal 
damnation if he did not quit the pontifical 
chair. The credulous Pope, thinking this a 
supernatural voice, obeyed the command 
next day, and the crafty cardinal was 
elected. He commenced his pontificate by 
imprisoning his predecessor, and laying 
Denmark under an interdict. He also be¬ 
haved in a haughty manner toward the Col- 
onnas, a distinguished Roman family, who 
protested against his election, and called a 
council to examine the charge. Boniface 
excommunicated them as heretics, and 
preached a crusade against them. He in¬ 
cited the princes of Germany to revolt 
against Albert of Austria; and also issued 
a bull, in which he asserted that God had 
set him over kings and kingdoms. Philip 
the Fair caused this bull to be burned at 
Paris; on which Boniface laid France un¬ 
der an interdict. Philip appealed to a gen¬ 
eral council, and sent his army into Italy, 
which took Boniface prisoner. The pon¬ 
tiff's behavior on this occasion was bold 
enough, for, putting on the tiara, and tak¬ 
ing the keys and the crosier in his hands, he 
said, “ I am a Pope, and a Pope I will die.” 
He died at Rome, a few months afterward, 
in 1303. He wrote several works. His per¬ 
secuting qualities are alluded to by Dante, 
in the 27th chapter of the “ Inferno.” 


Boniface IX. was a Neapolitan by 
birth, and of a noble family. He was made 
cardinal in 1381, and Pope in 1389. He 
died in 1404. 



Boniface, St., a saint of the Roman cal¬ 
endar, and a native of England, who was 
sent by Gregory II. to convert the Germans. 
Gregory III. made him an archbishop. Born 
in Devonshire in 680; slain by some peas¬ 
ants in Friesland, in 755. His letters were 
printed in 1616. 

Bonifacio (bo-ne-fa'che-o), Strait of, 
the Fretum Gallicum of the Romans, lies 
between Corsica and Sardinia. At the nar¬ 
rowest part it is only 7 miles wide. The 
navigation is difficult owing to the great 
number of rocks, which, however, are favor¬ 
able to the production of coral. 

Bonin, or (Japanese) Ogasawara, Isl= 
ands, a volcanic group in the Pacific 
Ocean, 700 miles S. S. E. of Japan, stretch¬ 
ing between 26° 30'—27° 45' N. lat., and 
between 159°—155° E. long. Area, 32 
square miles; population about 200. Dis¬ 
covered by Quast and Tasman in 1639, they 
were taken possession of for Great Britain 
in 1827 by Captain Beechey; but in 1878 
the Japanese reasserted their sovereignty, 
with the view of making them a penal set¬ 
tlement. The harbor is named Port Lloyd. 

Bonington, Richard Parkes, an Eng¬ 
lish painter in oil and water colors, born 
near Nottingham, Oct. 25, 1801. His 

father placed him under Louis Francia, the 
water color painter, in Calais; and he af¬ 
terward studied in Paris — in the Louvre, 
at the Institute, and under Baron Gros. In 
1822 he began to exhibit in the Salon, and 
received a premium from the Society des 
Amis des Arts for his views of Havre and 
Lillebonne; and two vears later he was 
awarded a medal at the Salon. He then oc¬ 
cupied himself with lithography; many of 
his sketches were reproduced by this method 
in such works as Baron Taylor’s “ Voyages 
Pittoresques dans Fancienne France,” and 











Bonito 


Bonner 


he occasionally drew upon the stone himself, 
from his own designs and those of other 
artists. A fine collection of his work of this 
kind is preserved in the print room of the 
British Museum. About 1825 he took to oil 
painting, and in that year visited England, 
accompanied by Delacroix, in whose studio 
he worked after his return to Paris; and 
having visited Italy, he produced his 
splendid Venice views of the “ Ducal 
Palace ” and the “ Grand Canal,” which 
figured in the Salon of 1827, along with his 
“ Francis I. and the Queen of Navarre ” and 
his “ Henry III. receiving the Spanish Am¬ 
bassador.” He also exhibited in the Royal 
Academv and the British Institution. He 
died Sept. 23, 1828. 

Bonito, a fish, thynnus pelamys. It be¬ 
longs to the family of scomberidce (macker¬ 
els), and is nearly allied to the tunny. It 
is found in the Mediterranean, and is a 
great foe to the flying fish. The belted 
bonito is the pelamys sarda, and the plain 
bonito, the alexis vulgaris. 

Bonivard, Francois de (bo-ne-var'), a 
younger son of a family which held large 
possessions under the House of Savoy, was 
born about 1496 at Seyssel, on the Rhone, 
and in 1513 became prior of St. Victor at 
Geneva. Falling under the suspicion of the 
Duke of Savoy, he was taken prisoner by 
him in 15.19. After 20 months’ imprison¬ 
ment he was set free, but in 1530 he was 
again seized, and taken to the castle of 
Chillon at the E. end of the Lake of 
Geneva, where he was imprisoned for six 
years, the last four in that subterranean 
vault which the genius of Byron has made 
famous by his poem on the sufferings of 
“ The Prisoner of Chillon.” He died in 
1570, leaving the town his books, which 
were the nucleus of the Geneva library. 
Bonivard was an indefatigable writer. His 
chief works are his “Chroniques de Geneve” 
(1551; new ed., 2 vols., 1831), and “ De 
l’Ancienne et Nouvelle Police de Geneve ” 
(1555). 

Bonn, a German town in the Rhenish 
Province of Prussia, beautifully situated on 
the left bank of the Rhine, with magnificent 
promenades and prospects in the environs. 
It has some trade and manufactures, but 
is chiefly important for its famous uni¬ 
versity, founded in 1777 by Elector Maxi¬ 
milian Frederick of Cologne, and for its 
cathedral, which has a crypt of the 11th 
century and mediaeval wall paintings. En¬ 
larged* and amply endowed by the King of 
Prussia, in 1818, the university is now one 
of the chief seats of learning in Europe, 
with a library of more than 200,000 vol¬ 
umes, an anatomical hall, mineralogical and 
zoological collections, museum of antiqui¬ 
ties, a botanical garden, etc. The teachers 
in the five faculties, in 1898, numbered 147, 


and the students 1,671. Lange, Niebuhr, 
Ritschl, Brandis, and other names famous 
in science or literature are connected with 
Bonn, and Beethoven was born here. Bonn 
was long the residence of the Electors of 



BONN UNIVERSITY. 


Cologne, and finally passed into the hands 
of Prussia by the arrangements of the Con¬ 
gress of Vienna, in 1815. Pop. (1905) 
81,996. 

Bonnat, Leon Joseph Florentin, a 

French painter, born in Bayonne, June 20, 
1833; studied under Madrazo at Madrid, 
and under Leon Cogniet at Paris. He 
paints portraits and genre subjects; many 
of these are reminiscences of his visits to 
Italy and Egypt. His portraits of Thiers 
and Victor Hugo are much esteemed. He 
became a member of the Institute in 1874. 

Bonnechose, Emile Boisnormand de 

(bon-slioz'), a French poet and historian 
(1801-1875), born at Leyerdorp in Holland. 
His one notable poetical composition is 
“ The Death of Bailly ” (1833). Besides 
a “ History of France ” he is author of 
“ Reformers before the Sixteenth Century 
Reformation 1 ” (1844); “The Four Con¬ 
quests of England” (2 vols., 1851); “His¬ 
tory of England” (4 vols., 1859). 

Bonnemere, Joseph Eugene (bon-mar), 
a French historian, born in Saumur, Feb. 
21, 1813. In early life he wrote a number of 
plays; but owes his reputation to a series 
of historical publications, “ History of the 
Peasants” (1856); “Vendee, in 1793 ” 
(1866); “Popular History of France” 
11874-1879); “History of the Religious 
Wars in the Sixteenth Century” (1886), 
etc. He died Oct. 31, 1893. 

Bonner, Edmund, an English prelate of 
infamous notoriety, was born about 1495, 
of obscure parentage. He took a doctor’s 
degree at Oxford, in 1525, and, attracting 
the notice of Cardinal Wolsey, received from 


























































Bonner 


Bonniere 


him several offices in the church. On the 
death of Wolsey he acquired the favor of 
Henry VIII., who made him one of his 
chaplains, and sent him to Rome to advo¬ 
cate his divorce from Queen Catharine. In 
1540 he was consecrated Bishop of London, 
but on the death of Henry (1547), having 
refused to take the oath of supremacy, he 
was deprived of his see and thrown into 
prison. On the accession of Mary he was 
restored to his bishopric, and he distin¬ 
guished himself during this reign by a per¬ 
secution of the Protestants, 200 of whom he 
was instrumental in bringing to the stake. 
After Elizabeth succeeded he remained un¬ 
molested until his refusal to take the oath 
of supremacy, on which he was committed 
to the Marshalsea (1560), where he re¬ 
mained a prisoner until his death in 1569. 

Bonner, Robert, an American publisher, 
born near Londonderry, Ireland, April 28, 
1824. He came to the United States in 
early youth, and learned the trade of a 
printer, and, in 1839, was employed in the 
office of the Hartford “ Courant,” and was 
known as a very rapid compositor. In 1844 
he removed to New York, and, in 1851, pur¬ 
chased the “ Ledger,” then an insignificant 
paper. By energy and talent he made it re¬ 
markably successful, adding to its reputa¬ 
tion by securing the contributions of Fanny 
Fern, Edward Everett, Henry Ward 
Beecher, and other eminent persons. He be¬ 
came very wealthy, and gratified his taste 
for fast horses by purchasing the most cele¬ 
brated trotters in the world, though with¬ 
drawing them from the race course. Among 
these are “ Peerless,” “ Dexter,” “ Maud S.,” 
which he bought from William H. Vander¬ 
bilt for $40,000, her record of speed being 
2.09%, which he afterward reduced to 
2.08%, and “ Sunol.” He made large gifts 
of money to Princeton University and was 
widely known for his many benefactions. 
He retired from active control of the 
“Ledger” in 1887, giving it into the hands 
of his sons. He died in New York city, 
July 6, 1899. He prided himself on the 
facts that he had never raced a horse for 
money, never made a bet, never borrowed a 
dollar, and never gave a note in his life. 

Bonnet, a head dress; a dress or cover¬ 
ing for the head worn by women; a cap or 
head covering, much used before the intro¬ 
duction of hats, and still worn by the 
Scotch Highlanders. 

In fortification, the elevation of the para¬ 
pet about the salient angle of a bastion or 
ravelin above the general level of the work. 
The name is also given in permanent defen¬ 
sive works to a little outwork with two 
faces, forming a salient angle, intended to 
protect the angle of a ravelin, the faces of 
which are defended by tenaillons or lun¬ 
ettes. An outwork of a similar kind, used 
in field fortification, having three salient 


angles instead of one, is called a bonnet de 

pretre, or priest’s bonnet. 

In mechanics, a cast iron plate to cover 
the opening in the valve chamber of a 
pump; the opening is made so that ready 
access can be had when the valves need 
repairing; also a frame work of wire net¬ 
ting over the smoke stack, or chimney, of 
a steam locomotive, to prevent the escape 
of sparks. 

In navigation an additional piece of can¬ 
vas attached to the foot of a jib, or to a 
schooner’s foresail, by lacings, and taken off 
in bad weather. 

Bonneval (bdn-val'), Claude AIex= 
andre, Comte de, a singular adventurer, 
born in 1675 of an illustrious French family. 
In the war of the Spanish Succession he 
obtained a regiment, and distinguished him¬ 
self by his valor as well as by his excesses. 
On his return to France he was obliged to 
fly in consequence of some expressions 
against the Minister and Madame de Main- 
tenon. Received into the service of Prince 
Eugene he now fought against his native 
country, and, after performing many sig¬ 
nal services, he was raised, in 1716, to the 
rank of Lieutenant Field Marshal in the 
Austrian service, and distinguished himself 
against the Turks at Peterwardein. But 
his reckless and impatient spirit brought 
him into conflict with the superior authori¬ 
ties, and he finally took refuge in Constan¬ 
tinople, where he was well received. He 
was now converted to Mohammedanism, sub¬ 
mitted to circumcision, received the name of 
Achmet, was made a pasha of three tails, 
and, as general of a division of the army, 
achieved some considerable successes against 
Russians and Austrians. He died in 1747. 
The memoirs of his life published under his 
name are not genuine. 

Bonneville, Benjamin L. E., an Amer¬ 
ican soldier and explorer, born in France, in 
1793; explored in the Rocky Mountains and 
California; fought in the Mexican War; was 
wounded at Churubusco; served as super¬ 
intendent of barracks and recruiting of¬ 
ficer in Missouri during the Civil War of 
1861-1865. His explorations were written 
up from his journal by Washington Irving 
in a work entitled “ Adventures of Captain 
Bonneville.” He died in Fort Smith, Ark., 
June 12, 1878. 

Bonneville, Lake, a lake that once filled 
a now desert basin of Utah; at its great¬ 
est dimensions had an area of 20,000 square 
miles, and was 1,000 feet deep. 

Ronnieres, Robert de (bon-yar), a 
French journalist and novelist, born in 
Paris, April 7, 1850. He began his literary 
career as contributor to Paris journals of 
spirited but waspish biographies of contem¬ 
porary men; these were collected and pub¬ 
lished in three successive volumes of “ Mem 



Bonny 


Bony Pikes 


oir9 of To-day.” His novels are full of 
transparent allusions to noted persons, and 
have had a very great vogue. In one of 
them, “ The Monarch,” he portrays high 
Jewish society in Paris. 

Bonny, or Boni, a town and a river of 
Guinea, now in the British Niger protector¬ 
ate. The river forms an E. debouchure of 
the Niger, and falls into the Bight of Bi- 
afra, in about 4° 30' N. lat., and 7° 10' 
E. long. It is accessible at all times 
of the tide to vessels drawing as much as 
18 feet of water, and safe anchorage at all 
seasons of the year is found within its bar. 
Its banks are low, swampy and uncultivated. 
On the E. side near its mouth, is the town 
of Bonny, notorious from the 10th to the 
19th century as the rendezvous of slave 
trading ships. The houses forming the town 
stand in a swamp where fever prevails; 
European traders generally take up their 
quarters on river boats moored in the cur¬ 
rent of the Bonny. It exports considerable 
quantities of palm oil. 

Bonnycastle, Charles, an Anglo-Ameri¬ 
can mathematician, born in Woolwich, in 
1792; was Professor of Mathematics at 
Woolwich Military Academy, Professor of 
Natural Philosophy in the University of 
Virginia (1825-1827) and of Mathematics 
there from 1827. His publications included 
“ Elements of Geometry/’ “ Elements of Al¬ 
gebra,” “ Mensuration,” etc. He died in 
Charlottesville, Va., October, 1840. 

Bonnycastle, Sir Richard Henry, an 

English military engineer, born in 1791; 
spent the greater part of his life in British 
North America; and was author of “Span¬ 
ish America” (1818); “The Canadas in 
1842” (1842); “Canada and the Canadi¬ 
ans in 1846” (1846); and “Canada as It 
Was, Is, and May Be” (1846). He died in 
1848. 

Bononia. (1) The ancient name of Bo¬ 
logna, Italy; a Roman town of Gallia Cis- 
padana, originally Felsina; belonged to the 
Boii and then to Rome; enlarged and 
adorned by Augustus. (2) The ancient 
name of Boulogne, a town in Northern 
Gaul. (3) Anciently, a town of Pannonia 
on the Danube. 

Bonomi, Joseph (bon-o'me), an Italian 
artist, born in Rome, Oct. 9, 1796; son of 
Joseph Bonomi, the architect. He studied 
art in London, and became famous as a 
draftsman, especially of Egyptian re¬ 
mains. He repeatedly visited Egypt and 
the Holy Land, and ‘illustrated important 
works by Wilkinson, Birch, Sharpe, Lepsius 
and other Egyptologists. He also published 
a work of his own on Nineveh, and at his 
death, March 3, 1878, he was curator of 
Soane’s Museum. 

Bonpland, Aim6 (bon-plan'), a French 
botanist, born in Rochelle, Aug. 22, L73, 


While pursuing his studies at Paris lie 
made the acquaintance of Alexander von 
Humboldt, and agreed to accompany him in 
his celebrated expedition to the New World. 
During this expedition he collected upward 
of 6,009 plants, previously unknown, and 
on his return to France, in 1804, was made 
Director of the Gardens at Navarre and 
Malmaison. On the Restoration he pro 
ceeded to South America, and became Pro¬ 
fessor of Natural History at Buenos Ayres. 
Subsequently, while on a scientific 3 xpedi- 
tion up the river Parang, he was arrested 
by Dr. Francia, the Dictator of Paraguay, 
as a spy and detained for eight years. He 
afterward settled in Brazil, where he died 
in 1858. Among his works are “ Plantes 
Equinoxiales ” (2 vols., 1808-1816); “ Mono- 
graphie des Melastomees,” etc. (2 vols., 
1809-1816); and “Description des Plantes 
rares de Navarre” (1813-1817). 

Bonsai, Stephen, an American journal¬ 
ist, born in Virginia in 1863. He was edu¬ 
cated at Concord and Heidelberg. In the 
Bulgarian-Servian War he was special cor¬ 
respondent of the New York “ Herald,” serv¬ 
ing in the same capacity in Macedonia and 
Cuba. He has been Secretary of Legation 
of the United States in Pekin, Madrid, To- 
kio, and Korea. He has written “ The Real 
Condition of Cuba ” and “ The Fight for 
Santiago.” 

Bonstetten, Karl Victor von (bon'- 

stet-en), a Swiss publicist, born in Bern, 
Sept. 3, 1745; studied at Leyden, Cambridge 
and Paris: entered the Council of Bern, and 
became district governor, and, in 1795, a 
judge in Lugano. He lived in Italy and 
at Copenhagen from 1796 to 1801, and after 
his return settled at Geneva, where he died, 
Feb. 3, 1832. Among his larger works are 
“ Recherc-hes sur la Nature et les Lois de 
rimagination ” (Geneva, 1807); “ Pensees 
Diverses” 11815); “ fitudes de L’Homme ” 
11821), and “ L’Homme du Midi et L’Hom¬ 
me du Nord ” (1824), an examination of the 
influence of climate. Several volumes of his 
correspondence have been published. 

Bontebok, the pied antelope (alcelaphas 
pygarga), an antelope of South Africa, with 
white markings on the face, allied to the 
blesbok. 

Bony Pikes, a recent fish, genus lepidos- 
teus, of great interest from its being of the 
order ganoidei, of which nearly all the spe¬ 
cies are extinct. It belongs to the sub-order 
holostece, and the family lepidosteidee. 
Among other peculiarities the bony pikes 
have the antique pattern of heterocercal 
tail, so common in the Old Red Sandstone 
period. They inhabit the rivers and lakes 
of temperate and tropical America, grow 
some of them 3 feet in length, and are 
used for food. Called also gar pikes. 



Bonze 


Book 


Bonze, tlie name given by the Portuguese 
to any member of the Buddhist priesthood 
in Japan. Thence the name spread to the 
priests of the same faith in China and the 
adjacent regions. 

Booby, a name for a natatorial bird, 
the soland ( i . e., solent), or channel goose, 
sula bassana. It is of the family pelican- 



idce. These birds are found, as their speci¬ 
fic Latin name imports, on the Bass rock, 
in the Frith of Forth, Scotland. They ex¬ 
ist also in other places. They are looked on 
as stupid in character. The word is also 
applied to any other natatorial bird of simi¬ 
lar form and stupidity. 

Book, the general name applied to a 
printed volume. The volume which the 
reader has at present in his hands is a nor¬ 
mal specimen of what is now understood 
by a printed book. Printed matter occupies 
both sides of a certain number of leaves of 
paper, which are so arranged that, begin¬ 
ning at the upper end of the left side 
of the first page, he may proceed without 
dislocation of thought always from left to 
right till he reach the lower end of the last 
page. The first page, or recto , of the first 
leaf or folio, is technically known as a 
bastard or half title page; the next page, 
or verso, of the first folio is left blank. Then 
follows the title page proper, usually with 
a blank page at the back. In many books, 
there intervenes a preface or introduction, 
a dedication, and a table of contents before 
the main body of the book begins. If any 
portion of the book has got out of its place, 
there are two ways by which the true order 
can be discovered. At the outer corner, or 
in the center above the reading matter, of 
each page is a number— 1, 2, 3, etc.; this 
is the pagination or numerical order of 
pages. At the bottom of certain pages are 
numbers, 8, 1G and 32 numbers apart, which 
show the first page of the printed sheet of 
paper after it has been folded into 8, 16 
or 32 pages. A, B, etc., are often used for 


numerals; and if the book goes beyond the 
number of letters in the alphabet, the series 
is continued — AA, BB, etc., or 2A, 2B, etc. 

To understand the historic origin of this 
normal modern book, one must go back to 
a remote antiquity. The word “ book ” it¬ 
self (Saxon hoc, German, buck, Dutch, 
boek) appears originally in Gothic as a 
plural noun meaning primarily, as is gen¬ 
erally believed, the runes inscribed on the 
bark of separate branches of the beech tree 
(Saxon, hoc, German, buche, Dutch, beuke) 
for the purposes of divination, etc. Liber, 
the Latin equivalent (which has been 
adopted bv all the Romance and Celtic 
tongues — French, livre, Italian, libro, 
Gaelic leabhar, Welsh, leor — and is the 
source of our English word library), prop¬ 
erly meant bark, and was applied to pre¬ 
pared papyrus tissue from its barklike 
appearance. The Greek biblia, in like man¬ 
ner, is associated with byblos — i. e., 
papyrus. 

As is now well known, the ancient Baby¬ 
lonians and Assyrians had a wide and va¬ 
ried literature. This was preserved in two 
ways; either painted on the leaves of the 
papyrus which grew in abundance on the 
banks of the Euphrates, or impressed on 
clay shaped into tablets or cylinders. Such 
skill was displayed in the treatment of this 
latter material that the inscribed charac¬ 
ters by their minuteness “ suggest that they 
must have been written with the help of a 
magnifying glass.” A representation of a 
typical polygonal Assyrian cylinder will be 
found in Savce’s “Assyria” (1885). The 
defects, as well as certain advantages, of 
this form of book are obvious. It has no 
direct connection with the modern European 
book. The case is different, however, with 
the ancient Egyptian book. The sequence 
may be maintained from the volume at pres¬ 
ent in the reader’s hands back for thousands 
of years to the oldest Egyptian volume still 
extant (in a sense the oldest book in the 
world) —the “Papyrus Prisse,” which 
must be assigned to a very early period of 
Egyptian history, according to Chabas and 
to Yirev. “ Etudes sur le Papyrus Prisse ” 
(Paris. 1887), to a date probably prior to 
the 12th dynasty —- i. e., at least 2000 b. c. 
Owing to its wonderful adaptability to lit¬ 
erary purposes, the prepared papyrus tissue 
(see Papyrus) spread to Greece (at least 
before the time of Herodotus) and to Rome; 
and though it was so far supplanted, es¬ 
pecially in certain regions, by the finer 
kinds of prepared skins — the material used 
by the Jews, Persians, and other Oriental 
nations — it maintained its position as a 
book material down to the 10th century 
a. d. Ali Ibn el Azhad, in 920, describes 
the different kinds of pen required for writ¬ 
ing on paper, parchment, and papyrus (see 
Dr. Joseph Karabacek’s “Das Arabische 





Book 


Book 


Papier,” Vienna, 1887). The ancient papy¬ 
rus book, whether Egyptian, Greek or Ro¬ 
man, was got up very much like a modern' 
mounted map. A length of the material, 
written on one side onlv, was fastened to a 
wooden roller, round which it was wound; 
this formed a tama (Egyptian), kulindros 
(Greek), or volumen (Latin); hence our 
volume. Specimens of Egyptian rolls still 
exist, extending to upward of 20 and even 
40 yards (see Birt’s “Das antike Buch- 
wesen,” p. 439); but the great inconvenience 
attaching to the consulting of such enor¬ 
mous scrolls made it much more usual 
to break up any lengthy literary produc¬ 
tion into sections, each on a separate roll. 
Certain suitable sizes became normal, and 
this conventional length of the roll ex¬ 
ercised a considerable influence on the 
length of what are still called the books — 
i. e., divisions of the classical authors. In 
Egypt the rolls were kept in jars (holding 
say 9 or 10 each) ; in Rome in wooden boxes 
or canisters (often of costly workmanship), 
or in parchment cases. The change from 
the rolled to the folded form of book ap¬ 
pears to have taken place in the ancient 
world after the adoption of the parchment 
or vellum, though practically the same ar¬ 
rangement of successive surfaces had been 
in vogue in the books or tablets of waxed 
wood used for notes and letters. Codex, 
the Latin name for such a parchment vol¬ 
ume, is still retained as the designation of 
the more important ancient MSS., as “ Codex 
Alexandrinus.” The form remained prac¬ 
tically unaltered throughout the Middle 
Ages, and being even more suitable for 
paper than for vellum, was ready, on the in¬ 
vention of printing, to facilitate the full de¬ 
velopment of the new art. 

Sizes of Books. — The vellum, and after¬ 
ward the paper book of mediaeval times, was 
made up in the following way: Quires or 
rather in "S were formed sometimes of four 
sheets folded in the middle and placed one 
within the other, so as to furnish eight 
leaves, sometimes of 5 sheets yielding 10 
leaves, sometimes of 6 yielding 12. These 
groupings were known as quaternions (tet- 
radia), quinterns or quinternions .( pentd - 
dici), and sexterns (hexadia) . This, same 
method was adopted by the early printers, 
who at first indeed only printed as the copy¬ 
ists had written, one page at a time. In the 
colophons (see below) of many of the older 
books, a register or collation, as it is called, 
of all the quires — whether. ternions, 
quaternions, or so on — is supplied for the 
guidance of the bookbinder. The signatures 
on the several quires were at first inserted 
by hand, and were first printed at Cologne, 
in 1472. When it became usual to print 
a certain number of pages at once, the pa¬ 
per was not folded and cut up till it had 
passed through the press. The number of 


times it required to be folded afforded a 
ready means of distinguishing, in a general 
way, the different sizes of books as long as 
the paper continued to be made by hand, in 
frames the size of which did not greatly 
vary. The nomenclature is still in vogue, 
though it has ceased in these days of ma¬ 
chine-made paper to be a correct guide to 
the real sizes of books. In the United States, 
the proposal to distinguish sizes by an actual 
measurement of height and breadth of pa¬ 
per has met with some acceptance; but the 
old fashion still prevails in Europe. A 
sheet being folded in the middle forms two 
leaves or four pages; and a book composed 
of such sheets is styled a folio, whether it 
measure l 1 /^ feet or 4 feet in height. When 
the sheet is again folded it makes a quarto. 
In hand-made paper ( i . e., the paper used 
in nearly all books of purely bibliographical 
interest) the water line runs either across 
or down the page, according to the number 
of foldings. The following scheme is ser¬ 
viceable: 


00 

<D 

e 
•—< 

Eh 


w 

® 

be 

<8 

P-. 


Folio, folded. 2=4 water-line perpendicular. 

Quarto. (4to) 4= 8 “ horizontal. 

Octavo.(8vo) 8 = 16 “ perpendicular. 

Duodecimo. (12mc) 12 = 24 “ horizontal. 

Octodecimo''! 8mo) 18 = 36 " perpendicular. 


Less ordinary, and, of course, diminutive, 
sizes of books are produced and known as 
32mo (water line perpendicular), 36mo 
(horizontal), 48mo (horizontal), 64mo 
(horizontal), 72mo (perpendicular), 96mo 
(perpendicular), 128mo (perpendicular). 
In Great Britain for a long period printing 
paper was chiefly of three sizes — royal, 
demy and crown; and according as any one 
of these was employed the size of the book 
was large or small. Demy, however, was 
the most commonly used; and the demy 8vo 
may be said to have become the established 
form of standard editions.. Among books, 
as among men, there are giants and dwarfs. 
Certain Church books in the Escuiial are 
described as 6 feet in height by 4 in 
breadth; and the “ Antiquity ” volumes, for 
example, of the Napoleonic “Description 
de l’Egypte ” measure 37 1 /& inches in 
height. ‘The “Thumb Bible” is, on the 
other hand, not much bigger than a post¬ 
age stamp; Pickering’s diamond edition of 
“ Tasso.” measures 3% inches high by 1% 
wide; and Hoepli’s (1878) “ Divina Comme- 
dia” is less than 2 1 / 4 inches by \V 2 . 

Colophons. — The scribes employed by As- 
sur-banipal (680 b. c.) used to place the 
account of their documents at the close of 
the last column on their cylinders. In like 
manner, the early European printers often 
gave details about their books in the clos¬ 
ing paragraph, now technically known in 






Book 


Book 


English as the colophon (from a Greek 
word for apex or terminus), in French as 
souscription, in German as schluss-schrift. 
Caxton varies his colophon from the sim¬ 
plest Explicit, Hie finis, or “ Here endeth,” 
to elaborate epilogues or post faces. Quaint¬ 
est of all, perhaps, is his rhyming conclu¬ 
sion to the “Moral Proverbs:” 

Go thou litil quayer and recomaund me 

Unto the good grace of my special lord© 

Therl Ryueris, for I have emprinted the 

At his comandement, f olowying ury word© 

His copye as his secretaire can recorde. 

At Westmestreof feuerer (February*) the xx daye 

And of Kyng Edward the xvij yere vraye (truly). 

Abundant examples of the colophon will 
be found in Mr. Blade’s “ Caxton,” and Le- 
grand's “ Bibliographie Hellenique ” (1885). 

Title Pages. — Though Caxton’s work af¬ 
fords no instance of a title page — unless 
“ The Chastising cf God’s Children ” 
(1491?) be his, and it contains simply three 
lines of ordinary print — this does not rep¬ 
resent the general stage of typographic de¬ 
velopment. As early as 1474 Pictor, Los- 
lein, and Patdolt, in Venice, issued a “ Cal- 
endario ” by John de Monteregio, with a 
quaint rhyming title page, with place, date, 
and names at the foot (see facsimile in 
Bouchot’s “The Printed Book”). With 
the adoption of the title page, the colophon 
naturally disappeared, though instances 
are found well into the 16th century. The 
treatment of the title page has varied enor¬ 
mously at different periods: in the 16th and 
17th centuries becoming at times so crowded 
with details as to lose half its value as a ready 
means of determining the purport of the 
book. Laudatory descriptions of the author 
and his work were freely introduced: 
“ Very Necessary To Be Known,” “ Very 
Pleasant and Beneficial,” “ A Book Right 
Rare and Strange,” are among the phrases 
familiar to all book lovers. Except in the 
case of works of fiction and popular theol¬ 
ogy, the tendency of the present time is 
to make the title brief and business-like. 
Dickens’ “Adventures of Oliver Twist,” 
even, contrasts curiously with the title page 
of the first edition of, say, “ Robinson 
Crusoe.” Metaphorical titles (so abundant 
in the Elizabethan and Jacobian periods) 
are serviceable as distinctly individualizing 
a book, but are very apt (as in Mr. Rus- 
kin’s “ Notes on the Construction of Sheep- 
folds”) to mislead the unwary. Double 
titles (as in Mr. Ruskin’s “ Prosperpina: 
Studies of Wayside Flowers”) are equally 
dangerous; and open to strong objection is 
the habit of reissuing an old work with a 
new title. The title of a book is by English 
law as much the property of an author as 
any other part of his book. Consequently, 
a lawsuit may be the result of even un¬ 
suspectingly using a title already appro¬ 


priated. Compare the facsimile title pages 
in Konnecke’s “ Bilderatlas ” (1887); Le 
Petit’s “ Principals Editions originales 
d’Ecrivains Frangais ” (1888), and A. 

Lang’s “Old French Title Pages” in “ Books 
and Bookmen.” 

Dates. — In the dating of their books the 
early printers, like the scribes, were ex¬ 
tremely negligent. “Of 21 works,” says 
Mr. Blades (“Caxton,” i, p. 31), “known 
to have been issued from the press of Colard 
Mansion, not more than five have any date 
to them; and, of nearly 100 publications at¬ 
tributed to Caxton’s press, considerably 
more than two-thirds appear without any 
year of imprint.” At other times we find 
the date given with great precision: thus, 
“ The Book of the Knight of the Tower ” 
has “ and enprynted at Westminstre the 
last day of Janyuer, the fyrst year of the 
regne of Kynge Richard the thryd.” In 
the present day nearly all respectable pub¬ 
lishers put the correct year in which their 
books are issued at the foot of the title 
page, either in ordinary figures or in the 
Roman notation. When a book is not 
dated, one suspects a desire on the part of 
the publisher to sell his old stock as if it 
had newly seen the light. Unfortunately, 
the device of attaching a new title page 
with a fresh date to matter that has lain 
in the warehouse for many years is adopted 
by firms whose reputation ought to be above 
reproach. The following are among the 
more important deviations from the normal 
methods of Roman notation to be found in 
the colophons or title pages of early printed 
books (see Brunet’s “ Connaissances n£ces- 
saires ft un Bibliophile”): 

M CCCC iiii XX VIIT=1488 (i. e. 10004-400-1-4x 20-1-“). 
M iiii Ciiii XX Yiij = 1483 (i. e. 1000 + (4 x 100) 4 
(4 X 20) |-8). 

M CD XCV = 1495 (i. e. 1000 4- (500 - 100) 4 95). 

M iiijD = 1494 (i. e. 1000 4 500 - 4). 

M HID = 1497 (i.e. 1000 4500-3). 

1000 

CIO Io CXX VI = 1626 (i. e. 1000 4 - 3 - 4100426 ). 

In many cases the older printers indulged 
in curious chronograms; sometimes using 
them to repeat in the preface a date 
already distinctly stated on the title page. 
An extreme instance is the “ De spIrltaLi 
IMItatlone ChrlstI saCrre et VtILes plls 
In LVCeM Data, a R. P. Antonio Vanden 
Stock Societatis Jesu, Ruraemundse, Apud 
Gasparem du Pres ”— a book which con¬ 
tains upward of 1.500 chronograms on the 
date 1658; and James Hilson’s “Chrono¬ 
grams, 5,000 and More in Number” (4to, 
London, 1882); and “Chronograms Con¬ 
tinued” (1885). 

When dates are wanting, the age of a 
book may often be approximately deter¬ 
mined by certain external characteristics, 
which must, however, be used with caution. 
Water marks (German, wasser-zeichen; 
French, filigranes) , for examples, are of im- 




Book 


Book 


portance, but their evidence has been fre¬ 
quently strained. Compare article Paper, 
and see the works of Fisher (1804), Boyer 
(1860), Midoux and Matton (1868), and 
Sotheby's “ Principia Typographical’ 

Place of Publication. — Even when the 
name of the place of publication is given in 
full, it may require some knowledge to 
recognize it under the several forms cur¬ 
rent in different languages and at different 
periods. Thus Cologne may appear as 
Colonia, Colonia Agrippina, Cueln, Ceulen, 
,Iveulen, Koln, etc.; or the periphrasis in 
civitate Coloicsi may be employed, the n’s 
being represented by strokes above the vow¬ 
els ; Venice may be more or less disguised as 
Venetia, Venetise,Venezia,Venedig(German), 
Wenez (in the local dialect), Enetiai (in 
Greek), and Mleczi, Bnezieh, Mnezik, and 
Mljetka (in Slavonic). Well known places, 
inay be concealed under some pseudo classi¬ 
cal translation of, or pun upon, the true 
name; thus, Herbipolis stands for Wiirz- 
burg; Leucopetra, for Weissenfels; Pro- 
batopolis for Schaffhausen; Eleutheropolis 
for Freystadt, Francheville, Franeavilla, 
etc. This latter is a good instance of a 
difficulty that may arise. Not only may 
Eleutheropolis represent one of many 
towns, but from the meaning of the word 
it has frequently been employed by printers 
who did not wish to declare the true place 
of publication. Another instance is Iren- 
opolis (City of Peace), which is, histori¬ 
cally, an equivalent of Beroea. The follow¬ 
ing list will be convenient: Argentoratum, 
Strasburg; Augusta Vindelicorum (often 
only Augusta), Augsburg; Basilea, Basel; 
Bipontum, Deux-Ponts; Bononia, Bologna, 
or Boulogne; Cadomum, Caen; Caesar- 
augusta, Saragossa; Cantabriga, Cambridge; 
Corona, Cronstadt; Dortracum or Dordre- 
chum, Dort; Eboracum, York; Gippesvicum, 
Ipswich; Gratianopolis, Grenoble; Hafnia, 
Copenhagen; Hala, Halle; Holmia, Stock¬ 
holm; Insula or Insulae, Lille; Ispalis, Se¬ 
ville; Leodicum, Liege; Lipsia, Leipsic; 
Lugdunum, Lyons; Lugdunum Batavorum, 
Leyden; Lutetia, Paris; Massilia, Mar¬ 
seilles; Matisco, Macon; Mediolanum, Milan; 
Moguntiacum, Mainz; Mons Begalis, Mon- 
dovi; Mussipons or Pontimussum, Pont-h- 
Musson; Neapolis, Naples; Neapolis Casi- 
tniriani, etc., Neustadt an der Hardt; 
CEnipons, Innsbruck; Olisipo, Ulyssipo, 
Ulyssipolis, Lisbon; Oxonia, Oxford; Petro- 
poiis, St. Petersburg; Kegiomontium, Ko- 
nigsberg; Rotomagus, Rouen; Sarum, Salis¬ 
bury; Tarvisium, Treviso; Tornacum, Tour- 
nai; Trajectum, Ultrajectum, Utrecht; 
Trecae or Civitas Tricassina, Troyes, Tri- 
dentum, Trent; Turoni, Tours. See “ Dic- 
tionnaire de G£ographie Ancienne et Mod- 
erne ^ l’usage du Libraire ” (Paris, 1870). 


To divert suspicion, printers have often 
put totally erroneous names on their title 
pages; hundreds of European books seem 
to haA T e been issued at Pekin; thousands of 
the products of the Parisian presses claim 
The Hague (La Haye) or some other Dutch 
town as their birthplace. Quite recently 
Burton’s literal translation of the “ Ara¬ 
bian Nights ” is represented as having been 
printed at Benares. In the earlier centuries 
printing and publications were so much the 
same thing that to know the place where a 
book was printed was practically to know 
where it was published, and vice versa. At 
present it is not uncommon for a work to be 
printed in one country and published in 
another. When publishing firms have 
houses or agencies in different cities, all 
may be mentioned on the title page, and 
precedence accorded rather in keeping with 
the importance of the cities. Thus, “ London 
and Edinburgh ” frequently appears in books 
which were entirely produced in the lesser 
city. With the introduction of stereotype 
or electrotype plates it has become possible 
for a book to be printed in more places 
than one with only one setting-up of type. 

Pagination. — At first the printed book 
was issued like the manuscript—without any 
numbering of the pages. Before long it was 
found convenient to number the leaves; the 
numbering of the pages followed. In many 
modern books, when the page contains two 
or more columns, each column is numbered 
consecutively. When a book consists of 
several volumes, each has usually its own 
pagination: but in some great treatises, 
running through several volumes, it expe¬ 
dites reference from the index to number 
right through from the beginning to the 
end of the whole series. In the old folios 
and quartos letters were not infrequently 
inserted on the margin, so as to break each 
page into distinct portions without inter¬ 
fering with the continuity of the text. The 
marginal letters from the first editions of 
the classics are often reproduced in mod¬ 
ern editions just as they originally stood, 
and form a convenient method of reference. 

Preface, etc. — The preface is the intro¬ 
ductory address of the author, in which he 
explains the purpose and scope of his book, 
and, as it were, introduces himself to his 
readers. Our ultra-Saxonists prefer to call 
it a foreword, in keeping with the German 
vorwort. Formerly it was usually headed 
“ To the Reader,” “ To the Gentle Reader,” 
“ To the Courteous Reader,” etc. 

In the times when the professional author 
depended largely on the patronage of some 
person of rank, the dedication was an in¬ 
tegral and indispensable part of a book. If 
he made sure of his Maecenas he could let 
the many go. At present being for the most 
part a mere expression of personal esteem 
or affection, the “ I dedicate ” has become 




Book 


Book 


as simple in form as, in the 17th and 18th 
centuries, it was elaborate with all the 
rhetorical artifice to which flattery could 
attain. 

Pictorial Imprints or Printers’ Devices .— 
One of the happiest passages in the “ Book 
Hunter ” deals with the trade emblems of 
the old printers. The subject on which it 



merely touches has been treated at length 
in such works as Silvestre’s “ Marques 
Typographiques ” (2 vols., Paris, 1SG7) ; 
Roth-Scholtz’s “ Thesaurus Symbolorum ac 
Emblematum, id est, Insignia Bibliopolorum 
et Typographorum ” (Norimbergse, 1730); 
Berjeau's “Early Printers’ Marks” (Lon¬ 
don, 18G6). It is enough here to mention 



the boldly drawn three-mast ship of Mathis 
van der Goes, Antwerp (1472-1494); the 
windmill of Andrew Myller, Edinburgh (1508, 
etc.) ; the curious wild men and fruit laden 
tree of Thomas Davidson, Edinburgh (1541); 
the olive tree of the Stephenses; and the 
sphere of the Elzevirs. In many instances 


there is a punning allusion to the printer’s 
name: Froschover has his frogs ( frosch in 
German), and Le Chandelier his seven 
branched candlestick; Nicholas Eve gives 
us a picture of the presentation of the for¬ 
bidden fruit. Others make use of the arms 
of the cities in which they worked. Leeu 
shows the castle of Antwerp, It. Hall the 
half eagle and key on a shield of Geneva, 
Stadelberger the lion rampant of Heidel¬ 
berg and the shield diapered of Zurich, etc. 
Ascensius (1402-1532) has “ bequeathed to 
posterity the lively and accurate repre¬ 
sentation, down to every nail and screw, of 
the press in which the great works of the 
16th century were printed, with the brawny 
pressman pulling liis proof.” His device, 
with the inscription, “ Prclu Ascesianu ” 
was adopted by Josse Bade, Paris (1501- 
1535), who added his initials at the foot; 
by De Gourmont (1507—1515); Le Preux 
(1501-1587); and in a modified form by 
De Marnef (1567), and De Boigny (1565). 
The anchor and dolphin of the Aldi was em¬ 
ployed by Turrisan, De Chenney, Brillard, 
Tardif, Coulombel, sometimes, as in the last 
instance, with the divided Aldus. 

Decoration of the Boole .— Leaving out of 
view the pictorial illustration devoted to 
the elucidation of the subject treated of in 
a book, there are certain forms of illustra¬ 
tion which are merely decorative append¬ 
ages to the book itself. Besides the orna¬ 
mental treatment of the title page with 
peculiar letters, the use of red or blue ink, 
and the insertion of a printer’s emblem or 
some appropriate vignette, we must mention 
the engraved title page (in the 16th and 
17th centuries often a most elaborate and 
costly piece of work), the frontispiece or 
engraving placed opposite the title page; 
ornamental initial letters for chapters > 
headpieces or vignettes for the blank space 
generally left before the beginning of a new 
chapter; and tailpieces at the end of the 
chapters. The amount of artistic effort 
lavished on these apparent trifles will best 
be understood by consulting Niedling’s 
“ Bucher-ornamentik ” (1888); Bouchot's 

“ The Printed Book,” and Austin Dobson’s 
chapter in A. Lang’s “ The Library ” (see 
also the works supra at “ Title-pages”). By 
the earliest printers the insertion of deco¬ 
rative details was left to a special artist — 
the rubrisher (so called from the red ink which 
he mainly employed). Space was often left 
for his initial letters, and at most only a 
small letter inserted to guide him. 

Many books originally printed in thous¬ 
ands (e. g., school books) have become rare 
and even unique; others have been so from 
the first through limitation of the number 
issued. A common device to enhance the 
market value of a book is to issue only a 
few copies and promise to destroy the 
plates. 


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